NUMBER 43 2015
GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 43 (2015)
The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and conservation of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which members of the AsESG and others can communicate their experiences, ideas and perceptions freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the AsESG. The copyright of each article remains with the author(s).
Editor
Dr. Jennifer Pastorini Centre for Conservation and Research 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Julpallama, Tissamaharama Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected]
Editorial Board Dr. Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando School of Geography Centre for Conservation and Research University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Kajang, Selangor Julpallama, Tissamaharama Malaysia Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Heidi Riddle Dr. Alex Rübel Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary Direktor Zoo Zürich P.O. Box 715 Zürichbergstrasse 221 Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058 CH - 8044 Zürich USA Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. T. N. C. Vidya Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Bengaluru - 560064 India e-mail: [email protected] GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 43 (2015)
This publication was proudly funded by Wildlife Reserves Singapore Editorial Note
Gajah will be published as both a hard copy and an on-line version accessible from the AsESG web site (www.asesg.org/ gajah.htm). If you would like to be informed when a new issue comes out, please provide your e-mail address. If you need to have a hardcopy, please send a request with your name and postal address by e-mail to
Copyright Notice
Gajah is an open access journal distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unre- stricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro- vided the original author and source are credited. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Cover
Adult male “Hura” being collared near the Hurulu EcoPark (Sri Lanka) Photo by Jennifer Pastorini (See article on page 15)
Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini
Printed at P & G Printers, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka Gajah 43 (2015) 1
Editorial
Jennifer Pastorini (Editor)
E-mail: [email protected]
This Gajah issue contains five research articles in Southeast Asia. They decided to form the and one short communication. Half of the “ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group” papers are from India and the other half from and have further meetings on how to better Sri Lanka. Even if the two countries are home manage captive elephants. Zaw Min Oo et al. to three quarters of free-ranging Asian elephants, report on a training workshop for mahouts and it would be nice to have more papers from other veterinary assistants held in Myanmar to improve range countries and also articles on captive Asian management and health care of Myanmar’s huge elephants world-wide in future issues of Gajah. captive elephant population. Nilanga Jayasinghe gives a summary of a WWF workshop held in Two of the Indian papers in this issue deal with Assam, India to exchange ideas and experiences wild elephants. Ranjit Kumar Sahoo studied the on human-elephant conflict across WWF project distribution and population structure of elephants areas. in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve in the Western Ghats. Based on people’s reports and tracking Last but not least we are thrilled to have a data, Mukti Roy and Raman Sukumar identified note from the new Chair of the Asian Elephant 59 corridors used by elephants in northern West Specialist Group (AsESG), informing us about Bengal. They present maps, location and habitats his ideas on how to move forward with the for the identified corridors in their paper. The third AsESG. Indian paper is a historical one. K. G. Sheshadri summarizes a variety of ‘Basti’ therapies to We urgently need to update the mailing list for treat elephants as described in a treatise by Sage Gajah. We mailed the last issue to 67 addresses Pālakāpya in the 5th or 6th century. provided by the previous editor. I included a note asking the recipients to inform me if they Two Sri Lankan papers are based on captive received Gajah and wish to do so in the future. I elephants. Rukmali Athurupana and co-authors only heard back from 18 people. Interestingly we present the results of a study on pinnae movement, also mailed Gajah to the authors and all of them finding that elephants are flapping their ears less received their copies. This makes me believe that often when it is cooler or more humid. Ashoka the address list is outdated. From this issue on, we Dangolla describes traditional management will not be posting hard copies of Gajah to those practices for elephants kept in captivity. The third who did not respond to the notice sent with the Sri Lankan paper is of a more technical nature, last issue. Please provide me with your address if comparing the performance of elephant GPS you wish to receive a hard copy of Gajah in the tracking collars in the field. We have been asked future. for advise on choosing collars by so many people that it seemed to make sense to write about our I would like to thank all the authors for their experiences. valuable contributions to Gajah. I am grateful to the editorial team for their help with editing the In the News and Briefs section we have three papers and working with the authors to improve workshop reports. Chatchote Thitaram et al. the standard of papers. This Gajah can be printed inform us about a meeting held by a group of and mailed out to readers thanks to funding from elephant experts and practitioners in Thailand Wildlife Reserves Singapore. to discuss living conditions of captive elephants
1 Gajah 43 (2015) 2-3
Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Vivek Menon
Chair’s e-mail: [email protected]
Dear members of the Asian Elephant Specialist pending meet of the whole group together in Group November 2016 in Assam in India organised. All of you will get a formal invitation for that I am really honoured to take over as Chair of once group membership gets finalised. I have this key specialist group of the IUCN SSC. also been fortunate to have two trips to Sri Lanka Every group has a different flavour in the varied and the United Kingdom for other matters where ecosystem of SSC. Some of them have vast I could meet many of the members based in those assemblages of fauna and flora to deal with, countries. These in country meetings shall also others deal with creatures found around the world continue as I seek to meet and know all your and yet others are microscopically focussed. needs and wishes to make this group a strong and The Asian elephant is a single species specialist vibrant one. We shall also seek to have online group but one that has an inordinate importance discourses using which methods people are happy to policy and conservation management around to use. I personally prefer a variety of methods the world. This, of course, is because of the mega and not necessarily restricting ourselves to only charismatic flagship role that the elephant plays one means of communication. I also think Gajah in the world today. It is thus an important role and the website need to be used more effectively to be the custodians of such a key species that to enhance such communication. requires conservation across the 13 range states that it is found in. The second is regarding opening the group out to segments that are not adequately represented. I have been a long-term member of this group and in fact a longer-term member of the SSC through various other groups as well. This has given me, fortunately, a great ringside view of the challenges that it takes to bring such a diverse and talent-rich group together. I have also been fortunate in having been able to visit all the range states of the elephants during the three decades of my conservation work and in fact in seeing elephants in almost all of them. Now, in this new role I wish to call on all that experience of the past and embellish it with the rich experiences of all of you in order to guide the group moving forward. I have in my mind some guiding principles as I take on this onerous yet important role and I will be happy to share them with you in this issue of Gajah.
The first is regarding communication. Being primates, all of us yearn to communicate. Meet when possible, talk or discourse when meeting is not possible. I shall endeavour to get the long
2 The young are not adequately represented I feel, would enjoy reading what I write. While talking as also many geographies and also social sciences of Gajah it will be remiss if I do not acknowledge as a sector. A careful balance of the specialists Jenny who has done a wonderful job (alongside in the group can yield it newfound energies her husband Prithviraj Fernando) in bringing out and be able to be relevant in this fast changing this journal and the past one, ever since Jayantha world of ours. This can be adjusted as we go into Jayawardene has relinquished charge after many the new quadrennium this autumn with a new years of dedicated service to the group. I will also membership roll. call on ALL members to contribute at least one piece to Gajah and also put all your news up on The third is proactivity. While maintaining our website. scientific rigor and not necessarily falling into the traps of advocacy all the time, one must as a I was fortunate last month to visit Sri Lanka and group do things for the elephant. Being specialists see the wonderful elephants of the Yala National who do not lead in policy, dialogue and positive Park. Soon thereafter I was in Corbett watching action will be interpreted by many as impotence an elephant that was attacked by a tiger die and I shall look to all of you to make it a vibrant a natural death. Whether in an island setting, and effective group. One must keep in mind of or in Himalayan foothills watching elephants course that we are not an implementing agency is what gives me solace. I hope all of us in the and neither a public advocacy or campaign membership will also enjoy elephants and while group, but our joint expertise must be available doing so also contribute to elephant conservation proactively for governments and civil society to through this group. lean upon when conserving elephants Warm regards for the New Year The fourth is engaging upfront with the range states. This can be done by having range state Vivek Menon representatives as ex officio members of the Chair AsESG, IUCN SSC group, by having meetings of the group with range state reps and also by my calling on them whenever possible to understand their needs. The elephant is finally protected in all our countries by the range governments and a constant dialogue is key to ensure that those who are mandated to protect the species in our watch, do their jobs with the best technical advice that is available globally.
The fifth and final area of my concentration will be to raise resources to keep the group in an active state. This will include resources needed for a program manager who can really help coordination as also for meetings, workshops etc. While we must not overreach, it is key that more resources than have been available in the past Keep the dates must be made available as we move forward. Meeting of the IUCN SSC In all this, I look to both the Gajah and the Asian Elephant Specialist Group website to be key tools of the group and I commit to writing more for both these instruments of the Assam, India group. This message from the Chair will be a regular feature in Gajah and I hope all of you 8. - 11. November 2016
3 Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 4-9
Pinnae Movement of Captive Asian Elephants Weakly Affected by Environmental Factors
Rukmali Athurupana1*, Dennis Schmitt2,3 and Charles Santiapillai4
1Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 2 Ringling Bros. Center for Elephant Conservation, Polk City, Florida, USA 3 William H. Darr School of Agriculture, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, USA 4 Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka – Deceased October 2014 *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. Ear flapping is believed to be a behavioural mechanism to reduce heat in elephants. We examined the effects of temperature, humidity and body size on pinnae movement of elephants. Percentage of elephants flapping ears and individual ear flapping rate was determined every 10 minutes. Both factors were positively correlated with the ambient temperature and negatively correlated with relative humidity. Larger elephants flapped ears more frequently than smaller elephants.
Introduction (Weissenböck et al. 2010). Their ears are equipped with specialized motor control (Phillips & Heath Heat dissipation is a concern for large terrestrial 1992). Depending on ambient temperature, mammals living in tropical environments. Ele- thermal windows regulate heat exchange via phants have sparse body hair and no sweat glands, vasoconstriction and vasodilatation (Sumbera et except for inter-digital sweat glands in Asian al. 2007; Weissenböck et al. 2010). Temperature elephants (Elephas maximus). Thus, evaporative distribution across the ear changes with ambient heat loss in elephants occurs by trans-epidermal temperature and heat loss is amplified by the water loss (Wright & Luck 1984; Lamps et al. movement of the pinnae (Phillips & Heath 1992). 2001). The wrinkled skin of an elephant holds moisture and facilitates its movement on the body The African elephant (Loxodonta africana), surface, which creates an evaporative cooling is the largest land mammal and has the largest effect (Lillywhilte & Stein 1987). thermoregulatory organ of any animal; the pinna or external ear, which it uses as a radiator- Elephants use several behavioural mechanisms convector (Phillips & Heath 1992). The combined to reduce their heat load. They cover themselves surface area of both sides of the ears of an African with soil by dusting or wallowing, thereby elephant is about 20% of its total surface area absorbing less and reflecting more radiation, and the calculated heat loss from the ears is a or dip in water to lose heat through conduction significant proportion of the total heat lost (Buss (Hiley 1975). It is believed that a large ear & Estes 1971; Wright 1984). The pinnae of Asian surface area and ear fanning is important for elephants are approximately one third the size of thermoregulation in elephants, under warm African elephants (Carrington 1959). Therefore environmental conditions (Wright 1984). The theoretically, heat loss from the pinnae in Asian constant motion of the pinnae expose the medial elephants is one-third that of African elephants sides and corresponding vessels to air currents (Phillips & Heath 1992). and increase heat loss from ears as well as from the fanned body surface (Wright 1984). Weissenböck et al. (2010) reported the existence of thermal windows on the whole body surface Infrared thermography has demonstrated that indicating that the elephants’ skin has regional in elephants, pinnae act as thermal windows concentrations of vascular networks. Although
© 2015 The Authors - Open Access 4 91% of the heat produced by an elephant can be when giving rides or bathing. At night, elephants dissipated via its pinnae (Phillips & Heath, 1992), are tethered in a different location under a tree. heat transfer across the ears represented less than 8% of the total heat loss (Williams 1990). Observations for the study were based on 8 Myhrvold et al. (2012) revealed that elephant elephants at the PEO, 2 elephants at MEF and hair significantly enhances thermoregulation 2 elephants at ES (Table 1). Data were collected ability by over 5% under all scenarios considered from February to September 2010. and by up to 23% at low wind speeds where thermoregulation needs are greatest. However, Elephants at the PEO were allowed free Benedict (1936) claimed that a large animal movement during daytime. At night, adults were such as the elephant has no need for special heat tethered in sheds, while calves were unfettered. regulating mechanisms in its ears and if it did The elephants were released at 8:00 h to move to possess one, it would be a singular provision in an open area with little shade. Food was placed nature. Hiley (1975) found that the temperature in the open yard and consisted mainly of foliage of the ear skin, especially the back of the ear of coconut (Cocos nucifera), kithul (Caryota where the prominent blood vessels are located, urens), jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) bread-fruit was cooler than that of the body during midday. (Artocapus nobilis), banyan (Ficus bengalensis) Together with the fact that water loss from the and bo (Ficus religiosa). Elephants were moved ears was not significantly greater than that from across the main road and down a path lined by the rest of the body, Hiley (1975) concluded that trade stalls to the Maha Oya at 10:00 h. At the elephants do not use ears for cooling. river, elephants were allowed to drink, bath and play. At noon, the herd returned to the yard. They A number of studies have demonstrated the remained there till taken to the river once again at significance of ear flapping in African elephants 14:00 h. They were washed by the mahouts while (Buss & Estes 1971; Wright 1984; Phillips & in the river and taken back to the orphanage at Heath 1992). However few studies have been 16:00 h and tethered in the sheds. carried out on Asian elephants. The objectives of our study were to examine the effects of At MEF and ES, elephants were untied at about temperature, humidity and body size on ear 8:00 h and bathed in a stream, which ran through flapping rate and the variation in ear flapping the facilities. After that they were tethered in an with time of day in captive Asian elephants. exhibit area. The elephants were fed mainly with coconut, kithul and jack branches and food was Methods provided intermittently throughout the day. The elephants were bathed several times a day in the The study was carried out at the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage (PEO), the Millennium Table 1. Composition of elephants in the study. Elephant Foundation (MEF) and the Elephant Site Elephant Sex Age Safari (ES) in Sri Lanka. PEO Kanaka M 6 months Dinuda F 6 months PEO is located in a 10 ha coconut estate close Wasamba M 10 years to the Maha Oya River at Rambukkana, 80 km northeast of Colombo. It consists of a free Surangi F 12 years ranging area for daytime activities and sheds to Sanka M 20 years house elephants. During the study a total of 86 Saama F 22 years captive elephants of varying ages were housed Mathali F 39 years at the PEO. Anusha F 64 years MEF Pooja F 23 years MEF and ES are located close to the PEO and Luxmi F 40 years keep elephants for providing tourist rides. SF Manika F 38 years Elephants are tethered under a tree canopy except Kumari F 50 years
5 stream, with or without the presence of tourists. temperature and humidity on EFR was analyzed Elephants were taken back to their night quarters using Pearson product moment correlation. Effect at about 17:00 h. of body size on ear flapping rate was evaluated using ANOVA followed by the Tukey’s multiple Each elephant was observed twice a month from range test. All statistical analyses were carried 9:00 to 16:00 h and earflaps were counted for out with an α level of P < 0.05 as the significant 3 minutes at every 10-minute interval for the level. entire period. The ear-flapping rate (EFR) was calculated as the average number of earflaps per Results minute over the 3-minute period. An ‘earflap’ was defined as the partial or full movement of Ear-flapping rate (EFR) pinnae, once forward and once back. Ambient temperature and relative humidity data were The mean EFR of studied elephants was 8.19 ± obtained using a digital weather station (Sensor 0.19 and EFRs of individual elephants ranged Tech®, USA). No EFR counts were obtained from 1.97 ± 0.18 to 15.79 ± 0.62 during the while elephants were moving between the yard study period. EFR was positively correlated with and the river at PEO or during tourist rides at the ambient temperature (r = 0.30, P < 0.05, df MEF and ES. = 1810, Fig. 1) and negatively correlated with relative humidity (r = -0.36, P < 0.05, df = 1810, Scan sampling (Altmann 1974) of the PEO herd Fig. 2). (n = 66) was performed to count the number of elephants flapping ears at 10 minute intervals Percentage of elephants flapping ears (PEFE) from 9:00 to 16:00 h twice a month. Daytime variations were determined by plotting the A positive correlation was observed between average number of elephants flapping ears at a PEFE and ambient temperature (r = 0.18, P < particular time of the day with temperature and 0.05, df = 251, Fig. 3) while a negative correlation relative humidity. was observed with relative humidity (r = -0.33, P < 0.05, df = 251, Fig. 4). Two peaks in PEFE Eight elephants at PEO were observed to were observed at 10:20 h and 14:20 h (Figs. 5 & examine the effect of body size on EFR. Data 6). PEFE decreased from 12:00 to 14:00 h when were collected from elephants representing three ambient temperature reached a peak and the body sizes; juveniles (n = 2), sub-adults (n = 2) mean relative humidity was 69 - 70%. PEFE was and adults (n = 4). Earflaps were counted when 6 - 9% during the hottest part of the day, when the elephants were in the herd. many elephants were observed to stand still with their ears spread. PEFE was less than 10% before All data analyses were performed with MINI- 10:00 h and after 15:30 h. TAB 15 (Minitab Inc. PA, USA). Effect of
Figure 1. The effect of ambient temperature on Figure 2. The effect of relative humidity on individual EFR. individual EFR.
6 Figure 3. The effect of ambient temperature on Figure 4. The effect of relative humidity on PEFE. PEFE.
The highest EFR and the PEFE were recorded other hand, elephant PEO-1 flapped 10 - 15 times at 30 - 31ºC and a relative humidity of 59 - continuously at a particular bout. 61%. Temperature ranged from 24 - 35ºC while relative humidity ranged from 56 - 76% during EFR of some elephants increased with approach the study period. of their preferred social partners. Elephant PEO- 1 flapped ears more when elephant PEO-2 moved Effect of body size towards her. Elephant ES-1 flapped her ears considerably faster when she saw her mahout in EFR was significantly different among large, the morning. She displayed this behaviour every medium and small elephants (Pa,b,c < 0.05, F morning, accompanied by voiding of urine. = 164.78, df = 779). EFR was highest (10.7 ± Ear spreading followed by rapid flapping was 0.5a) in large elephants while it was lowest (1.6 observed in elephants at the PEO when they were ± 0.1b) in small elephants. EFR of medium sized excited or alert. Higher EFR were also observed elephants was 5.4 ± 0.3c. after a safari ride in ES and MEF elephants and before and after a fight or arriving at the river in Other observations PEO elephants. Ear flapping gradually decreased with most of the elephants moving to shade a few Some elephants had unique patterns of ear minutes after they reached the river. However, flapping. Elephant MEF-1 flapped 4 times there was no increase in PEFE after they walked followed by an interval, whereas it was 2 - 3 back to the yard at 12:20 h, in which they exert flaps in elephants MEF-2 and MEF-3. On the more, as they have to walk uphill.
Figure 5. Variation in PEFE with ambient temperature. Elephants are in the river twice a Figure 6. Variation in PEFE with relative day from 10:00 – 12:00 h and 14:00 - 16:00 h. humidity.
7 Discussion had raised EFRs after a safari ride. Similarly, Benedict (1936) reported that ear temperature and Our results indicate that EFR and the PEFE were ear flapping rate increased after a muscular work. weakly associated with ambient temperature and However, it was not the case for the elephants at relative humidity and strongly influenced by the PEO as there was no such increase in PEFE body size. PEFE decreased when the temperature after walking back to the yard probably because was highest. Our findings are in contrast to some they were well cooled off in the river. other studies in which strong relationships of EFR with ambient temperature were observed Moving to a shady area was seen in PEO elephants in wild African elephants (Buss & Estes 1971; r when they were in the river, which may enhance = 0.85) and captive Asian elephants (Vanitha & heat dissipation by increasing the temperature Baskaran 2010; r = 0.59). gradient between the elephant’s body and the environment. Besides, conduction through legs The highest EFR was not associated with the and drinking of water may assist them to lower highest temperature. Similarly, Buss & Estes the core body temperature when they are in the (1971) observed that the three highest EFRs in water. Similarly, Buss & Estes (1971) observed their study occurred between 30 - 31ºC whereas decreased rates of ear flapping when elephants the highest temperature recorded was 34.4ºC. were in the shade. Non-correspondence of highest temperature with highest EFR suggests that there may be an We observed that larger elephants flapped ears optimum temperature for efficient cooling by more frequently than smaller elephants. Larger ear flapping of elephants. Consequently EFR size results in a smaller surface to volume ratio and environmental factors may have a complex and hence a relatively smaller surface area for rather than a simple linear relationship. heat transfer (Williams 1990). Therefore, lager animals have a greater potential for heat retention A fall in the ear flapping percentage of the group and larger elephants can be expected to exhibit was observed during the hottest periods of the higher EFR to increase non-evaporative heat loss. day. Although wind velocity was not measured Smaller elephants can be expected to lose more in our study, elephants standing still with the heat through evaporative heat loss and require ears spread rather than flapping, during this part less convective heat loss. Higher evaporative of the day suggests that they could be taking the heat loss in young elephants compared to adults advantage of wind to facilitate cooling. After the has been reported previously (Kumudinie et al. second peak at 14:20 h, percentage occurrence 2012; Kulasooriya et al. 2014). of ear flapping decreased as the temperature declined. A possible reason could be that elephants Our observations also suggest that elephants dissipate heat through non-evaporative heat loss may vary in pattern and timing of ear flapping at low temperatures and evaporative heat loss at reflecting individuality. Kuhme (1963) reported high temperatures (>31ºC). Kuhme (1963) also that the presence of a wild African female made reported that captive African elephants hardly a bull elephant increase his flapping rate and flapped their ears in the morning when it was that the position of the ear is a signal to social cold. Benedict (1936) estimated that 20% of the partners. He further reported that superiority of metabolic heat was lost by evaporation divided the α male was demonstrated by flapping ears equally between respiratory tract and body strongly. Likewise, Benedict (1936) stated that, surface under experimental conditions. changes in ear temperature and flapping were caused by nervousness, fright or apprehension. Even though elephants walk around the yard at a Our observations are compatible with EFR normal pace, they moved faster when they walk being influenced by communication, individual down to river. The increase in EFR after arriving preferences, social environment and emotional at the river is probably due to excitement or state, in addition to environmental factors. muscular work, similar to safari elephants that
8 Acknowledgement Anniversary of the Physiological Society of Sri Lanka (PSSL). p 38. The authors would like to thank Ringling Bros. Center for Elephant Conservation for funding this Lamps LW, Smoller BR, Rasmussen LEL, project. We express our gratitude to management Slade BE, Fritsch G & Goodwin TE (2001) and all the staff members at Pinnawala Elephant Characterization of interdigital glands in the Orphanage, Millennium elephant foundation and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Research in Elephants Safari in Sri Lanka for cooperation Veterinary Science 71: 197-200. rendered during the study. We convey our appreciation to all the other colleagues who have Lillywhite HB & Stein BR (1987) Surface helped us in various ways. sculpturing and water retention of elephant skin. Journal of Zoology 211: 727-734. References Myhrvold CL, Stone HA & Bou-Zeid E (2012) Altmann J (1974) Observational study of What is the use of elephant hair? PLoS ONE 7: behavior: Sampling methods. Behavior 49: 227- e47018. 266. Phillips PK & Heath JE (1992) Heat exchange Benedict FG (1936) The Physiology of the by the pinna of the African elephant (Loxodonta Elephant. Carnegie Institution of Washington. Africana). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 101: 693-699. Buss IO & Estes JA (1971) The functional significance of movements and positions of Sumbera R, Zelova J, Kunc P, KnizkovaI & the pinnae of the African elephant (Loxodonta Burda H (2007) Patterns of surface temperatures africana). Jornal of Mammaogyl 52: 21-27. in two mole-rats (Bathyergidae) with different social systems as revealed by IR-thermography. Carrington R (1959) Elephants: A Short Account Physiology and Behavior 92: 526-532. of Their Natural History, Evolution, and Influence on Mankind. Basic Books, New York. Vanitha V & Baskaran N (2010) Seasonal and roofing material influence on the thermoregulation Hiley PG (1975) How the elephant keep its cool. by captive Asian elephants and its implications Natural History 84 (10): 34-41. for captive elephant welfare. Gajah 33: 35-40.
Kuhme W (1963) Ethology of the African Weissenböck NM, Weiss CM, Schwammer HM elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach & Kratochvil H (2010) Thermal windows on the 1797) in captivity. International Zoo Yearbook 4: body surface of African elephants (Loxodonta 113–121. africana) studied by infrared thermography. Journal of Thermal Biology 35: 182-188. Kulasooriya GDBN, Abeygunawardene I, Rajarathne AAJ, Perera BV& Ariyarathne HBS Williams TM (1990) Heat transfer in elephants: (2014) Evaporative heat loss from the skin of Thermal partitioning based on skin temperature captive Asian elephant calves (Elephas maximus profiles. Journal of Zoology 222: 235-245. maximus). Proceedings of the Peradeniya University International Research Sessions, Sri Wright PG (1984) Why do elephants flap their Lanka 18: 321. ears? South African Journal of Zoology 19: 266- 269. Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A, Rajaratne & AAJ (2012) Mechanisms of Wright PG & Luck CP (1984) Do elephants need thermoregulation in Asian Elephants (Elephas to sweat? South African Journal of Zoology 19: maximus maximus). Abstract Book, 25th 270-274.
9 Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 10-14
Population Structure and Distribution of Asian Elephants in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve, India
Ranjit Kumar Sahoo
School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, CET Campus, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. The northern-most population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Western Ghats resides in the North Kanara district of Karnataka state. I conducted a study on the major part of this elephant population which occurs in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve, assessing their distribution, numbers and population structure, based on secondary information and field surveys. Elephant presence was confirmed in the Kulgi, Phansoli and Gund ranges of the Reserve. A total of 23 individual elephants were identified, providing a minimum estimate. The identified individuals consisted of 39.1% adults, 26.1% sub-adults, 30.4% juveniles and 4.4% calves. The sex ratio showed a gradual skew towards females from juvenile to adult.
Introduction share the same mitochondrial haplotype (Vidya et al. 2005). Habitat loss and fragmentation India holds 50-60% of free ranging Asian in their traditional migratory routes confined elephants (Vidya et al. 2005; Riddle et al. 2010), the elephants to North Kanara making them with four distinct populations in north-east, vulnerable (Sarma & Easa 2006; Riddle et al. central, north-west and southern India (Sukumar 2010). Since 1999, they have been extending 1986, 2003; Sukumar & Santiapillai 1996; Bist their range towards Belgaum, Maharashtra and 2002). South India harbours approximately 22% Goa (Sarma & Easa 2006; Kulkarni et al. 2008; of the global Asian elephant population (Vidya et Baskaran 2013). Information on the distribution, al. 2005). This southern population can be divided habitat conditions, size and structure of this into North Kanara, Brahmagiri–Nilgiri–Eastern population is required for conservation planning Ghats, Anamalais–Nelliampathi–High Range (Sukumar & Easa 2006; Baskaran 2013). This and Periyar–Agasthyamalai subpopulations study provides preliminary information on (Baskaran 2013). North Kanara in Karnataka the population structure of elephants and their represents the northernmost distribution of the distribution in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve. southern population. Methods The North Kanara subpopulation consists of a few elephant herds scattered at low density, Study area numbering perhaps less than 100 (Prasad et al. 1979; Sukumar 1986; Vidya et al. 2005; Baskaran The Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve (recently 2013). The major part of this subpopulation renamed as the Kali Tiger Reserve through is known to reside in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger a gazette notification dated 11th December Reserve (Baskaran 2013). It is believed that this 2015) is located in the North Kanara district of subpopulation was connected to the Mysore Karnataka State between 14º 57’ – 15º 9’ N and subpopulation, which is part of Brahmagiri- 74º 15’ – 74º 43’ E and is part of the biologically Nilgiri-Eastern Ghats (Nair & Gadgil 1980). rich Western Ghats. It is composed of two The two subpopulations were also found to contiguous protected areas, the Dandeli Wildlife
© 2015 The Author - Open Access 10 Sanctuary and the Anshi National Park (Fig. Based on this information, a field survey was 1). The reserve is spread over an area of 1074 conducted in the Kulgi and Phansoli Ranges and km2 and consists of five forest ranges (Kulgi, part of Gund Range. In the field survey, existing Phansoli, Gund, Anshi and Kumbarwada). paths or trails in forest areas were traversed on Temperature varies from 16ºC to 36ºC with the foot, at an average of 3-4 km per day. The trail coldest temperatures during January and highest survey was carried out from 6:00–9:00 h and in April-May. Rainfall occurs mainly from 16:00–18:00 h. The total distance covered was the South West monsoon (June to September) 48 km. Fieldwork for data collection was carried and varies from 1250 mm in the eastern part out from February to April 2011. to 4000 mm in the west. Corresponding to the rainfall gradient, moist deciduous forest in the GPS points were taken for each sighting of east transits to semi-evergreen forest in the west. elephants and elephant sign such as dung, Major vegetation types in the area include South footprints, feeding signs, mud marks on tree Indian Moist Deciduous Teak Forest, Southern trunks, and places of mud bathing. The number Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest and West Coastal of dung piles clustered together was also noted. Semi-evergreen Forest with Bamboo and Secondary information about elephant encounters riparian stands (Champion & Seth 1968). River was collected from local villagers and GPS points Kali and river Kaneri are two major perennial of the locations were taken. natural sources of water in the reserve along with several undulating streams and springs flowing A map of elephant distribution was generated inside the reserve. from location data using ArcGIS version 9.2.
Elephant distribution To evaluate the pattern of elephant distribution in different ranges, dung encounter rates (number Information about elephant presence was obtained of dung piles/km surveyed) were used as an from the Forest Department staff and villagers, index of relative abundance (Sundaram et al. which indicated that elephants were absent from 2003). Encounter rates were categorized as high the Anshi and Kumbarwada Forest Ranges and (>4 dung piles/km), medium (1-4 dung piles/km) the southern and western part of Gund Range. or low (<1 dung pile/km).
Figure 1. Map of the study area, Dandeli- Anshi Tiger Reserve. Source: Asian Na- ture Conservation Foundation, Banga- lore, India.
11 Individual identification and age-sex structure indicated by the secondary information was confirmed by the field survey. In areas with low elephant densities, methods such as line transects with direct sightings or A high density of elephant sign was found around dung counts are ineffective in population size the Bommanahalli Reservoir in Kulgi range (Fig. estimation and instead, individual identification 2). This may have been due to greater detection is preferred (Varma et al. 2008). Hence, all in the dry open habitat and frequent crossing of elephants encountered were photographed and roads by elephants moving to and fro from the individually identified based on morphological reservoir, as the surveyed trails were within 5 km features (Vidya et al. 2014) and their body of the reservoir. condition scored (Fernando et al. 2009). Photo- graphs were taken using a Canon D1000 digital Dung encounter rates (Table 1) were high in camera with a Sigma DG 70-300 mm lens. Kulgi Range which has dry deciduous habitat with flatter terrain, medium in Phansoli and low At each sighting of elephants, group size and sex in Gund Ranges which have moist deciduous and of individuals were recorded. Photographs of semi-evergreen forest patches with undulating the lateral view were taken so that the foot and terrain. Dung piles were more commonly found shoulder were clearly visible. Any trees close in clusters and contained boli of various sizes, to the elephants that could be used for height suggesting the presence of larger groups (>5) in reference were noted and measured after the Kulgi and smaller groups (<4) in Phansoli and elephant moved away or a calibrated vertical pole Gund Ranges. was held by an assistant at the exact spot where the elephant was and a picture taken to estimate Elephant numbers the shoulder height (Arivazhagan & Sukumar 2008). Ages of individuals were calculated Elephants were encountered 8 times and the from their shoulder height following Sukumar number of elephants sighted was 57. Of these, 31 et al. (1988) and were categorised into calf (<1 were individually identifiable from photographs, year old), juvenile (1-5 years old), sub-adult (5- which found 23 individuals and 8 re-sightings. 15 years old) and adult (>15 years old) classes Thus, the minimum population size estimate for (Arivazhagan & Sukumar 2008). Individuals the reserve is 23, although it is likely to be an with tusks were identified as male and those underestimate. Therefore, the total number of without tusks or with tushes were considered elephants in the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve is females. Wherever possible, the appearance of likely to be at the upper end of the 15-50 estimated external genitalia was used to confirm sex. For by Forest Department census or greater. calves and juveniles, when sex differentiation was not possible, 50% were assigned to each sex. Age-sex structure
Results and discussion Analysis of the age structure of identified individuals found 9 adults, 6 sub-adults, 7 Elephant distribution Table 1. Relative abundance of elephants drawn All sightings of elephants were in Kulgi Range from ground survey in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger around Bommanahalli reservoir except for three Reserve. elephants sighted once at night in crop fields in # Range Distance # Encounter the Phansoli Range. Elephant sign was found in walked Signs rate* the sampled forest areas of Kulgi and Phansoli 1 Kulgi 16 km 69 4.3 ± 3.3 Ranges while in the Gund Range elephant sign 2 Phansoli 22 km 31 1.4 ± 0.6 was restricted to the Kaneri river basin. Thus, the presence of elephants in the Kulgi, Phansoli and 3 Gund 10 km 8 0.8 ± 0.7 Gund ranges of the Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve *dung piles/km ± standard deviation
12 juveniles and 1 calf. The assessed population Acknowledgements structure showed a lower proportion of sub- adults (26%) compared to juveniles (30%). As I thank Prachi Mehta for generous support the sub-adult segment represents a wider age throughout this study and for comments on an range (10 years) than the juvenile segment (4 earlier draft of the manuscript. I acknowledge years), the number of sub-adults is expected to be Raman Sukumar for kind permission to work higher than juveniles in any population (Sukumar with the staff at the Asian Nature Conservation 2003). The discrepancy observed could be due Foundation, Bangalore. I am grateful for to misclassification or small sample size in the guidance on data analysis provided by Nagaraj present study, non-correspondence of the size Baskaran who also made the GIS map available and age classes, or a real decline in sub-adult for this work. I wish to thank the Karnataka category or increase in the juvenile category. Forest Department for providing field permit and support; and Surendra Varma and Somaiah The male : female ratio showed a gradual skew Sundarapandian for informative discussions. towards females from juvenile (1 : 0.8) to sub- This work was partially supported by Wildlife adult (1 : 2) and adult (1 : 8). Such female Research and Conservation Society, Pune, as biased sex ratios have also been reported from part of “Long term elephant-human conflict Mudumalai and Bandipur National Parks (Varma mitigation” project funded by the Critical 2000). In a polygynous species like elephants, Ecosystem Partnership Fund – Ashoka Trust moderately female-biased sex ratios do not affect for Research in Ecology and the Environment population growth (Sukumar 2003). (CEPF-ATREE).
Figure 2. Map showing the distribution of elephants drawn from direct sighting, indirect signs and secondary information in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve. Source: Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Bangalore, India.
13 References Sukumar R (1986) The elephant populations of India: Strategies for conservation. Proceedings Arivazhagan C & Sukumar R (2008) Constructing of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal age structures of Asian elephant populations: Sciences/Plant Sciences) Suppl. 59-71. A comparison of two field methods of age estimation. Gajah 29: 11-16. Sukumar R (2003) The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Cons- Baskaran N (2013) An overview of Asian ervation. Oxford University Press, New York. elephants in the Western Ghats, Southern India: implications for the conservation of Western Sukumar R & Easa PS (2006) Elephant Ghats ecology. Journal of Threatened Taxa conservation in South India: Issues and 5(14): 4854-4870. recommendations. Gajah 25: 71-86.
Bist SS (2002) An overview of elephant con- Sukumar R, Joshi NV & Krishnamurthy V (1988) servation in India. Indian Forester 128: 121-136. Growth in Asian elephant. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Animal Science) Champion HG & Seth SK (1968) A Revised 97: 561-571. Survey of the Forest Types of India. Manager of Publications, Delhi. Sukumar R & Santiapillai C (1996) Elephas maximus: Status and distribution. In: The Fernando P, Janaka HK, Ekanayaka SKK, Proboscidea: Evolution and Palaeoecology of Nishantha HG & Pastorini J (2009) A simple Elephants and their Relatives. Shoshani J & method for assessing elephant body condition. Tassy P (eds) Oxford University Press, New Gajah 31: 29-31. York. pp 327-331.
Kulkarni J, Mehta P & Hiremath U (2008) Man- Sundaram B, Varma S, Venkataraman A & elephant Conflict in Sindhudurg and Kolhapur Sukumar R (2003) The Asian elephants (Elephas District of Maharashtra, India; Case Study of maximus): Its habitat, status and distribution in a State Coming to Terms with Presence of Wild Arunachal Pradesh, India. Gajah 22: 43-49. Elephants. Final Report, Envirosearch, Pune. Varma S (2000) Report at Asian Elephant Nair PVK & Gadgil M (1980) The status and Research and Conservation Centre. c/o Centre distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka for Ecological Science, Bangalore, India. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 75 (Suppl.): 1000-1016. Varma S, Dang NX, Thanh TV & Sukumar R (2008) The elephants (Elephas maximus) of Prasad SN, Nair PVK, Sharatchandra HC & Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam: Status and Gadgil M (1979) On factors governing the conservation of a vanishing population. Oryx 42: distribution of wild mammals in Karnataka. J. of 92-99. Bombay Natural History Society 75: 718-743. Vidya TNC, Fernando P, Melnick DJ & Suku- Riddle HS, Schulte BA, Desai AA & Meer LV mar R (2005) Population differentiation within (2010) Elephants: A conservation overview. and among Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) Journal of Threatened Taxa 2: 653-661. populations in southern India. Heredity 94: 71- 80. Sarma UK & Easa PS (2006) Living with Giants: Understanding Human-elephant Conflict in Vidya TNC, Prasad D & Ghosh A (2014) Maharashtra and Adjoining Areas. An occasional Individual identification in Asian elephants. report on a wild species project under the human- Gajah 40: 3-17. elephant conflict, Wildlife Trust of India, India.
14 Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 15-25
Elephant GPS Tracking Collars: Is There a Best?
Jennifer Pastorini1,2*, Tharaka Prasad3, Peter Leimgruber4, Karin Isler2 and Prithiviraj Fernando1
1Centre for Conservation and Research, Tissamaharama, Sri Lanka 2Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland 3Department of Wildlife Conservation, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka 4Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Inst., Front Royal, USA *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. GPS tracking collars are an extremely useful tool in research, conservation and management of endangered Asian elephants. We provide an assessment of six GPS elephant tracking collar models from four manufacturers, based on field experience of collaring 51 elephants in Sri Lanka. Variations were observed among collars in the configuration and materials used, ability to obtain and transmit GPS locations, longevity, reliability and cost. There was no clear ‘winner’, the best choice depending on the type of study, area of use, financial and logistic constraints, importance of data quality vs. quantity and desired lifetime of the collar.
Introduction are on offer from different manufacturers and knowledge of the relative strengths and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are ‘forest- weaknesses of different collars are an important animals’ mostly occupying poor visibility consideration in starting a collaring program. habitats. They have large home ranges and can move long distances rapidly (Fernando et al. Since 2004 we have monitored 51 elephants 2008, 2012). Due to ubiquitous conflict with using 41 GPS-satellite collars. Here we describe people, most Asian elephants are behaviourally and compare performance of different models of adapted to avoid humans (Fernando et al. elephant collars from several manufacturers and 2008). Consequently, unlike African savannah suggest features that would be of advantage in elephants (Loxodonta africana), Asian elephants general and in terms of particular field situations are difficult to study by direct observation. Over and logistic considerations. the last decade, human-elephant conflict has escalated across the range (e.g. Baskaran et al. Methods 2011; Fernando & Pastorini 2011; Saaban et al. 2011). Thus, management interventions are We used 41 collars from four manufacturers becoming essential for conserving elephants and including two models each from two mitigating human-elephant conflict across Asia. manufacturers hereafter referred to as “old” and “new” (Table 1). GPS collars are an invaluable tool to study elephant behaviour and obtain information Collaring was done as a collaborative project for their management (Campos-Arceiz 2008; between the Department of Wildlife Conservation Fernando et al. 2010, 2012; Alfred et al. 2012; and the Centre for Conservation and Research Pastorini et al. 2013). Being of comparatively to obtain baseline information and to increase recent origin, studies using elephant GPS collars effectiveness of elephant conservation and have been faced with various issues related to human-elephant conflict mitigation in Sri Lanka. functional and physical failure of collars (Pinter- Wollman 2009; A. Campos-Arceiz, N. Othman, Six collared elephants died during the study pers. comm.). Currently a number of products period, five due to human-elephant conflict.
© 2015 The Authors - Open Access 15 Table 1. Collars used in the study. Manufacturer Country Year of use N Code Telonics, Inc. USA 2004 10 Telonics old 2009 15 Telonics new Vectronic Aerospace GmbH Germany 2006 3 Vectronic old 2009 8 Vectronic new Followit Lindesberg AB Sweden 2009 4 Followit Africa Wildlife Tracking South Africa 2009 1 AWT
One was a crop-raiding male who was shot by A series of perforations in the long belt segment a farmer. Four were translocated males (see allowed the collar size to be adjusted. Fernando et al. 2012). One female got killed in a train accident. Five of the six collars were re- The old and new Vectronic, Follwit and AWT used. Most (N=31) collars were programmed collars had the functional unit fixed to a single to collect a GPS location every 4 hours. Four piece of belt to which the counter weight collars gathered locations 8-hourly (one old was attached directly with two or four 13 mm Telonics, two new Telonics and one AWT) and bolts and metal plates at collaring (Fig. 1B). three collars (New Vectronic) hourly. One collar Multiple perforations in the belting allowed had a mixed schedule of 1 and 4 hours and three changing the collar length in Vectronic and AWT collars had 4 and 8 hourly schedules as they were collars. Followit collars had only a single set of reprogrammed on a different schedule when they perforations hence a fixed collar length. As it were re-deployed. was not possible to estimate the required collar length with certainty before collaring, we made Results additional sets of perforations prior to collaring.
Collar design Belting
All collars consisted of a GPS unit, VHF Old Vectronic collars used a rubberized canvas transmitter, batteries and satellite or GSM belting and the new Vectronic collars a similar transmitter for data download, packaged into belting that was thicker. Old Telonics collar belts one integrated sealed unit. Sky orientation of were made of a woven nylon strap encased in a the functional unit for satellite detection was proprietary plastic sleeve and the new Telonics achieved by a counterweight (Fig. 1). All collars collars used belting composed of a wide nylon- had to be mounted on the elephant so that the mesh embedded in a plastic material. Followit functional unit and the counter weight were at collars used multi-layered canvas belting and opposite poles. To facilitate this, we numbered the AWT collars PVC belting. corresponding sets of perforations on the sides of the collar on both inside and outside surfaces of In the old Telonics collars, sometimes the plastic the belting. The Africa Wildlife Tracking (AWT) sleeve became separated from the nylon strap collar came with numbered perforations. Collar after deployment and the collar filled with mud, size (length of belting) could be specified at substantially increasing the collar weight (Fig. ordering for all collars. 1C). The new Telonics belting overcame this problem, but made the top piece stiffer. As a Old and new Telonics collars came in two result, it did not sit on top of the neck of females segments with a 90 cm length of belting incor- but slid to a side (Fig. 1D). This was not an issue porating the functional unit and a longer belt with big males as the neck was very broad and incorporating the counter weight (Fig. 1A). The the functional unit sat on top. Using the old two pieces were bolted together with 5x5 cm belting for the top part and the new belting for metal plates and four 10 mm bolts at collaring. the bottom solved the problem.
16 Collar function Telonics collars uploaded data through an Argos satellite system
Figure 1. Elephant tracking collar configurations. (A) The two segments of a Telonics collar. (B) Single piece Vectronic collar with directly bolted counter weight at the bottom (AWT and Followit have a similar design). (C) Old Telonics collar belt filled with mud. (D) New Telonics collar slid to the side of the neck of a female.
17 Old Vectronic collars sent the data via SMS, Number of tracking days downloaded to the user’s computer through an attached base station. New Vectronic collars The average number of data days obtained from offered the options of downloading through a all collars was 634.2 ± 355.3 days (Fig. 2A). The base station as well as receiving a data file via longest functioning were two Followit collars e-mail. Data from Telonics collars was accessed (1285 and 1327 days) and the shortest three new through the Argos website as a downloadable Vectronic collars (34, 41 and 45 days). file. Data was kept on the ARGOS server for 10 days only. Vectronic and Telonics data files had The four Followit collars functioned for 880.5 ± to be processed with the manufacturer’s software 516.3 (range 262 - 1327) days. Operational life to obtain the actual GPS locations. of the 10 old Telonics collars was 586.8 ± 258.4 (range 307 - 1022) days. The 15 new Telonics Prior to collaring we stencilled a message with collars worked for 855.3 ± 221.7 (range 223 - a local phone number on the counter weight of 1123) days, with 13 collars lasting more than two each collar, so the finders of fallen collars would years. The three old Vectronic collars functioned be able to contact us. Most collars that dropped for 377.7 ± 138.6 days, two lasting less than a off were recovered through this method. year (270, 329 days) and one for 534 days. The eight new Vectronic collars on average lasted Vectronic, Telonics and Followit collars stored 277.6 ± 308.8 days. Seven of them ceased data all collected data on-board. If recovered after transmission after less than one year but one deployment, the data could be downloaded by collar lasted 976 days. The AWT collar stopped connecting the collar to a computer and using a functioning after 428 days (Fig. 2A). software. Vectronic and Telonics collars required a functional collar battery for direct download On average collars on 1- (n=3), 4- (n=31), but Followit collars could be downloaded even and 8-hourly (n=4) schedules lasted 524.7 ± if the battery was dead. For a fee, Vectronic and 390.9, 633.9 ± 362.4 and 862.3 ± 304.9 days Telonics collars with dead batteries could be sent respectively. to the manufacturer for recovery of data stored onboard. AWT collars did not store data. Number of GPS locations
Collar cost On average 3333.5 ± 2797.9 GPS locations were received from each collar, ranging from 83 to Table 2 summarizes collar prices. The prices 15,918 (Fig. 2B). include shipping to Sri Lanka from the country of manufacture but exclude customs duty (in Sri The four Followit collars provided 4945.3 ± Lanka, up to 30% of the collar cost). Satellite and 3306.8 (range 871 - 7651) GPS locations. All GSM providers charged a monthly rental plus a were programmed on a 4-hourly schedule. fee for each transmission. The annual cost (Table 2) is based on six GPS locations per day. The 10 old Telonics collars provided 2230.7 ±
Table 2. Cost (US$) of collars (including shipping) and annual data transmission (6 GPS per day). Collar Transmission Company Price Annual cost Type Telonics old NA 950 Satellite (Argos USA) Telonics new 4920 1200 Satellite (Argos France) Vectronic old NA 100 GSM (local) Vectronic new 3440 100 or 350 GSM (local or Iridium) Followit 6730 280 GSM (roaming) AWT 2570 375 Satellite
18 1249.4 (range 83 - 4601) GPS locations. Nine The three old Vectronic collars, all programmed of them collected GPS every 4 hours. The collar on a 4-hourly schedule, collected 1545, 1638 and programmed on an 8-hourly schedule gathered 2545 GPS locations. The eight new Vectronic 2213 GPS locations. The 15 new Telonics collars collars, four of them collecting a GPS every hour collected 3741.1 ± 1316.3 (range 80 - 5280) and the others every 4 hours sent on average locations. Twelve of them were programmed on 3754.3 ± 5323.8 GPS locations. However, three a 4-hourly schedule, two on an 8-hourly schedule collars sent less than 300 locations. One collar set and one on both schedules. on an hourly schedule for the first two years and
Figure 2. Box plots for the number of tracking days (A) and number of GPS locations received (B) per collar. Average cost in US$ per tracking day (C) and per GPS location (D) based on collar cost and transmission fees. The plotted values are marked according to the reason the collar stopped sending data. The red line is the grand mean. The dashed lines in A indicate full years (1, 2 and 3 years).
19 Failed GPS acquisition vs. transmission error
GPS locations stored on-board were downloaded from 16 collars recovered after deployment, consisting of 1 old Vectronic, 3 new Vectronic, 1 Follwit, 4 old Telonics and 7 new Telonics collars. These data sets provided all the GPS locations acquired and listed the missing data as failed GPS attempts.
Comparison of the direct download data sets with the data received while deployed showed that the three new Vectronic collars and the Followit collar transmitted all the acquired GPS locations. On average the new Vectronic collars failed to acquire 0.8 ± 0.6% and the Followit collar 6.4% Figure 3. Portion of scheduled GPS received. of the scheduled GPS locations (Fig. 4). The one The red line is the grand mean. The plotted old Vectronic collar did not transmit 3.6% of the values are marked according to the reason the acquired GPS locations and failed to acquire collar stopped sending data. 18.3% of the scheduled GPS locations. The old and new Telonics collars failed to transmit thereafter reset to a 4-hourly schedule, provided on average 4.8% ± 2.3 and 1.5 ± 0.7% of the 15,918 GPS locations. acquired GPS locations, respectively. The old Telonics collars failed to acquire an average of The AWT collar, which was programmed on 21.3 ± 10.9% and the new Telonics collars 12.4 ± an 8-hourly schedule sent a total of 920 GPS 20.2% of the scheduled GPS positions. locations (Fig. 2B). Overall the 16 investigated collars lost 12.5 ± Completeness of transmitted GPS data 15.5% (range 0.3 - 57.0%) of scheduled data points due to failure to acquire a GPS position The 41 collars on average sent 78.2 ± 18.4% of and 2.1 ± 2.2%, (range 0 - 8.2%) from inability the scheduled GPS positions for the period the to transmit an acquired position. collars were active. One old Telonics collar sent only 5.9% of the scheduled GPS positions while one Followit collar provided a 99.7% complete data set (Fig. 3).
The four Followit collars sent on average 89.8 ± 13.0% of the scheduled GPS positions (range 70.5 - 99.2%). The old and new Vectronic collars sent 81.2 ± 2.3% and 83.5 ± 15.8% of the expected GPS locations, respectively. The old and new Telonics collars sent 65.0 ± 22.8% and 81.1 ± 16.0% of scheduled GPS positions, respectively. The AWT collar provided 71.6% of the scheduled GPS locations (Fig. 4). The differences between manufacturers were not statistically significant Figure 4. Portion of scheduled GPS not taken (Oneway Tukey-Kramer HSD, P=0.15). and successfully acquired GPS not transmitted.
20 Cost per tracking day An old Telonics and a Followit collar stopped functioning prematurely due to electronic failure, The average cost per tracking day for all collars without obvious damage to the casing (Fig. 2). was US$ 18.83 ± 25.20 (range 3.80 -102.14, Fig. The old Telonics collar sent very little data and 2C), excluding the old Vectronic and old Telonics the battery drained early (236 days). It is unclear collars (prices unknown). if the GPS or the transmitter or both were at fault. The Followit collar failed after 262 days. It On average a tracking day with Followit collars had an electronic malfunction, which caused the cost US$ 12.36 ± 9.71 (range 5.84 - 26.45) and battery to drain quickly. with new Telonics collars US$ 9.98 ± 4.34 (range 7.67 - 25.35). New Vectronic collars cost an Presumed battery life differed between collar average of US$ 40.12 ± 40.53 per day, including models and individual collars (Fig. 2, Table 3). the cheapest (US$ 3.80) and most expensive Old Telonics collars lasted between 307 to 1022 collar (US$ 102.14) in the data set. The AWT days. The batteries of the old Vectronic and collar provided data for US$ 7.03 a day (Fig. 2C). AWT collars lasted more than one year. With one exception (712 days) the new Telonics collars had Cost per GPS location a battery life of more than two years. Batteries on Followit collars lasted more than three years. The average cost per GPS position for all collars (excluding old Telonics and old Vectronic collars) Discussion was US$ 3.84 ± 4.69 (range 0.23 - 20.07, Fig. 2D). Collar configuration
Followit collars provided a GPS location at US$ In all collars, location of the entire functional unit 2.99 ± 3.34 (range 1.01 - 7.96) and new Telonics on top resulted in a high profile that projected at US$ 2.57 ± 1.68 (range 1.57 - 7.06). Each above the elephant, causing increased damage location received from new Vectronic collars cost from striking objects, especially where elephants on average US$ 6.71 ± 7.83 (range 0.23 - 20.07) frequented thick and thorny scrub habitats. and from the AWT collar US$ 3.27 (Fig. 2D). Location of the functional unit at the bottom as in VHF-only collars would be preferable as it is Reasons for failure then well protected from such abuse. In an age of ubiquitous inter-device wireless communication In one of the 51 collar deployments the collar it is surprising that all available elephant GPS dropped off before the battery expired, due to belt collars employed a counterweight, which more failure (Fig. 2). Ten collars (34%) were affected, than doubled the weight of the collar. with two coming off the elephant twice and one three times. Belt failure occurred in Telonics and Of the two collar designs evaluated, fixing the Vectronic collars. The old Vectronic collars (2 counter weight directly onto the belt was easier collars, 4 elephants) came off within a year (8, in the field, than bolting together the long and 44, 99, 270 days). In three instances, the Telonics collars lasted for less than half a year (28, 35, 117 Table 3. Usage time (days) of collars that reached days) and seven collars came off between 668 - the end of battery life. 1065 days. Manufacturer N Mean Stdev Min Max Telonics old 8 617 256.0 307 1022 Seven of the eight new Vectronic collars ceased Telonics new 8 876 124.7 712 1033 functioning after less than a year (177.9 ± 135.5 Vectronic old 1 534 534 534 days, range 34 - 331 days). The failure was caused by damage to the casing of the functional Vectronic new 1 976 976 976 unit and consequent electronic failure, possibly Followit 2 1306 29.7 1285 1327 due to moisture/water damage. AWT 1 428 428 428
21 short segments of belting as in the Telonics flexible points as at the junction of the functional collars. The latter required bolting at two widely unit or counter weight and the belt. separated points, which were sometimes not easily accessible when the elephant fell on In general, collars with stiffer belting were liable scrubby or thorny vegetation. to fall off unless fitted close to the neck size. Collars with flexible belting tended to be more Adjustability of collar size is a must and collars forgiving of loose fitting as the belt conforms to should have perforations that allow adjustment the neck shape and is prevented from dropping between the smallest and largest elephant that off by the head and ears. Stiffer belting is also maybe collared. Most manufacturers will comply liable to cause the functional unit to slide off the and provided factory perforated collars to cover top to a side, especially on females, as their neck the specified sizes. Collar size should be re- is narrower and more pointed dorsally. All tested checked prior to collaring and the perforations collars had a flat underside to the functional tested to see that the bolts fit through them easily. unit meant to be on top of the neck. Shaping the underside of the functional unit to provide a The use of 13 mm nuts and bolts for collar fixing better fit would be an easy improvement. is preferable to 10 mm, as under the stress of collaring where expediency is key, the larger size Collar switch-off makes for easier manipulation and dropped and lost nuts less likely. In Sri Lanka elephant immobilization for collaring is the exclusive preserve of the Department Belting of Wildlife Conservation. Due to various administrative and logistic issues sometimes it Belt durability is a tricky issue as ideally the took over a year after receiving the collars, for belts should last the functional life of the collar them to be deployed. Sometimes a collaring and break off subsequently. This maximizes data was scheduled and cancelled at the last minute, acquisition and obviates the need to anaesthetize and rescheduled for months later. Therefore the the animal to remove the collar. While removing inability of AWT collars to be switched on/off dysfunctional collars is desirable from an animal by the user was a major disadvantage. This may welfare point of view (Casper 2009; Ferreira not be an issue where operations can be planned et al. 2013), anaesthetizing a wild elephant reliably. poses a risk to the life of the elephant and those undertaking the operation. Also, the current cost Telonics and Televilt collars provided an of anaesthetizing a wild elephant in Sri Lanka assessment of collar function when activating is around US$ 2000. Therefore, collars are not them, through LED or VHF signals. However taken off as a rule in Sri Lanka. Collars dropped given the logistics and risks of collaring an off due to degradation of the collar material and elephant, we found it prudent to switch collars on wear and tear, usually within five years. a few days prior to deployment and ensure that data was received without any issues. Premature belt failure was an issue with some collars such as the old Vectronics. However, belt VHF life was determined by a number of variables. Failure due to wear and tear was much greater All collars had a VHF unit in addition to the GPS in thorny scrub habitats and with males. It is also unit. The VHF unit was usually powered from likely to vary with individual elephants. Overall, a supplementary pack, so that it could be used multilayered canvas belting as used by Followit to locate the collar once the GPS batteries were appeared to be the best with most lasting the life exhausted. This feature would also be of value if of the batteries and dropping off soon after. The collars are to be taken off after cessation of GPS Followit belting material did not degrade and transmission. We found the VHF helpful to locate only got abraded, but tore between fixed and and recover collars that fell off and were unable
22 to acquire GPS signal from where they lay. The and new Telonics collars had a high percentage VHF was also useful for tracking elephants in of failed positions. Loss of scheduled positions real time through homing-in, as often the GPS could have a significant effect depending on the data was from many hours earlier. cause and extent of loss and type of study.
Real time communication with the collar GPS Failure to acquire GPS positions was more through a hand-held unit and a ‘go to’ facility as common than transmission failure of acquired found in some hand-held recreational GPS units positions. The new and old Telonics collars had such as the GARMIN Rino (http://sites.garmin. both issues while new Vectronic and Followit com/en-US/rino), would provide much better collars were able to transmit all acquired tracking than possible with VHF, especially positions. when combined with a screen map showing the collar and observer position. Studies monitoring impact of management actions on elephants are unlikely to be greatly affected Data download by failure to acquire some positions. Analyses of home range extent and movement patterns are If collars are deployed in areas with good mobile more likely to be influenced by systematic bias phone coverage, a local GSM provider is the in GPS acquisition failure. Similarly habitat use cheapest option for data download. Addition of and preference studies may be greatly impacted, a data-roaming facility increases probability of especially as GPS acquisition failure is likely to data download where coverage is patchy and be related to variables such as high canopy cover, from different providers. Satellite phone systems hence introduce significant bias. Transmission such as Iridium and Inmarsat should have greater failure may introduce bias due to area of coverage coverage and be more suitable for areas without in SMS download and habitat correlates in the local GSM coverage. Satellite phone charges case of Argos. were comparable to cost of GSM plus roaming. Downloading data stored on-board Argos satellite collars had an advantage in ensuring data transmission, as they had global Downloading data stored on-board is useful for coverage. However, rapidly increasing global assessing the relative importance of transmission satellite phone coverage is likely to obviate this and GPS acquisition failure. In cases of trans- advantage. Argos-based data transmission was mission failure, it provides a more complete data much more expensive. While providing exactly set. The ability to download data with a dead the same Argos service, CLS America was collar battery as in Followit collars is desirable cheaper than CLS France. As expected collar as in many cases collars dropped off and were life is three years, maintaining payments of recovered long after the batteries had expired. high download fees may be a constraint. Using ARGOS imposed limitations on timing of data Data processing upload from a particular location. As most Asian elephants remain under cover during the day and Data processing was easiest with the Followit venture into open areas during the night, data collars as the e-mailed text file listed the GPS transmission at dusk or dawn is likely the best. locations. The old Telonics collars required considerable data processing effort as downloaded Failed positions files had to be processed to get the GPS locations and then the locations received had to be sorted in Overall, collars failed to provide close to one a time-consuming process to remove duplicates fourth of scheduled positions. The different collar and errors. For both old and new Telonics collars, types showed variable extents of failure. The since the Argos server kept the data only for 10 new Vectronic and Followit collars provided near days, the data had to be downloaded regularly complete data sets while old Vectronic and old without fail throughout the life of the collar. Data
23 processing effort and capacity may be an issue in and especially the completeness of the data set monitoring programs run by wildlife managers (71.6%) were not so impressive. The cost per especially in developing countries and maybe a tracking day was US$ 7.03, which was in the same factor in collar selection. range as Followit and Telonics collars. However, the cost per transmitted GPS (US$ 3.27) was Collars by manufacturer higher. For short-term studies or those with a low budget, AWT collars are a good option. Followit collars – The Followit collars performed very well, lasting long on the elephant and Vectronic collars – The old Vectronic collars had sending most of the scheduled GPS locations. The an issue with belt failure. Seven of the eight new three well-functioning Followit collars provided Vectronic collars stopped functioning due to the the most complete data sets (>93%). The two elephants damaging the case with the electronics. collars reaching the end of battery life provided We received a first set of four collars which all the most tracking days (1285, 1327) and sent stopped sending data within weeks (35, 41, the most GPS locations (7623, 7651). They also 45 days) or months (196 days). The company turned out to be the second cheapest option when replaced the collars and three of the new batch considering the cost per GPS location (US$ 1.01, stopped functioning after about 300 days due 1.02). One elephant died 648 days after collaring to damage to the functional unit. Because of and the collar was not reused. The fourth collar these problems the number of tracking days and had a technical failure, which caused the battery number of GPS received was low. Less days and to drain quickly. The company accepted the fault less GPS also means that the prices were higher and offered to refurbish one collar for free, so our compared to other companies. The failure of the financial loss was limited to the cost of collaring. Vectronic collars have to be viewed in the context that all of them were deployed on adult males that Telonics collars – Overall, the Telonics collars ranged outside protected areas. Such animals are were very reliable. They provided the third highest more likely to traverse thick thorny scrub, as they number of tracking days and performed well in hide inside patches of vegetation during day and terms of the number of GPS and completeness of come into open areas in the night. One of the new the data set. The new Telonics collars functioned Vectronic collars worked perfectly. In 2.7 years better than the old ones. The cost per tracking the collar provided 15,918 GPS locations. The day (US$ 9.98 ± 4.34) or per GPS (US$ 2.57 ± completeness of the GPS data set (83.6%) was 1.68) was less than for Followit or new Vectronic also very good. The cost per GPS for this collar collars. While 10 Telonics collars came off the was the cheapest at only 23 cents. If Vectronic elephant before the batteries were empty, only sorts out the problem with the belting and three did so in less than a year. One old Telonics encasing of the electronics, their collars would collar had an unknown technical problem, which be a very good option. It is particularly useful only let it transmit 83 GPS locations in 236 days. that a local SIM card can be used, which makes The main advantage of the Telonics collars is the for very cheap data download. Argos transmission, which is global in extent. This is an important consideration when studying Conclusions elephants roaming over areas with no GSM coverage. While the Argos fees are very high, as None of the collar models tested worked the collars generally sent data for a longer period, consistently and individual variation in collar the actual cost per tracking day and the cost per performance was high. This may be partly due to GPS was about the same as with an AWT collar. variations in field conditions, but also to variation in assembly. Because collaring an elephant is a AWT collar – The AWT collar did fine with major operation, is costly, and presents risks to the the number of tracking days (428), which elephant and collaring team, it is very desirable corresponded to what they are advertised for. that the collars last long. Duration of collar life However, the number of GPS locations (920) is particularly important in evaluating seasonal
24 movements and inter-annual variation in ranging Campos-Arceiz A, Larrinaga AR, Weerasinghe which requires multi-year data. Monitoring UR, Pastorini J, Leimgruber P, Fernando P & management actions such as elephant drives Santamaría L (2008) Behavior rather than diet and translocations may not necessarily require mediates seasonal differences in seed dispersal long-term data. However, even in such cases, by Asian elephants. Ecology 89: 2684-2691. evaluation of long-term impacts on elephants is critical from a conservation point of view. Casper RM (2009) Guidelines for the instru- mentation of wild birds and mammals. Animal For most studies and especially for detailed Behaviour 78: 1477-1483. analysis of elephant movements and habitat use, a data set without gaps is very important. Fernando P, Wikramanayake ED, Janaka HK, Therefore, data download options and suitability Jayasinghe LKA, Gunawardena M, Kotagama to area where the collars will be deployed are SW, Weerakoon D & Pastorini J (2008) Ranging important considerations. If the collars last longer behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. and send more data, the cost per day and per GPS Mammalian Biology 73: 2-13. decrease. Therefore, it is well worth to pay more for a collar with a longer life. However, if then Fernando P, Janaka HK, Prasad T & Pastorini J the collar has a technical problem, the financial (2010) Identifying elephant movement patterns loss is greater. Given that none of the collars were by direct observation. Gajah 33: 41-46. entirely reliable, whether to hedge the bets with shorter lasting less expensive collars or gamble Fernando P & Pastorini J (2011) Range-wide on more expensive, potentially longer lasting status of Asian elephants. Gajah 35: 15-20. collars, has to be considered. Fernando P, Leimgruber P, Prasad T & Pastorini Acknowledgments J (2012) Problem-elephant translocation: Trans- locating the problem and the elephant? PLoS We thank the Department of Wildlife ONE 7: e50917. Conservation (DWC) Sri Lanka for collaboration and H. K. Janaka, S. Ekanayaka, H. G. Nishantha Ferreira GA, Pinto ML, Nakano-Oliveira E & and DWC officers for helping with the fieldwork. Genaro G (2013) Dermatitis prompted by a collar We are most grateful for financial support from employed in radio-telemetry monitoring. Animal U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Asian Elephant Welfare 22: 195-197. Conservation Fund, Abraham Foundation, Sidney S. Byers Charitable Trust, EcoHealth Pastorini J, Janaka HK, Nishantha HG, Prasad Alliance, Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ), T, Leimgruber P & Fernando P (2013) A Circus Knie, Smithsonian Women’s Committee, preliminary study on the impact of changing Vontobel Stiftung, Swiss National Science shifting cultivation practices on dry season Foundation and PAM-WCP Project of the DWC. forage for Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Tropical Conservation Science 6: 770-780. References Pinter-Wollman N (2009) Spatial behaviour Alfred R, Ahmad AH, Payne J, Williams C, of translocated African elephants (Loxodonta Ambu LN, How PM & Goossens B (2012) africana) in a novel environment: Using Home range and ranging behaviour of Bornean behaviour to inform conservation actions. elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) females. Behaviour 146: 1171-1192. PLoS ONE 7: e31400. Saaban S, Othman NB, Yasak MNB, Nor BM, Baskaran N, Varma S, Sar CK & Sukumar R Zafir A & Campos-Arceiz A (2011) Current (2011) Current status of Asian elephants in India. status of Asian elephants in Peninsular Malaysia. Gajah 35: 47-54. Gajah 35: 67-75.
25 Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 26-35
Elephant Corridors in Northern West Bengal
Mukti Roy* and Raman Sukumar
Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. The elephant habitat in northern West Bengal is highly fragmented. We studied elephant corridors in the area during 2003 - 2006. Details of elephant movement gathered from Forest Department and Tea Association Offices and radio-telemetry data from the Wildlife Institute of India and the Indian Institute of Science were used to identify elephant corridors. GPS points were collected for each corridor on field visits and a total of 59 corridors were characterized. The main challenge for the preservation of elephant corridors was the presence of tea gardens, army establishments and villages within them.
Introduction west axis along the forest areas of northern West Bengal, Nepal, Bhutan and Assam through a Small and isolated populations are vulnerable series of corridors distributed across northern and can become extinct (Crooks & Sanjayan West Bengal. There is also some movement 2006). The challenge of habitat shortage can be on the north-south axis from the hill slopes of mitigated if animals can move between isolated southern Bhutan to the Terai region of northern populations (Haddad et al. 2003). Corridors are West Bengal. The objective of our study was to passages or parcels of land wherein animals pass identify the corridors that elephants currently use from one geographical area to the other (Nahonyo with a long-term goal of developing plantation 2009). Corridors connect populations, facilitating forests on lands currently used for growing tea gene flow, optimize habitat utilisation through and connecting habitats for the free movement reduction of pressure on grazing or browsing of elephants. areas, and provide resources to animals passing through. Corridors increase the biological and Methods ecological viability of species and populations. Therefore, maintaining corridors is important for Study area conservation. Northern West Bengal in north-eastern India is Conservation of species like the Asian elephant bound by Nepal on the west, Bhutan in the north, (Elephas maximus) needs the conservation of Assam in the east, and Bangladesh towards the large areas (Owen-Smith 1988; Sukumar 1989). south, covering a total area of 9394 km2. The The home ranges of Asian elephants may vary study area lies within N27.218576º, E88.011095º; from 32 - 4349 km2 (Olivier 1978; Datye & N26.639646º, E88.172676º, and N26.734619º, Bhagat 1995; Sukumar et al. 2003; Fernando et E89.862003º, N26.332775º, E89.809966º. The al. 2008). total range of the elephants in NW Bengal is 3051 km2 and the forest cover is 1954 km2 (La- Elephant habitat in northern West Bengal is hiri-Choudhury 1980; Barua & Bist 1995). The highly fragmented owing to the conversion elevation varies from 60 to over 2000 m. The of forests to tea plantations, settlements and natural vegetation is primarily tropical moist agriculture, and due to exploitation of timber forest with grasslands along the floodplains of (Lahiri-Choudhury 1975; Barua & Bist 1995). rivers. Major land-use types in the study area are At present, elephants move mostly on an east- forest, cultivation, and tea gardens.
© 2015 The Authors - Open Access 26 Climatic conditions vary from tropical to covered by Bharnobari, Dalsingpara and Beech sub-tropical. A cool, dry period occurs from tea gardens. So it was assumed that this family November to March (11 - 23ºC) followed by a herd moved through a corridor in the tea gardens warm, pre-monsoon period during April-May to reach Jaldapara, and Titi forests. Roads in the (16 - 30ºC), a hot, monsoonal period from June to three tea gardens were searched and fresh dung August (25 - 32ºC), and a moderately warm, late- piles and tracks were found on particular roads, monsoonal period during September–October and thus these were identified as corridors. (21 - 31ºC). The coldest months are January and December (11 - 12ºC). The mean annual rainfall After identifying the corridors, the actual corridor/ in Northern West Bengal ranges from 3000 - movement paths of each corridor was walked 3500 mm (Sukumar et al. 2003). through and marked by taking GPS points every 100 m or wherever elephant sign was found. Data collection Forests on both sides of the corridor were also mapped. Field surveys were done during 2003 - Literature on elephants in the area (Lahiri- 2006 by a team consisting of a researcher, two Chowdhury 1975, 1980; Barua & Bist 1995) field assistants and two or three forest staff from was reviewed and squads dealing with elephant the relevant squad. movement in these areas were consulted (Mal, Khunia, Binnaguri, Sukhna and Taipu Squads). Images from the Indian Remote Sensing satellite Information on elephant movement during 2000 1D/L-III bearing paths and row numbers 108 - 53 - 2005 was collected from the Tea Association and 109 - 53, respectively, of March 16th and 13th, offices at Dooars Branch Indian Tea Association 2001, were used to make maps. A false colour and Terai Branch Indian Tea Association. composite was generated using different bands (red, blue and green) of satellite data. The main Radio-telemetry studies were conducted in non- landscape features were mapped using ARC GIS forested areas by the Wildlife Institute of India software version 9.3. GPS points of corridors (1995–1997) using VHF and collaring five were marked as line features. The landscape was elephants (two family herds and three bulls). segregated into three zones: Zone I (Sankosh to Studies by the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Torsa), Zone II (Torsa to Tista) and Zone III (Tista Indian Institute of Science (2001 - 2006) were to Mechi), with rivers as natural boundaries. conducted by collaring 13 elephants (7 family herds and 6 bulls) using 9 VHF and 4 GPS Results collars. We initially identified corridors based on the data from these two studies. In total 59 corridors were identified, of which 47 had land owned by communities, tea gardens and If two successive radio telemetry locations the army and 26 of them had people living within were located in two forest patches, then the the corridors, consisting of villages, tea garden movement of elephants was assumed to have labour lines and army camps. occurred through a corridor linking the two patches. Ground searches were conducted in The total length of corridors identified was such locations for evidence of elephant presence 369.30 km. The total length of corridors with through detection of dung piles, tracks, and people living there was 58.20 km, of which 29.52 feeding sign. GPS points were taken of such km consisted of tea garden labour lines, 22.34 evidence and mapped. For example, radio- km villages and 6.34 km army camps. Individual collared family herd 23 was located on October tea garden labour lines varied in extent from 0.11 29, 2003 at Nayabasti (Buxa Tiger Reserve), - 2.08 km with a mean of 0.62 ± 0.42 km, villages and on November 3, 2003 at Titi-4 compartment from 0.32 - 2.53 km with a mean of 1.02 ± 0.57 (Jaldapara National Park). There is a gap of 6 km km and army camps from 0.23 - 2.31 km with a between Buxa and Jaldapara forests, which is mean of 1.27 ± 0.89 km.
27 Zone I: Sankosh to Torsa lines within corridors totalled 24.12 km with individual labour lines varying from 0.11 - 2.05 Fourteen corridors were identified with a total km with a mean of 0.65 ± 0.42 km and army length of 71.30 km in Zone I. Of this, 7 had camps within corridors totalled 4.01 km, varying villages and tea garden labour lines amounting from 0.85 - 2.31 km with a mean of 1.34 ± 0.84 to 10.86 km. The villages within corridor areas km. The details of corridors in Zone II are given totalled 7.50 km, with individual villages varying in Table 2 and Figure 2. from 0.36 - 1.61 km in length with a mean of 1.25 ± 0.53 km. Tea gardens labour lines within Zone III: Tista to Mechi corridors totalled 3.35 km with individual labour lines varying from 0.54 - 2.00 km with a mean of In total 17 corridors were identified with a total 0.84 ± 0.54 km. The details of corridors in Zone length of 59.70 km. All corridors had land owned I are given in Table1 and Figure 1. by communities, tea gardens and the army. Five corridors had people living within them Zone II: Torsa to Tista amounting to 5.91 km. Villages within corridor areas totalled 1.53 km, with individual villages In total 28 corridors were identified with a total varying from 0.36 - 0.75 km in length with a length of 238.30 km, of which 23 had land owned mean of 0.51 ± 0.21 km. Tea garden labour lines by communities, tea gardens and the army and totalled 2.05 km with individual labour lines 14 had people living within the corridors which varying from 0.12 - 0.43 km with a mean of 0.29 amounted to 41.50 km. Villages within corridor ± 0.10 km. Army camps totalled 2.33 km, with areas totalled 13.40 km, with individual villages individual areas varying from 0.85 - 2.31 km and varying from 0.32 - 2.53 km in length with a a mean of 1.17 ± 1.32 km. Details of corridors in Mean of 1.03 ± 0.59 km. Tea Gardens labour Zone III are given in Table 3 and Figure 3.
Figure 1. Elephant corridors in Zone I (Sankosh to Torsa).
28 TG, villages, RFP RFP TG, villages TG, villages Land-use RFP RFP TG, villages dense mixed forest RFP dense mixed forest TG, villages TG RFP, dense mixed semi-evergreen TG, villages Bharnobari TG, Dalsingh- Bharnobari RFP Torsa TG, para-Beech Gabbarjyoti jhora RFP TE, Madhya Nimaljhora Patkapara, South Mendabari Nimati Domohoni-Uttar La- tabari-Nakadala-Mendabari Corridor Via Sankosh RFP Sankosh RFP TG TG, Sankosh Kumargram Contiguous forest patch Kalikhola RFP Contiguous forest patch TE, TE, Chuniajhora Katrica Nurpur village RFP TG, Rydak Tutiri Contiguous forest patch TG TG, Mechpara Bhatpara dense mixed dense mixed dense mixed dense mixed Vegetation type Vegetation dense sal mixed plantation, RFP mixed plantation dense mixed dense mixed semi-evergreen dense mixed teak plantation, mixed plantation dense mixed semi-evergreen mixed plantation, khair-sissoo RFP, Titi RF, Jaldapara RF, Titi WB NP, Titi RF, Jaldapara RF, Titi WB NP, Mendabari RF, WB Jaldapara NP, Mendabari RF, WB Jaldapara NP, To (veg. type) To Location Buxa Sankosh RF, WB TR East, TR Buxa Bholka RF, WB East, TR Buxa Bholka RF, WB East, Lamoyjhankha, Sarpang FD, Bhutan Kachu- Jamduar RF, Assam gaon FD, Sarpang, Shakhu RF, Bhutan Buxa Panbari RF, WB TR East, TR Buxa Kartica RF, WB East, Gedu, Monitar, Bhutan TR Buxa Basra RF, WB West, mixed plantation, RFP, mixed plantation, RFP, khair-sissoo mixed plantation, RFP, mixed plantation, RFP, khair-sissoo mixed plantation, degraded mixed plantation, degraded Vegetation type Vegetation dense mixed dense sal dense mixed dense mixed dense mixed teak plantation, mixed plantation teak plantation, mixed plantation khair-sissoo RFP, serial, simal siris serial semi-evergreen dense sal, mixed Basra RF, Buxa TR Buxa Basra RF, WB West, Basra RF, Buxa TR Buxa Basra RF, WB West, TR Buxa Nimati RF, WB West, TR Buxa Nimati RF, WB West, From Location Jamduar RF, Kachu- Jamduar RF, Assam gaon FD, TR Buxa RF, Sankosh WB East, Buxa RF, Kumargram WB TR East, Buxa Newlands RF, WB TR East, Lamoyjhankha, Sarpang FD, Bhutan Buxa Bhutanghat RF, WB TR East, TR Buxa Kartica RF, WB East, TR Buxa RF, Rydak WB East, Buxa Raimatang RF, WB West, TR Buxa Raimatang RF, WB West, TR 9.9 8.9 4.1 4.8 2.6 8.5 5.3 2.4 6.6 2.2 2.4 2.1 4.0 7.5 [km] Length Corridor Basra - Titi Basra - Gabbarjyoti - Titi Gabbarjyoti - NImtijhora - Chilapata Nimati - Mendabari Sankosh - Jamduar Sankosh - Bhalka - Bhalka Kumargram Newlands - Khurul Kalikhola - Jamduar Bhutanghat- Shakhu Panbari - Kartika Kartika - Rydak Raimatang - Monitar Bhatapara - Mechepara 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 10 No Corridors in Zone I from Sankosh to Torsa (FD = Forest Division; NP = National Park; RF = Reserve Forest; RFP = Riverine Floodplain; TE = TE Floodplain; Riverine = RFP Forest; Reserve = RF Park; National = NP Division; Forest = (FD Torsa to Sankosh from I Zone in Corridors 1. Table Bengal). West WB = Reserve; Tiger TR = Garden; Tea TG = Estate; Tea
29 Land-use TG, RFP, TG, RFP, villages TG, RFP, TG, RFP, villages TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, continuous forest patch TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, army, TG, army, villages TG, villages TG, continuous forest patch Corridor Via Hunterpara TG / Garganda TG, TG / Garganda Hunterpara TG TG, Makrapara Tulsipara Hunterpara TG / Garganda TG, TG / Garganda Hunterpara TG Tulsipara Hunterpara TG, Dumchipara Hunterpara TG TG, Mujnai Gopalpur TG, Hasnabad TG, TG, Hasnabad Gopalpur TG TG, Dalmore Ramjhora Gopalpur TG, Hasnabad TG, TG, Hasnabad Gopalpur TG TG, Dalmore Ramjhora Jaybirpara TG, Nangdala TG, TG, Nangdala Jaybirpara TG Dimdima Titi RF Titi Reabari TG / Kathalguri TG, TG / Kathalguri Reabari TG, Lax- TG, Debpara Redbank TG, Prayagpur village mipara KarballaTG, Bannarhat TG, KarballaTG, Bannarhat TG Gendrapra Binnaguri TG, Moraghat TG / TG, Moraghat Binnaguri TG Haldibari Binnaguri Cantonment, Sarugaon basti, Shisujhumra, TG Telepara Totapara TG, Mogulkata TG, TG, Mogulkata Totapara Jalapara, Upper Kalabari Reti forest Vegetation type Vegetation open mixed mixed plantation, degraded open sal, mixed, degraded mixed plantation, degraded mixed plantation, degraded mixed plantation, degraded semi-evergreen RFP, khair-sissoo, khair-sissoo, RFP, degraded dense sal, mixed plantation dense sal, mixed plantation dense sal, mixed plantation RFP, khair-sissoo, khair-sissoo, RFP, degraded dense mixed, semi- evergreen To To Location Reti RF, Jalpaiguri Reti RF, WB FD, Dalmore RF, Dalmore RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Dumchi RF, Dumchi RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Dalmore RF, Dalmore RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Dalmore RF, Dalmore RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Dalgaon RF, Dalgaon RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Bhutan forest Diana RF, Jalpaiguri Diana RF, WB FD, Moraghat RF, Moraghat RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Moraghat RF, Moraghat RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Moraghat RF, Moraghat RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Diana RF, Jalpaiguri Diana RF, WB FD, Gomtu, Bhutan Vegetation type Vegetation dense mixed, semi- evergreen dense mixed dense mixed open sal, mixed, degraded open sal, mixed, degraded mixed plantation, degraded dense mixed, semi- evergreen open mixed, degraded open mixed, degraded open mixed, degraded open mixed, degraded dense sal, mixed plan- tation, semi-evergreen open mixed, degraded Location From Titi RF, Jaldapara RF, Titi WB NP, Titi RF, Jaldapara RF, Titi WB NP, Titi RF, Jaldapara RF, Titi WB NP, Dumchi RF, Dumchi RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Dumchi RF, Dumchi RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Dalmore RF, Dalmore RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Titi RF, Jaldapara RF, Titi WB NP, Reti RF, Jalpaiguri Reti RF, WB FD, Reti RF, Jalpaiguri Reti RF, WB FD, Reti RF, Jalpaiguri Reti RF, WB FD, Reti RF, Jalpaiguri Reti RF, WB FD, Moraghat RF, Moraghat RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Reti RF, Jalpaiguri Reti RF, WB FD, 4.4 9.2 6.7 7.6 3.6 3.5 9.0 9.0 1.9 11.5 14.5 14.5 12.4 [km] Length Corridor Titi - Reti Titi Titi - Dalmore Titi Titi - Dumchi Titi Dumchi - Dalmore [1] Dumchi - Dalmore [2] Dalmore - Dalgaon Titi - Bhutan Titi Reti - Diana Reti - Moraghat [1] Reti - Moraghat [2] Reti - Moraghat [3] Moraghat - Diana Reti - Bhutan 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 No Table 2. Corridors Table in Zone to (FD II Tista = from Torsa Forest Division; = NP National Park; RF = Reserve Forest; = RFP Riverine Floodplain; TE = Division). Wildlife WD = Sanctuary; Wildlife WLS = Bengal; West WB = Garden; Tea TG = Estate; Tea
30 31 TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, RFP TG, villages TG, TG, villages TG, RFP TG, villages TG, RFP Bamondanga TE, Tondu TE Tondu TE, Bamondanga Kilcott TG / Indong TG, TG / Indong Kilcott TG TG, Zurantee Aibheel Hilla TE, Jiti TE TE, Jiti Hilla Kantadighi Kumarpara, TG Nepuchapur Neoranady TE, Nepuchapur TG TE, Nepuchapur Neoranady Baradighi TE, Baradighi TE Batabari Batabari TE Batabari Satkhaya TG, Songachi TG, TG, Songachi Satkhaya TG Nakati Patharjhora TE Patharjhora Gish RFP Meengals TG, Ranichera TG, TG, Ranichera Meengals TG, Chel RFP New Sylee Meenglass TG, Rangamatee Meenglass TE, Gosailine, TG, Damdim TG, TG, Kumlai Baintgoorie TG Goodhope Tista RFP Tista Tista river, Sonali TE Sonali river, Tista Tista RFP Tista dense mixed, open mixed, degraded dense mixed, semi- evergreen dense mixed dense mixed open sal, mixed plantation, degraded open sal, mixed plantation, degraded open sal, mixed plantation, degraded dense sal, mixed semi-evergreen, semi-evergreen, dense mixed dense sal, mixed Gorumara NP, WB Gorumara NP, Neora RF, Neora RF, WB Kalimpong Div, Sipchu, Bhutan Apalchand RF, Bai- Apalchand RF, WB kunthapur FD, Apalchand RF, Bai- Apalchand RF, WB kunthapur FD, Batabari RF, Batabari RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Khariar Bandar RF, Khariar Bandar RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Neora RF, Kalim- Neora RF, WB pong Div., Lethi RF, Kalimpong RF, Lethi WB Div., Apalchand RF, Bai- Apalchand RF, WB kunthapur FD, Apalchand RF, Bai- Apalchand RF, WB kunthapur FD, Apalchand RF, Bai- Apalchand RF, WB kunthapur FD, Adabari RF, Bai- Adabari RF, WB kunthapur FD, Mongpong RF, Mongpong RF, WB Kalimpong FD, Laltong RF, Laltong RF, WB WD, Darjeeling dense mixed, open mixed, mixed plantation dense mixed dense mixed, sal dense sal dense mixed, semi- evergreen dense mixed dense mixed, semi- evergreen dense mixed, semi- evergreen open sal, mixed plantation, degraded open sal, mixed plantation, degraded semi-evergreen, dense semi-evergreen, mixed Diana RF, Diana RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Chapramari WLS, Chapramari WB Kumani RF, Kali- Kumani RF, WB mpong Div., Baradighi RF, Baradighi RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Lataguri RF WB Jalpaiguri FD, Baradighi RF, Baradighi RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Batabari RF, Batabari RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Khariar Bandar RF, Khariar Bandar RF, WB Jalpaiguri FD, Neora RF, Kali- Neora RF, WB mpong Div., Churanthi RF, Ka- Churanthi RF, WB limpong FD, Neora RF, Kalim- Neora RF, WB pong Div., Neora RF, Kalim- Neora RF, WB pong Div., Apalchand RF, Apalchand RF, Baikunthapur FD, WB Apalchand RF, Apalchand RF, Baikunthapur FD, WB Mongpong RF, Ka- Mongpong RF, WB limpong Div., 3.5 3.6 7.5 4.1 5.5 4.0 9.8 6.2 3.9 11.2 10.9 12.2 16.9 16.9 14.3 Diana - Gorumara Chapramari - Neora Kumani - Sipchu Baradighi-Apalchand Lataguri-Aplachand Batabari-Baradighi [1] Batabari-Baradighi [2] Neora-Batabari Neora - Lethi Apalchand - Churanthi Neora - Apalchand [1] Neora - Neora - Apalchand [2] Neora - Apalchad - Adabari Apalchad - Apalchand - Saugaon Mongpong Saugaon - Laltong 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
30 31 Land-use TG, villages army TG, villages, army TG, army TG, villages, army TG, villages TG, villages TG, villages TG, villages TG, villages RFP, RFP, villages TG, villages TG, villages RFP, RFP, villages Corridor Via Mohurgong, Gulma TE Gulma Mohurgong, Sukna army area Simulbarie TG, Rakti RF, TG, Rakti RF, Simulbarie TG Siptugiuri Rohini TG Rohini ORD Terai TG, Trihannah Trihannah TG, Terai ORD TG, Bengdubi army area Panighatta TG, ORD Terai Terai TG, ORD Panighatta TG Tukra basti, Mechi RFP Tukra Panighatta TG, Bel-gachi Panighatta TE TE, Manjha TG, Marapur Belgachi TG, Panighatta TG TG, Panighatta Belgachi DGHC Tatari, Dalka Tatari, DGHC Mechi RFP, Bamnadangi Mechi RFP, village Deomoni-Atal TE, Bairabhita TE, Deomoni-Atal Tukriajhar TG Tukriajhar Mechi RFP, Madan, Mechi Mechi RFP, (Nepal) Vegetation type Vegetation teak plantation, dense sal dense mixed RFP, khair-sissoo RFP, teak plantation dense sal, mixed, semi-evergreen dense sal, mixed, semi-evergreen sal plantation open mixed, degraded, RFP dense sal, mixed, semi-evergreen villages open mixed plantation, degraded open sal, teak plantation Location To To Sukna RF, Dar- Sukna RF, WB WD, jeeling Lamagumpha RF, Lamagumpha RF, WB Kurseong FD, Balasan RF, Balasan RF, WB Kurseong FD, Bamanpokhri RF, Bamanpokhri RF, WB Kurseong FD, Dalka RF, Dalka RF, WB Kurseong FD, Dalka RF, Dalka RF, WB Kurseong FD, Tiring, Jhapa FD, Tiring, Nepal Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, DGHC Tatari RF Tatari DGHC WB Kurseong FD, Dalka RF, Dalka RF, WB Kurseong FD, Bamandangi, Jhapa FD, Nepal UCCF RF, UCCF RF, WB Kurseong FD, Tukriahjhar RF, RF, Tukriahjhar WB Kurseong FD, Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, Vegetation type Vegetation dense mixed teak plantation, dense sal dense mixed dense mixed RFP, Khair-Sissoo RFP, teak plantation, mixed plantation open mixed, degraded, RFP teak plantation, mixed plantation open mixed, degraded, RFP open mixed, degraded, RFP open mixed, degraded, RFP dense sal, mixed, semi-evergreen open mixed plantation, degraded Location From Gulma RF, Gulma RF, WB WD, Darjeeling Sukna RF, Sukna RF, WB WD, Darjeeling Lamagumpha RF, Lamagumpha RF, WB Kurseong FD, Lamagumpha RF, Lamagumpha RF, WB Kurseong FD, Balasan RF, Balasan RF, WB Kurseong FD, DGHC Tatari RF, RF, Tatari DGHC WB Kurseong FD, Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, DGHC Tatari RF, RF, Tatari DGHC WB Kurseong FD, Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, Dalka RF, Kurseong Dalka RF, WB FD, UCCF RF, UCCF RF, WB Kurseong FD, Tukriahjhar RF, RF, Tukriahjhar WB Kurseong FD, 9.5 4.4 5.3 1.1 4.4 1.4 1.1 3.6 2.3 2.5 1.8 8.5 1.8 2.6 [km] Length Corridors in Zone III from Tista to Mechi (FD = Forest Division; RF = Reserve Forest; RFP = Riverine Floodplain; TE = Tea Estate; TG = Tea Tea = TG Estate; Tea = TE Floodplain; Riverine = RFP Forest; Reserve = RF Division; Forest = (FD Mechi to Tista from III Zone in Corridors Corridor Gulma - Sukna Sukna - Lamagumpha Lamagumpha - Balasan Lamagumpha - Bamanpokhri Balasan - Dalka [1] Balasan - Dalka [2] DGHC Tatari - Mechi [1] Tatari DGHC DGHC Tatari - Mechi [2] Tatari DGHC DGHC Tatari - Mechi [3] Tatari DGHC DGHC Tatari - Mechi [4] Tatari DGHC Mechi - Bamandangi (Nepal) Dalka - UCCF UCCF - Tukriajhar UCCF - Tukriajhar - Mechi Tukriajhar 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 No Table 3. Table Garden; WB = West Bengal; WD = Wildlife Division). Wildlife WD = Bengal; West WB = Garden;
32 33 TG, villages villages TG, villages Figure 2. Elephant corridors in Figure Torsa). to Zone II (Tista Belgachi TG, Nepania, Sirsia Belgachi TG Kalabari, Nepania, Mirjangla, Jamidarguri Panighatta TG, ORD Terai Terai TG, ORD Panighatta TG dense sal, mixed, Semi- evergreen dense sal, mixed, Semi- evergreen dense sal, mixed, semi-evergreen Dalka RF, Dalka RF, WB Kurseong FD, Dalka RF, Dalka RF, WB Kurseong FD, Dalka RF, Dalka RF, WB Kurseong FD, open mixed, degraded, RFP open mixed, degraded, RFP teak plantation, mixed plantation Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, Mechi RF, Mechi RF, WB Kurseong FD, DGHC Tatari RF, RF, Tatari DGHC WB Kurseong FD, 1.4 4.4 3.6 Mechi-Dalka [1] Mechi-Dalka [2] DGHC Tatari - Dalka Tatari DGHC 57 58 59
32 33 Main corridors human dominated landscape features such as villages and tea garden labour lines which are not The main corridors identified and characterized suitable for free elephant movement. However, were the following: tea gardens have shade trees and enable some movement of elephants, making them more • Panbari - Kartika - Rydak (corridors 7 & 8) suitable than villages. As a first step, if we can • Basra - Titi (corridor 11) make the tea garden corridor areas free of human • Titi - Dalmore / Titi - Reti (corridors 15 & 16) habitations and grow more shade trees, they will • Reti - Diana (corridor 22) allow movement of elephants from one forest • Reti - Moraghat (corridors 23, 24, 25 & 26) patch to the other with less conflict. It will be • Chapramari - Neora (corridor 29) even better if we can convert corridor areas of • Baradighi - Apalchand (corridor 31) tea gardens and human habitations to plantation • Neora - Apalchand (corridors 38 & 39) forests. Such initiatives could be supported in • Gulma - Sukna (corridor 43) terms of obtaining carbon credits and provision • Lamagumpha - Balasan - Dalka of ecosystem services. Establishing a secured (corridors 45 & 48) corridor network would be an important objective • DGHC Tatari - Mechi (corridors 49, 50 & 51) for long-term conservation of elephants and other wildlife hence should be given priority in Discussion conservation planning.
As the landscape is fragmented, emphasis Acknowledgements should be laid on increased connectivity of forest patches by corridors. Preserving the We thank the West Bengal Forest Department for main corridors will facilitate the movement field and office help and especially, Mal Squad, of elephants in north Bengal. We found that a Binnaguri Squad, Khunia Squad, and Sukna significant extent of corridors constituted of Squad for locating and identifying elephant
Figure 3. Elephant corridors of Zone III (Torsa–Mechi).
34 corridors and surveys. We also thank Tarun Haddad NM, Bowne DR, Cunningham A, Mahalonibish (Range Officer Mal Squad), Dulal Danielson BJ, Levey DJ, Sargent S & Spira T Chandra Das (Range Officer Khunia Squad) and (2003) Corridor use by diverse taxa. Ecology 84: Range Officers of Sukna and Binnaguri Squads 609-615. for their help. We also thank Gopal Sharma, Netro Sharma, Nagraj and Ram Bagdas for help Lahiri-Choudhury DK (1975) Report on Elephant in the field. We also thank the Wildlife Institute Movement and Depredation in Jalpaiguri of India and the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Division and Part of Madarihat Range of Cooch Indian Institute of Science, for providing access Behar Division in June-July, 1975. Submitted to to radio-telemetry data. We also thank Beependra the West Bengal Government. Singh, the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, for help in preparing maps Lahiri-Choudhury DK (1980) An Interim Report and R.P. Saini (IFS) for the photo shown below. on the Status and Distribution of Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Northeast India. References Nahonyo CL (2009) Feasibility Study on Barua P & Bist SS (1995) Changing patterns in Elephant Movement Between the Greater Ruaha the distribution and movement of wild elephants Ecosystem and Selous Ecosystem in Central in North Bengal. In: A Week with Elephants. Proc. Eastern, Tanzania. Report, Rufford Small Grant. of the International Seminar on the Conservation of Asian Elephant. Daniel JC & Datye HS (eds) Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Bombay Natural Hist. Soc., Bombay. pp 66-84. Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge University.
Crooks KR & Sanjayan M (2006) Connectivity Owen-Smith N (1988) Megaherbivores: The Conservation. Conservation Biology Book Influence of Very Large Body Size on .Ecology Series, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Datye HS & Bhagwat AM (1995) Home range of Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology elephants in fragmented habitats of central India. and Management. Cambridge University Press, J. Bombay Natural History Society 92: 1-10. Cambridge.
Fernando P, Wikramanayake ED, Janaka HK, Sukumar R, Baskaran N, Dharmarajan G, Roy Jayasinghe LKA, Gunawardena M, Kotagama M, Suresh HS & Narendran K (2003) Study SW, Weerakoon D & Pastorini J (2008) Ranging of Elephants in the Buxa Tiger Reserve and behavior of the Asian elephant in Sri Lanka. Adjoining Areas of Northern West Bengal and Mammalian Biology 73: 2-13 Preparation of Conservation Action Plan. Final Report, West Bengal Forest Department.
35 Research Article Gajah 43 (2015) 36-41
Basti Therapy of Elephants According to Sage Palakapya
K. G. Sheshadri
Devinagar, Lottegollahalli, Bangalore, India Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. Sage Pālakāpya’s elaborate treatise from the 5th or 6th century BC titled the ‘Hastyāyurveda’ deals with elephant diseases, their remedies as well as elephant behaviour. Basti therapy is one of the main treatments in Ayurvedic literature, involving the introduction into the body of oils, herbal decoctions or other medicinal liquids to treat diseases. Here I describe Basti therapy in elephants, indications for such treatment, and the procedures employed in ancient times, based on the text of ‘Hastyāyurveda’.
Introduction is the commonest form of Basti therapy. Unlike enemas, which are used only for evacuating the In Asia since ancient times, Asian elephants bowels and cleansing the rectum and sigmoid (Elephas maximus) have been used for transport, colon, Basti therapy treats the entire length of logging, war and religious purposes. Elephants the colon from the ileocecal valve to the anus have fascinated humans for millennia and a vast and is thus used in treatment of a wide range of literature related to their characteristics, diseases disorders of the body. It involves the introduction and treatment developed in eastern cultures. of oils, herbal decoctions or other liquids through Elephants in captivity are generally healthy the perineum anus, urethra, vagina and their and require few therapeutic interventions. intravenous or intramuscular administration to However, when they do become ill, treatment treat diseases. Classical Ayurvedic texts mention is a serious issue. The large body size of the three types of Basti namely āsthāpana Basti elephant and dearth of pharmacokinetic studies (non-oily, using herbal decoctions), Anuvāsana make determining appropriate medications Basti (oily, with medicated oils or ghee remaining and dosage for elephants a challenging task in the body for some time without causing harm) (Mikota & Plumb 2003). Aside from the weight and Uttara Basti (upper tract medication that of the animal, the size, thickness and density uses a combination of both herbal decoctions and of various anatomical structures can physically medicated oils). Basti therapy is also classified hinder drug administration. The single most based on the site of administration of enemas important factor in administering drugs to an such as the head, eyes, chest, abdomen and back. elephant is the animal’s cooperation in accepting the medication (Isaza & Hunter 2004). Working Most texts attribute the initiation of elephantology around elephants can be dangerous and this is to the Sage Pālakāpya (Harbola 2003). Maharshi magnified with sick or injured animals subject Pālakāpya’s treatise titled the ‘Hastyāyurveda’ is to increased stress, pain and unusual situations an elaborate text dealing extensively with elephant associated with treatment. diseases and their remedies (Sharma 1894). It runs to about 20,000 or more verses and is in the In Ayurvedic literature Basti (known also as form of a discourse between king Romapāda and Vasti) literally means ‘bladder’ or a ‘container’ Sage Pālakāpya and divided into four sections for medications to cleanse and detoxify the body, named Mahārogasthāna, Kṣudrarogasthāna, as in ancient times sterilized urinary bladders of śalyasthāna and Uttarasthāna. Here I present animals were used to administer medications. gleanings from this text about Basti therapy of An enema is defined as a fluid injected into the elephants. lower bowel of the patient by way of rectum and
© 2015 The Author - Open Access 36 Enema in early Indian literature Basti therapy in Hastyāyurveda
The Suśruta Saṁhitā (Bhishagratna et al. Sage Pālakāpya describes rectal enema equipment 1983) mentions the use of a bladder and pipe for elephants made either of wood or bamboo. contraption in detail and provides an excellent The length of the tube is 68 aṅgulas for elephants. description of administering enemas in antiquity There should be a projection 12 aṅgulas high at for the treatment of piles. He mentions tubular the end of the tube for firmly tying the leather instruments for this purpose and describes them bag to the tube. In the context of Basti therapy in his text. Traditional enema equipments consist for treating wounds (Vraṇavasti), the tubes used of a tube (Vastinetra) and a bag (Vastipuṭaka). for washing wounds of elephants are to be made The tube is generally made of silver, copper, of copper and shaped like the Karoṇtaka flower tin, brass, bell metal, ivory, cow’s horn, bamboo measuring 16 aṅgulas in length. These are called or gold in the case of treatment of royals. The wound syringes. The Uttarasthāna (Chapter 5, bag is made by curing an oval shaped bladder Vastidānakathanam) of the text elaborately deals of an animal, then heated with herbal antiseptic with enema administration to elephants (Sharma solution and rubbed with oil until it is germ free. 1894). It states that there are nine kinds of enemas The narrow end of the bag is heated and secured such as those administering oils (Snehabasti), to to one end of the tube and the other end of the cause increase of digestive fire (Agnidīpana), to tube shrunk so as to enable injection. give strength, that which causes rasa to increase, to increase blood, flesh and fat or bone growth, to The Charaka Saṁhitā (Sharma & Dash 2001) give strength or to increase marrow and semen. refers to knowledge of administering enemas as he quotes Dhṛdavala who in turn mentions that Sage Pālakāpya describes an elaborate disciples of sage ātreya enquired from him about mechanism by which an elephant can be secured enemas to be made in case of animals such as or laid down in an appropriate position in the elephants, camel, cows, horses, lambs and goats. śalyasthāna (Chapter 11, Yantravidhiḥ) of the Similar to Suśruta, Charaka also mentions the text. The measurements of a device known as the bladder and tube contraption. Charaka prescribes Bāhuyantra are given which provides suitable buffalo’s urinary bladder for goats, sheep, arrangements to secure the head, tail, loins and elephants, cows and horses (Mukhopadhyaya limbs of the elephant during medical treatments. 1913). He states that injections into the rectum The Bāhuyantra also has an arrangement by are done by means of a tube with a membranous which its height can be increased on the sides and leather bag (or sterilized urinary bladder of an back. Before beginning administration of enema, animal) tied to one end. The other end of the tube it states that the elephant must be tied carefully is inserted into the rectum. The Vasti (enema to the Bāhuyantra at an auspicious time amidst tube) is 18 aṅgulas (a measure equal to the a sacrifice performed by Brahmins chanting normal width of a human thumb, approximately Svasti mantras (hymns for well-being of the 16-20 mm) for elephants and is termed ‘Suvasti’ elephant). Persons on either side and in front of in Charaka Saṁhitā (Chapter 11, Siddhisthāna). it should instil confidence in elephant to accept the medication by slowly massaging its trunk and Charaka states that the basic formulations of other parts. enemas consist of rock salt, jaggery, Indrayava (Holarrhena antidysenterica), Kuṣṭha (Saussu- [A] Ophthalmic drug administration – rea lappa), Madhuka (Bassia latifolia) and Administering medications to the eyes is Daśamūla (combination of ten herbal roots). accompanied by enemas administered through The additive formulations to the basic enema rectal route. Basti therapy used to relieve for elephants are Aśvattha (Ficus religiosa) tensions trapped in and around the eye sockets Vaṭa (Ficus benghalensis), Aśvakarṇa (Shorea and thus treat eye disorders in elephants is termed robusta) and Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica). by Sage Pālakāpya as Netrabasti. It involves pressing a doughnut ring of flour (dough) around
37 the eye socket ensuring a good seal with the taking the elephant for a walk and having brought skin and pouring medication into it. Some eye back, it is offered rice moistened by milk, barley, diseases are cured by surgery whereas some by salt, oleaginous materials and made to sleep. application of medicated oils to cure affected parts or by administering medications. Placement Netrabasti medications can be small measures of medication into the eyes of an elephant must of barley gruel and ghee. The elephant is tied be done carefully. Most trained elephants will to the Bāhuyantra and as the medications are permit close visual inspection of the eye, but will slowly administered over the eyes, there is easing close the eye if the medication is placed on the of all nerves (Nāḍis). The Eṣaṇi (a probe type) conjunctiva or cornea. Once closed, the ocular instrument is used to pour medications over the muscles effectively prevent manual opening of eyes. Medication in eyes should not be in excess the eyelid by the Vaidya (elephant physician). as then it causes the windy humours in the body to rise upward and cause pain in the anus, obstructing The śalyasthāna (Chapter 29, Pradeśajñāna) of evacuation of faeces. The text therefore mentions the text deals with members of the eyes such as the use of suppositories (a medicated dosage form eye sockets, the regions above it, pupil, corner inserted for evacuation of faeces or urine). These of the eye, eyelashes, eyelids, conjunctiva, suppositories are termed generally as Phalavarti cornea and angles at the corner of the eyes. The (Gudavarti if through the anus Sisnavarti if ‘Hastyāyurveda’ Akṣirogādhyāya (Chapter 18, through urethra and Yonivarti if through the Mahārogasthāna) gives details about the causes vagina). The essence of Bṛhati fruits (Solanum and diagnosis of several eye diseases (Sharma indicum), Apāmārga (Achyranthes aspera), rice, 1894). One such disease is Nāyamprekṣi caused Nirguṇḍi (Vitex negundo), Aragvadha (Cassia by sleeplessness in the night (Sheshadri 2015) fistula), Sahachara (Strobilanthes heynianus), leading to headache, blurring vision and pain in Surasa leaves (Vitex trifolia), Pippali (Piper the eyes. Regarding the cure of eye diseases, the longum), Maricha (Piper nigrum) are smoked text states that the Vaidya should tie the tusks and mixed together and made into a wick (Varti) and bind the eyes of the elephant, followed by and inserted into the anus to the extent of 12 application of a mixture of decoctions of various aṅgulas causing urine to flow out (Rajan 2005). medicinal herbs, salts, honey or by applying One must insert the wick while simultaneously collyrium (Añjana) after surgery if needed. applying clarified butter on the pechaka (part around the root of the tail). Sage Pālakāpya Netrabasti for elephants involves the tying of eyes mentions some precautionary measures such in of elephants using a skin bereft of holes as dealt tying of the eyes during Netrabasti treatment, in Uttarasthāna (Chapter 5, Vastidānakathanam; where it should not be too tight as it affects the Sharma 1894). Netrabasti causes sweating in the medication. If the medicine is affected there elephant. By suitable arrangement, the Vaidya are dośas (fundamental bodily humours due to should administer treatment using specially wind, phlegm and bile). As the eyes get unsteady medicated oils, taking care that the eyes do not or get squeezed, the medication causes wind to go up or down. Similar internal therapy is given rise upwards and for faeces affected to pass out through the mouth while pleasing the mind of the through the anus. If the medications poured are elephant by playing music of a flute or aVīṇā less than optimal, then the desired result obtained (a stringed musical instrument) as well as soft is also less. If it is afflicted, then death occurs. words. After the eyes are treated, the area around If medication intake is long and more, then only the eye sockets is massaged. The elephant is oils are given. Medications should also not be too made to sweat out by sprinkling hot water, which strong or soft or cold. eases the stressed optical nerves in the region surrounding the eyes (termed as Nāḍisveda). [B] Snehabasti – Sage Pālakāpya states that Sometimes herbal fomentation (application of oleaginous materials and oil can be administered moist warm compresses) is used to reduce pain as medications and is termed as Snehabasti. The and swelling in these regions. This is followed by Uttarasthāna (Chapter 4, Snehavidhikathanam)
38 describes these oils, giving the opinion of diseases of the head. Medications through the Sages Garga and Bhāradvāja (Sharma 1894). naso-oral tract (as in Nasyakarma) is detrimental Administration of oleaginous materials and oils along with Anuvāsana Basti (involving unctuous give good digestive fire and clear the joints, substances given after meals) as it makes the provide good skin color, remove pitta from the stimulated dośas to move in an upward direction upper belly, removes fatigue, ticks and lice and causing other diseases related to vision and the pacify dośas of the body. Sage Pālakāpya states head. that medications are to be given if disorders arise in ears, eyes, tongue, face, teeth and head. Care [E] Kṣīrabasti – Elephants can be administered should be taken so that oils that are administrated milk as it is the best medication for treating are not hot and introduced in haste. blood disorders according to Sage Pālakāpya. For disorders of flesh, bone and fat, salt can [C] āsthāpana Basti – This therapy helps in be used, while for disorders of semen and maintaining the body dhatus and dośas. The marrow, water can be used as an additive. The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ recommends it for aged text states that milk is added to a decoction of elephants, and those suffering from thirst or five roots (Pañcamūla), til seeds (Sesamum rut flows. Decoctions made of herbs or oils are indicum), Uśīra (Vetiveria zizanoides), Padmaka used as medications. For excitement of amorous (Prunus cerasoides), lotus, sandal, Rāsna (Van- desires, treating diseases related to swooning, da roxburghii), Prapauṇḍarika (Nelumbium worms in the belly or wearing of body dhatus speciosum), Mustaka (Cyperus rotundus), (fundamental principles that support the basic Mṛdvīka (Vitis vinifera), Māmsi (Nardostachys structure and functioning of the body such jatamansi), Mañjiṣṭha (Rubia cordifolia), sugar as lymph, blood, muscles, fat, bone, marrow and honey. Kṣīrabasti is also used to cure thirst, and semen) this method can be used. Before swooning, breathlessness and decreased flow of administering it, the elephant must be tied well blood in arteries. It is generally practiced in case and then given the dosage based on its strength, of elephants that are old, weak, whose rut flow disease, place and time. āsthāpana Basti eases has ceased or whose body dhatus are worn out. passage of faeces from the anus of the elephant. The medications are generally mixed with oils or [F] Medications to remove dośas – The text milk and then administered. gives a long list of herbal formulations used as enemas to treat afflictions of the dośas. The [D] Anuvāsana Basti – The therapy, which helps urine of elephants, ass and camels mixed with the elephant digest food easily by stimulating sour curd, liquor, grains, Badara (Ziziphus its digestive fire by enemas through the rectal jujuba), moist black til seed oil (Sesamum route is Anuvāsana Basti. It varies according to indicum) made bitter with salt are to be given seasons and is generally given after meals. In as medications to remove phlegm. To pacify the case of Anuvāsana Basti, the elephant is first pitta (bilious) disorders, a herbal decoction of subjected to massage of the pelvic and abdominal ‘milk trees’, Rodhra (Symplocos racemosa), regions after food intake and made to sweat by Piṇḍīraka (Randia dumetorum), Kaseruka light physical exercise. Oils are given along with (Scirpus grossus), Abhīrupatrika (Aspargus soft warm salts as a moisturizer to moisten dry dumosus), śyāma (Ipomomoea turpethum), tissues, reduce digestive disorders - especially Dhara (Emblica officinalis), Khadira (Acacia those arising from wind (vāta). Salts remove catechu), Turanti (unidentified), Agnimantha all poisonous wastes and give strength. If the (Clerodendrum phlomoides), Nīpa (Barringtonia bowel and bladder are empty after evacuation, racemosa), Kaṭphalacetasa (Myrica esculenta), it indicates that medication is retained without Shadi (unidentified), Suvarṇakṣīri (Argemone causing harm to the elephant. Nasyakarma or mexicana), Vajrajambu (Syzygium cumini), inhalation as a method of drug delivery is limited. Dhātuki (Woodfordia fruticosa), til seeds However Sage Pālakāpya mentions Nasyakarma (Sesamum indicum), Padmaka (Prunus for elephants in several sections of his text, to treat cerasoides), and Uśīra (Vetiveria zizanoides) are
39 given. They ease the faeces from the anus of an In some cases, pregnant elephants suffer from elephant. Warm medicated oils that are strong a condition of a dead foetus remaining within are good enemas for curing flatulence. The text the uterus. The animal struggles due to labour also mentions certain enemas to be given to and thus removal of the foetus by instruments pacify the belly as well as treat blood disorders. without affecting the mother represents a Certain enemas are mentioned to cure diseases severe problem. The śalyasthāna (Chapter 33, of genitals, painful passage of urine or urine Mūḍhagarbhāpanayanam) deals with such a entering into the belly. case of a dead foetus and its removal as follows (Sharma 1894) – “Using a decoction of clarified [G] Rectal drug administration – Rectal butter, śāli rice, Dhanvana (Grevia tilifolia) administration is rare in veterinary medicine plant, one must worship the right portion of the but considering the size of elephants it is a trunk and also genital openings, slowly instilling benefit as it can hold large quantities of drugs confidence in the elephant. Then slowly injecting (Isaza & Hunter 2004). It requires acceptance one’s hand into the womb of the elephant one must of manual manipulation of the rectum and colon pull out the dead foetus. If it cannot be removed and cooperation of the elephant. Knowledge the normal way, one must use instruments, of administering the correct enemas through slowly excising obstructing parts and hurriedly the rectum or anus is required so that they do one must stitch the parts to protect the mother not cause irritation in the colon or walls of the and remove the foetus.” This shows that ancient intestine. Further, such enemas are to be carefully Indians sought divine help for animals even deposited manually inside the anus so as to reach during surgical procedures for them. as far as the cranial and pelvic portions rather than being prematurely ejected from the rectum [H] Multipurpose enemas – The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ in the form of faeces. The procedure is initiated elaborates on certain enemas to counter diseases now-a-days by manually removing the large that are caused by wrong administration of faecal balls (Mikota & Plumb 2003). enemas that lead to aggravation of dośas. In this context the text states that enemas must not be The ‘Hastyāyurveda’ mentions that if the too strong, neither too hot nor cold and must be anus is affected, the pitta disorders are more administered in the proper measures examining in elephants and gives several formulations to the dośas of the elephant. śyāma (Ipomoea ease faeces. The Kṣudrarogasthāna (Chapter turpethum), Tṛvrit (Operculina turpetham) 40, śoṇitāṇḍādhyāya; Sharma 1894) describes and oil are to be given as medications to go inflammation of the scrotum in elephants and how deep and to be absorbed by the body. Therapy it leads to urinary disorders. These also can be for the treatment of heart involves Triphala [a treated by enemas. The Uttarasthāna (Chapter 5, combination of āmalaki (Emblica officinalis), Vastidānakathanam) of the text mentions that one Vibhītaki (Terminalia bellirica), Harītaki must follow Uttara Basti therapy for treatment (Terminalia chebula)], oils, śāli (Oryza sativa) of urinary diseases such as painful passage roots, ChiraBilva (Holoptelea integrifolia) and of urine, excess or scanty flow, urine entering roots of śyāma (Ipomoea turpethum), all made the belly, and blood passing along with urine. into a decoction. For swooning, cold enemas are Sage Pālakāpya recommends the use of tubular to be given. These can also be given to excite instruments (called Puṣpanetra) for injections amorous desires. into the vagina and urethra. These tubes have a length and circumference that is in accordance Post-enema administration observations with the length and breadth of the passages into which they are to be inserted (generally penis of Some interesting details of the elephant’s bodily the elephant for Uttara Basti therapy). response to administered enemas are given in the ‘Hastyāyurveda’ (Sharma 1894). This involves Sage Pālakāpya quotes one instance of rectal drug careful observations, examination and diagnosis. administration that is very brief but interesting: The Kṣudrarogasthāna (Chapter 43) of the text
40 devotes an entire chapter to treatment of old age Acknowledgements in elephants and their daily regimen. Details of anointing the head with medicated oils, making I would like to thank the Secretary, Mythic the sleeping place soft by spreading Darbha Society, Bangalore and Secretary, Kannada (Imperata cylindrica) or other grasses are to be Sahitya Parishat, Bangalore for providing the done post-enema administration in the case of necessary references aged elephants. Sage Pālakāpya states that the eyes treated with weak enemas or in excess, References cause pain in the anus of elephants. Oleaginous materials and oils that are administered reach Bhishagratna KK, Mitra J & Dwivedi L (eds) heart portions and affect the elephant if it has (1983) Suśruta Saṁhitā. Text with English not eaten. These may also afflict the belly and translation. Vols. I-III, Chowkhambha Sanskrit wind may rise to the upper portions, eyes, ears, Series, Varanasi. head and nose. If not eaten, oily Anuvāsanas are to be given. One must observe the elephant’s Harbola PC (2003) Historical perspective of behaviour for seven nights and then administer Hasti Ayurveda. In: Veterinary Science and the oil for three days. By this the strength of the Animal Husbandry in Ancient India. Somavanshi elephant increases. Basti therapy has to be also R & Yadav MP (eds) Indian Veterinary Research given based on examination of movements, load Institute, Izatnagar. pp 51-59. carrying capacities, suffering excess heat, cold, rain, fire or sounds. Isaza R & Hunter RP (2004) Drug delivery to captive Asian elephants – treating Goliath. The text states that leprosy, ulcers and urinary Current Drug Delivery 1: 291-298. disorders are to be cured by Anuvāsana Basti. If swooning occurs or if it suffers from thirst, Mikota SK & Plumb DC (2003) Elephant yellowish oils are to be given. Enemas that cause Formulary – Medication Techniques for Ele- pain or which are poisonous are not to be given. phants. Elephant Care International. pp 1-8.
Conclusion Mukhopadhyaya G (1913) The Surgical Instru- ments of the Hindus. Vol. I. Calcutta University, One finds a tremendous development of pp 130-131. knowledge of administering medications as well as therapies to both humans and animals from Rajan SS (2005) Dictionary of Sanskrit Plant remote periods. It is remarkable that ancient Names. Vardhana Publications, Bangalore. Indian veterinarians recognized such diseases and complications of animals and treated them, Sharma Pt. S (1894) Pālakāpya ‘Hastyāyurveda’ especially in large populations of elephants in – Sanskrit text, Anandashram Sanskrit Series, armies and royal stables as well as those that No. 26, Poona. were in the wild. Inter- disciplinary research into the various Basti therapies recommended Sharma R & Dash VB (2001) Charaka Saṁhitā by the text for treatment of various diseases as – Text with translation and notes based on well as the diagnostic and surgical procedures Chakrapāṇi’s Ayurvedadīpikā, Chowkhambha for pregnant or war elephants would be a topic Sanskrit Series No. 94, Vol. VI., 2001. Chow- of research that would bring forth the excellent khambha Publications, Varanasi. contributions of Sage Pālakāpya. The text is also useful for practically implementing Basti therapy Sheshadri KG (2015) Elephant behaviour in the for elephants in modern veterinary health care as night according to Sage Palakapya. Gajah 42: post- enema observations are also given in the 41-43. text. A study of these aspects may allow timely identification and treatment of elephant diseases.
41 Short Communication Gajah 43 (2015) 42-45
Some Traditional Captive Elephant Management Practices in Sri Lanka
Ashoka Dangolla
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Author-s e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction vessels along the back of elephants (Kumudinie et al. 2005) and their thermal conductance is Elephants have been managed in captivity in raised with increasing environmental temperature Sri Lanka for many decades. The owners and (Kumudinie et al. 2006b; Mikota 2006). Sweat keepers of captive elephants carefully observed glands are scarce or absent on the skin of their behaviour and established many concepts, elephants except in inter-digital spaces (Mikota which eventually became traditional knowledge 2006). Flapping the ears helps them thermo- but went undocumented (Dangolla et al. 2002a). regulate. It is interesting and important to study such knowledge to understand elephants better and Elephant races and use of elephants in sport to provide them with better medical attention. activity could generate excess heat which Traditional knowledge on a few topics is briefly elephants may find difficult to dissipate. The described below. organizers of festivals where elephant races are featured, usually delay holding the races, Provision of water perhaps in order to refrain people from leaving the festival grounds early. Consequently, Since ancient times, calves are given drinking elephant races are held mostly towards the end water more frequently, even at night, compared of the day after 4:00 pm when the day becomes to adults. Recently, it has been shown that skin cool, running is limited to 150 - 200 m and most evaporation is faster in elephant calves than adults do not run. It is very rarely that an elephant in adults and therefore, calves must be given misbehaves at such events, which shows that the drinking water more frequently (Bandara et al. elephants tolerate thermal stress to some extent, 2005; Kumudinie et al. 2006a). if the keeper commands them to do so. Elephants playing football or polo, both of which are not Bathing popular in Sri Lanka, could be more stressed, since these are games played earlier in the day During the warm hours of the day for 3 - 4 and for longer durations. hours, most captive elephants are immersed in water even if they are not worked (Bandara et al. At times, Sri Lankan elephant dress is criticized 2005). Most captive elephants sleep in the water because it covers the entire ear (Fig. 1). In all while bathing when they are tired. During night other Asian countries, the ears are left bare when festivals, which occur over a few consecutive elephants are dressed up for festivals, and some days at times, participating elephants do not make drawings on the ears. However, the rate at sleep well possibly due to unusual noise and too which processions in Sri Lanka proceed is very much light. During such times, elephant keepers slow (approximately 1 km/h) which is unlikely force their elephants to sleep in water (Dangolla to create a substantial impact for the rate of ear et al. 2002b). flapping to increase (Sakalasooriya et al. 2006). Interestingly, when a male elephant runs riot Thermoregulation during a procession, keepers try and remove the earflaps of the dress first, if possible. This is The heat from the sun is absorbed by blood because keepers believe that elephants are ‘heaty’
© 2015 The Author - Open Access 42 animals, who could become temperamental when Owners frequently change keepers of male their ears are covered. This is also possibly why elephants with unpredictable behaviour. There- keepers and owners prefer elephants with larger fore, it is possible that bonding between the ears, and such elephants are more expensive. elephant and the keeper is renewed more frequently than the elephant would like (Hettiarachchi et Elephant control al. 2005). A well-known tusker of the temple of the tooth in Kandy, with relatively high serum Most keepers can predict when elephants are testosterone levels has never shown unruly likely to run riot during processions. This has behaviour while most others did so, possibly prevented many disastrous situations and injuries because the keeper of this particular tusker was to both humans and elephants because the the same for 10 years (Hettiarchchi et al. 2005). keepers remove such elephants from processions before they become unruly. Captive elephants, During musth, captive males are kept tied in the when angry, often kill their keepers (Dangolla same stable for several months. After external et al. 2008). Therefore keepers observe and signs of musth disappear, traditional keepers study the behaviour of their elephants primarily spend approximately two weeks discussing the to protect themselves and the public. However, matter with the owner, native doctor, village when an elephant runs riot during processions, headman, the priest and the fortune-teller. The the assistance provided by the keepers to the keepers release such males on an auspicious veterinarian to bring the animal under control is day at an auspicious time, after a special commendable. In such situations, keepers request function for which several traditional sweets are chemical immobilization as the last resort even prepared. Fairly recently, it was found that serum if an equipped and experienced veterinarian testosterone takes approximately two weeks is present, because they believe it disturbs the to reduce to basal levels after disappearance of morale and character of male elephants. external signs of musth (Schmidt 1993).
Sometimes keepers want musth to end earlier than expected. In such instances, most keepers add bamboo (Bamboosa vulgaris) leaves into the diet, which is possibly less nutritious. After about one week, musth secretions cease. However, musth management always poses a challenge in elephant work (Mar 2006). I have encountered one female regularly coming into behaviour similar to musth males, who also killed a man and had to be tranquilized and re-captured.
Depending on the strength of the bond between the keeper and the elephant, keepers use various approaches to judge the behaviour of elephants every morning. Some keepers hum a song and others raise their tone and shout or scold so that the elephant could hear. They approach elephants from the front, giving the elephant sufficient time to identify the person, show friendship by various means and wait until the elephant urinates, defecates or perhaps performs a unique sneeze or a mild long grunt. It is only afterwards Figure 1. Elephant being dressed for a festival in that a keeper would approach and clean the Kandy, Sri Lanka (Photo by Jennifer Pastorini). stables. The area close to the hind legs is cleaned
43 first, possibly as a precautionary measure. Such abscesses and sinuses and expel necrotic tissue behaviour, commonly used until the elephant- (Perera et al. 2004). One reason for keepers to keeper bond is well established, can be interpreted prefer native medicaments may be that they do as a submissive approach by the keeper. It is now not cause fresh bleeding from wounds, which known that in the morning, serum testosterone most of them do not like to see. Among the levels are likely to be higher compared to the several factors attributed to the reduced incidence evening (Hettiarchchi et al. 2005). of pododermatitis in captive elephants (Gamage et al. 1998), the contribution by elephant keepers The ankus, the instrument used to manage captive is important. elephants, is approximately seven feet long in Sri Lanka while in other range countries it is much Immediately after musth, most males develop shorter. It is possible that Sri Lankan keepers stomach ailments due to sudden changes in their prefer to manage elephants from a distance for appetite. Such males at times become pale due additional safety. Some Sri Lankan kings in the to anemia, mildly constipated and show signs past used to execute criminals by commanding of colic. For such animals, traditional keepers trained elephants to trample them and therefore orally administer a combination of five herbs, keepers themselves possibly had to be careful. which leads to a mild diarrhoea with which Mushidia spp. worms are excreted. The loose Most elephants are always tied with the “walk motion caused by such medicines, settles on its chain” which is applied to both hind legs at an own and elephants get clinically better within adequate length to allow walking. Additionally, about two weeks. If a modern anthelmintic is several traditions of chaining are applied given afterwards to such males, they excrete depending on the occasion. For example, if a more worms. In India, immediately after musth, male after running riot must be taken to his most captive elephants are given a combination home, a stringent method of tying which could of cereals, which improve most hematological even injure the elephant if he struggles too much parameters but do not expel worms. is adopted. But if the same animal has to go for a procession, a criss-cross method of chaining the Elephants, when ill or in old age, develop legs is applied to prevent him from running or malabsorption syndrome (Dangolla & Silva jumping forward. Recently some keepers have 2000) during which some sleep for very long started applying walk chains to the front legs. times on their sides. Most traditional keepers are The latter may be better from the welfare point aware that if elephants sleep on their sides for of view, since the thoracic girdle is stronger with more than about 8 hours, the prognosis becomes several strong muscles compared to the pelvic bad. One of the medicaments administered in girdle and therefore, is unlikely to be dislocated such situations, irrespective of the cause, is to or injured. blow certain medicaments into the eye. This strongly irritates the cornea and in reaction, they Treatment get up at once. In western medicine, if an animal has been administered with all supplements Most keepers know medicaments that serve as liquids, vitamins, minerals and energy, an electric a physical barrier to prevent entry of bacteria stimulation (shock) is given to get them on their when applied on wounds. There are several feet. Most keepers are aware that some elephants combinations of herbs that prevent deterioration have a preference for the side to lie down and of existing wounds and infection of new wounds. sleep and that not all elephants sleep on both sides Most of them work better on younger animals equally. Therefore, depending on the side they are (Perera et al. 2004). With older elephants, such either sleeping or even fallen at times, keepers native medicaments work well in combination tend to predict the prognosis. Such information with paranteral antibiotics. There are also native is important to design treatment plans and also to medicines, which if applied continuously for 3-5 device a strategy for hoisting and keeping such days, would destroy the pyogenic membrane of elephants upright thereafter.
44 Thus, the traditional elephant keepers in Sri thermoregulation in Asian elephants. SLVJ 52 Lanka, not versed in science, have through (1&2B): 34. observations and experience figured out a number of practices that are conversant with what would Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A & be advocated from scientific study of the animals. Rajaratna AAJ (2006a) Cutaneous evaporation as a mechanism of heat dissipation in the Asian References elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). In: Proceedings of Annual Convention and Scientific Bandara KAPA, Dangolla A & Rajarathna AAJ Sessions of Sri Lanka Veterinary Association. (2005) Water balance in Asian elephants (Elephas Plant Genetic Resource Centre, Gannoruwa. p maximus maximus). SLVJ 52 (1&2B): 35. 20.
Dangolla A, Weerasiri D, Jayantha ULD & Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A & Silva I (2002a) Data on keepers of domesticated Rajaratna AAJ (2006b) Adaptability of Sri Lan- elephants in Sri Lanka. In: Workshop on Captive kan elephants to the thermal environment of the Elephant Management. Kerala, India. p 36. tropics. In: International Conference on Humid Tropical Ecosystems, Changes, Challenges and Dangolla A, Pathmasiri PL & Silva I (2002b) Opportunities. Kandy, Sri Lanka. p 85. Sleeping patterns on domesticated elephants participating in festivals. In: Workshop on Cap- Mar KU (2006) Myanmar. In: Biology, Medicine tive Elephant Management. Kerala, India. p 5. and Surgery of Elephants. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds) Wiley-Blackwell, Australia. pp 460- Dangolla A, Rajapakse E, Silva I & Fernando 464. KKM (2008) Human directed aggression in captive elephants in Sri Lanka. In: Conference Mikota SK (2006) Integument system. In: on Elephant Conservation. Nong Nooch Hotel, Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Thailand. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds) Wiley-Blackwell, Australia. pp 253-261. Dangolla A & Silva ID (2000) A case of malabsorption syndrome due to fractured Perera GIS, Dangolla A & Silva ID (2004) molars in and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus Effectiveness of indigenous and western maximus). SLVJ 47 (1A): 11-12. medication combinations for wound dressing in domesticated elephants (Elephas maximus Gamage CNS, Kuruwita VY & Dangolla A maximus). SLVJ 51(1B): 25-26. (1998) Suppurative inflammation in the soles of the feet pododermatitis of Sri Lanka elephants Sakalasooriya SML, Kumudinie DLN, Dangolla (Elephas maximum maximus lineaus) and the A & Silva ID (2006) Possible role of external causative bacteria. (Elephas maximus maximums ear lobe in thermoregulation in captive elephants lineaus). In: Peradeniya University Research (Elephas maximus maximus). In: Proceedings Sessions. p 15. of Annual Convention and Scientific Sessions of Sri Lanka Veterinary Association. Plant Genetic Hettiarachchi GC, Dangolla A., Watawana IL & Resource Centre, Gannoruwa. p 21. Udugama MC (2005) Serum testosterone level in captive male elephants (Elephant maximus Schmidt MJ (1993) Breeding elephants in maximus) in Sri Lanka. Proc. of the Peradeniya captivity. In: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. University Research Sessions 10: 163. Fowler M (ed) WB Saunders, Philadelphia. pp 445-448. Kumudinie DLN, Rajaratne SA, Dangolla A & Rajaratna AAJ (2005) Mechanisms of
45 News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 46-47
Summary ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group Meeting
Chatchote Thitaram1*, Janine L. Brown2 and Sonja Luz3
1Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand 2Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, USA 3Wildlife Reserves Singapore, Singapore *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Background in Chiang Mai, Thailand to strategize on how to address the above and ensure a sustainable In Asia, about 16,000 elephants are currently and high quality of life for captive elephants in maintained in captivity for a variety of purposes: Southeast Asia. logging, tourism, cultural and religious activities, and transportation. With the banning of logging in Executive summary many Asian countries within the past few decades, elephants have found work mainly in tourism, On the first morning of the workshop, range where they interact with the public in the form country participants presented status reports on of shows, trekking, bathing, feeding and other captive and wild elephant population numbers activities. A major challenge, however, is that and uses of elephants in captivity. There were most captive populations are not self-sustaining several common themes throughout these because deaths exceed births. High morbidity presentations that included declining numbers of and mortality can be attributed to inadequate wild elephants, lack of sustainability of captive management, nutrition and medical care; thus, populations, inability to breed captive elephants, off-take of wild elephants to supplement captive need for better elephant health care, and a call populations becomes another major threat to for more mahout training to include positive species survival. An additional challenge is the reinforcement techniques. decline in good mahoutship and the lack of skills in newer, more humane training methods. There Through facilitated discussions, participants then is an urgent need for practical guidelines and brainstormed ideas pertinent to these issues to: clear recommendations on how to effectively 1) identify a group vision, mission, objectives manage captive elephants such that good health, and goals; 2) determine areas of activity to reproduction and welfare are equally addressed promote good stewardship of elephants; 3) and ensured at all times. propose structure, roles and partners of the working group; and 4) determine next steps. With all the above it is clear that the current Issues relevant to captive elephant management situation of captive Asian elephants in South-east and welfare were identified, including ‘gaps and Asia is far from optimal, and while problems of captive elephants differ greatly from those of wild populations, we cannot ignore that these large numbers of elephants under human care have a major role to play in the overall conservation strategy planning for this species.
On the 11th and 12th of June 2015, a group of elephant experts and practitioners from countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) met for a first brainstorming session
46 needs’, and strategies were outlined related to the indications of foot problems in some individuals goals, with specific actions, associated timelines because of the hard ground elephants walk on and the person(s) responsible for ensuring the during the day up and down the hills. There was action would be carried out. also some concern about the lack of socialization time for individual elephants. Setting aside an Five key issues emerged, listed below but not in area for larger groups of elephants to interact order of ranked priority: normally (e.g., the soccer field), with the public • Create a functional working group that watching from afar, might be an option, and serves to advance elephant management and could be stimulating for elephant and tourists ensure a sustainable, high quality of life for alike. In a separate area of Maesa Elephant all captive elephants in Southeast Asia. Camp is the Elephant Care Center, which takes • Develop a document describing best care of retired (those over 55 years old) or sick captive elephant management practices and elephants; currently they have eight. Tourists pay protocols. to take part in daily management, without riding • Create methods of assessment for evaluating or a show, thus bringing in an income to care for and possibly scoring existing camps (rating/ these elephants. ranking system). • Provide educational/training materials and In the afternoon, participants met in plenary enhance capacity building. and chose a name – ASEAN Captive Elephant • Conduct a thorough literature search on Working Group (ACEWG), and created a what is available and compile information 10-member steering committee that is tasked on elephant management, mahout training, with setting priorities for group activities, conservation messages and health care coordinating with members and sub-groups, for distribution to invested parties, and to creating a master plan, setting future meetings, identify gaps in knowledge. and serving as a liaison to group members for people seeking information. Tasks were assigned On the second day, participants visited the Maesa in the afternoon of the last day. Singapore Zoo Elephant Camp near Chiang Mai. This is a large agreed to host the next working group meeting, camp (76 elephants) and participants found which will take place 9-10 November 2015 to most to be in good health, although there were further discussions and assess progress.
47 News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 48-49
Collaborating with Myanmar Mahouts on Elephant Health Care
Zaw Min Oo1*, Christopher Stremme2 and Heidi S. Riddle3
1Myanma Timber Enterprise, Yangon, Myanmar 2International Elephant Project, Sumatra, Indonesia 3Riddle’s Elephant and Wildlife Sanctuary, Greenbrier, USA *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
With approximately 5000 individuals, Myanmar no longer need to be employed in the timber manages the highest number of captive elephants industry, but MTE still has a responsibility to amongst all Asian elephant range countries. provide care for these elephants and is working Nearly 3000 of these captive elephants belong to identify alternatives for the sustainable use to the government run Myanma Timber of these captive elephants. Recently MTE has Enterprise (MTE). The MTE has one of the explored the possibilities to employ some of best structured and closely monitored captive their elephants in eco-tourism projects, for elephant management systems in Asia. In this protected habitat monitoring and patrols, and system, adult trained elephants have been used for HEC management. With support from for different kinds of work in logging operations international conservation NGOs, during the since 1948. As MTE is a government agency, past few years MTE started to develop some of and due to its elephant management expertise, their timber elephant camps as conservation and it is increasingly put in charge of wild elephant eco-tourism camps. This includes training MTE conflict management in Myanmar by means of staff (mahouts, camp managers, timber rangers) wild elephant drives, habitat patrols, and wild in the camps to be able to fulfil their new or elephant rescues and translocations. changed roles. Topics addressed by additional training include field navigation with GPS and During the past years the annual timber extraction maps, recording and record-keeping of data, quota in Myanmar has been drastically reduced, English language skills, HEC conflict mitigation and progressively more heavy machinery is used strategies, and exchanges with field staff from for logging operations. This has led to a situation similar programs in other Asian elephant range were increasing numbers of MTE elephants countries.
48 were able to be handled for basic foot care, and the participants had a good understanding of the principles of proper elephant foot care. Foot care tools donated earlier by the Elephant Managers Association, a U.S. based organization of elephant keepers and enthusiasts, as well as by AES were given to all participants in the session and to mahouts from the Phokyar camp to enable them to continue this elephant care after the session ended.
In addition to the Phokyar elephant camp, two As part of this ongoing training program, and other camps (Myaing Hay Wun and Green in order to improve the management and health Hill Valley) managing MTE elephants were care of their captive elephants, MTE conducted visited. In both these camps captive elephant a training workshop for mahouts and veterinary management and foot care topics were discussed assistants on September 14-20, 2015, with via presentations and practical demonstrations. assistance from the NGO Asian Elephant Support Foot care tools were also distributed to mahouts (AES). Invited presenters were Dr. Christopher in these camps. Stremme, elephant veterinarian, and Heidi Riddle, elephant manager, in addition to MTE Further collaborations including field training staff led by Dr. Zaw Min Oo, Assistant Manager, and knowledge exchange between elephant MTE Department of Extraction. management programs and staff from Myanmar and other Asian elephant range countries (i.e. The workshop started on September 14 in the Sumatra-Indonesia) are planned for the future. MTE Nanchun training school in Taungoo, Bago (East) Region. During the first day lectures were given on basic elephant biology, differences between Asian and African elephants, captive elephant management in western facilities, training elephants for foot care, elephant foot anatomy and physiology, elephant foot problems and diseases, as well as treatment and prevention. Participants in the session included 18 veterinary assistants and 12 mahouts from different parts of the country. From September 15-20 the session was continued in the Phokyar elephant camp close to the town of Taungoo. During this time practical demonstrations using the camp elephants were given about training elephants for foot care and conducting proper foot care. From the second day on the participants were divided into 4 groups; two elephants with their mahouts were assigned to each group. The groups were supervised to start training their elephants and to conduct basic foot care procedures. All of the participants were extremely interested, enthusiastic, and participated very well in the practical activities. By the end of the workshop all the elephants used during the practical session
49 News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 50-51
WWF AREAS HEC Workshop Report
Nilanga Jayasinghe
WWF, Washington DC, USA Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is a significant sharing of ideas and experiences across Asian threat to Asian elephant conservation and is a top and African elephant landscapes. issue of concern in addition to habitat loss and fragmentation. In India alone, an average of 100 During the workshop, participants had the elephants and 400 people are killed each year due opportunity to both discuss larger issues around to negative interactions that result from HEC. HEC, like habitat loss and other drivers that WWF is working to reduce levels of HEC across exacerbate the issue, as well as to learn about a number of landscapes in India, Nepal, Bhutan, effective HEC prevention and mitigation Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia and Sabah, through demonstration of tools and techniques. Malaysia. The demonstrations were conducted by invited participants from Zimbabwe (Loki Osborn and In order to examine and improve our work to Malvern Karidozo from Connected Conservation reduce HEC, WWF’s Asian Rhino and Elephant who demonstrated the use of chilli fences, chilli Action Strategy (AREAS) Program held a bombs and chilli smoke as deterrents) and Sri human-elephant conflict workshop for WWF Lanka (Pruthu Fernando and Sampath Ekanayaka landscape staff and other invited participants from the Centre for Conservation and Research from November 20-24, 2015, in Assam, India. who demonstrated seasonal electric fences), The workshop brought together staff from as well as WWF staff from the Western Ghats/ across WWF’s Asian elephant landscapes to Nilgiris landscape (Mohanraj and Boominathan share lessons learned on successes and failures who demonstrated a low-cost energizer used experienced while addressing HEC in each of to power electric fences). In addition, staff their respective regions with the aim of moving from WWF’s North Bank and Kaziranga- forward in a more collaborative and effective Karbi Anglong landscapes in Assam, India, way to reduce conflict. In addition, the workshop demonstrated and discussed the use of response participants included the coordinator of WWF’s teams from local communities and using trained African elephant conservation work, as well as elephants, or kunkies, to safely drive wild a staff member from WWF-Kenya, to enable elephants away from potential conflict situations.
50 Discussion topics during the workshop included the presentation of results from mapping WWF’s capacity to address HEC for Asian elephants; understanding elephant movement and behaviour to determine how we intervene in HEC situations; deep dives into the root causes of HEC; implementing standardized monitoring and evaluation of HEC across landscapes; the human dimensions of addressing HEC, including conflict transformation through groups like the Human Wildlife Conflict Collaboration; the use of technological tools to prevent HEC (early detection tools); and setting aside time for shorter-term 6-month goals listed as an immediate collaborating offices within the WWF Network next step. Collaborator offices for each landscape to discuss ways of working together to reduce will follow up with each landscape to ensure HEC within landscapes. these goals are met.
A key output of the workshop is to have Participant feedback reflected that this was each WWF landscape create a HEC-specific a useful workshop with the opportunity to management plan within their larger landscape not only discuss relevant issues, but to also management plans in the two years following the have the opportunity to learn from the hands- meeting. This management plan will include the on demonstrations of tools and techniques use and implementation of successful prevention to prevent HEC. Participants appreciated the and mitigation tools and techniques; testing of opportunity for discussion with external experts, new methods that may become available (e.g. networking, field trips, the participative approach technological solutions); a more formalized plan of the sessions and learning from each other. for community engagement; a plan to address root Participants also reflected on the need for more causes, including formalized policy engagement; time to discuss certain issues like root causes and a standardized monitoring system; and ways long-term planning, which will be incorporated through which the wider WWF network can help and included in the follow-up HEC workshop to landscapes build capacity and obtain the tools and be held in two years. resources they need to successfully implement these plans. As a first step in devising these plans, With special thanks to Hiten Baishya, Anupam each landscape listed the top measurable goals Sarmah, Pranab Bora and Harshad Karandikar they plan to achieve in the next two years, with (WWF-India) for their support of the workshop.
51 News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 52-67
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants
Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini
Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland Centre for Conservation and Research, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]
If you need additional information on any of the criterion. The habitats occupied by the elephants articles, please feel free to contact me. You can showed that the conservation of these animals also let me know about new (2016) publications would require good management practices within on Asian elephants. and outside of protected areas so as to ensure the level of suitability of the habitat, particularly S. Aini, A.M. Sood & S. Saaban in translocation areas. © 2015 Universiti Putra Analysing elephant habitat parameters using Malaysia Press. GIS, remote sensing and analytic hierarchy process in Peninsular Malaysia N. Angammana, K.B. Ranawana & G. Ellepola Pertanika Journals Science & Technology 23 Evaluation of damage caused by elephants (2015) 37-50 (Elephas maximus maximus) to the woody Abstract. Geographic Information System vegetation in Udawalawe National Park (GIS) and remote sensing are geospatial WildLanka 3 (2015) 20-30 technologies that have been used for many years Abstract. Elephants can have profound effects in environmental studies, including gathering on the structure and composition on woodlands. and analysing of information on the physical In this study, the damage caused by elephants to parameters of wildlife habitats and modelling woody plants in the Udawalawe National Park of habitat assessments. The home range was investigated. The study was carried out in estimation provided in a GIS environment offers three major habitat types in the Udawalawe a viable method of quantifying habitat use and National Park, namely grasslands, scrub forests facilitating a better understanding of species and and tall forests. Five plots were established in habitat relationships. This study used remote each habitat. Types of damages caused to the sensing, GIS and Analytic Hierarchy Process woody plants were categorized in to six main (AHP) application tools as methods to assess the groups viz, crown damage, bark removal, branch habitat parameters preference of Asian elephant. damage, pushing down, partially damaged and Satellite images and topographical maps were totally damaged. Plant species, which were used for the environmental and topographical highly vulnerable for elephant damages and the habitat parameter generation encompassing land areas in which elephant damages are high were use-land cover, normalized digital vegetation identified. These results were used to identify the index, water sources, digital elevation model, food preferences of elephants, highly recorded slope and aspect. The kernel home range was damage types and the area, which they prefer to determined using elephant distribution data from stay. Based on the intensity of damages the study satellite tracking, which were then analysed using revealed that, crown damages, branch damages, habitat parameters to investigate any possible pushing down and bark removal as highly relationship. Subsequently, the frequency of recorded damage categories in the three habitats. the utilization distribution of elephants was Bauhinia recemosa, Phyllanthus polyphyllus, further analysed using spatial and geostatistical Limonia acidissima and Diospyros ovalifolia analyses. This was followed by the use of AHP were the species that were more susceptible for for identifying habitat preference, selection of elephant damages and the grassland habitats were significant habitat parameters and classification of the areas where elephant damages were high.
52 J.S. Anni & A.K. Sangaiah demonstrate that younger elephants have a higher Elephant tracking with seismic sensors: A rate of bone turnover than older elephants. Use of technical perceptive review these and additional bone markers could lead to Jurnal Teknologi 74 (2015) 193-203 the establishment of validated protocols for the Abstract. This paper presents a systematic monitoring of bone disease in elephants. © 2015 literature review of elephant tracking approaches Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. via seismic sensors. Elephant tracking is broadly divided into two categories: technical approach A. Athanassiou, V. Herridge, D.S. Reese, G. and non-technical approach. Among these two Iliopoulos, S. Roussiakis, V. Mitsopoulou, E. research directions technical approach has proved Tsiolakis & G. Theodorou to be risk-free. It helps accumulation of the life of Cranial evidence for the presence of a second both human and elephants in the human-elephant endemic elephant species on Cyprus conflict scenario. In the technical approach, Quaternary International 379 (2015) 47-57 seismic sensors have been preferred as an effective Abstract. Cyprus, the largest Eastern Medi- methodology for elephant tracking as reported in terranean island, hosted a highly impoverished the literature. Seismic scenarios address research endemic mammalian fauna during the Pleistocene gap in the existing methodologies through their to early Holocene times. This was a result of efficiency and precision in monitoring elephant its extreme biogeographic isolation since its movements without causing any harm to them formation, which prevented the immigration of while, at the same time, helping humans to solve most terrestrial mammals, except for those with their problems and saving environment from apparent sea channel crossing abilities. The main hazards. The main contribution of this paper is faunal elements are the extremely dwarfed hippo review of and address to the technical approaches Phanourios minor, commonly found in many that are employed for elephant tracking using sites across the island, and the dwarf elephant seismic sensors, which also include seismic Palaeoloxodon cypriotes. The latter is a very communication through sensor devices and small-sized elephant species, comparable in size encourage future research on this topic. © 2015 with the Siculo-Maltese Palaeoloxodon falconeri. Penerbit UTM Press. Larger dental specimens found sporadically during the last century, raised the possibility N. Arya, W. Moonarmart, N. Cheewa- that a second endemic elephant, larger than P. mongkolnimit, N. Keratikul, S. Poon-iam, A. cypriotes, may have also existed in Cyprus. Here Routh, P. Bumpenpol & T. Angkawanish we describe a skull recently excavated in the Osteocalcin and bone-specific alkaline coastal area of Xylophágou, SE Cyprus, which phosphatase in Asian elephants (Elephas provides evidence that, indeed, two elephant maximus) at different ages species have existed on the island. The larger The Veterinary Journal 206 (2015) 239-240 species, Palaeoloxodon xylophagou n. sp., is still Abstract. Bone turnover markers could offer a strongly dwarfed and characterised by elongated, potential alternative means for the early diagnosis low and wide skull, diverging tusk alveoli and of metabolic bone disease in young growing comparatively large molars. Dimensionally the elephants although the baseline of bone turnover dentition is distinctly larger than P. cypriotes and markers in elephant is not well established. close to Palaeoloxodon tiliensis, though the skull The aim of this study was to determine any size is intermediate between P. tiliensis and P. relationship between the age of captive Asian falconeri. Both Cypriot elephant species exhibit elephants and markers of bone formation. morphological affinities with Palaeoloxodon Serum samples from 24 female Asian elephants antiquus, which is their probable ancestor. were collected to evaluate levels of two bone Stratigraphic data suggest that P. xylophagou formation markers, namely, osteocalcin (OC) and is older (late Middle Pleistocene), while P. bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BAP). Both cypriotes is more recent (latest Pleistocene to intact and N-terminal midfragment OC and BAP early Holocene) and may have descended from were negatively correlated with age. The findings the former or e less probably e evolved as a result
53 of a separate, more recent colonisation event. © advantageous for detection of seismic waves. 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. Method: The skull of an adult Asian elephant was examined by X-ray computed tomography M.J. Boone, C.N. Davis, L. Klasek, J.F. del Sol, to investigate whether a natural ‘3rd mobile K. Roehm & M.D. Moran window’ mechanism for enhanced sensitivity of A test of potential Pleistocene mammal seed body sounds exist in elephants. Results: Although dispersal in anachronistic fruits using extant the entire elephant’s skull was otherwise broadly ecological and physiological analogs aerated, the labyrinth areas were surrounded by Southeastern Naturalist 14 (2015) 22-32 dense bone. © 2015 Informa Healthcare. Abstract. Using Elephas maximus (Asian elephant) and Equus ferus caballus (domesticated J.F. Brodie, A.J. Giordano & L. Ambu horse) as ecological analogs to extinct Pleistocene Differential responses of large mammals to mammals, we tested the effect of gut passage logging and edge effects on 3 proposed anachronistic fruits: Diospyros Mammalian Biology 80 (2015) 7-13 virginiana (American persimmon), Maclura Abstract. Selective logging is one of the most pomifera (osage orange), and Asimina triloba widespread disturbances to tropical forests (paw paw). We found that elephant-gut passage worldwide, yet its impacts on large mammals of persimmon seeds increased their germination remain poorly understood. We used camera success and decreased their time to sprout, trapping and hierarchical models to compare while osage orange seeds showed no benefit to local abundance of a variety of terrestrial gut passage. Neither American Persimmon nor mammal species in Borneo between selectively osage orange seeds survived gut passage through logged and unlogged forest, and to assess the horses. Both mammals refused to consume Paw impacts of edge effects. Our methods circumvent paw fruits. Assuming a similar physiology and confounding factors that have plagued previous behaviour compared to our modern analogs, we assessments of logging impacts by explicitly suggest that extinct North American elephant accounting for differential detection probability species could have been important seed dispersers among habitats, separating the effects of for American Persimmons but were unlikely to hunting from those of logging-induced habitat be effective for osage orange or paw paw, while disturbance, and explicitly measuring the horses would have been poor dispersers for all distances over which edge effects occur. We plant species tested. © 2015 Eagle Hill Institute. found that mammalian carnivore species were either largely or completely confined to primary K. Brantberg, B. Falahat & D.C. Kalthoff forest, although habitat use for the Sunda clouded Do extant elephants have superior canal leopard increased toward the ecotone. Several dehiscence syndrome? large ungulates, however, were either completely Acta Oto-Laryngologica 135 (2015) 1259-1263 (Asian elephant and banteng) or mostly (sambar) Abstract: Conclusion: X-ray CT of an Asian found in logged forest. This suggests that, in elephant’s skull suggests that elephants do not the absence of hunting, disturbed habitats can have a labyrinthine 3rd mobile window. This be important for the conservation of certain excludes the concept that elephants benefit from endangered and vulnerable species. Sambar and enhancement of bone conducted vibration by an muntjac both strongly avoided habitat edge in extra opening of the labyrinth. This finding does logged forest and primary forest, respectively. not, however, exclude that elephants use bone Lower habitat use by these species persisted conducted hearing for seismic detection, nor 2–4 km from the habitat boundary – farther than that other species may use an extra labyrinthine has been observed for the infiltration of other opening for improved detection of seismic signals. edge effects such as canopy desiccation. Such Objectives: In man, a pathologic extra opening avoidance of ecotones implies that 20–40% of of the bony labyrinth causes altered hearing with the intact primary forest habitat in our study supranormal bone conduction. Theoretically, area is actually degraded “edge habitat” from this variation in auditory performance could be the point of view of primary forest specialists.
54 Our results suggest that, while selectively Multiphasic investigations on the isolates logged forests retain conservation value for included species identification with hsp65 PCR- certain large mammal species, it is critical that sequencing, conventional biochemical tests, rapid thresholds in logging intensity be identified so as biochemical profiling using API strips and the to avoid declines in habitat use by taxa, such as Biolog Phenotype Microarray analysis, protein carnivores, which appear intolerant of intensive profiling with liquid chromatography-mass logging pressure. © 2014 Deutsche Gesellschaft spectrometry, repetitive sequence-based PCR für Säugetierkunde. Reprinted with permission typing and whole genome sequencing followed from Elsevier. by phylogenomic analyses. Results: The isolates were shown to be possibly novel slow-growing R. Chaiyarat, N. Youngpoy & P. Prempree schotochromogens with highly similar biological Wild Asian elephant Elephas maximus and genotypic characteristics. Both strains have a population in Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary, genome size of 5.2 Mbp, G+C content of 68.8%, Thailand one rRNA operon and 52 tRNAs each. They Endangered Species Research 29 (2015) 95-102 qualified for classification into the same species Abstract. The population of wild Asian elephants with their average nucleotide identity of 99.98% is declining worldwide; therefore, understanding and tetranucleotide correlation coefficient of the dynamics of the remaining population is 0.99. At the subspecies level, both strains showed critical for effective conservation. We monitored 98.8% band similarity in the Diversilab automated the population and distribution of elephants in repetitive sequence-based PCR typing system, Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand between 96.2% similarity in protein profiles obtained by May 2010 and March 2011. Using 32 camera liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, and trap locations and 1391 trap nights, we recorded a genomic distance that is close to zero in the 882 elephant photos. A total of 180 individuals phylogenomic tree constructed with conserved were identified in the photos and classified as orthologs. Detailed epidemiological tracking follows: 55 adult males, 60 adult females, 11 sub- revealed that the elephants shared a common adult males, 17 sub-adult females, 18 juveniles, habitat eight years apart, thus, strengthening the and 19 calves. The age structure ratio (based on possibility of a clonal relationship between the adult females) was 0.9:1.0:0.2:0.3:0.3:0.4, and two strains. © 2015 The Authors. the ratio of reproductive ability between adult females, juveniles, and calves was 1.0 : 0.3 : 0.3. D.P. Croft, L.J.N. Brent, D.W. Franks & M.A. The ratio between adult females and infants was Cant highest in areas containing a high concentration The evolution of prolonged life after repro- of salt licks, which could indicate that salt licks duction are a keystone resource for wild Asian elephants. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 30 (2015) 407-16 © 2015 The Authors. Abstract. Why females of some species cease ovulation before the end of their natural lifespan K.-G. Chan, M.F. Loke, B.L. Ong, Y.L. Wong, is a longstanding evolutionary puzzle. For K.W. Hong, K.H. Tan, S. Kaur, H.F. Ng, M.A. many species in captivity, post-reproductive Razak & Y.F. Ngeow life is simply an epiphenomenon of lengthened Multiphasic strain differentiation of atypical lifespan. Yet in natural populations of humans as mycobacteria from elephant trunk well as some cetaceans and insects, reproductive PeerJ 3 (2015) e1367 senescence occurs much faster than somatic aging Abstract. Background: Two non-tuberculous and females exhibit prolonged post-reproductive mycobacterial strains, UM 3 and UM 11, were lifespans (PRLSs). Determining the mechanisms isolated from the trunk wash of captive elephants and functions that underpin PRLSs has proved in Malaysia. As they appeared to be identical a significant challenge. Here we bring together phenotypes, they were investigated further by both classic and modern hypotheses proposed to conventional and whole genome sequence-based explain PRLSs and discuss their application to methods of strain differentiation. Methods: both human and nonhuman animals. By taking
55 an integrative and broad taxonomic approach we A. Das, M.L. Smith, M. Saini, S. Katole, S.S. highlight the need to consider multiple interacting Kullu, B.K. Gupta, A.K. Sharma & D. Swarup explanations for the evolution of PRLSs. © 2015 Effect of concentrates restriction on feed Elsevier Ltd. consumption, diet digestibility, and nitrogen utilization in captive Asian elephants (Elephas A. Das, M. Saini, S. Katole, S.S. Kullu, D. maximus) Swarup & A. K. Sharma Zoo Biology 34 (2015) 60-70 Effect of feeding different levels of wheat roti Abstract. In order to study the effect of on nutrient utilization and blood metabolite concentrates restriction on feed consumption, profile in semi-captive Asian elephants diet digestibility, and utilization of nitrogen in (Elephas maximus) captive Asian elephants, two feeding trials were Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal conducted on three juveniles, four sub-adults, Nutrition 99 (2015) 367-378 and three adults. During trial I, the conventional Abstract. This experiment was conducted to zoo diets of juveniles, sub-adults, and adult study the effect of different levels of wheat contained 22, 17, and 16% of concentrates on dry roti (WR) on nutrient utilization and blood matter (DM) basis, respectively. During trial II, metabolites in Asian elephants fed roughages ad the amount of concentrate was reduced by 50%. libitum. Nine (3 M, 6 F) Asian elephants (14–52 A digestion trial of five days collection period years of age, 1909–3968 kg BW) were used in was conducted during each period. The animals an experiment based on replicated Latin square ate more roughages when concentrates were design. Animals in each group (n = 3) were restricted. Intake of DM (g/kg BW 0.75/day) was assigned to one of the three dietary treatments highest in sub-adults, followed by juveniles and in a manner that animals in all the three groups adults. Apparent digestibility of crude protein were exposed to all the three treatments in three (CP), neutral detergent soluble (NDS), and supply different periods. Each feeding trial comprised 30 of digestible energy (DE) was highest in juveniles, days (25 days of adaptation and 5 days collection followed by sub-adults and adults. Based upon period). The amount of WR fed to the elephants the estimated metabolic fecal nitrogen (MFN) was 0.18, 0.12 and 0.06% of BW in groups I, II and calculated endogenous urinary nitrogen and III, respectively. They were allowed to forage (EUN) and dermal losses, minimum dietary CP in the nearby forests for 6 h/day and to bathe for required to meet maintenance requirement was 2 h/day. The animals had ad libitum access to cut estimated to be 6.12, 6.05, and 5.97% in juveniles, rohini (Mallotus philippensis) trees in their night sub-adults, and adults, respectively. Restriction shelter. Intake and apparent digestibility of dry of concentrates resulted in decreased (P < 0.05) matter (DM), crude protein (CP), gross energy digestibility of DM and GE, but the diet still (GE), Ca, P, Fe, Cu and Zn were measured. Feed supplied adequate amounts of DE and CP to fulfil consumption was not significantly different estimated requirements of energy and protein among the groups. Significant (p < 0.01) decrease during the period of experimentation. Thus, in digestibility of DM and GE and blood glucose the concentrates portion of the diets of captive concentration was observed with decreased level Asian elephants should be fed in a restricted way of WR in the diet. Feeding of WR at 0.06% of so as to reduce the intake of excessive calories BW supplied adequate amount of DE, CP, Ca, and the potential risk of obesity. © 2014 Wiley P, Fe, Cu and Zn to meet requirement for adult Periodicals, Inc. maintenance. Feeding of WR in excess of 0.06% of BW supplied DE in excess of requirement, E.F. Egelund, R. Isaza, A. P. Brock, A. Alsultan, increased blood glucose concentration which G. An & C. A. Peloquin may cause obesity and other associated health Population pharmacokinetics of rifampin in problems. It was concluded that the amount of the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis WR should be restricted to 0.06% of BW in the in Asian elephants diet of captive Asian elephants. © 2014 Blackwell Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Verlag GmbH. Therapeutics 38 (2015) 137-143
56 Abstract. The objective of this study was to and for the effective management of elephants to develop a population pharmacokinetic model for ensure their conservation. rifampin in elephants. Rifampin concentration data from three sources were pooled to provide V.R. Goswami, K. Medhi, J.D. Nichols & M.K. a total of 233 oral concentrations from 37 Asian Oli elephants. The population pharmacokinetic Mechanistic understanding of human– models were created using Monolix (version 4.2). wildlife conflict through a novel application of Simulations were conducted using ModelRisk. dynamic occupancy models We examined the influence of age, food, sex, and Conservation Biology 29 (2015) 1100-1110 weight as model covariates. We further optimized Abstract. Crop and livestock depredation by the dosing of rifampin based upon simulations wildlife is a primary driver of human–wildlife using the population pharmacokinetic model. conflict, a problem that threatens the coexistence Rifampin pharmacokinetics were best described of people and wildlife globally. Understanding by a one-compartment open model including mechanisms that underlie depredation patterns first-order absorption with a lag time and first- holds the key to mitigating conflicts across order elimination. Body weight was a significant time and space. However, most studies do not covariate for volume of distribution, and food consider imperfect detection and reporting of intake was a significant covariate for lag time. conflicts, which may lead to incorrect inference
The median Cmax of 6.07 μg/ml was below regarding its spatiotemporal drivers. We applied the target range of 8–24 μg/ml. Monte Carlo dynamic occupancy models to elephant crop simulations predicted the highest treatable MIC depredation data from India between 2005 and of 0.25 μg/ml with the current initial dosing 2011 to estimate crop depredation occurrence recommendation of 10 mg/kg, based upon a and model its underlying dynamics as a function previously published target AUC0–24/MIC > 271 of spatiotemporal covariates while accounting for (fAUC > 41). Simulations from the population imperfect detection of conflicts. The probability model indicate that the current dose of 10 mg/ of detecting conflicts was consistently <1.0 and kg may be adequate for MICs up to 0.25 μg/ml. was negatively influenced by distance to roads While the targeted AUC/MIC may be adequate and elevation gradient, averaging 0.08–0.56 for most MICs, the median Cmax for all elephants across primary periods (distinct agricultural is below the human and elephant targeted ranges. seasons within each year). The probability of © 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. crop depredation occurrence ranged from 0.29 (SE 0.09) to 0.96 (SE 0.04). The probability P. Fernando, T. Prasad, H.K. Janaka, S.K.K. that sites raided by elephants in primary period Ekanayaka, H.G. Nishantha & J. Pastorini t would not be raided in primary period t+1 The use of radio-tracking data to guide varied with elevation gradient in different development and manage elephants seasons and was influenced negatively by mean WildLanka 3 (2015) 12-19 rainfall and village density and positively by Abstract. Asian elephants are difficult to observe distance to forests. Negative effects of rainfall because of habitat constraints and behavioural variation and distance to forests best explained adaptations to avoid people. Consequently, variation in the probability that sites not raided accurate information on their movement patterns, by elephants in primary period t would be raided habitat occupancy and resource use can only be in primary period t+1. With our novel application obtained through radio- tracking. GPS radio of occupancy models, we teased apart the telemetry is particularly useful for this purpose as spatiotemporal drivers of conflicts from factors it provides a wealth of high quality data. Around that influence how they are observed, thereby 60 elephants have been tracked in Sri Lanka over allowing more reliable inference on mechanisms the past two decades using GPS collars. Here underlying observed conflict patterns. We found we present four case studies demonstrating the that factors associated with increased crop importance of such data in guiding development accessibility and availability (e.g., distance to so as to prevent or reduce human-elephant conflict forests and rainfall patterns) were key drivers
57 of elephant crop depredation dynamics. Such an areas is one of the main challenges of management. understanding is essential for rigorous prediction Financial self-sufficiency is an important element of future conflicts, a critical requirement for in improving conservation effort in these areas. effective conflict management in the context of This study seeks to review best practices in increasing human–wildlife interactions. © 2015 recreational fee systems in different countries Society for Conservation Biology. and to find a relevant entry fee for a wildlife sanctuary in Malaysia. The revenue of the R. Joshi National Elephant Conservation Center (NECC) Tusker’s social bonds in Rajaji in Kuala Gandah, Malaysia, comes from several Hystrix, the Italian Journal of Mammalogy 26 sources, including the national government, (2015) 41-45 but all these budgetary sources are strained by Abstract. Male elephants are known to live a tighter public budgets and greater demands. The solitary life after attaining the pubertal stage present study investigates the introduction of which is considered at the age of about 15 years. visitor entrance fees to supplement an otherwise However, observations of single young males inadequate budget for supporting the operational (about 10 years old) have also been reported. costs of the sanctuary. Factor analysis and a In contrast, few studies have explored that male double-bounded contingent valuation method elephants do have associations; however these were combined to estimate tourists’ willingness associations are occasional and temporary. In to pay (WTP) the proposed entrance fee. Factor Rajaji National Park, north-western Shivalik analysis showed that respondents’ motivation to landscape of India, bull elephants were observed support the NECC with user fees is conditioned to have a year round association, mainly to by their direct experiences with elephants, perform movements outside the boundaries of their satisfaction with NECC’s education- al protected habitats and to enjoy palatable crops. programs and services, and other experiences A recognised group of bull elephants (c. 2–8) it gives to users. The WTP model considered was recorded between 2006–2010, performing respondents’ four motivation factors with their movements in parts of Rajaji National Park, sociodemographic characteristics. Since NECC Haridwar forest division and agriculture fields visitors arrive from both within and outside the nearby the protected habitats. Bull elephant country, this study suggests to centre managers a interactions and social bond are illustrated. two-tier fee structure (residents vs. nonresidents Since a long continuous chain of forests, which of Malaysia), based upon mean WTP estimates. existed in the Rajaji–Corbett wildlife corridor, This study further suggests that revenue from has been disrupted mainly because of habitat such an en- trance fee for NECC could support fragmentation, and since man-elephant conflict the centre’s management and development costs. is increasing rapidly, regular monitoring of © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. elephant habitat and population dynamics is of paramount importance. This is the first time that A.C. Karawita, R.C. Rajapakse, P.G.I.D. Amara- male-male interactions/male elephant behaviour siri, R.M.T.M. Ramanayake, W.R. Jayaweera, in groups has been recorded from north-west T.K. Bollinger, & G.S.P.D.S. Gunawardena India and possible explanations for the behaviour Cecocolic intussusception in an Asian elephant are discussed. © 2015 Associazione Teriologica (Elephas maximus) in Sri Lanka associated Italiana. with chronic hepato-intestinal schistosomiasis: A case report S. Kaffashi, M.R. Yacob, M.S. Clark, A. Radam International Journal of Applied Sciences and & M.F. Mamat Biotechnology 3 (2015) 744-746 Exploring visitors’ willingness to pay to Abstract. A 25 year old female captive Asian generate revenues for managing the National elephant weighing approximately 3000 kg died Elephant Conservation Center in Malaysia and was subjected to a complete necropsy within 5 Forest Policy and Economics 56 (2015) 9-19 hours post mortem. Grossly, the elephant had sub- Abstract. Financial sustainability of protected cutaneous edema, cecocolic intussusception and
58 ascites. Histopathological examination revealed granulomas with TH1 cytokine expression, multifocal, granulomatous, portal phlebitis in whereas active disease is characterized by poorly the liver, multifocal, granulomatous, peri-portal organized inflammation and local imbalance hepatitis with marked portal and perisinusoidal in TH1/TH2 cytokines. This study examined fibrosis, and multifocal granulomatous colitis archival, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded with intralesional Schistosoma eggs. To our lung samples from 5 tuberculosis-negative and knowledge, this is the first report of cecocolic 9 tuberculosis-positive Asian elephants. Lesions intussusception in an Asian elephant associated were assessed by light microscopy, and lymphoid with Schistosoma infection. © 2015 International infiltrates were characterized by CD3 and CD20 Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology. immunolabeling. Expression of TH1 (interferon [IFN]–γ, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]–α) and T. Komatsu, M. Maruyama, S. Hasin, V. TH2 (interleukin [IL]–4, IL-10, transforming Woraguttanon, S. Wiyanan & W. Sakchoowong growth factor [TGF]-β) cytokines was determined Observations of immature and adult stages using in situ hybridization. In 6 of 9 samples, of the myrmecophilous cetoniine beetle inflammation was similar to the pattern of primate Campsiura nigripennis (Coleoptera: Scara- active disease with low to moderate numbers of baeidae) lymphocytes, most of which were CD20 positive. Entomological Science 18 (2015) 288-291 In 1 sample, inflammation was most similar to Abstract. Several cetoniine species are known latent tuberculosis in primates with numerous or speculated to be associated with ants, based CD3-positive lymphocytes. Expression of IFN-γ on their specialized morphological characters. was detected in 3 of 8 tuberculosis-positive However, there are only a few species where samples. Expression of TNF-α was detected in biological information on the larval and adult 3 of 8 positive samples, including the one with stages is available. Field observations revealed latent morphology. Low-level expression of IL-4 that Campsiura nigripennis spends the immature was present in 4 of 8 positive samples. Only stages inside elephant dung, and that adult single positive samples displayed expression females fly to elephant dung for oviposition. In of IL-10 and TGF-β. Tuberculosis-negative addition, adult beetles of C. nigripennis intruded samples generally lacked cytokine expression. into arboreal nests of Oecophylla smaragdina. Results showed heterogeneity in lesions of Specialized morphological characters appear elephant tuberculosis similar to those of latent to allow them to tolerate attacks from the ants. and active disease in primates, with variable Furthermore, the distribution of the beetle in expression of both TH1 and TH2 cytokines. © continental Asia largely overlaps that of the Asian 2014 The Authors. elephant, indicating that dung of elephants, in conjunction with that of other large mammals, is J.A. Leonard, R.-J. den Tex, M.T.R. Hawkins, V. fundamental to the biology of C. nigripennis. © Muñoz-Fuentes, R. Thorington & J.E. Maldonado 2014 The Entomological Society of Japan. Phylogeography of vertebrates on the Sunda Shelf: A multi-species comparison J.A. Landolfi, K.A. Terio, M. Miller, B.F. Junecko Journal of Biogeography 42 (2015) 871-879 & T. Reinhart Abstract. Aim: Pleistocene environmental Pulmonary tuberculosis in Asian elephants fluctuations had well-characterized impacts on (Elephas maximus): Histologic lesions with the patterns of within-species divergences and correlation to local immune responses diversity in temperate habitats. Here we examine Veterinary Pathology 52 (2015) 535-542 the impact the Pleistocene had on widely Abstract. Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis distributed forest vertebrates in a tropical system infection is an important health concern for where the distribution of the habitat was affected Asian elephants, no studies have evaluated the by those fluctuations. Location: Sundaland, associated local immune responses or histologic tropical Southeast Asia. Methods: We conducted lesions. In primates including humans, latent a comparative phylogeographical analysis of tuberculosis is distinguished by well-organized 28 non-migratory, forest-dependent vertebrates,
59 for which we constructed rooted, intraspecifc To detect the driving forces of range contraction, phylogenies based on mitochondrial DNA we used correlation and multiple regression sequences of individuals from at least the three to quantify the linear association between major landmasses in the area (Borneo, Sumatra species range indices and climate variables (five and the Malay Peninsula) and compared them to temperature series and three precipitation series), hypothetical phylogenies based on independent as well as a human population size series. We geological data and climate models regarding also used a machine learning technique, random connections and relationships between the major forest, to quantify the nonlinear effects of the landmasses of Sundaland. Java was included climate variables and human population size. where possible. We dated the phylogenies to The southward retreat of the Asian elephant and determine whether patterns of differentiation the rhinoceroses (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, were concordant across species. Results: In most Rhinoceros unicornis, R. sondaicus) was closely species, populations on the Malay Peninsula associated with climate cooling and intensified and Sumatra were most closely related, and human impact (represented by high population sister to those from Borneo. The dates of these size), and the westward retreat of the giant panda divergences, however, varied extensively was associated with intensified human impact. between species. Borneo harbours multiple One temperature series and human population deeply divergent lineages of many species size showed interactive effect on range shift compared to the diversity within those species. of the Asian elephant and the rhinoceroses; Javan populations of several birds were most the effect of temperature was positive at low divergent relative to those from the rest of the population size, but negative at high population Sunda Shelf. Main conclusions: These results size. Our results imply that a higher temperature suggest a dynamic history, including recurrent caused the northward or eastward range shift of population extinctions and replacements and the Asian elephant, the rhinoceroses and the giant a strong priority effect for local populations. panda, and currently this trend is impeded by The close relationship between populations in human activities. We also illustrate how human Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula supports the activity and climate act synergistically to cause existence of forest on the exposed shelf during range contraction. © 2014 Nordic Society Oikos the Pleistocene at many different times, and and The Authors. suggests that proximity was more important than the presence of palaeorivers for dispersal V. Lynch, O.C. Bedoya-Reina, A. Ratan, M. of forest taxa between landmasses. © 2015 John Sulak, D.I. Drautz-Moses, G.H. Perry, W. Miller Wiley & Sons Ltd. & S.C. Schuster Elephantid genomes reveal the molecular X. Li, G. Jiang, H. Tian, L. Xu, C. Yan, Z. Wang, bases of woolly mammoth adaptations to the F. Wei & Z. Zhang arctic Human impact and climate cooling caused Cell Reports 12 (2015) 217-228 range contraction of large mammals in China Abstract. Woolly mammoths and living over the past two millennia elephants are characterized by major phenotypic Ecography 38 (2015) 74-82 differences that have allowed them to live in very Abstract. Many species have experienced different environments. To identify the genetic dramatic declines over the past millennia due to the changes that underlie the suite of woolly mammoth accelerated impact of human activity and climate adaptations to extreme cold, we sequenced the change, but compelling evidence over such long- nuclear genome from three Asian elephants and term time scales is rare. China has a unique two woolly mammoths, and we identified and system archiving historical records of important functionally annotated genetic changes unique social, meteorological, agricultural and biological to woolly mammoths. We found that genes events over the last three millennia. We derived with mammoth-specific amino acid changes are historical species occurrences (0–2000 AD) enriched in functions related to circadian biology, based on a comprehensive review of literature. skin and hair development and physiology,
60 lipid metabolism, adipose development and results offer several potential intervention points physiology, and temperature sensation. Finally, for the prevention of these lesions. Specifically, we resurrected and functionally tested the we recommend the following until longitudinal mammoth and ancestral elephant TRPV3 gene, studies can be conducted: increased monitoring which encodes a temperature-sensitive transient of older elephants and the back region of all receptor potential (thermoTRP) channel involved elephants, working less than 6 hours per day, and in thermal sensation and hair growth, and we the avoidance of rice sacks as padding material in show that a single mammoth-specific amino acid contact with skin. © 2015 The Authors. substitution in an otherwise highly conserved region of the TRPV3 channel strongly affects its J.N. Maslow & S.K. Mikota temperature sensitivity. © 2015 The Authors. Tuberculosis in elephants — A reemergent disease: Diagnostic dilemmas, the natural S. Magda, O. Spohn, T. Angkawanish, D.A. history of infection, and new immunological Smith & D.L. Pearl tools Risk factors for saddle-related skin lesions Veterinary Pathology 52 (2015) 437-440 on elephants used in the tourism industry in Abstract. Tuberculosis (TB) in elephants has Thailand been described since ancient times. However, BMC Veterinary Research 11 (2015) e117 it was not until 1996 when infection with Abstract. Background: Lesions related to Mycobacterium tuberculosis was identified in a working conditions and improper saddle design herd of circus elephants that significant research are a concern for a variety of working animals into this disease began. The epidemiology including elephants. The objectives of the and natural history of TB were unknown in present study were to determine the prevalence elephants since there had been no comprehensive of cutaneous lesions in anatomic regions (i.e., screening programs, and diagnostic techniques neck, girth, back, tail) in contact with saddle- developed for cervidae and bovidae were of related equipment among elephants in Thailand unknown value. And, while precepts of test and working in the tourism industry, and to identify slaughter were the norm for cattle and deer, this potential risk factors associated with these was considered untenable for an endangered lesions. Data for this cross-sectional study were species. With no precedent for the treatment of collected between May 2007 and July 2007 on TB in animals, treatment regimens for elephants 194 elephants from 18 tourism camps across were extrapolated from human protocols, which Thailand. Results: There was a high prevalence guided changes to the Guidelines for the Control (64.4%; 95% CI 57.3 – 71.2) of active lesions, of Tuberculosis in Elephants. In the absence of most often located on the back region. Using diagnostic testing to confirm cure in elephants, multilevel multivariable logistic regression the efficacy of these treatment regimens is modelling containing a random intercept for only beginning to be understood as treated camp we identified the following risk factors: elephants die and are examined postmortem. increasing elephant age, the use of rice sacks as However, because of pressures arising from padding material in contact with the skin, and the public relations related to elephant husbandry provision of a break for the elephants. Working and the added considerations of TB infection in hours had a quadratic relationship with the log animals (whether real or imagined), sharing of odds of an active lesion where the probability of an information to aid in research and treatment has active lesion initially increased with the number been problematic. Here we review the challenges of working hours per day and then declined and successes of the diagnosis of tuberculosis possibly reflecting a “healthy worker” bias where in elephants and discuss the natural history of only animals without lesions continue to be able the disease to put the work of Landolfi et al. on to work these longer hours. Conclusions: While the immunological response to tuberculosis in we recognize that the cross-sectional nature of elephants in perspective. © 2015 The Authors. the study posed some inferential limitations, our
61 A.M. Moßbrucker, I. Apriyana, J. Fickel, M.A. from continued skeletal growth (indeterminate Imron, S. Pudyatmoko, Sumardi & H. Suryadi growth). Elephants represent an interesting Non-invasive genotyping of Sumatran ele- candidate for studying growth because of their phants: Implications for conservation large size, long life and sexual dimorphism. Tropical Conservation Science 8 (2015) 745-759 Objective measures of their weight, height and Abstract. Reliable baseline information age, however, are rare. Results: We investigate necessary for the monitoring and conservation of evidence for indeterminate growth in the Asian Sumatran elephants is scarce. We here combine elephant using a longitudinal dataset from a non-invasive molecular genetics methods and semi-captive population. We fit growth curves capture-recapture modelling to estimate elephant to weight and height measurements, assess sex population size, distribution, sex ratio, and age differences in growth, and test for indeterminate structure for the Bukit Tigapuluh landscape in growth by comparing the asymptotes for height Sumatra, Indonesia. Two separate subpopulations and weight curves. Our results show no evidence were found, for which we estimated a population for indeterminate growth in the Asian elephant; size of 99 (95% CI = [86, 125], PCCL = 38.59%) neither sex increases in height throughout life, and 44 elephants (95% CI = [37, 56], PCCL = with the majority of height growth completed 43.18%), respectively. Low elephant densities by the age of 15 years in females and 21 years are likely the result of patchy habitat usage and in males. Females show a similar pattern with anthropogenically increased mortality, the latter weight, whereas males continue to gain weight assumption being supported by strong skews until over age 50. Neither sex shows any declines in both sex ratio and age structure as well as in weight with age. Conclusions: These results direct evidence of elephant killing. Still, the have implications for understanding mammalian Bukit Tigapuluh landscape currently holds the life-history, which could include sex-specific largest known population of elephants in central differences in trade-offs between size and Sumatra, representing one of the most important reproductive investment. © 2015 The Authors. areas for their conservation in Indonesia. Conservation of both the elephant population H.S. Mumby, K.U. Mar, A.D. Hayward, W. Htut, and their habitat in this region should thus be of Y. Htut-Aung & V. Lummaa high priority. We identified several threats to the Elephants born in the high stress season have population, including (i) the risk of inbreeding faster reproductive ageing and subsequent loss of genetic diversity, (ii) Scientific Reports 5 (2015) e13946 illegal elephant killing, and (iii) the lack of Abstract. Senescent declines in reproduction protected habitat. In order to overcome these and survival are found across the tree of life, challenges we suggest: (i) the implementation but little is known of the factors causing of a meta-population management program, individual variation in reproductive ageing (ii) monitoring and safeguarding elephants and rates. One contributor may be variation in early improving law enforcement, developmental conditions, but only a few studies quantify the effects of early environment on H.S. Mumby, S.N. Chapman, J.A.H. Crawley, reproductive ageing and none concern comparably K.U. Mar, W. Htut, A.T. Soe, H.H. Aung & V. long-lived species to humans. We determine the Lummaa effects of ‘stressful’ birth conditions on lifetime Distinguishing between determinate and reproduction in a large semi-captive population indeterminate growth in a long-lived mammal of Asian elephants. We categorise birth month BMC Evolutionary Biology 15 (2015) e214 into stressful vs. not- stressful periods based Abstract. Background: The growth strategy of on longitudinal measures of glucocorticoid a species influences many key aspects of its life- metabolites in reproductive-aged females, which history. Animals can either grow indeterminately peak during heavy workload and the start of the (throughout life), or grow determinately, ceasing monsoon in June-August. Females born in these at maturity. In mammals, continued weight months exhibit faster reproductive senescence in gain after maturity is clearly distinguishable adulthood and have significantly reduced lifetime
62 reproductive success than their counterparts born comparative sequence analyses, we have at other times of year. Improving developmental identified Asian elephant specific homozygous, conditions could therefore delay reproductive non-synonymous single nucleotide variants ageing in species as long-lived as humans. (SNVs) that map to 1514 protein coding genes, many of which are involved in olfaction. We E. Ranaweerage, A.D.G. Ranjeewa & K. also present the first report of a high-coverage Sugimoto transcriptome sequence in E. maximus from Tourism-induced disturbance of wildlife in peripheral blood lymphocytes. We have identified protected areas: A case study of free ranging 103 novel protein coding transcripts and 66- elephants in Sri Lanka long non-coding (lnc)RNAs. We also report Global Ecology and Conserv. 4 (2015) 625-631 the presence of 181 protein domains unique to Abstract. Tourism-induced disturbance is elephants when compared to other Afrotheria a growing concern in wildlife conservation species. Each of these findings can be further worldwide. This case study in a key protected investigated to gain a better understanding area in Sri Lanka, examined the behavioural of functional differences unique to elephant changes of Asian elephants in the context species, as well as those unique to elephantids of elephant watching tourism activities. in comparison with other mammals. This work Observations of different age–sex-group classes therefore provides a valuable resource to explore of elephants were conducted focusing on the the immense research potential of comparative feeding activity of elephants in the presence vs. analyses of transcriptome and genome sequences absence of tourists. Frequency and duration of in the Asian elephant. © 2015 Indian Academy of alert, fear, stress and aggressive behaviours of Sciences. With permission of Springer. elephants were significantly high in the presence of tourists and these behaviours occurred at a R.K. Runting, E. Meijaard, N.K. Abram, J.A. cost of feeding time. Tourist behaviour, vehicle Wells, D.L.A. Gaveau, M. Ancrenaz, H.P. noise, close distances and time of the tours were Posssingham, S.A. Wich, F. Ardiansyah, M.T. closely associated with the behavioural changes Gumal, L.N. Ambu & K.A. Wilson of elephants. It is important to monitor tourism Alternative futures for Borneo show the value effects on endangered species such as Asian of integrating economic and conservation elephants and to take proper measures including targets across borders controlled tourist behaviour and vehicle activity Nature Communications 6 (2015) e6819 in protected areas in order to reduce disturbance Abstract. Balancing economic development of wildlife behaviour. © 2015 The Authors. with international commitments to protect biodiversity is a global challenge. Achieving this P.C. Reddy, I. Sinha, A. Kelkar, F. Habib, S.J. balance requires an understanding of the possible Pradhan, R. Sukumar & S. Galande consequences of alternative future scenarios for Comparative sequence analyses of genome a range of stakeholders. We employ an integrated and transcriptome reveal novel transcripts economic and environmental planning approach and variants in the Asian elephant Elephas to evaluate four alternative futures for the mega- maximus diverse island of Borneo. We show what could Journal of Biosciences 40 (2015) 891-907 be achieved if the three national jurisdictions of Abstract. The Asian elephant Elephas maximus Borneo coordinate efforts to achieve their public and the African elephant Loxodonta africana policy targets and allow a partial reallocation that diverged 5–7 million years ago exhibit of planned land uses. We reveal the potential differences in their physiology, behaviour and for Borneo to simultaneously retain B50% morphology. A comparative genomics approach of its land as forests, protect adequate habitat would be useful and necessary for evolutionary for the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and functional genetic studies of elephants. and Bornean elephant (Elephas maximus We performed sequencing of E. maximus and borneensis), and achieve an opportunity cost map to L. africana at ~15X coverage. Through saving of over US$43 billion. Such coordination
63 would depend on enhanced information sharing during the period 1989 to 2012. Attack rates and reforms to land-use planning, which could significantly increased over this study period. The be supported by the increasingly international proportion of encounters that caused deaths or nature of economies and conservation efforts. © injuries differed statistically significant between 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. the two sexes (men more deaths), age groups (elder more deaths), time of the day (more deaths J. Saarinen, A. Karme, T. Cerling, K. Uno, L. during night), place of casualty (more deaths Säilä, S. Kasiki, S. Ngene, T. Obari, E. Mbua, outside forests), weapon used by elephants F.K. Manthi & M. Fortelius (more deaths when elephants were using both A new tooth wear–based dietary analysis trunk and leg) and study sites. No difference was method for Proboscidea (Mammalia) found between seasons, elephant group size, or J. of Vertebrate Paleontology 35 (2015) e918546 financial status, occupation and household size Abstract. Dietary analyses of herbivorous of victims. Elephant family groups were mostly mammals are important for paleoecological responsible for attacks in the north, while single reconstruction. Several methods applicable bulls were more responsible in the southeast. The to fossil teeth have been developed lately. The place of casualty (inside or outside forests), time mesowear method based on wear-induced of the day, gender and regions were all significant occlusal shape and relief of ungulate molars has in explaining the variation in encounters which proven to be a robust method for dietary analysis. resulted in human deaths or injuries. Conflict In its original form it can only be used for mitigation approaches including incentive-, selenodont, plagiolophodont, and ectolophodont awareness-or training programs from the forest ungulate molars, but the principle can be department could help to reduce the conflict extended to other kinds of tooth morphology. We between humans and elephants in Bangladesh. © introduce a new method of dietary analysis for 2015 Canadian Center of Science and Education. proboscideans similar to the mesowear method, based on angle measurements from worn dentin J. Schmidt-Burbach, D. Ronfot & R. Srisangiam valleys reflecting the relief of enamel ridges. Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), pig-tailed The enamel ridges should be heavily worn when macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and tiger the abrasiveness of diet increases, resulting (Panthera tigris) populations at tourism venues in lower occlusal relief and larger angles. For in Thailand and aspects of their welfare testing this, we compared the mesowear angles PLoS ONE 10 (2015) e0139092 with stable carbon isotope values from dental Abstract. This study focused on determining enamel from populations of extant and fossil the size and welfare aspects of Asian elephant, species from localities from Kenya and India. pig-tailed macaque and tiger populations at This enables us to compare diet and tooth wear in facilities open to tourists in Thailand. Data proboscideans, because the stable carbon isotope were gathered from 118 venues through direct ratios in tropical environments provide a reliable observations and interviews with staff. A score standard for assessing the relative amounts of sheet-based welfare assessment was used to C4 and C3 plants in diet, and most of the C4 calculate scores between 1 and 10, indicating plants are grasses, which should be reflected each venue’s welfare situation. Factors such as in the mesowear signal. © 2015 the Society of freedom of movement for the animals, access Vertebrate Paleontology to veterinary care, environmental noise quality, hygiene standards and work intensity were A.H.M.R. Sarker, A. Hossen & E. Røskaft included in the score sheet. 1688 elephants, Fatal elephant encounters on humans in 371 macaques and 621 tigers were found at the Bangladesh: Context and incidences venues. 89 venues exclusively kept elephants, 9 Environment and Natural Resources Research 5 designated ‘monkey schools’ offered macaque (2015) 99-108 shows, 4 venues kept primarily tigers, mostly Abstract. Here we report the context encounters for petting and photo opportunities, and the of elephant attacks on humans in Bangladesh, remaining venues kept a mix of these animals. A
64 strong imbalance in female to male gender ratios relatedness for both populations; the observed was recorded with about 4:1 for adult elephants heterozygosity and number of mitochondrial and 1:4 for adult macaques. Severely inadequate haplotypes were 0.739 and 13 at SLK (n = 26), welfare conditions were common, with 75% of and 0.808 and 11 at DPM (n = 27), respectively. macaques and 99% of tigers being kept at venues Across both locations, 33 elephants formed into with scores less than 5. 86% of elephants were 11 groups (range 2–6 individuals/group). The kept in inadequate conditions at venues with average AI and pairwise genetic relatedness of scores between 3 and 5, but a significant number elephant groups were 0.517 ± 0.039 and 0.078 of venues with scores above 5 were found. ± 0.019, respectively, and were not correlated (r 4.6% of elephants were provided commendable = −0.036; p = 0.78). Twenty elephants were not conditions, reaching assessment scores of 8 and associated with specific groups and had average above. 71% of venues did not offer any sort of AI and pairwise genetic relatedness of 0.002 ± education about animals to visitors. This study 0.001 and 0.047 ± 0.013, respectively, which is the first to assess welfare aspects of captive were not correlated (r = −0.074; p = 0.491). wild animals at tourism venues across Thailand. Several mitochondrial haplotypes were found It concludes that significant concerns exist about within the same group. Thus, social bonding of the welfare of wild animals in the tourism sector the reintroduced elephants was not influenced of Thailand. Urgent attention needs to be given by genetic relatedness. Rather, groups formed to address these concerns and prevent further in association with the presence of an elephant suffering. But also to ensure the demand for wild calf. Additionally, many elephants occasionally animals doesn’t have a negative impact on wild preferred isolation. Thus, reintroduction populations. © 2015 The Authors. procedures should favour introducing elephant calves, or adults with calves to increase the C. Thitaram, S. Dejchaisri, C. Somgird, T. chance of group formation and establishment of Angkawanish, J. Brown, R. Phumphuay, S. stable elephant herds. © 2015 Reprinted with Chomdech & D. Kangwanpong permission from Elsevier. Social group formation and genetic relatedness in reintroduced Asian elephants (Elephas P.B. van den Doel, V.R. Prieto, S.E. van Rossum- maximus) in Thailand Fikkert, W. Schaftenaar, E. Latimer, L. Howard, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 172 (2015) S. Chapman, N. Masters, A.D.M.E. Osterhaus, 52-57 P.D. Ling, A. Dastjerdi & B. Martina Abstract. Captive-held elephants were recruited A novel antigen capture ELISA for the specific from several parts of Thailand and released as detection of IgG antibodies to elephant part of a reintroduction project. Wild elephants endotheliotropic herpes virus with a herd matriarch generally contain the BMC Veterinary Research 11 (2015) e203 same matrilineal line and are genetically related. Abstract. Background: Elephants are classified However, reintroduced elephants are less likely to as critically endangered animals by the be related, but are known to establish social groups. International Union for Conservation of Species The objective of this study was to investigate the (IUCN). Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus genetic relatedness and behavioural relationships (EEHV) poses a large threat to breeding of elephants reintroduced into forested areas in programs of captive Asian elephants by causing central and northern Thailand. Blood samples fatal haemorrhagic disease. EEHV infection were collected from 53 elephants before release is detected by PCR in samples from both into the Sublanka (SLK) and Doi Phamuang clinically ill and asymptomatic elephants with an (DPM) Wildlife Sanctuaries, and DNA was active infection, whereas latent carriers can be extracted for microsatellite and mitochondrial distinguished exclusively via serological assays. analysis. Direct observations of social bonding To date, identification of latent carriers has been behaviours were done weekly for 12 months after challenging, since there are no serological assays release, and an association index (AI) calculated capable of detecting seropositive elephants. for each individual. The results showed a low Results: Here we describe a novel ELISA that
65 specifically detects EEHV antibodies circulating interviews from key informants (N1⁄489) and in Asian elephant plasma/serum. Approximately reported diseases and health complications were 80 % of PCR positive elephants display EEHV- classified in 18 categories. Seven quantitative specific antibodies. Monitoring three Asian indexes such as informant consensus factor elephant herds from European zoos revealed that (FIC), fidelity level (FL), relative frequency of the serostatus of elephants within a herd varied citation (RFC), relative importance (RI), cultural from non-detectable to high titers. The antibody importance index (CII), index of agreement titers showed typical herpes-like rise-and-fall on remedies (IAR) and cultural agreement patterns in time, which occur in all seropositive index (CAI) were used to analyze the reported animals in the herd more or less simultaneously. animal species. Results: A total of 46 animal Conclusions: This study shows that the developed species belonging to 8 taxonomic groups were ELISA is suitable to detect antibodies specific to documented to be used in traditional medicine EEHV. It allows study of EEHV seroprevalence by Malayalis in Pachamalai hills. Animal based in Asian elephants. Results confirm that EEHV medicines were prepared from whole animals or prevalence among Asian elephants (whether their body parts or products extracted from them captive-born or wild-caught) is high. © 2015 The such as: butter, meat, milk, bones, horn, musk, Authors. skin, fin, honey, mucus, eggs, urine, excreta, hair and legs. The most encountered taxonomic group R. Venu, T. Thoiba Singh, R. Veeraharin, D. was Mammalia having 14 species. Aphrodisiac Rajesh & C. Srilatha ailments (0.99), dental care ailments (0.99), First report of Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, endocrinal disorders ailments (0.99), hair care 1866) larvae in a free ranging wild elephant ailments (0.99), oncology ailments (0.99) and from Andhra Pradesh, India ortho ailments (0.99) gained the highest FIC Journal of Parasitic Diseases 39 (2015) 168-170 value. Sus scrofa domesticus scored the highest Abstract. Larvae of Cobboldia elephantis FL (100%) for the skeleto-muscular ailments have been reported from the stomach of a free for external cause; Lissemys punctata had the ranging wild elephant (Elephas maximus) highest RI value (2.00) due to its versatility and while conducting post mortem examination at the highest frequency of citation (RFC=1.000). Palamner forest range, Chittoor district of Andhra Gallus domesticus had the highest cultural Pradesh state, India. This is the first report of importance (CII=8.538) and the highest CAI C. elephantis in free ranging wild elephant in value (CAI=8.427). According to IAR, Plexippus Andhra Pradesh state, India. © 2013 Indian paykulli (IAR=1.00), Equus ferrus caballus Society for Parasitology, with kind permission (IAR=1.00), Trachypithecus johnii (IAR=1.00), from Springer Science+Business Media. Oecophylla samaragdina (IAR=1.00) and Apis indica (0.990) had the highest agreement S. Vijayakumar, S. Prabhu, J.E.M. Yabesh & R. among the informants for being used for the Pragashraj same medicinal purpose. Furthermore, no side A quantitative ethnozoological study of effects have been reported from the use of traditionally used animals in Pachamalai hills ABT. Conclusions: Our study revealed that of Tamil Nadu, India Malayalis (Pachamalai hills) possess valuable J. of Ethnopharmacology 171 (2015) 51-63 knowledge on Malayalis’ animal based therapies. Abstract. Ethnopharmacological relevance: It is believed that the present documentation The purpose of this study was designed to gather will serve to record this vanishing knowledge primary folk knowledge on different animal before it is eroded completely from the island based therapies used by Malayalis in Pachamalai and to the scientific community. It is also hills. This is the first ethnozoological study in anticipated that the present documentation will Pachamalai hills; the data regarding the medicinal be fundamental to protect traditional knowledge, animals/animal products were documented for the conservation and sustainable use of the and their usages were analyzed quantitatively. rich biodiversity of Pachamalai hills for future Methods: Data was collected following the generations and to ensure Pachamalai hills’
66 sovereign rights over its genetic resources and and maximum possible subcutaneous body fat utilization by first documenting them. In addition, and muscle deposits. The visually based system further experimental investigations are required for scoring the body condition of elephants to elucidate the pharmacological properties of presented here satisfies these criteria and is quick, the reported medicinal fauna of Pachmalai hills. inexpensive, non-invasive and user-friendly in © 2015 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. the field. The BCS scale correlates (P < 0.05) with morphometric indices such as weight, girth, and U. Westphal skin fold measures. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Elephas anthropogenus Inc. Zoologischer Anzeiger 256 (2015) 36-41 Abstract. This paper and its accompanying E. Williams, S. Bremner-Harrison, N. Harvey, E. artwork examines the history of our perception Evison & L. Yon of nature based on the example of elephants An investigation into resting behavior in Asian (Elephas maximus, Loxodonta africana, elephants in UK zoos Loxodonta cyclotis). With the fall of the Roman Zoo Biology 34 (2015) 406-417 Empire up until the late Middle Ages, elephants Abstract. Maintaining adequate welfare in virtually disappeared from Western Europe. captive elephants is challenging. Few studies Since there was no real knowledge of how these have investigated overnight rest behaviour in animals actually looked, illustrators had to rely zoo elephants, yet time spent resting has been on oral, pictorial and written transmissions to identified as a welfare indicator in some species. morphologically reconstruct an elephant, thus, We investigated resting behaviour in Asian reinventing the image of an actual existing elephants in UK zoos, with the aim of identifying creature. This led, in most cases, to illustrations patterns or preferences in lying rest. Details of in which the most characteristic features of standing (SR) and lying (LR) rest behaviour elephants – such as trunk and tusks – are still were identified by observing video footage of visible, but that otherwise completely deviate inside enclosures collected for 14 elephants (2 from the real appearance and physique of these male, 12 female) housed at three UK zoos (Zoo animals. In this process, zoological knowledge A: 18 nights; Zoo B: 27 nights; Zoo C: 46 nights) about elephants was overwritten by its cultural from 16:00 to 08:30 (approximately). Elephants significance. Based on a collection of these engaged in a mean of 58–337 min rest per night. images I have reconstructed the evolution of Time of night affected mean duration of LR the ‘Elephas anthropogenus’, the man made bouts (P < 0.001); longest bouts were observed elephant. © 2015 Reprinted with permission between 22:01 and 06:00. Elephants showed a from Elsevier. substrate preference when lying to rest; LR was not observed on concrete or tiled flooring. Where S. Wijeyamohan, K. Treiber, D. Schmitt & C. sand was available (to 11/14 elephants), all Santiapillai elephants engaged in LR on sand flooring. Only A visual system for scoring body condition of two elephants engaged in LR on rubber flooring Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (available to 7/14 elephants). Mean duration of Zoo Biology 34 (2015) 53-59 rest bouts was greater when a conspecific was Abstract. A body condition score (BCS) may within two body lengths than when conspecifics provide information on the health or production were not (P < 0.01). Our study indicated that potential of an animal; it may also reflect the elephants show substrate preferences when suitability of the environment to maintain choosing an area for rest and engage in more rest an animal population. Thus assessing the when conspecifics are in close proximity. The BCS of Asian elephants is important for their results of this study could be used as a basis for management. There is a need for a robust BCS future studies investigating the link between rest applicable to both wild and captive elephants and welfare in captive elephants. © 2015 Wiley of all age categories based on the minimum Periodicals, Inc.
67 News and Briefs Gajah 43 (2015) 68-74
News Briefs
Compiled by Jayantha Jayewardene
Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]
1. Farmers offer land for elephant corridor to township, Magwe Region, to Nyaung Oo avoid jumbo-size woes (India) township in Mandalay Region are to be herded back home with the help of tame elephants. The Deccan Herald - 6.8.2015 six wild elephants, including two calves, walk along a ridge on Tuyin Mountain near Bagan, Agriculturists in eight villages coming under the Nyaung Oo township. Hongadahalla and Vanagur Gram Panchayats are so beset by problems that they are ready to If all goes according to plan, the wild elephants give up their lands to be included in the elephant will be herded back home by urging them to corridor. They constantly live under the fear of change their direction of travel. This effort will wild animals entering their villages any moment be carried out using six tame elephants, seven big and feasting on or destroying crops, including trucks and a team of 55 people under the direction commercial ones like coffee and cardamom. of officials from the Zoo Department and the Myanmar Timber Enterprise, accompanied by an On Wednesday, during a meeting chaired by elephant doctor. Their supplies will include four Deputy Commissioner, Umesh Kusugal, they tranquiliser guns, which will only be deployed if demanded that they should be rehabilitated with absolutely necessary. proper compensation, in return for the farmlands. Farmers who participated submitted consent He said he assumed the elephants originally letters that they were ready to part with their lost their way because of interference from land. They have sought a minimum of Rs 30 lakh humans. He added that further interference could per acre and proper rehabilitation. The farmers complicate efforts to drive the elephants back to want monetary aid for crop loss, till the elephant the Bago Yoma. There have already been some corridor is created. However, the meeting had casualties: A police officer from Nga Tha York its share of naysayers too, unwilling to give sub-township in Nyaung Oo district said the up land to be converted into forest, including elephants injured one man from Thantel village Hongadahalla GP president Sunitha Prakash. and killed another from Sarkyat village on August 25, after they approached too close to the However, if people decide that life is completely animals. untenable in the forest, he would take steps for acquiring their land. A total of 416 families in 3. Largest ever elephant survey conducted in eight villages have given consent letters to part Mondolkiri (Cambodia) with 2261 acres of their land. Cambodia Daily - 5.9.2015 2. Wandering wild elephants to be herded home (Myanmar) As part of the country’s largest ever elephant survey, 1300 dung samples have been collected Myanmar Times - 27.8.2015 in Mondolkiri province in an effort to ascertain how many of the pachyderms remain in the Six wild elephants that managed to wander from province and where they live. Rachel Crouthers, their native Bago Yoma habitat in Natmauk biodiversity technical monitoring adviser for
68 WWF Cambodia, said researchers took samples 5. Tusker kills Chinese engineer in Raigarh from three areas in the province and will produce a unique analysis of Asian elephant populations Daily Pioneer - 8.9.2015 in Mondolkiri. A Chinese national was trampled to death by “This landscape-wide survey spanning three a tusker in Raigarh district of Chhattisgarh on protected areas (Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary, Monday. The incident took place forest close Mondulkiri Protected Forest and Seima to village Katengapali in the Gharghoda police Protected Forest) will produce the first estimates area. The victim identified, as Jong Kitau, along for the entire Eastern Plains Landscape within with his colleague was walk in the forest. The Cambodia,” Ms. Crouthers said via email. victim was an Engineer and part of team here from China to setup a power plant in the region. “Results will help us understand more about the elephant population’s characteristics such as Like on other days, they were taking walk in the population size, movement patterns, corridor use forest patch when an elephant suddenly appeared for the entire landscape, [and] will be crucial in before them. Somehow, Kitau colleague managed protecting this regionally important population to escape. the spot and he was targetted by the of this endangered and charismatic species,” she tusker. In the encounter Kitau suffered severe said. injuries on internal body parts. Notably, in part few months some parts of the State has witnessed 4. Bengal denies jumbo sterilisation (India) killing, damage to human settlement and standing crops by herd of tuskers. The Telegraph - 17.9.2015 It is to be mentioned here that as many as 63 The Supreme Court today directed the Bengal people were killed by tuskers and other wild- government to place before it a World Wildlife animals across the state between 2014 and 15.9 Federation research proposal for evolving an lakh as compensation whereas Rs 10,000 was “immuno-contraception” drug to reduce the provided to each affected family as an instant state’s elephant population. A bench headed by relief. Justice Dipak Misra passed the directive after the state’s counsel told the court that Bengal had 6. Nine human-elephant conflict zones not taken any steps yet for sterilising elephants, mapped (India) whose numbers are said to have increased three- fold in north Bengal since 1989. The New Indian Express - 3.10.2015
The court was dealing with a public interest Studying the reasons and possible mitigation petition filed by a journalist, Shakti Prasad options for human-elephant conflicts in Sathya- Nayak, on deaths of elephants mowed down by mangalam forest in West Tamil Nadu, wildlife speeding trains, a common occurrence in north experts here have identified nine conflict hotspots Bengal where vast stretches of railway tracks run where over 72% of crops had been damaged by through forests. elephants the last year. Experts from the Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF) began their At an earlier hearing, the petitioner’s counsel, had survey a few months ago and studied 26 villages brought to the court’s notice alleged sterilisation around Velamandi reserve forest area near of elephants by the Bengal government to reduce Sathyamangalam. Of these, frequent conflicts their population. In its affidavit today, the state were reported from nine villages along the said it was “incorrect” to say that the government fringes of the forest area. Out of the 124 damages had any plans for sterilising wild elephants but reported in the region, 89 incidents of elephants voiced the need for research on the subject. raiding farmlands were reported from these nine hotspots. Among the nine villages, Kallipatti,
69 Nalroad and Solabanur villages were the worst hard fruit that are about 430 g in weight. Because hit. The damages were often susbstantial, leaving the hardness of the elephant-apple fruit, it the farmers with no money to feed their families. makes pachyderms its predominant consumer. Chaplasha and wild guava trees produce softer Experts added that the elephants went on a fruits, which are easy for smaller fruit-eating rampage mostly from February to June. However, species to handle. to get a better picture, the wildlife scientists will spend another year at the forest studying 8. Diseases kill more elephants than poaching the spatial landscapes, animal movements and (India) recording any repetition in their patterns. Post News Network - 5.10.2015 Velamandi reserve forest is spread across 130 km2 that has about 30,000 villagers living Diseases such as anthrax have claimed more around it. Most of these villagers are subsistence elephants in the state than poaching since 2000. farmers who grow banana, jasmine, tobacco and While the number of elephant deaths due to other crops that are sold during festivals that fall poaching reported from 13 districts in Orissa has later in the year. However, the constant raids by declined since 2000, deaths caused by unknown elephants have left farmers with very little. reasons have risen. Wild life expert Binoy Kumar Behera, said that the state’s elephants, are now 7. Asian jumbos play key role in spreading increasingly falling prey to unknown diseases. green cover (India) Studies by wildlife experts have documented that Press Trust of India - 4.10.2015 since 2000, 23% of the state’s elephants died due to diseases, mainly anthrax, while poaching and Asian elephants play a vital role in the ecology of unknown reasons claimed 18% and 15% deaths the forest and help spread green cover because of respectively. “The existing practice of burying their eating and movement pattern, says a study by the dead elephant’s bodies instead of burning the researchers of the Indian Institute of Science could be one of the reasons behind the spread and Princeton University. The researchers studied of anthrax. Scientific studies have revealed that the eating and movement patterns of domestic anthrax germs were found to be active even after cattle, buffaloes and pachyderms as they are the 50 years and the disease could contract other ones who often venture inside the core of the animals that eat grass grown near the carcass,” forest and also travel a significant distance daily. said Behera. More importantly, these species are herbivores. Increasing man-elephant conflicts have resulted in They also chose the Buxa Tiger Reserve for their the death of about 700 people and elephants each research. The core area of the reserve consists in the state since 2000, said Behera. Elephants of native vegetation, surrounded by areas have been increasingly attacking villagers and consisting of plantations and degraded forest destroying their crops due to the non-availability tracts. According to a 2003 estimate, there are of food in forests, he said. Connecting the state’s 217 elephants in Buxa. In the study over three 14 elephant corridors with forests of neighboring fruiting seasons (2010-2012), the researchers West Bengal and Jharkhand could help in easy chose three species of plants for their study: movement of the pachyderms, said Behera. Dillenia indica (the elephant apple), Artocarpus chaplasha (the chaplash) and Careya arborea 9. The last refuge for China’s elephants (wild guava). These are mostly eaten by cattle, buffaloes and elephants. Fox News - 7.10.2015
In the fruit trees chosen by the researchers, they In China, the country with the highest demand for found that the elephant apple produces relatively elephant tusks and where lust for ivory threatens
70 the species’ survival, pachyderms have found a long, elephants grow a lot – burgeoning from refuge in a nature reserve established with the 200-pound babies to 12,000-pound giants. All goal of raising awareness about wildlife. The that growth involves cell division, a process 10,000-km2 Mengyang wildlife refuge is located that provides opportunities for potentially lethal in the southern district of Xishuangbanna, a genetic mistakes. Yet cancer is relatively rare in region known as “Chinese Thailand” on the elephants. Fewer than 5% of elephant deaths in border with Laos and Myanmar (Burma). captivity are related to cancer.
Strolling on a walkway made of wooden planks A new study suggests a possible reason why: a few meters above the ground, visitors hope Elephants have 20 times as many copies of a that some of the 150 wild elephants living in the key cancer-fighting gene as humans. Humans reserve will make an appearance. “We estimate typically have just two copies of a tumor- they come through here every 1.3 days,” Zhang blocking gene called TP53, inheriting one from Zhongqin, a member of the management staff at their mother and one from their father, said the sanctuary, told EFE. “The main reason is the Joshua Schiffman, co-author of a study published surroundings, with a large forested area without Thursday in JAMA. In contrast, elephants have humans, many small rivers and a large supply of 40 copies. the foods they eat,” Bao said. TP53 plays a vital role in preventing cancer, said In southern China, the government protects Schiffman, who describes it as the “guardian of elephants and defends their rights, even putting the genome,” scanning cells for genetic mistakes them above those of local residents. and destroying ones that can’t be fixed. “Every time a cell divides is a potential disaster,” said “The main problem we currently have is that Weinberg, Professor of Biology at the MIT in of confrontations with peasants,” researcher Cambridge, Mass. “As we evolved from small, Yang Zhengbin said. “Wild elephants cannot be short-lived animals into larger, long-lived controlled and sometimes they eat the crops,” animals, there has been the co-evolution of anti- Yang said, adding that bad encounters between cancer mechanisms in our tissue, so we don’t humans and pachyderms result in an average of have an ever-increasing risk of cancer as we get two peasants killed each year. The government older.” pays compensation, but residents consider the money inadequate. Cancer death rates vary widely by species, the new study says, ranging from 1% in the Since the reserve opened in 2008, about a dozen rock hyrax, a small African mammal related to people have worked to check the pachyderms’ elephants, to 8% of deaths in African wild dogs health and sometimes stage rescues, as in the and more than 20% of deaths in cheetahs. Cancer case of Yang Niu, a 2-month-old female elephant causes 11% to 25% of deaths in humans; many found abandoned recently and who suffers of those deaths due to lifestyle issues such as from a heart condition. The reserve’s hospital is smoking, the study said. currently caring for 10 elephants. 11. Wildlife ranger trampled to death by 10. Scientists discover why elephants rarely elephants in China get cancer New Straits Times Online - 24.10.2015 USA Today - 8.10.2015 A wildlife ranger was trampled to death while According to everything we know about cancer, observing wild elephants in southwest China, elephants should be hit hard by the disease. authorities said Saturday. Yao Zhengyang went Cancer is a disease of aging, and elephants can missing Thursday afternoon in Mengwang live up to 70 years. Over the course of a life that township and his body was found early the
71 next morning, the Xishuangbanna prefectural Response Unit in the Leuser Ecosystem, as government said on its microblog. “According to part of its effort to strengthen conservation and an initial investigation, death was caused by wild encourage community-based ecotourism. elephants,” said the brief posting. Xishuangbanna is in southern Yunnan province, bordering Laos. “The naming and adoption of baby elephant Despite China’s reputation as a major market Eropa, born on Sept. 1, 2015, highlights the EU’s for poached African ivory, Xishuangbanna’s long-term commitment to the unique Leuser approximately 300 wild elephants enjoy state- Ecosystem, to which it has contributed over US$ level protection on a level with China’s unofficial 55 million to protect and sustainably manage mascot, the giant panda. Killing an elephant in Aceh’s and North Sumatra’s forests,” the head of China can result in a death sentence. Despite cooperation of the EU Delegation to Indonesia, the setting aside of land for elephant habitat, the Franck Viault, said. animals are blamed for damage to crops, and occasional attacks on humans are reported. Earlier this year, the EU Delegation adopted young elephant Aras, which monitors and protects 12. Wild tuskers unleash terror in Madi; the eastern part of the Leuser Ecosystem as part destroy houses, crops (Nepal) of the Aras Napal Elephant Patrol Unit (EPU). The aim of Aras’ adoption was to bring public Himalyan News Service - 26.10.2015 attention to the importance of conservation and the fight against climate change. Prastav Subedi of Madi municiplaity-10, Di- wanagar, was busy chasing wild tuskers during It is estimated that 80% of Sumatran elephants’ Dashain festival in Chitwan. Subedi is not the lowland natural forest habitat has disappeared in only person who spent most of his time chasing the past 25 years and the number of Sumatran away tuskers instead of enjoying the festival with wild elephants has diminished to only 2500 with family. The locals remained under constant fear increased conflict between them and farming of tusker attack as elephants from the Chitwan communities. As a result, the Sumatra elephant, National Park entered human settlements and a subspecies of the Asian elephant, is now on the damaged houses and crops ready for harvest. The international list of critically endangered species. locals had no option but to keep vigil throughout the night. 14. Elephant caravan treks across Laos on mission to stave off extinction in species’ According to Narayan Datta Sapkota, chairman of former stronghold Chitwan National Park Buffer-zone Consumers’ Committee at Gardi, at least two houses at ABC Online - 29.10.2015 Bhairabpur were damaged. Locals have started patrolling the locality after elephants started A “caravan” of elephants is travelling 500 km wreaking havoc on human settlements. Besides, through northern Laos over the next two months the locals move around carrying torches and as part of a campaign to save the Asian elephant hitting plates during the night. He said elephants from extinction in the small landlocked country. run away at the sound of siren installed on the Twelve elephants and their mahouts (keepers) tractor. will travel through the provinces of Xayaboury and Luang Prabang, raising awareness of the 13. EU adopts baby elephant (Indonesia) elephant’s plight.
Jakarta Post - 29.10.2015 There are now fewer than 900 Asian elephants left in Laos. There are about 350 in the wild and about The Delegation of the European Union (EU) in 400 domesticated animals. The species’ survival Jakarta has adopted Eropa (Europe), a newborn is threatened by habitat loss, poaching and abuse. elephant from the Tangkahan Conservation Conservationists say without urgent measures,
72 within half-a-century the Asian elephant will their respective external affairs and home affairs disappear from a country traditionally dubbed ministries to ensure that jumbos can cross the the “Land of a Million Elephants”. From the international boundary with ease. mid-14th century, for 353 years, Lan Xang was a large kingdom in Southeast Asia. It eventually India and Bangladesh are cooperating on trans- became part of modern-day Laos. boundary conservation of elephants and safe cross-border migration of elephants is on the The Elephant Caravans arrival in Luang Prabang agenda of our cooperation. We have submitted our on December 17 will coincide with the 20th proposal to our external affairs and home affairs anniversary celebrations of the city being granted ministries for approval so that elephants are World Heritage status. The next day 20 elephants allowed smooth passage across the international will join the traditional elephant procession border. So far the response of the ministries through the ancient city. have been positive,” Project Elephant inspector general, R K Srivastava said. Experts said cross- 15. Now, elephants get ambulance service in border jumbo movements are primarily affected Kerala (India, Kerala) by border fencing, which at many places are right on the elephant corridors. The Indian Express - 5.11.2015 “Elephants are by nature migrating animals. Elephants in Kerala will soon have the luxury of Blocking their corridors actually do not work ‘ambulance’ service to transport sick and injured as elephants manage to overcome the barriers. jumbos. The state Forest Department has launched However, we need to ease their cross-border an animal ambulance, a specially designed movement of elephants. There are about 200-odd vehicle for elephants at the Wayanad Wildlife elephants left in the wild in Bangladesh. If we do Sanctuary (WWS), a paradise of wild jumbos in not allow safe migration, there genetic stock will north Kerala. A modified lorry, the ‘ambulance’ be affected,” Srivastava said. vehicle will be used mainly for the transportation of injured and tranquilised elephants for their 17. Indonesia uses trained elephants to control translocation during the time of emergencies and forest fires to ferry ‘kumkis’ (domesticated elephants) from other places, department officials said. AP - 11.11.2015 . There is a special system in the vehicle to restrict Officials in Indonesia are using trained elephants mobility of jumbos. The vehicle has also facilities outfitted with water pumps and hoses to help to store food and medicines for the animal. control fires that have claimed vast amounts of Official say the vehicle could play a significant forest while sending thick haze into neighboring role in bringing down man-elephant conflicts countries. For nearly three months, Riau province region of high range Wayanad. Domesticated in East Sumatra has been blanketed by smoke elephants can be brought in this vehicle to drive from forest fires and land clearing, especially away wild elephants which stray into human in peat-rich areas where flames are difficult to settlements.. contain.
16. India, Bangladesh join hands for safe At the elephant conservation center in Siak cross-border elephant migration district, 23 trained elephants are being used as “forest watchdogs.” Carrying water pumps and The Economic Times - 4.11.2015 other equipment, elephants and their crews patrol burned areas in the national forest to ensure that Human migration may remain a contentious fires don’t reappear after smoldering beneath the issue between India and Bangladesh, but not for peat lands. elephants. The two countries are working with
73 Elephants had earlier been trained to help patrol restriction corridors where trains cannot run forests to find people encroaching illegally, as faster than 25 km/h at any time of the day. “After well as to resolve frequent conflicts between every incident, we record the statement of the wild elephants and people by driving the wild driver and conduct an inquiry. If any elephant elephants that enter human settlements back to suddenly comes on to the tracks, it is not possible their habitats. for him (the driver) to stop the train and save the animal,” Kishore said. “Drivers always try to So far, Indonesia has been unable to put out save animals.” the raging fires this year because of intentional burning and a rain shortage. Much of the forest 19. Elephant population growth needs to be land that was burned in the past 17 years was addressed (Malaysia) converted into oil palm and pulp plantations. Data from the Riau Forest Fire Prevention Taskforce New Straits Times - 6.12.2015 show more than 10,000 hectares (25,000 acres) of forests and land have been burned in the There is a need to have better management of province. the growing elephant population and its limited habitat size, said Sabah Wildlife director William 18. Chased jumbo under train (Alipurduar, Baya. He was commenting on the department’s India) largest translocation operation involving 24 elephants back to Tabin Wildlife Reserve here The Telegraph - 22.11.2015 today. “Translocating the herd (that comes into conflict with humans) does not serve asa A wild elephant chased by a group of villagers permanent solution. “It has been proven that the was run over by a train near Madarihat early same translocated elephants made their way back this morning, bringing to the fore the constant to the conflict area,” he explained. man-elephant conflict that has led to the deaths of several jumbos in the Dooars. The people In 2013, the department had a similar translocation of Haripur village said the train was running operation involving 10 Borneo elephants that at a high speed when the adult male elephant, were introduced into Tabin Wildlife Reserve. The being chased by villagers who were guarding department had spent about a month to conduct their paddy, moved towards the tracks between the elephant control by herding them back to the Madarihat and Shishubari stations. forest reserve but decided to translocate them to prevent further damage and ensure the safety of Fifty-nine elephants have been mowed down by people. trains, including the animal killed this morning, since the 163 km long stretch between Alipurduar The herd, comprising of 22 females and two Junction and Siliguri Junction was converted into males pachyderms, were first reported in a broad gauge in 2003. Around 90 km of the tracks village area located less than 10 km away from pass through forests in the Dooars. the town. Four of the elephants were captured from Kampung Sri Putatan, 15 from Jalan Sin Both the tusks of the animal were wrenched out Hwa, three from Layung and two from Kampung in the impact of the collision. The animal’s hind Binuang. Two elephants are also fixed with was badly injured, which shows the train was satellite collars sponsored by Danau Girang Field coming down at a high speed. Later it was known Centre for future movement monitoring to better from foresters that the spot fell in a zone where understand the human-elephant conflict in Sabah. trains have to move slowly at night. Meanwhile, the department also announced a However, Sanjib Kishore, the divisional railway statewide elephant population survey would also manager of Alipurduar, said the stretch where be conducted next year to look into the increasing the accident happened was not among the speed human-elephant conflict in Sabah.
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Baskaran N & Desai AA (1996) Ranging behavior of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve, South India. Gajah 15: 41-57.
Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Rajapaksha RC, Mendis GUSP & Wijesinghe CG (2004) Management of Pinnawela elephants in musth period. In: Endangered Elephants, Past Present and Future. Jayewardene J (ed) Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 182-183.
Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
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GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Contents Gajah 43 (2015)
Editorial 1 Jennifer Pastorini
Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 2-3 Vivek Menon
Research Articles
Pinnae movement of captive Asian elephants weakly affected by environmental factors 4-9 Rukmali Athurupana, Dennis Schmitt & Charles Santiapillai
Population structure and distribution of Asian elephants in Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve, India 10-14 Ranjit Kumar Sahoo
Elephant GPS tracking collars: Is there a best? 15-25 Jennifer Pastorini, Tharaka Prasad, Peter Leimgruber, Karin Isler & Prithiviraj Fernando
Elephant corridors in northern West Bengal 26-35 Mukti Roy & Raman Sukumar
Basti therapy of elephants according to Sage Palakapya 36-41 K. G. Sheshadri
Short Communication
Some traditional captive elephant management practices in Sri Lanka 42-45 Ashoka Dangolla
News and Briefs
Summary ASEAN Captive Elephant Working Group Meeting 46-47 Chatchote Thitaram, Janine L. Brown & Sonja Luz
Collaborating with Myanmar Mahouts on Elephant Health Care 48-49 Zaw Min Oo, Christopher Stremme & Heidi S. Riddle
WWF AREAS HEC Workshop Report 50-51 Nilanga Jayasinghe
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants 52-67
News Briefs 68-74