MASARYK UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

Cinderella Fairy Tale: A Comparative Analysis of Four Versions throughout the Time Bachelor Thesis Brno 2019

Supervisor Author Mgr. Barbora Kašpárková Anna Karlíková

Declaration

I hereby declare that I worked on the following thesis on my own and that I used only the sources listed in the bibliography.

Prohlášení

Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních zdrojů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy university a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb. o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.

V Brně dne 29. 3. 2019 …………………………

Anna Karlíková

Acknowledgment

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Mgr. Barbora Kašpárková for the useful comments, remarks and guidance that she provided through the writing process of this thesis.

Annotation

This thesis provides a comparative analysis of four versions of a fairy tale, best known as Cinderella. The theoretical part provides a historical background of the origins and tracks the development of fairy tale as a literary genre. The thesis discusses the role of fairy tale as an efficient tool of social shift and focuses on representation of social and gender roles, behaviour models and value systems. The practical part consequently analyses and compares four tales, namely Charles Perrault’s Cinderella, or The Little Glass Slipper (1697), the Grimm brothers’

Aschenputtel (1812) with two adaptations of non-European origins, namely the Mufaro’s

Beautiful Daughters (1987) written by John Steptoe, representing the African portrayal and the

Rough Face Girl (1992) written by Rafe Martin, representing the Algonquin-Indian perspective.

Key words

Fairy tale, Cinderella, history of fairy tale, classical versions, African tale, Native American tale, society, gender roles

Anotace

Tato bakalářská práce nabízí komparativní analýzu čtyř verzí pohádky, nejlépe známé jako Popelka. Teoretická část práce poskytuje historické pozadí vzniku a mapuje vývoj pohádky jako literárního žánru. Práce se zabývá rolí pohádky, jakožto efektivního nástroje změny ve společnosti, a zaměřuje se na reprezentaci sociálních a genderových rolí, modelů chování a hodnotových systémů. Praktická část analyzuje a porovnává čtyři verze, a to Cinderella, or The

Little Glass Slipper od Charlese Perraulta, Aschenputtel od bratří Grimmů s adaptacemi

neevropského původu, Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters od Johna Steptoe, reprezentující Africké pojetí a dále Rough Face Girl od Rafe Martina, reprezentující Indiánský kmen Algonkinů.

Klíčová slova

Pohádka, Popelka, historie pohádek, klasické verze, Africká pohádka, Indiánská pohádka, společnost, genderové role Karlíková 6

Content

Introduction ...... 7

1 History and purpose of the fairy tales ...... 10

1.1 Fairy tale vs. folk tale ...... 11

1.2 The early attempts in Italy ...... 12

1.3 Fairy tale as a literary genre in France ...... 15

1.3.1 Charles Perrault and his Histoire ou Contes du Temps Passé: Contes de ma mère l'oye ...... 20

1.4 The brothers Grimm and their activity in Germany ...... 24

2 Analysis of the Perrault’s, Grimm’s, African and Native American versions ...... 32

2.1 The role of biological mother or other senior figure ...... 32

2.2 The role of step-mother and sisters ...... 34

2.2.1 The source of hatred towards Cinderella ...... 35

2.3 Social distinction ...... 36

2.3.1 A fine dress as a pass to the higher society ...... 38

2.3.2 The conceptions of the higher society ...... 41

2.4 The role of males ...... 44

2.4.1 The role of the father ...... 44

2.4.2 The role of the future husband...... 46

2.5 Cinderella’s self-reliance ...... 50

3 Comparison of the four versions ...... 54

Conclusion ...... 56

Works cited...... 58

Karlíková 7

Introduction

The aim of this thesis is to examine the well-known fairy tale, in English speaking countries known as Cinderella. The thesis investigates four adaptations of the tale, divides them into two groups from which the first one concerns the most influential versions throughout the history, while the second group deals with less-known adaptations created later in time, outside

Europe.

The theoretical part deals with development of the fairy tale as a literary genre throughout the time and focuses on the main literary figures who have dealt with the story of

Cinderella around Europe in the past centuries, namely the Italian authors Giovan Francesco

Straparola and Gianbattista Basile, the French fairy tale godfather Charles Perrault, and the famous German brothers Grimm. The theoretical part aims to trace the roots of fairy tale as a literary genre and the origins, development and formation of the Cinderella fairy tale in particular. The main task is to detect the hidden tendencies within the versions characterized as classical and to analyse and interpret them with focus on the historical context of each adaptation’s country of origin. The thesis focuses mainly on the social models presented within the fairy tales, including the given behaviour examples, gender models and moral norms which were based on the political and philosophical beliefs of the time.

The practical part consequently deals with a comparison of the two versions regarded as the classical ones, namely Charles Perrault’s Cinderella, or The Little Glass Slipper (1697) and the Grimm brothers’ Aschenputtel (1812) with two adaptations of the famous template with non-European origins, namely the Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters (1987) written by John

Steptoe which represents the African portrayal and the Rough Face Girl (1992) written by Rafe

Martin which represents the Algonquin Indians. The aim is to analyse and compare the shared features of the tales and to discuss the representation of the social and gender roles and Karlíková 8 behaviour models based on nowadays perspective. The goal is to find whether the form and content of the individual versions differ one from another and to seek an answer to the question whether there can be found any dissimilarity within the time and place of their origin, or if on contrary none progress has been done and the incorporated social views from the classical versions remain the same until now.

Karlíková 9

It is widely believed that fairy tales represent the culmination of hundreds, even thousands, of years of uninterrupted oral tradition. Seen as embodying timeless and ageless truths, they are considered particularly suitable as reading material during children’s formative years. Exposure to fairy tales is said to both help and hasten a child’s maturation. It is repeatedly asserted that the voice of the folk speaks through fairy tales, despite convincing evidence of thoroughgoing reformulation by their bourgeois editors. (Bottigheimer, Fairy Tales and

Children’s Literature 101)

Karlíková 10

1 History and purpose of the fairy tales

It is impossible to trace the exact origins of the fairy tale as a genre for it is well known that the stories began to spread long before the population were able to read or write. Based on this fact, storytelling had always been an essential part of socialization within communities as they all gathered for a story to be told after their work was done. What is more, the storytellers wanted their stories to be memorable and relevant in some specific way which later helped to form cultural patterns as well as it suggested some sort of social stratification. In simple words, throughout the history, telling stories had become a vital ability for anyone who wanted to become a leader, shaman or healer. The same applies to latter kings or priests whose greatest weapons were not their swords but rather their public performances. The speeches full of story- like, unreal accomplishments and unfulfilled promises which, after all, are present until nowadays. Zipes, points out the same:

Telling effective, relevant stories became a vital quality for anyone who wanted

power to determinate and influence social practices. In the specific case of fairy

tale, we shall see that they assumed salient aspects in conflict with other stories

and became memetically and culturally relevant as a linguistic means to

communicate alternative social practices. (The Irresistible Fairy Tale 6)

Before the first fairy tales were born, there was a similar, yet slightly different genre, a folk tale. Thanks to the parallel origins of both genres, the borderline between a fairy tale and a folk tale is indeed very narrow. Both of them reflected the same issues and contained alike characters, yet the main, crucial difference is the form of transition of such stories. As Marina

Warner claims, “scholars of fairy tales distinguish between genuine folk tales and literary fairy tales, the first are customarily anonymous and undatable, the latter signed and dated, but the Karlíková 11 history of the stories’ transmission shows inextricable and fruitful entanglement”. (Where do fairy tales come from?)

1.1 Fairy tale vs. folk tale

According to Warner´s study, a fairy tale, in general, followed the same patterns and structure as the folk tales already did. Formerly, both were short narrative stories which passed from one generation to another, yet the fairy tale as a literary genre had its roots in the written form. Even though people transmitted the stories orally, the original fairy tale must have been written down, therefore we can search out the chronology and find its author. Obviously, the folk tales are few centuries older than the fairy tales for the very first Old English, written literary works such as The Dream of the Rood are dated back to the 10th century, however, The

Dream of the Rood itself is based on legends, pagan stories amalgamated with Christian teachings which must have been foretold and well known much earlier than it was finally written down.

Another difference between those two genres is the setup of the story. While folk tales, from their older origins, utilized mainly from the nature and from the occurrences that the people were not able to understand, the fairy tales, on the other hand, usually included completely made-up characters and mystical creatures such as dwarfs, dragons, witches, orcs and ogres as well as brittle princesses and brave princes. In simple words, the folk tales can be easily likened to the godly-legends which described the unknown world, while the fairy tales used the new made-up characters instead of former made-up gods.

What is similar though, is the general outcome of both the genres. The folk tale, as well as the fairy tale try to bring up some educational purposes which are supposed to “teach people a lesson”, focusing mainly on the consequences of peoples´ decisions and deeds. Many parallels Karlíková 12 can be found within both the genres. Even though the characters are different as the fairy tales in their modernity used aristocratic princes a princesses as the main characters, while the folk tales inclined more towards the common people in their daily life, the outcome of the story is however very similar, and the ending brings up quite the same moral setup in both the genres.

1.2 The early attempts in Italy

Although the French writers of late 17th century, namely d’Alnoy, Perrault, Bernard and some others, are considered to be the European founding fathers of literary fairy tale, in fact, it was Florence, the Italian cradle of Renaissance, where the inspiration for fairy tales came from, to be more precise the two Italian writers, Giovan Francesco Straparola and Gianbattista Basile.

The Italian literary activity had spread under the influence of Giovani Boccacio´s The

Decameron around the second half of the 14th century. Short narrative stories were slowly being replaced by the written form in order to preserve the work. Hand in hand with the preservation went the first attempts to make the tales both amusing as well as instructive for the reader. The stories were, however, formerly focusing on daily-life events, similarly to the folk tales. Yet, they were considerably affected by the orally transmitted wonder tales, fabliaux, chivalric romances, fables or epic poetry. Those are the main reason why there is just a very thin line between the folk tales and the fairy tales, for they are both based on very similar ideals and originate from almost the same environment.

If the French writers are considered to be the founding fathers of the fairy tale as a literary genre, then, Giovan Francesco Straparola, one of the first Italian writers should be considered the genre´s grandfather. “Gianfrancesco” Straparola (ca. 1485-1558) was an Italian poet, collector and writer of short stories who is well known mainly for publishing two volumes of his life-long literary work called The Facetious Nights and The Pleasant Nights which are considered to be the very first versions of fairy tales in Europe. Ruth B. Bottigheimer claims Karlíková 13 that Straparola´s literary contribution is based mainly on the fact that “He knew Venice and experienced the repelling reek of rank poverty and had known the beguiling softness of great wealth” (Fairy Tales: A New History 91). Jack Zipes then follows up with his commentary:

The allure of his work can be attributed to several factors: his use of erotic

riddles and obscene riddles, his mastery of polite Italian used by the narrators in

the frame narrative, his introduction of plain earthly language into the stories,

the critical view of the power struggles in Italian society and lack of moralistic

preaching, his inclusion of fourteen unusual fairy tales into the collection, and

his interest in magic, unpredictable events, duplicity, and the supernatural.

(Fairy Tales and the Art of the Subversion 13).

Straparola may neither have been the first one to trigger the development of the fairy tale as a genre, nor the one who set some standards for the genre, yet, his influence on latter writers is undoubtable. Zipes also signifies in his Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion (15)

Straparola´s impact on the French 1690s writers, where, by the time, some sort of “chain” within literary works can be noticeable. Not only the Italian followers, namely Giambattista Basile became familiar with Straparola´s stories, but apparently even later European writers like

Charles Perrault or Madame d’Aulnoy came to know his stories and got inspired by them. The stories spread further through Europe in time as through the French authors reached even

Germany and consequently the fairy tale literary figures, the Brothers Grimm. Therefore, it is possible to say that both the “classical” versions, the Perrault’s one and the Grimm brothers’ one may have been originated from the much earlier Straparola’s template.

Even though the civilizing process will be described more profoundly further in the text concerning Charles Perrault and the brothers Grimm, it is obvious that the tendencies to civilize and spread the social views had already started with Straparola’s texts. Both Straparola and

Basile were good at observing the decay of the civilization process in individual parts of Italy Karlíková 14 that was initiated by wars, family conflicts as well as by the transformation of the trade in 16th and 17th century. Zipes explains their attraction to fairy tales by the fact “it offered them a mode of writing, a narrative strategy and discourse, to address their concerns about the deformation of the civilizing process and the transmission of norms of behaviour that involved the management of violence and self-restraint” (Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 21).

The other significant figure of the Italian birth of the fairy tale, is the poet, courtier and fairy tale collector, Giambattista Basile (1566-1632), who is the author of Lo cunto de li cunti, also known as Pentamerone. Unlike his compatriot Straparola, Basile is believed to be rather an “up-dater” of older stories then an actual creator. The Basile’s contribution is mainly celebrated in terms of language as he borrowed tales from earlier collections and changed or rather up-dated the vocabulary and refreshed the plot.

As indicated above, Basile was one of those authors who were influenced by Boccaccio, who is assumed to be the one who had set the model for all the forthcoming writers who dealt with such genres. Generally, stories created in the 16th or 17th century on the continental Europe were intentionally conceived to be literary including high style of language. The language was usually Latin as its audience meant to be mainly the educated priests, government officials and scholars. In the meanwhile, for the rest of the readers belonging to common people, the collections were written in locally spoken languages, mainly Italian or French. As Bottigheimer points out though, Basile did quite the opposite:

When Giambattista Basile created his tale collection, he inverted every one of

Boccaccio’s well-known ideals. His opening statements stressed not the nobility

of human compassion, but a frame tale, human beings, their bodies, and their

emotions became a stage for comedy. Even royalty was drawn into that

degrading scene. (Fairy Tales: A New History 78) Karlíková 15

1.3 Fairy tale as a literary genre in France

After the Italian fairy tale expand follows the great French attraction by fairy tales in the late 17th century. The concern was significant for the writers as well as later the audience, became fascinated by the fairy tales what consequently lead to creation of a fashion in writing and reading of such stories. What is more, the fairy tale has been firmly institutionalized as a literary genre throughout Europe and North America. Around the 1690s, when fairy tale became the institutionalized literary genre, there were both male and female writers who were involved in the issues connected with the civilizing process which centred at the French King Louis

XIV’s court.

Surprisingly enough for today’s audience, male writers are not considered to be the pioneers of the fairy tale genre in France in the 17th century. On contrary, the very first French fairy tale contributors were female writers who used the tales for purposes of criticism of their husbands and the King Louis’ XIV court, which incidentally is quite similar trigger as with

Straparola in Italy.

One of the very first figures of this activity is Marie-Catherine Le Jumel de Barneville,

Baroness d'Aulnoy, also known as Madame D'Aulnoy or Countess d'Aulnoy who was the first author who defined their works as contes de fées, translated into English as fairy tales. The

French female writers are believed to have transformed the Italian and Oriental tales and enriched them with a number of commentaries on the French court life and cultural struggles of the end of 17th century in Paris and Versailles. Marina Warner examines this issue further:

Marie-Jeanne L’Héritier, Henriette-Julie de Murat, Charlotte-Rose de La Force,

and Marguerite de Lubert likewise adopted the conventions of the fairy tale to

depict the virtues, the sufferings – and the hopes – of their sex; they speak out Karlíková 16

against arranged marriages and the double standard, which allowed men to enjoy

love affairs and punished women for the adultery, which gave men an education

and denied women the freedom that follows from knowledge; their heightened

and sardonic flights of fantasy about wealth and luxury also point to the excesses

of the royal and princely courts. (Fairy Tale: A Very Short Introduction 47)

However, the women writers’ activity was not accepted thoroughly and as a result of disagreement many of the females were even penalized, from which some of them were even punished by putting in prison, house arrest or exile.

Nevertheless, the genre such as the fairy tale seemed perfect for the purposes of change in social norms and manners, desired by certain French social circles. Therefore, it is not by coincidence that French writers of the 1690s including Charles Perrault were expressing their ideals among the youth through the fairy tales. The main purpose was to teach them from the very young age about the future roles they are to play. Even though fairy tales still centred more on the adults, the upper-class children were becoming the main target. The aim was to provide them models of behaviour so that young people would be properly groomed for their social function. For this purpose, many tales were adapted and cultivated. It was not only the French fairy tales though which served for the purposes of reinforcing a hierarchically arranged civilizing process, as Zipes suggests that, “this formative civilizing character of the genre is also quite apparent in Shakespeare’s fairy-tale such as The Tempest as well as in the operas and ballets of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.” (Happily Ever After 3)

The tales were not only collected from the Italian writers, Strapola and Basile, but also from the lower-class sphere, mostly from nurses, governesses and other servants. Firstly, the tales had to be carefully cultivated and modified so that they could be later told in salons and within the courtly circles and finally to be later published in order to reach much larger Karlíková 17 audience. Thus, were the treasures of French oral, narrative folklore and Basile’s and Strapola’s tales exploited for the purposes of the bourgeois.

As well as Straparola and Basile were deeply involved in the civilizing process in their respective societies, in the question of social power and differences between social classes, were the French too. If the individual Italian and French tales were compared, it is apparent that the

French intended to enrich the tales by the views on changing French social codes and mores.

Most of the interventions were with regard to the role of women, the nature of tenderness and the proper exercise of power and justice at French courts. Sex roles, social class, and power have been the topics of fairy tales ever since , thus it is not by chance the writers chose them to integrate the process of masculine domination over women.

In the first place, it is also vital to look closely and ask why Perrault was the “chosen one to be the grandfather of fairy tale”, for example, instead of the previously mentioned

Madame D'Aulnoy who is believed to be far more talented fairy tale writer than Perrault. Once again, the females are considered to be those who have founded the genre of fairy tale in France and they are believed to have played much more dynamic role in establishing of the genre.

However, the females lacked two important things: being a member of Academie Française and being a man. As being a member of Academie Française and a male with an established name,

Perrault was given much more attention and became far more acceptable than the female competitors.

He was a high, royal civil servant, one of the first members of the Académie

Francaise, a respected polemicist, and a significant figure in literary salons.

Moreover, he endorsed the expansive political wars of Louis XIV and believed

in the exalted mission of the French absolutist regime to “civilize” Europe and

the rest of the world. (Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 35) Karlíková 18

In other words, the main interest was not focused on the genre itself and the literary art which was introduced by the women, nevertheless, the political suitability was prior. The fact,

Perrault followed the political tendencies of spreading absolutist regime and wanted to conquer the most of the Western world with his, or Louis XIV’s, views of world, were rather determining for his success and further popularity. His presence in the salons must be also stressed, as the more significant audience was sat rather in the salons than in the beds, going to sleep.

At its point of origin, the literary fairy tale was designed with two major purposes. It was supposed to be amusing, however, at the same time ideologically instructing the young people. It may be surprising, however, the genre has always been an important object of debate and even an object of investigation and control, whether the fairy tale is constructed ideologically harmless and acceptable as Zipes points out that:

“…, discreet inquiry and censorship have always been employed to guarantee

that fairy tales were more or less constructed to follow the classical pattern and

to reinforce the dominant social codes within the home and school. (Fairy Tales

and the Art of Subversion 34)

An important question must be answered and that is, who were the children that were intended to be shaped and “instructed ideologically”? Zipes provides the answer:

The civilizing process coincided with an increase in socioeconomic power by

the bourgeoisie, particularly in France and England, so that the transformed

social, religious and political views represented a blend of bourgeois-aristocratic

interests. (ibid 36)

The bourgeois was on its rise and the border line between the bourgeois and the aristocracy was not distinct any more. The two groups started to blend in, in the matter of Karlíková 19 speech, manners, interests etc. The bourgeois read the same books as the aristocracy, used the same language and subsequently had the same manners.

There, also was created so called homme civilise (a civilized man), that replaced the homme courteois (a courteous man). The courtly polite manners and proper speech were enriched by the bourgeois qualities such as honesty, diligence, responsibility, and asceticism, in order to raise its influence and have greater political power. The interests were determined also economically, as the prime intention was to allow greater laissez-faire 1for the expansion.

Nevertheless, the ultimate goal was to become as self-sufficient as possible and to make the bourgeois interest the national ones.

In this regard, much more attention had started to be paid to childhood and the future development of the individuals. The attention was paid mainly to the child’s manners, speech, general education, but also for example to clothes, books or toys. As a result, there was a boom of educational materials in various forms, such as books, pamphlets, brochures etc. that were educating the youth in terms of manners, bedroom etiquette, sexual relations or correct speech.

The “appropriate views” were spread widely and it was made sure that all the manuals reached its audience whether it is within the formal or informal schooling.

In keeping with rigid social standards that denounced open forms of sexual

behaviour, table manners, dress and natural functioning as “barbaric” and

“uncivilized” – that is, ways that had been commonly accepted by the upper

classes prior to the sixteenth century – it became important to cultivate feelings

of shame and to arouse anxiety in children when they did not conform to a more

1 Laissez-faire, (French: “allow to do”), policy of minimum governmental interference in the economic affairs of individuals and society. Karlíková 20

inhabiting way of social conduct. (Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion

37)

New standard models of male and female behaviour were established, which lead to a more ascetic life, discipline and punishment formed in the name of a Christian absolutist ruler.

1.3.1 Charles Perrault and his Histoire ou Contes du Temps Passé:

Contes de ma mère l'oye

Charles Perrault is indisputably one of the, if not the most, prominent figure of the

French fairy tale representation. Charles Perrault is best-known for his Histoire ou Contes du

Temps Passé: Contes de ma mère l'oye (1697) where can be found the most notorious fairy tales that had reached all around the world, such as Le Petit Chaperon (Little Red Riding Hood),

Cendrillon (Cinderella), Le Chat Botté (Puss in Boots) of La Belle au bois Dormant (The

Sleeping Beauty).

If focused closely and analysed the Perrault’s Histoire ou Contes du Temps Passé:

Contes de ma mère l'oye (Stories and tales from olden days: Tales of my mother goose) one can find the behavioural models that are implied on the characters. Zipes’ interpretation from the

Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion can be used for these purposes. Zipes focuses on the female characters and traces the behavioural patterns which are clearly used in favour of the reality at that time:

For example, the Sleeping Beauty, she represents an aristocratic lady who is expected to be grace, beautiful lady with temper of an angel and abilities to dance and sing perfectly.

What is more, one of the virtues which is stressed the most, is her passivity, as she is expected to be passive and patient until the prince rescues her. Karlíková 21

From the Little Red Riding Hood can the children learn quite the same. The female character is again portrayed as very fragile and beautiful. In this case though, the children learn that they should never talk to strangers or otherwise will be violated, which in other words means they should control their sexual and natural drives, or otherwise they might be put into danger.

In the tale about Cinderella, the main protagonist is again viewed as a sweet, gentle, diligent and rather reserved girl, who is chosen by a prince, at the exact moment when she is dressed exceptionally beautifully which must indeed show to the prince all her excellent qualities those consequently persuade the prince to marry no one but her.

The same could have been noticed in the other two fairy tales of Histoire ou Contes du

Temps Passé: Contes de ma mère l'oye, Blue Beard and The Fairies, where also appear the females as the main characters.

Zipes than explains the term “femme civilise” and provides a description of the

Perrault’s idealized picture of such upper-class lady:

Perrault’s fairy tales, which “elevates” heroines, reveal the he had a distinctly

limited view of women. His ideal “femme civilise” of upper-class society, the

composite female, is beautiful, polite, graceful, industrious, and properly

groomed and knows how to control herself at all times. If she fails her obedience

test, she is punished, as in Red Riding Hood’s case… (Fairy Tales and the Art

of Subversion 40)

On the other hand, as it can be expected, the male characters are portrayed in much more active way, and rather than their beauty and modesty, are intelligence, wit and good sense stressed. None of them is pictured as particularly handsome, however, all of them possess an Karlíková 22 extraordinary mind, courage and good manners. There is one more significant difference when it comes to differentiating the male and female characters which is, setting of their “life goal”.

The desired goal of the female characters is marriage or in other words, winning a husband who would take care of them. On the other hand, each male character’s goal is usually getting up on the social ladder, in other words, success and achievement. If it is Puss in boots who becomes a grand seigneur or Tom Tumb who becomes a rich and respected courtier, the heroes usually stand out for brilliant use of their minds which leads to acquiring of higher prestige, plus sometimes on top of that a good-looking wife.

To sum it up, Perrault managed to imply his normative patterns of behaviour of both female and male protagonists in order to reinforce the civilizing process of upper-society.

Besides this he emphasises the proper manners of speech and dressing of the particular social circle.

There must be also stressed the Perrault’s moralité at the end of each tale. At the end of the Cinderella tale, there can be found two of them:

Moral: Beauty in a woman is a rare treasure that will always be admired.

Graciousness, however, is priceless and of even greater value. This is what

Cinderella's godmother gave to her when she taught her to behave like a queen.

Young women, in the winning of a heart, graciousness is more important than a

beautiful hairdo. It is a true gift of the fairies. Without it nothing is possible; with

it, one can do anything.

Another moral: Without doubt it is a great advantage to have intelligence,

courage, good breeding, and common sense. These, and similar talents come

only from heaven, and it is good to have them. However, even these may fail to Karlíková 23

bring you success, without the blessing of a godfather or a godmother.

(Perrault, Cinderella, or the Little Glass Slipper 6)

The moralité stresses among other thing the role of fairy godmother as a vital element of the possible (Cinderella’s) accomplishment. There is explicitly emphasised the necessity of some kind of “patron”, to be precise a godfather or a godmother, who leads one’s steps and helps in achieving success. Also Marina Warner considers the fairy godmother to be “the principal agent of the transformations that take place” and claims that Perrault “shifts the origin of her powers from supernatural to social: from gods to patricians” (Fairy Tale: A Very Short

Introduction 31).

If compared with the oral folk tale, which Perrault used for his inspiration, it is evident that the changes Perrault made were not a mere stylistic refining, yet, a substantial transformation of the views how the society should be depicted. Therefore, he radically transformed the plots, settings and the characters of familiar folk tales, so that they could correspond to the civilizing process. As Zipes claims that while the folk tale emanated from a matriarchal tradition, depicting young woman’s struggles to regain her rights from society, the

French Cinderella is quite opposite and “after she is humiliated, forced to put on rags, and compelled to perform hard labour, she does not turn her cheek, but rebels and struggles to offset her disadvantages” (Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 45) On the other hand, in her earlier antecedent the Basile’s Cat Cinderella (1634), which emanated from a folk tradition, the young protagonist does not hesitate to kill her stepmother and embarrass her father to get her way.

(ibid 45)

The main difference there, is the Cinderella’s activity and her goal. In this sense, the

Basile’s “Cat Cinderella” might have been recognized as a Perrault’s male character, as she seeks the help actively and her true goal is not obtaining of a husband, however rather her Karlíková 24 recognition. In terms of clothing, she does not wear any spectacular baroque dress or a fragile glass slipper, instead, she is dressed in the way that reveals her true identity.

The recovering of the lost leather slipper and the marriage with the prince are

symbolically an affirmation of her strong independent character. In Perrault’s

literary fairy tale, Cinderella is changed to demonstrate how submissive and

industrious she is. Only because she minds her manners, she is rescued by a fairy

godmother and a prince. (Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 45)

Perrault projects his ideals of passive, industrious femininity to the tale by which he ridicules the original folk tale. Rather than to restore the folk tale, he omits or adds certain parts which leads to repression of the authenticity and makes a completely different effect.

1.4 The brothers Grimm and their activity in Germany

After the French boom, approximately one hundred years later, follows quite similar situation regarding to the fairy tale genre in Germany. The great literary activity concerning fairy tales was led mainly by two brothers, Jacob (1785-1863) and Wilhelm (1786-1859)

Grimm. Both brothers were scholars, philologists, cultural researches, folklorists, lexicographers and for the most part the authors of Kinder- und Hausmärchen (1812-1822) also known in English as Grimm’s Fairy Tales. Their life-work concerned mainly the German folklore as they dedicated most of their lives to compiling collections of folk tales and folk music. At their time, they are claimed to be among the most influential scholars of Germany which for instance proves the fact that their 1857 final edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen has been for more than a century the second-most-read book in Germany, only to Bible.

It should be noted though that there would probably not be the brothers Grimm as we know them now, without personalities such as the writer Clemens Brentano, his sister Bettina, Karlíková 25 the cofounder of the historical school of jurisprudence, Friedrich Karl von Savigny, the philosopher, poet and literary critic, Johann Gottfried von Herder and others. Brentano is believed to be the one who had awakened in both the brothers the love to folk poetry. Savigny, on the other hand, is considered to be responsible for teaching the brothers the method of antiquarian investigation that formed the basis of their later work.

During the times of Napoleonic invasion in Germany had been risen the demand for authentic, home-grown, original literature. Like in other countries influenced by spreading

Romanticism during the first half of the 19th century, in Germany had been established a movement of national and cultural rediscovery in anything folk, emphasising emotion and nation. Romanticism was also based on glorification of all the past, rather than contemporary, partly as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, rationalization and other elements of modernity. Warner, for instance emphasises that the figures of this movement “shared the interest lay with materials hitherto disregarded as low and vulgar” (Warner 54). This all had been later reflected in the Grimms literary activity.

The rise of Romanticism, nationalism and the rise of valuing popular culture led into the revivification of fairy tales. Although, German fairy tales are indisputably linked primarily to the brothers Grimm, there were similar attempts long before then. Nevertheless, as not being scholarly collectors (and honoured figures as mentioned in the chapter concerning Charles

Perrault), to the work of these other collectors have not been given much attention. Nonetheless, there are still names to be mentioned, for instance Johann Karl August Musäus who published a popular collection of tales, Volksmährchen der Deutschen (Folktales of the Germans) in years

1782-1787, Johann Gottlieb Schummel and his his Kinderspiele und Gespräche (Children’s

Games and Conversations) (1776-78) or Albert Ludwig Grimm (not related to the brothers

Grimm) and his books entitled Kindermährchen (Children’s Tales) in 1809, Lina’s Karlíková 26

Mährchenbuch (Lina’s Book of Fairytales) in 1816 and Mährchen aus dem

Morgenlande (Oriental Fairytales) in 1843. (Blamires 51)

The Grimms sought mainly for tales that would reflect German cultural identity, convinced that the popular culture and the common folk can contribute to the national identity and deep respect for tradition. It is important to mention that Germany was not Germany as we know now, at that time. There were over 200 German principalities, often at war with each other. The main goal was to unify the parts and create one strong, undivided state similar to

France or England. The brothers travelled themselves around the country with the quest for a local, pristine, authentic tradition. They are believed to have collected more than two hundred and fifty Germanic tales. However, the cooperation with the commoners was not always the easiest which also confirms the story how the Grimm’s Cinderella (Aschenputtel) has been

“born”:

In Marburg, for example, they visited the hospital where an old woman was

celebrated for her repertoire, but they found she didn’t want to pass on her lore

to the fine young scholars. So the brothers persuaded the little daughter of the

hospital director to ask her for a story and bring it back to them – the result was

“Aschenputtel”, the German “Cinderella”, in which the sisters cut off their toes,

before their eyes are pit out one by one by the doves which have acted to help

Cinderella throughout, the agents of her mother. (Warner, Once Upon a Time

57-58)

Warner continues explaining that the old woman did not probably want the élite young men to hear the secret thoughts and dreams of revenge that generations of women have entertained. (ibid 58) Karlíková 27

In 1812, the first of the seven editions of Kinder und Hausmaerchen (Children’s and

Household Tales), comprising eighty-six stories, was published. Scholar Lydia Jean points out, that it is interesting to note that they included all the Perrault’s tales published in Historie ou

Contes du Temps Passé. Similarly to Perrault, the brothers continued with the myth that the tales reflect only and exactly the folklore. (280). The same confirms Zipes, stating that until the

1970s it was “generally assumed that the Brothers Grimm collected their oral folktales mainly from peasants and day labourers and that they merely altered and refined the tales while remaining true to their perspective and meaning” (Fairy Tale and the Art of Subversion 59).

Zipes explains that both assumptions were wrong. Jean further emphasises that knowing the structure of the tales, apart from some subtle stylistic changes is quite the same, it would be illogical not to think that the Grimms got inspired by Perrault’s work. According to Zipes, the

Grimms are believed to gather their tales mainly from petit bourgeois or educated middle class people who had already introduced bourgeois notions into their versions. Therefore, the tales had been already containing the bourgeois views.

What did the Grimms though, were further substantial changes in characters and meanings. Furthermore, they excluded many of the tales that did not correspond with their philosophical and political views. Same as Perrault, the brothers Grimm may be accused of

“bourgeosification” of originally oral tales that had belonged to lower classes. Zipes claims though, that:

They did not purposely seek to betray the heritage of the common people in

Germany, on the contrary, their intentions were honourable: they wanted to rich

cultural tradition of the common people to be used and accepted by the rising

middle class. (Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 59) Karlíková 28

During the time, the tales went through numerous modifications and were constantly revised, enlarged and “cleaned-up”. It was triggered mainly by Wilhelm, the more conservative one of the two. Zipes further emphasises that this sanitation process has been adopted by numerous “educators” onwards. (ibid 60)

It is necessary to ask though what kind of values did the brothers promote in their stories.

The values were partly based on the religion in which they were raised, the Reformed

Calvinism. Zipes in his The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World agrees that it was in part due to their religious beliefs and upbringing that they stressed diligence, industry, honesty, order and cleanliness as the ingredients necessary for success (13).

What is more, they portrayed the character with the intentions to reinforced patriarchal concepts. In the efforts to reinforce the patriarchal system, they worked on making all the female characters passive, inferior and without much initiative (Erum 3). Zipes further stresses that both brothers were success-orientated, which also corresponds with the ideology of Protestant ethics2 and he explains that “therefore, their ethics assumed the form of a self-validation there was also a validation of patriarchy in the family and male domination in the public realm” (ibid

13).

Zipes in his Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion gives an example of the “clean-up process” on three tales, namely The Frog Prince, The Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White

(63). Zipes compares either individual Grimm’s editions during the time or puts them into comparison with the Perrault’s version from 1697 (ibid 63). If taken close look for example on the Little Red Riding Hood, Zipes stresses that the Perrault’s version was intended rather for the educated upper-class audience than children. Therefore, the Grimm’s task was to rewrite it

2 Protestant ethic, in sociological theory, the value attached to hard work, thrift, and efficiency in one’s worldly calling, which, especially in the Calvinist view, were deemed signs of an individual’s election, or eternal salvation. Karlíková 29 so it is suitable for the children and “to reinforce a more conservative bourgeois sense of morality” (ibid 64).

Zipes discusses the rewriting of the Little Red Riding Hood and explains that in the brothers Grimm’s version she “is no longer a simple village maid but an epitome of innocence”

(ibid 64). However, it was still not enough and the girl had to “learn to fear her own curiosity and sensuality” (ibid 64). Therefore, the tale explicitly emphasises that once one does not follow the rules and does not “walk the straight path” (ibid 64), or is not moral and does not resist the sensual temptations, “then will be swallowed by the wolf; that is the devil or sexually starved males” (ibid 64)

If analysed Snow White, Zipes points out the way that morals are used for justification of labour division and the separation of the sexes. “Snow White is given instructions that are more commensurate with the duties of a bourgeois girl, and the tasks that she performs are implicitly part of her moral obligation” (ibid 65). An apparent emphasis on bourgeois and the conception of a woman is given again. The female’s role represented in the tale, was to be at home with her duties regarding to household or child-rearing. Erum in her History of Gendre

Ideology in Brothers Grimm’s Fairy Tales, discusses the role of hopes and dreams depicted in this fairy tale. She says that dreams, hopes and wishes generally play an important role in fairy tales and a typical female reader can identify with the protagonist for the reward she gains. (2)

“Thus, Snow White holds the promise for girls to dream and keep on dreaming to be “saved” by the prince one day.” Erum then adds that “the elusive myth of “living happily ever after” is passed down from one generation to another, without adding any pinch of reality” (ibid 2)

In the light of these interpretations stressing the socialization process it is vital to ask how far have reached their audience. As mentioned above, the Grimms’ Fairy Tales were at their time the second-most read book in Germany for more than one century. It is likely to Karlíková 30 believe that almost every German child did come across the tales at that time, moreover, that they were reread and retold throughout their lives. With the formation of mass media, the tales have been frequently broadcasted by radio, filmed, recorded or used for advertisement.

It is of course questionable to determinate how much has been each child influenced by the tales and their set-up models, nevertheless, it is indisputable that the tales consciously draw their attention to these prescribed models, norms and values. Zipes introduces the pattern that the Grimms frequently used which quite corresponds to what Tazeen Erum describes. The pattern involves a struggle for power, survival, and autonomy. Quite similarly to the Perrault’s versions, the male-protagonist and female-protagonist goals represented in the tales can be put into contrast. Just as the Perrault’s male characters seek success and achievement, the brothers

Grimm characters’ goals are money, power and a woman. The male hero is active, competitive, industrious etc. On the other hand, that female heroines are passive, obedient, self-sacrificing, hard-working, patient and their goal is wealth, jewels and a man to protect their property rights and their happiness depends on conformity to patriarchal rule. Sexual activity is generally postponed until after marriage. (Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 69). As Wilhelm

II., the last German emperor defined the role of German women as three Ks, meaning Kirche

(church), Küche (kitchen) and Kinder (children), which subsequently remained in the German society for centuries (and was later also taken over by Nazis), the ideology can be found embedded in the Grimms’ tales as well. Erum labels the Grimm’s female protagonists as “good girls” (3). Stating, “good” simply means “being obedient” (3). The girls are usually rewarded or helped for being obedient. The beautiful, submissive heroines never complaint and they wait patiently for some higher instance or the brave man to help her. Same as Zipes point out in

Don’t Bet on the Prince: Contemporary Feminist Fairy Tales in North America, “Cinderella plays as passive a role in her story. After leaving her slipper at the ball she has nothing more to Karlíková 31 do but stay home and wait” (192) On the other hand, if disobedient, as in the case of The Little

Red Riding Hood and her going off the path, they are punished.

Zipes analyses these patterns and explains that these hidden “guidelines” might have been intended to be used as some kind of manuals for the lower-class to get higher in the social hierarchy by following these “recommended” qualities such as being thrift, industrious, patient, obedient and forth (Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion 69-70). “Basically, the narrative patterns imply that skills and qualities to be developed and used so that one can compete for a high place in the hierarchy based on private property, wealth and power” (ibid 70). Once again it is crucial to consider the particular time and place. In Germany around the 1850s has been triggered the second wave of the industrial revolution that led to a great economic expansion and growth of the population. What is generally needed for countries in cases of such flourishing, is usually the education of the society. In order to follow the capitalist goals, the society had to gain first the essential qualities and views. That is also the reason why accumulation of wealth, patriarchal domination and desire for private benefit is stressed. Karlíková 32

2 Analysis of the Perrault’s, Grimm’s, African and Native

American versions

Although there are many differences, the base of the all four stories is usually quite the same. The pattern starts with a girl who loses her mother or is somehow left alone in the world in all her fragility. Even though she possess good qualities, she is bullied, badly treated and the only way out is winning a heart of a well-situated man which leads to getting higher in her social status and finally “living the happy life”.

2.1 The role of biological mother or other senior figure

Right at the beginning of both versions, the Perrault’s Cendrillon and the Grimm’s

Aschenputtel, what is stressed are the Cinderella’s good virtues somehow received from her mother. These virtues seem to be inevitable qualities that determine Cinderella´s behaviour throughout the whole story, as well as they stand behind her greatest achievement - getting higher in the social ranks.

The French Cendrillon inherits the “goodness and sweetness of temper” (1) from her mother who was “the best creature in the world” (1). Aschenputtel, on the other hand, gets instructed by her mother while saying their farewells on her mother´s deathbed. The mother instructs the young girl to be “good and pious” followed by a quote “and then the good God will always protect you, and I will look down on you from heaven” (1). As Erum suggests, the author stressed some sort of obedience and “being a good girl” right from the beginning. From my point of view, the paragraph creates some kind of artificial fear of being under permanent surveillance which can work as a very efficient tool of control. If not the mother, it is the God who is constantly observing your decisions and deeds and afterwards may either help and

“protect” but possibly also punish you for them. In her obedience, the good girl “remained pious Karlíková 33 and good” (1) as she was instructed, which can also be viewed as being religious and faithful a girl who honours her mother and father as stated in the Ten Commandments.

In the French version the same instructions are pronounced by the fairy God mother who most likely substitutes the role of Cinderella´s dead mother and gives the main character the terms and conditions under which the fairy godmother will remain helpful for Cendrillon, resulting in granting the girl a chance to enter the ball. “Be but a good girl, and I will contrive that you shall go” (2). In the both cases, Cinderella is not permitted to act freely and subserves to the voice of a senior figure.

What is surprising, is the fact that there is literally no reference of the main protagonist´s mother in the African version. In the first paragraph one can learn only about a man who lived

“with his two daughters, whose faces were a delight to look upon”. (1) Another difference apparent from the quote is the fact that Nyasha only had one sister which will be further examined in the next chapter. The main protagonist, however, possesses the same qualities as her older ancestors such as being gentle and good-natured. Nevertheless, there is, neither any reference that she might have inherited those virtues from any of her parents, nor she had been instructed to behave so. All this evokes a completely different view of the formerly helpless main characters as in this version it is Nyasha herself who is responsible for her own decisions and consequences.

Quite similarly to the African Nyasha, the Native American Oochigeaskw possesses several qualities that can be regarded as vital for her latter great accomplishment. Again, there are minor differences in the setting of the story, yet, what is alike to the African version is the fact that there is no specific implication that the main protagonist follows any behavioural patterns of some wise, senior figures such as her mother or the fairy godmother. Unlike the

African version with literally no reference towards the mother figure, there is one minor allusion Karlíková 34 of the Oochigeaskw´s deceased mother and that is when the Invisible Man´s sister is pampering

Oochigeaskw. “Oochigeaskw has not been treated with such kindness since her mother passed”

(3). This line indicates the notion that is apparent in majority of the Cinderella-based stories.

The death of the main protagonist´s mother is a significant milestone which triggers all the bad times for all the Cinderellas. The mother was an essential element that held the realm of safety, kindness and protected the girl from anything evil. By the death of her mother, Cinderella is drawn into the cruel world, abandoned and trying to find her self-dependence.

2.2 The role of step-mother and sisters

The figure of step-mother is considered to be a widely-spread negative feminine archetype that appears in plentiful of fairy tales and folktales within various cultures. According to Paola Santagostino, step-mother is a negative alter ego of mother. While biological mother is usually the epitome of goodness and safety as discussed above, the step-mother possess all the opposing qualities (Archetypal Feminine Figures in Fairy Tales). This also applies for the original French and German version of the Cinderella fairy tale where the step-mother is the major villain character throughout the story, the representation of power and evil inside a female body. On the other hand, even though step-mother characters can be found within various versions of Cinderella, the African and Native American versions lack the evil motherly character which gets substituted by the older-sister protagonist. Therefore, a pattern which defines the oldest female as the worst one whereas Cinderella is always the youngest one who gets bullied and oppressed is visible in all the version of the fairy tale. In addition, the middle sister, if present, does not only stand “somewhere in the middle” regarding to her age and position within the family, but also in the relationship towards Cinderella herself, as stated in the Native American and Perrault’s version. Both the versions view the middle step-sister not Karlíková 35 as cruel as the oldest one, furthermore the middle sister even shows some sympathy towards her younger, bullied (step-)sibling.

The Native American version´s main character, Oochigeaskw, has two older sisters, yet no mother. The middle sister is kinder towards the main character and sometimes she even supports her, for Oochigeaskw is described as “very small, weak, and often ill” (1). The oldest sister, at the same time the oldest female in the family, is the epitome of cruelty and hatred just as the step-mother is in other versions. Not only, she torments Oochigeaskw verbally but also, she uses very cruel and torturous methods to demonstrate her superiority. “The eldest sister would hack off her hair with a knife and burn her hands and face with hot coals” (1-2).

In the Perrault’s version, the main villain is at the same time a head of the family, again, represented by the oldest female – the stepmother. In her great power and cruelty she is not only superior to the three daughters, of which the youngest suffered the most, but also she rules the whole household along with the newly-wed husband as indicated in the line: “The poor girl

(Cinderella) bore it patiently, and dared not to tell her father, who would have scolded her; for his wife governed him entirely.” (1) On the other hand, the younger of Cinderella’s two step- sisters seems to be the only one who shows the main character some compassion and, unlike her mother and sister, is somehow nicer to Cinderella as if it was their youth that predisposed their behaviour. “When she had done her work, she used to go to the chimney corner, and sit down there in the cinders and ashes, which caused her to be called Cinderwench. Only the younger sister, who was not so rude and uncivil as the older one, called her Cinderella.” (1)

2.2.1 The source of hatred towards Cinderella

While discussing the hatred and cruelty, it is vital to ask where it stems from. Although the Native American Rough Face Girl and the Grimm’s Aschenputtel fairy tales do not specify Karlíková 36 the source of hatred, the tales of Muffaro’s Beautiful Daughters and the Perrault’s Cendrillon indicate it quite clearly. From my point of view, the key attribute of the older female figures are their jealousy and envy that are aroused primarily due Cinderella’s beauty and youth. The best example is the Perrault’s version where the natural beauty and outward appearance are frequently emphasised as the female´s good qualities. Apart from the physical beauty, the other source of the older-female-character´s hatred towards the Cinderella-character, namely the

Nyasha from the African version, is her wit along with the father´s positive perspective of her.

“Manyara blamed Nyasha for everything: for making HER look bad because she was good, for growing a rich and bountiful garden while her own straggled along, and most of all, for being the favourite of their father” (Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters 1). Unlike the Perrault´s

Candrillon, whose good qualities drove the step-mother mad for “the pretty Cinderella made her daughters appear odious” (1), the African version offers a bit more complex explanation.

The oldest female character from the Perrault´s fairy tale, the step-mother, hates Cinderella for looking prettier than her own daughters, while the African version emphasizes not only the girl´s appearance, but also depicts the struggle of winning their father´s heart. On this account,

Manyara, the oldest female protagonist in this fairy tale, starts the resistance towards her younger sister and “does her best to wipe the smile off Nyasha’s face whenever she can” (1).

2.3 Social distinction

As the form of bullying differs throughout the versions, the Cinderella’s coping with the tough situations changes as well. The oldest versions, namely Perrault’s Candrillon and the

Grimm brothers´ Aschenputtel incorporate a strong motif of social, or rather class distinction, expressed by constant reminding the reader of Cinderella’s inferiority. The Grimm brothers´ version, for example, depicts the two older step-sisters in their cruelty towards Aschenputtel as creatures beautiful and “fair of face” (1). Their pale complexion and fine dresses as the symbols Karlíková 37 of aristocracy are used to emphasize their higher social status and superiority over their youngest sister who was forced to wear “an old grey bedgown” (1).

Another fact, important to mention, is that unlike the African version, in Perrault´s, the

Grimm brothers´ and the Native American versions the name of the main protagonist remains unknown, which also indicates her lower status. In the French and German version, it is reffered to her only by the offensive nicknames – Aschenputtel and Cendrillon, which determine her position among the ashes, dust and dirt. On the other hand, in the Native American version the main protagonist´s nickname originates neither from her social position, nor her unkempt appearance but rather by her older sister´s cruel labelling. The name Oochigeaskw, translated as a Rough-Face Girl is originated from her scarifying appearance as her older sister brutally torments her by burning her skin and face with burning coals, consequently leading to covering her whole body with scars. As we can imagine, not only it must have been terribly painful, but the stigmatization also expels Oochigeaskw towards the edge of society as well as it supports the villagers in making fun of her “as they erupted in laughter and ridicule as she passed by”.

(2)

What is more, whereas the motif of bullying and making bad times for the girl remains in all the versions, the motif of punishment by giving the girl demanding chores can be also found only in the two oldest versions. In the Perrault’s version, Cinderella is “employed in the meanest work of the house” (1). She has to scour the dishes, tables and ignominiously clean the luxurious chambers of her step-mother her daughters. There is a clear distinction that puts

Cinderella rather into a position of a maid who serves an upper-class family than a member of the family who owns the house. What is more, Cinderella accepts her lower position entirely and does not initiate any resistance as it can be noticed in the discussion when the sisters are asking whether she would like to go to the ball and Cinderella replies “Alas!” continuing “you only jeer me; it is not for such as I am to go to such a place.” (1) Karlíková 38

In the Grimm’s version, Cinderella is not so acquiesced with her fate as the Perrault’s one and asks whether she can go on the festival as well, however, her efforts are not successful.

What is more, when the domestic chores are not enough and the step-mother decides to employ much meaner strategy after Cinderella starts asking for permission to attend the festival. The step-mother gives Cinderella repeatedly a humiliating task to sort out a dish of lentils and ashes.

Martin Canine claims that this decision is not only another example of abusing Cinderella as a maid but also an example of psychological torture. What is more, changing of her mother’s decision seems for her impossible as even though she finishes the given task, her step-mother declines again for “they (step-mother and step-sisters) would be ashamed of her” (3).

A constant demonstration of Cinderella’s lower position and reminding to her to stay where she belongs can not be noticed only in the two oldest versions but also in the African one. However, the Cinderella’s approach to such acts quite differs to the older versions. At least

I have a feeling, that Nyasha (the younger one) receives the Manyara’s attempts to display her superiority not too seriously and rather takes it with a grain of salt. The older daughter proclaims several times that one day she will be a queen, and the younger sister will be a servant in her household. However, the younger one does not seem to be offended by such declarations and with her mild manners almost psychologically replies: “If that should come to pass, I will be pleased to serve you. But why do you say such things? You are clever and strong and beautiful.

Why are you so unhappy?” (1)

2.3.1 A fine dress as a pass to the higher society

Another theme shared by all the four stories is the necessity of having fine clothes and an adequate appearance which seem to be the most important quality to get a valid ticket into the upper-class society. The three-days festival in the brothers Grimm’s version, or the ball in the Perrault’s version, are presented as prestige social events that everyone desires to be a part Karlíková 39 of. On the other hand, one´s exclusion from such social events seems to be very unpleasant or even painful, almost as if exclusion was applied for the whole civilized world. Even though in the Native American version there is no upper-class event to be attended, the “higher class” is represented by the mysterious Invisible One whose seeing is regarded to be as exclusive accomplishment as attending a royal festival which, after all, grants the girl to marry her chosen one.

What connects these scenes is the necessity of gaining the “finest appearance” before being able to step in front of the desired man. In the Perrault’s version the reader can learn that

“persons of all fashion” (1) were invited to the king´s ball what considerably signifies its exclusivity. From the very moment when the two older sisters find out about the occasion, they become “wonderfully busy in selecting the gowns, petticoats, and hair dressing that would best become them” (1). As they “talked all day long of nothing but how they should be dressed” (1), they even “sent for the best hairdresser they could get to make their headpieces and adjust their hairdos…” (1). What is more, they even did not hesitate to undergo physical pain for they suffered from hunger and wore laces and corsets in order to get the desired appearance as illustrated in the lines: “They were so excited that they hadn’t eaten a thing for almost two days.

Then they broke more than dozen laces trying to have themselves laced up tightly enough to give them a fine slender shape” (1).

In the Grimm brothers´ version, the dress is used even as a tool of personal control, as if taking all the pretty clothes away from Aschenputtel meant taking away her freedom as well as her social status. Afterwards, the young lady in her pretty dress gets transformed into a

“kitchen-wench” in old grey bedgown and wooden shoes. From the line: “You have no clothes and shoes, and yet would dance” (2), the reader gets reminded of the fact that without material support, such as having a fine dress, shoes and other accessories, it is impossible to enter the higher society. On the other hand, it is important to notice that while wearing the fine dress, Karlíková 40

Aschenputtel suddenly becomes a stunning, mysterious, foreign lady once again, and even though she interacts with her step-sisters, they would not recognize her due to her magnificent appearance. In the Perrault’s version this motif is emphasized even stronger as putting on “the cloth of gold and silver” (2) along with jewels and “a pair of glass slippers, the prettiest in the whole world” (2) does not only mean the moment of becoming the “most beautiful and lovely creature” (3) in the ballroom, thanks to which she deserves “the most honourable seat” (3) chosen by the prince and obtaining everyone’s amazement as “there was immediately a profound silence and everyone stopped dancing, and the violins ceased to play” (2). What is more, she acquires all the necessary manners and civilities of such upper-class lady as well. By putting on the fine dress, she automatically obtains some other qualities that are essential for a complete image of a proper bourgeois lady, for example the ability to dance “so very gracefully that they all more and more admired her” (3).

As discussed in the previous paragraph, despite all the differences between the versions, the Native American fairy tale, the Rough Face Girl also deals with the same motif as it was necessary for Oochigeaskw to have a festive look as well. At first, the two older sisters tried their best as they “wore their finest clothing and took great effort to look their best”, (2) in order to charm the potential husband. However, they haven’t met the qualities required to become able to see the Invisible One so they both failed in their attempt. When it came to Oochigeaskw, although she possessed the required qualities of having a “pure heart and brave spirit” (4), yet it was still necessary to have the fine look. However, unlike the Oochigeaskw’s predecessors, the Perrault’s Cendrillon and the Grimm brothers´ Aschenputtel, in the Rough Face Girl there is no magical element that would help the main character to obtain the pretty clothing. On the contrary, she managed to make her fine outfit herself, even with the limited resources such as birch bark or a pair of father’s old moccasins. What is important to point out though, is quite the opposite reaction of the bystanders in the Native American version who, unlike to the older Karlíková 41 versions where Cinderella is admired almost speechlessly, mock and ridicule her as indicated in the line: “the entire village erupted in laughter and ridicule as she passed by” (3).

Surprisingly enough, in the African version, there is literally no reference regarding neither Nyasha´s nor her sisters’ clothing or appearance, except the line stating their “faces were a delight to look upon” (1). What is even more striking and contrasting, is the fact that in the

African version it is a male character, the king, who goes through the visual transformation and exposes his handsomeness at the end of the story as a climax, instead of using the change of his appearance just to rise the action. The revelation of the fact that it is the king who transforms from the poor hungry boy, the old woman and the garden snake into a handsome young man

“whose warm brown skin glowed under the white of his robe” and his “gold bracelets encircled the muscles of his bare arms, and his body seemed to ripple with strength” (4), is presented to the reader at the very end of the story.

2.3.2 The conceptions of the higher society

While dealing with the labelling of the higher society, it is vital to define and grasp the characteristics and conception of such social group, as well as suggesting a possible outcome for each of the four Cinderella-characters, after becoming a member. Unlike some other shared motifs, these conceptions seem to differ in each version.

As indicated above, the Grimm brothers´ and Perrault’s versions share the notions of exquisite dresses and jewellery, wealth, luxury along with other crucial elements, specific for a materialistic bourgeois society. What also helps to obtain a complex understanding of the bourgeois-society conception, particularly in the German version, is the step-mother- character´s way of argumentation, trying to persuade her daughter to cut off a piece of their feet in order to fit the slipper. “Cut a bit of your heel, when you are queen you will have no more Karlíková 42 need to go on foot”. (5) The step-mother profusely emphasises that once her daughters get into the higher society, they will no longer need to walk on their feet and therefore they do not need to feel worried about cutting their heels or toes off, for being a queen probably means eternal comfort without much physical effort and it is rather just lying on comfortable sofas or riding in the luxurious carriages. Needless to say, the role model represented by the Aschenputtel´s step-mother is far from being appropriate for the nowadays-children´s perspective.

In contrast to the Grimm brothers’ Aschenputtel who can benefit from eternal comfort at the end of her rough journey, the Perrault’s Cendrillon will probably mainly enjoy the eternal luxury and exquisiteness. However, such life also requires something in return which, in this case, is the noble behaviour and obligation of being graceful and amusing at all times, along with the kindness, due to which French Cendrillon forgives her sisters their nasty demeanour and what is even more, she matches them with two great lords of the court who grant both the sisters the entrance into the high-society spheres as well.

The next version, the African story of Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters, differs in the terms of conception of upper-class society and the process of getting a higher social status probably the most. As it is the king who goes through the visual transformation and revelation instead of

Cinderella. All the same, marrying the king does not necessarily mean becoming a fine lady who is constantly surrounded by servants who are supposed to fulfil all her desires. From my point of view, the African tale may be regarded as slightly left-wing oriented, promoting social equality and egalitarianism, which is greatly contrasting with the aristocratic depiction of the upper-class hierarchy mentioned in the previous, older versions. Even though the king sends a messenger to the city to inform that “the most worthy and beautiful daughters in the land are invited to appear before the king, and he will choose one to become a queen” (2) which may suggest his passivity at the beginning of the story, it is the king who later personally sets off as well. He seeks his future bride himself among the common people’s gardens, at first masked in Karlíková 43 a form of a snake. What should be emphasized here is the fact that throughout the story there is no particular reference about any luxury, jewels or festiveness, however, the accent is rather focused towards common people and helping them. In the story, the king tests his female suitors as he transforms into a poor small boy and a hungry old woman through which he examines the ladies´ attitude towards the elderly and the poor. The left-wing tendency dismissing the social classes is also apparent at the end of the story when, after becoming the queen, Nyasha does not abandon her lower-class life-style and instead of embedding herself into the care of the servants, she “herself bakes the marriage bread, of millet harvested from her own garden, rich with the love of her home” (4). In this case the outcome for the Cinderella-character is neither any wealth nor social status, but rather a partner to share a life with and enjoy simple moments, for example gardening and other daily activities which is, after all, the thing any girl wants the most.

On contrary, in the Rough Face Girl, it is indeed not easy to clearly define the upper- class society as it is not obvious from the story who does it actually represent. The hypothetical peak of the society is represented not by a king but rather a mysterious character, the Invisible

One together with his sister who plays the role of a middleman between her unreachable brother and his potential brides. The Invisible One is portrayed as a magnificent young hunter who wears a shoulder strap made from a rainbow and a bowstring made from the Milky Way which already suggests that this character is far from the Perrault’s and the Grimm brothers’ aristocratic figures. What is important to highlight though, is again the outcome for the

Cinderella-character. Not only does she finally meet her soul mate, similarly to the African

Nyasha as indicate the lines: “like her (invisible) husband, she too had kept herself hidden, waiting for the right person to find her, and now that she had that person’s love, she was hidden no more” (4), but she also gained the gift valued the most of all. It was her looks and beauty which she gained back thanks to the Invisible One’s sister who helped Oochigeaskw to remove Karlíková 44 her outcast stigmatization and enable her to become herself again. “When they reached the wigwam, the Invisible One’s sister took the strange clothes off Oochigeaskw, and washed her with water from a special jar. Under her gentle hands, the young woman’s scars disappeared, leaving her skin shining and smooth. She also combed Oochigeaskw’s hair, and as she did, it grew to her waist, black and gleaming as a raven’s wing and ready for braiding” (3).

2.4 The role of males

As discussed in the previous chapters, more dominant characters in all the versions are the senior-female protagonists. In the Grimm brothers’ and Perrault’s versions, those in charge are the step-mother characters, who rule the household, as well as in the Native American version it is the oldest sister who has the power to violate her younger sibling. Only the African version does not clearly distinguish who is dominant in the story as all the characters are rather equal. Nevertheless, this conclusion does not mean that the men are powerless or not-as- relevant as the female figures. In general, the story of Cinderella usually includes two important male figures, the first is the main character´s father and the second one is the future husband, the prince, the king or even the Invisible One. These two male characters, however, often observably differ one from another.

2.4.1 The role of the father

Except the African version, all the other stories portray the father figure surprisingly passive which is quite contrasting to how both Perrault and the Grimm brothers aimed to picture the male characters. In the Perrault’s version there is just a tiny reference that pictures the

Cendrillon´s father as rather his newly-wed wife´s puppet whom she “governed entirely” (1) instead of an independent sovereign male character. Karlíková 45

In the Grimm brothers’ version, the father figure appears much more frequently than in the French version. However, the relationship with his only daughter seems to be quite odd and strange, for he seems to be as passive and obedient as Aschenputtel is. When she flees from the ball and hides in the pigeon-house or on the pear tree the other day, even though her father is at both times nearly sure that the mysterious beauty is his daughter, he neither does nor says anything independently as he only follows the given commands. He “hew the pigeon-house into pieces” (4) or cut down the tree with no hesitation or fear of harming his daughter. Another good example is observable while the prince seeks his bride, yet he fails to choose the right one twice, so he returns to their house and asks Aschenputtel´s father whether he has any other daughter. The father answers quite stoically as if he would not have wished for a better future for his one and only child: “there still is a little stunted kitchen-wench which my late wife left behind her, but she cannot possibly be the bride” (6).

In the Rough Face Girl, on the other hand, the father is not portrayed as subordinately as in the French and German versions even though it may seem so at the beginning of the story.

He is represented as a respected figure and the head of the family, unlike the father figure in the two older tales. Nevertheless, his attitude towards his youngest daughter is not portrayed as being any better. Again, he seems to be too passive or even ignorant towards his children´s upbringing as he does not care much about what is happening between his two daughters. He even overlooks Oochigeaskw’s scars and disfigurement and believes the older daughter´s interpretation in which that all was Oochigeaskw’s fault for she was overly clumsy and fell into the fire herself. Not only does he fail to further investigate whether it is true or not, but also he does not even come to his daughter as to help her treat the wounds and instead he just passively

“shakes his head, and wonders what would become of his youngest daughter” (2).

Finally, the father figure in the Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters is described in a completely different manner. Although he seems from the beginning to be, as well as the Karlíková 46

Oochigeaskw’s father in the Rough Face Girl, a head of the family, he does not know about the lasting rivalry between his daughters, for the younger Nyasha “did not complain to her father because she knew it would sadden him to hear” (2). The story suggests that the father´s relationship with his youngest daughter is much better than all the other three versions of the fairy tale. Nyasha seems to have a harmonic connection with her father as they share some kind of fellowship which is apparent from the story, specifically during their travels, for example when they share this special moment of awe while “she (Nyasha) called to her father, and he joined her, and together they gazed in awe at the gentle rolling hills, the floating clouds, and the towers of the city in the distance” (3).

2.4.2 The role of the future husband

The climax that all the stories share is the moment of meeting, and later wedding of the

Cinderella-character with her forthcoming husband. Within all the versions, this male character symbolizes the very moment of reaching an important milestone in all the female-protagonist’s unfulfilled lives and in most versions, it also means getting a better social ranking for the formerly underestimated girls. As discussed in the previous chapter, within all the four stories the proper clothing is presented as a necessity to achieve such goal. However, winning the heart of the husband-to-be character who seems to be the second crucial element, as the girl would most likely not be able to improve her life on her own. Through the relationship of the two young people, the fairy tale subsequently unlocks the theme of love, most often the fairy tale- like love at first sight. There probably is no general definition of love acceptable for everyone, however, it is usually identified as a strong feeling of unconditional liking towards the idealized person or as well, being physically, romantically or sexually attracted to them. What usually precedes love, is some flirting and getting to know each other. Nevertheless, I disagree such elements can be found in the stories. Not only the two versions from the 17th and 19th century, Karlíková 47 but also the latter stories do not include such features, which may evoke doubts and questioning the main protagonists´ relationship. Even though dealing with one of the most famous love stories of all times, I doubt that both male and female share any feeling of affection towards each other as well as I do not find any flirting or signs of knowing each other.

In both, the Perrault’s and the Grimm brothers’ versions, the prince falls in love at the immediate moment he sees Cinderella for she is the most beautiful girl in the whole palace.

Both the princes share the immense attraction by her beauty. Though, as Rochère states, the

Grimm brothers’ Aschenputtel “differs from earlier Cinderellas in being the prince’s possession from an early point” (32). As indicated in the line: “The prince approaches her (Aschenputtel), takes her by the hand and dances with her. He would dance with no other maiden, and never let loose of her hand, and if anyone else came to invite her, he said, “This is my partner.”.” (3-4), the prince from the German version is apparently very possessive from the very first moment he sees Aschenputtel. The prince seems almost obsessed with her presence for he actually forbids everyone else in the palace to touch his future bride. The strong male domination is obvious throughout the whole story without a slightest sign of Aschenputtel´s resistance or any other activity towards the prince. The patriarchal domination as discussed previously in the text concerning the brothers Grimm, is more than evident. Cinderella is dominated by the prince without much freedom to show anything else but her beauty which is also the thing for which she is admired and honoured by the prince and the other participant of the festival. What is more, Cinderella is not allowed to leave the festival freely, she is manipulated by the prince and referred to as someone´s possession as he says in the line: “I will go with you and bear you company”, followed by the narrator´s commentary: “for he wished to see to whom the beautiful maiden belonged” (4).

In the Perrault’s version the prince seems to be rather enthralled by the Cinderella’s beauty. Almost as if bewitched, he is not capable of any activity but admiring her beauty. “A Karlíková 48 fine meal was served up, but the young prince ate not a morsel, so intently he was busied in gazing on her” (3). Unlike the Grimm brothers’ adaptation though, the French prince treated the fine lady the way one would logically expect at the royal court from the Perrault´s era, the

17th century France. The prince “never ceased his compliments and kind speeches to her” (3).

Therefore, contrasting the Grimm brothers’ version with the Perrault’s one, the French version include at least a few courting moments and possibly even flirting. Nevertheless, their attraction is, in both versions, based only on the appearances of the couple-to-be without slightest further knowledge of one another.

In both the versions, the loss of the Cinderella’s slipper plays an important role. The act of putting on and fitting the shoes works as a confirmation of the Cinderella’s and the prince’s ongoing relationship. In the Perrault’s version, Cendrillon drops the slipper by mistake while running away from the ball when the clock stroke twelve. The loss of the German

Aschenputtel’s slipper is, on the other hand, not caused by a mistake, but rather by the anxious prince who decides to employ a ruse in order to stop the beauty and take her as his wife.

Consequently, the lost slipper is employed when finding the fine lady as the princes present in both the versions, proclaiming to marry no one else but the one who fits the slipper the very next day. There is also an obvious difference between the princes on their quests for their brides.

While the Perrault’s prince stays in his comfortable zone of warmth and safety and sends some gentlemen all around the kingdom to find and bring his bride to him, the Grimm brothers’ prince on the other hand, sets out for the journey himself. Even though he proclaimed to be in love with Aschenputtel, he fails twice to choose the right bride and what is more, he is not even able to recognize her looks on his own, without the help of the glass-slipper which from nowadays perspective makes the love story even more impersonal and obscure. The French Cendrillon

“was taken to the prince, dressed as she was” (4) after the Fairy Godmother made her dressed like a beautiful lady again. The process is quite the same in the Grimm brothers’ version where Karlíková 49

Aschenputtel washes her hands and face first, in other words makes herself prettier so the prince likes her appearance again. After she puts on the slipper, without any proposal or asking the girl whether she wants to marry him, the prince proclaims the maiden to be his “true bride” while Aschenputtel silently accepts.

Both the African and Native American tales´ storylines quite differ from the older versions. There is an absence of the slipper as an external element identifying the true future wife. On contrary, the two main female protagonists are recognized either for Nyasha´s man knows her well already as it is in the African version, while the Oochigeaskw’s future husband accents her “pure heart and brave spirit” (4) rather than her appearance which is a situation substantial for the Native American version. What is even more contrasting to the Perrault’s and the Grimm brothers’ Cinderellas, who are waiting for the rescue hidden behind the cinders and ashes, is the fact that those are the male characters whose identity is revealed as a segment of the climax at the end of both non-European stories. The African king hides himself transformed into various characters through which he tests the true intentions of his possible brides. The Native American male character, the Invisible One is kept his whole life in isolation as he is invisible for everyone but his sister, who is the only one who keeps him company. I would like to point out that in none of these two versions is neither stressed nor highlighted the lady´s outer beauty as an element that would drive the males into such obsessions as could have been observed from the older versions. The Native American version focuses rather on qualities such as courage, brave spirit and pure heart instead of beauty, for those are the valid qualities that brought Oochigeaskw to the Invisible One. Similarly, in the African version it is mainly the Nyasha´s kind nature and her strong will to help those in need. In addition, only in the

African version, there can be even found a marriage proposal as the king tells Nyasha: “It would make me very happy if you would be my wife.” (4). Karlíková 50

2.5 Cinderella’s self-reliance

In terms of the main protagonist´s self-reliance, all the four versions could be put into two separate groups again, those classical and those of latter years. In the Grimm brothers’ and

Perrault’s version there is a strong notion of some “helping agents” who are crucial for the

Candrillon’s and Aschenputtel´s accomplishments whereas in the Native American and African versions, the ladies are fairly self-dependent.

In the Grimm brothers’ version, it is the birds who play an important role in the story.

In my opinion, the birds may not only be identified as Aschenputtel´s helpers but also as members of her family, for the birds substitute her dead mother and a father who seems to have abandoned her. All the same as in the French version, the agents provide her material support as she can express a wish and the bird “throws down to her what she wishes for” (2). The birds accompany the young lady throughout the whole story. Same as the Perrault’s Fairy God mother, the birds provide Cinderella with the finest dresses and provisions for the festival, however, their most significant intervention is at the end of the story when the prince is struggling to find the right bride. Only thanks to the birds, the prince gets the information that he has chosen wrongly. The story though, does not end with the moment the couple finally meet and declare their marriage. As I have already mentioned the brutality and gore of this particular version in one of the previous chapters, the final scene of the German fairy tale closes in exactly the same spirit. The stepsisters´ maliciousness does not get forgotten and they get punished for their vicious behaviour towards Aschenputtel. The punishment is executed by the helping agents - the birds, as they peck out the sisters´ eyes and consequently sentence them to a lifelong blindness. Notwithstanding, I would like to emphasize that at the end of the story, the sisters end-up punished and severely mutilated as not being able to see or walk again. Or at least not normally. Even though the sisters have indisputably participated on the Cinderella’s mental and Karlíková 51 physical abuse, it is necessary to point out the fact that the prior villain – the stepmother comes out of the story with any sanction.

In the Perrault’s version the helping agent is represented by the Fairy Godmother who, similarly to the Grimm brothers’ birds, provide Cinderella with the material as well as mental support. Cendrillon, derogated by being unable to visit the ball, is soothed by the Fairy

Godmother who may be recognized as a substitution for her biological mother likewise the

Grimm brothers’ birds. An example of their mother-daughter relationship is noticeable at the moment when Cendrillon returns home from the ball and eagerly reports her dancing experience to her Fairy Godmother. However, in this part of the story, the magical helper is only in a position of a passive listener. The Fairy Godmother therefore provides Cendrillon with both mental and physical support as she listens to her and uses her magical powers to help poor

Cendrillon as she turns a pumpkin, mice, rats and six lizards into a noble coach with horses and a coachman, along with the footmen and finally she turns Cendrillon´s nasty rags into “a cloth of gold and silver, all beset with jewels” (2), accompanied by a pair of glass slippers, “the prettiest in the world” (2). What I would like to emphasize is the number of necessary accessories that each Cinderella-character needs to obtain in order to be able to visit the party.

While for the Grimm brothers’ Aschenputtel the fine dress is enough, the French Cendrillon on the other hand, needs much more than just a dress. Particularly a male escort which again, indicates the circumstances and a brief background of the time, the fairy tale had been written in. All of these aids are given to Cendrillon under the condition of “being a good girl” (2) and leaving the ball before the stroke of midnight, which indicate the lack of Cendrillon´s free will.

What remains unclear is the reason why the Fairy Godmother as a powerful magical character does not intervene to help Cendrillon much earlier as she must have been aware of the young lady´s unkind situation. The Fairy Godmother in Perrault´s fairy tale remains portrayed only as Karlíková 52 a passive listener and an instrument to provide Cendrillon with all the magnificent upper-class support.

In comparison with the classical version of the fairy tale, neither the Native American, nor the African interpretation include such helping agents as the birds or the fairy godmother.

On contrary, the main female protagonists from both the non-European tales are portrayed as strongly self-sufficient and self-reliable. Focusing on the elements that might substitute the main protagonist´s biological mother´s love within the two latter stories, one can liken such attributes to the Nyasha´s garden in the African adaptation. The parallel lies not only within the fact that it is the garden where Nyasha seeks sanctuary and surrounds herself with her animal friends similarly to the Grimm brothers´ birds, but also the garden is a source of her older sister´s envy for it is “rich and bountiful”, representing Nyasha´s diligence and handiness which annoyed her older sister. In her modesty, Nyasha usually seeks refuge in her favourite place and if compared with the remaining three Cinderella-characters though, she does not seem unhappy or suffering. Unlike all the other three adaptations, Nyasha does not get oppressed or violated and what is more, she even has a loving father figure in her life which is missing from the other versions. In her peaceful life she does not need any prince who is supposed to rescue her from some kind of misery. Nyasha seems to have absolute freedom in all her decisions and she is actually able to offer the king her practical skills and knowledge, for example when it comes to the wedding preparations.

From all the four fairy tales, the Native American Oochigeaskw is portrayed as the toughest, the most self-reliant and bravest Cinderella-character. She does not dispose of any friends or companions and she suffers from great humiliation and severe pain, yet, she is still strong enough not to give up and carry on with her courageous decision and determination which consequently brings her the happiness she desired. As well as the African Nyasha,

Oochigeaskw seems to be free enough to make her own decisions such as she concludes that Karlíková 53

“it was the right time for her to see whether she might catch sight of the Invisible One” (2) and she alone. Even though she gets mocked by the villagers, she shows her strength and determination again, and even when “her sisters tried to shame her into returning home, she would not obey, and carried on to the door of the Invisible One’s lodge despite all the teasing from the village” (3). The story suggests that some spirit “had inspired her and walked with her to give her strength”, however in my opinion, even if some spiritual guidance have been present there, it is a very different aid compared to the helping agents in the other interpretations. After all, Oochigeaskw’s courageousness and tough will is still to be admired for she handled her situation wisely and calmly.

Karlíková 54

3 Comparison of the four versions

Despite the tales differ from each other in the setting, storylines etc., the essential structure of the plot remains the same and the fundamental elements such as a vicious senior female character, passively portrayed male characters or the mistreated main female protagonist can be easily found in all the four versions.

Nevertheless, the most significant differences are in the portrayal of the stories´ vital elements which are labelled in the thesis as subchapters within the practical-part section.

Eventually, all the four fairy tales can be easily divided into two alike groups, based on the analysis of these elements. Based on the topics discussed in the previous chapters, such as the role of mother, the role of stepmother and stepsisters, social distinction, the role of males or the

Cinderella’s self-reliance within each of the stories´ social-values system together with the presented behavioural patterns, the two classical versions seem to be very much alike, whereas the two non-European versions quite differ from the older templates.

While the depiction of Cinderella by Charles Perrault and the brothers Grimm considerably resembles and certainly comprises the features of the place and time of their origin as analysed in the theoretical part, the two latter, non-European versions do not seem to adopt the templates completely and rather adjust it with their own values and social models incorporating the time and place of their origin along with the particular social views.

In terms of female emancipation and the present-day conception of relationship, the

African version seems to be the most progressive one. In the Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters, one can find a very self-reliable, strong character who is not much oppressed by anyone and unlike the two older versions, her marriage with the king is her own free decision which she does not come to in order to improve her life-situation but to have a companion to share her life Karlíková 55 with. Moreover, the prince wants to take the girl as his bride for he knows her character and qualities very well, which is greatly contrasting to the princes in the Grimm brothers’ and

Perrault’s versions who admire the Cinderella only for her beauty and are not even able to recognize her without trying on her slipper.

The Native American version can be, as well regarded as the more appropriate one for the nowadays´ children audience as the main character is very much strong, self-reliant and determined not to give up despite the obstacles and the mean characters who surround her. In addition, unlike the older versions, this adaptation emphasizes the main protagonist´s inner beauty and her transformation is not represented by the gold, silver and jewels but rather by the destigmatization of her disfigurement. Meeting with her future husband is quite the same as in the African version, presented as an encounter of two souls who had been struggling to find each other but met at last and thus they can finally share their lives in a harmonious relationship.

Karlíková 56

Conclusion

The thesis aimed to analyse and compare four versions of a fairy tale, typically known as Cinderella. The versions were chosen in order to represent both the historically most prominent portrayals of Cinderella and less-known adaptations originated much later in other cultures. The first group concerned probably the most famous and influential versions written a few centuries ago in France by Charles Perrault and later in Germany by the brothers Grimm.

The other group, on the other hand, represented less-known adaptations of the famous template originated in non-European cultures during the end of the 20th century, namely the African version Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters and the Native American version Rough Face Girl.

The theoretical part aimed to provide a historical background of the origins and further development of fairy tale as a literary genre during the time. The origins of the literary genre were successfully found as well as their hidden purposes and meanings used as an efficient tool of social shift. The historical context of the Perrault’s Histoire ou Contes du Temps Passé:

Contes de ma mère l'oye (1697) and the brothers Grimm’s Kinder- und Hausmärchen (1812-

1822) was provided with the emphasis on representation of social and gender roles, behaviour models and value system as well.

The practical part consequently aimed to analyse the four versions and to compare the two less-known adaptations of non-European origin with the widely-known European variants.

The investigated material from the theoretical part was used to support the interpretations and to aid while choosing the prominent features to discus in the practical part. As focused on the representation of social and gender roles, behaviour patterns and value system there have been found various noticeable differences. The question raised at the beginning of the thesis has been successfully answered as dominant contrasts between the two older and the latter versions has been grasped. Karlíková 57

From the nowadays perspective the two classical versions seem inappropriate in many aspects for the current children audience considering the role models and behavioural patterns presented. On the other hand, the two latter non-European adaptations seem to be much more suitable for the today’s young readers as those do not accent passivity, obedience, submissiveness and instructiveness of the main female protagonist. However, independence, courage and self-reliance are stressed. The portrayal of the relationship between the Cinderella- character and the main male-protagonist is not based on the patriarchal domination with an emphasis on possessiveness of the man towards the female any more, however, numerous signs of companionship along with harmonious and loving relationship are present.

Karlíková 58

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