A Study of the Consumer Market for Duck and Quail Egg Products: the Case of Chinese Canadians in Vancouver, British Columbia

Home , Quail eggs

A study of the consumer market for duck and quail egg products: the case of Chinese Canadians in Vancouver, British Columbia

Jennifer Anne Arthur

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE in The Faculty of Graduate Studies (Animal Science)

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver)

February 2013

Abstract With the growing ethnic diversity in metropolitan areas of North America, ethnic food niche markets, traditionally served by imports, may represent opportunities for local producers and processors. This study profiles the Chinese Canadian consumer market in Metro Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) for salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs. After initial focus group research, a random sample survey of ethnic Chinese households yielded a net of 410 respondents (28.9%). Logistic regression analysis, including a measurement of acculturation, and cluster analysis based on beliefs, were used to describe buyer behaviour, predict purchase, and identify key buyer groups and opportunities. Results indicated that 73% of respondents purchased at least one of the duck or quail egg products in the past year, but only 15% purchased fresh quail eggs. Most purchased infrequently, however, the duck egg products’ market shares were divided approximately 40% - 40% between low and high frequency buyers, respectively. The sample’s mean acculturation score was medium-low on the created scale, suggesting a tendency to hold on to their Chinese cultural heritage. Results also indicated a significant, negative association between acculturation and product purchase. Logistic regression analysis yielded a model that correctly predicted 77% of purchases: Acculturation, and household size (positive association), were significant predictor variables. Cluster analyses suggested 4 buyer segments for each duck egg product. Significant differences were found between the segments. Results indicated an opportunity may exist to maintain and grow the market by addressing health concerns, particularly for salted duck egg buyers. Respondents indicated a willingness to pay at least 10% more for BC produced duck egg products versus imports, all other characteristics equal. The low number of fresh quail egg buyers prevented a meaningful market segmentation. However, an opportunity to provide a smaller package size may exist: Median preferred size was 12 eggs. Opportunities exist for local producers and processors; however, results suggest that due to acculturation, new immigrants will be required to sustain the market. Few Chinese Canadians appear to buy fresh quail eggs for at home consumption: Industry is recommended to concentrate efforts in the hotel/restaurant segment or investigate other consumer segments.

Preface

The work in this thesis is wholly mine. I conducted the research, transcribed and interpreted the focus group sessions, created the survey questionnaire, ran and analyzed the statistical analyses, and wrote the thesis. Dr. Gwen Chapman provided feedback on the focus group topic guide and Ms. Angela To provided administrative assistance during the focus group sessions. Ms. Kelleen Wiseman provided feedback on my development of the survey questions and their format, and acted as a sounding board for my choice of statistical analysis methods. My supervisor, Dr. Kim Cheng, also provided valuable guidance. I remain, however, fully responsible for this research project’s design, execution, analysis, and interpretation. Research was conducted under the ethical guidelines and approval of The University of British Columbia Behavioural Research Ethics Board, ethics certificate numbers H09-01873 (focus groups) and H10-00571 (survey).

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Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii Preface ...... iii Table of Contents ...... iv List of Tables ...... viii List of Figures ...... xii Glossary...... xv Acknowledgements ...... xvii Dedication ...... xviii 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Duck and Quail Eggs: Traditional Alternatives to Hen Eggs ...... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ...... 7 1.3 Objectives ...... 7

1.3.1 Objective 1 ...... 8 1.3.2 Objective 2 ...... 8 1.3.3 Objective 3 ...... 8 1.3.4 Objective 4 ...... 8 1.3.5 Objective 5 ...... 8

1.4 Organization of the Thesis ...... 9 1.5 Literature Review ...... 9

1.5.1 An Overview of the Relevant Literature ...... 9 1.5.2 The Duck and Quail Egg Industry in BC ...... 19 1.5.3 Demographics of Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver, BC ...... 34 1.5.4 Summary ...... 42

2 METHODOLOGY ...... 43

2.1 Methodology Review ...... 43

2.1.1 Mixed Methods Research...... 43 2.1.2 Qualitative Research Design ...... 47 2.1.3 Quantitative Research Design ...... 49

2.2 Justification for Research Question and Design ...... 58

3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: FOCUS GROUPS ...... 59

3.1 Introduction ...... 59 3.2 Recruitment and Screening ...... 59 3.3 Topic Guide Development ...... 60 3.4 Setting, Moderator, and Duration ...... 61 3.5 Focus Group Analysis ...... 61 3.6 Summary of Focus Group Findings ...... 62

3.6.1 Group Demographics ...... 62 3.6.2 General Familiarity with the Egg Types ...... 62 3.6.3 Buying Considerations ...... 63 3.6.4 Ranking Exercise ...... 64 3.6.5 Consumption Habits ...... 65 3.6.6 Meal Time at Home ...... 66 3.6.7 Cooking Skills and Recipes ...... 66 3.6.8 Eating Out ...... 67 3.6.9 Attitudes ...... 68 3.6.10 Summary and Conclusions ...... 74

4 LOGISTIC REGRESSION MODEL: PREDICTING DUCK AND QUAIL EGG PRODUCT PURCHASES BY CHINESE CANADIANS ...... 75

4.1 Introduction ...... 75 4.2 Materials and Methods ...... 76

4.2.1 Questionnaire Design ...... 76 4.2.2 Survey Protocol ...... 76 4.2.3 Statistical Analysis ...... 78 4.2.4 Logistic Regression Model ...... 78

4.3 Results ...... 83

4.3.1 Survey Sample Size ...... 83 4.3.2 Survey Data ...... 83 4.3.3 Egg Purchases...... 91 4.3.4 Logistic Regression Results ...... 100

4.4 Discussion ...... 111 v

4.4.1 Survey Sample Size and Characteristics ...... 111 4.4.2 Egg Purchases...... 112 4.4.3 Acculturation Score ...... 114 4.4.4 Logistic Regression Model ...... 115 4.4.5 Study Limitations and Future Directions ...... 119

4.5 Conclusion ...... 121

5 CLUSTER ANALYSIS: SEGMENTATION OF THE CHINESE CANADIAN MARKET FOR DUCK AND QUAIL EGG PRODUCTS ...... 123

5.1 Introduction ...... 123 5.2 Methodology ...... 124

5.2.1 Research and Questionnaire Design ...... 124 5.2.2 Survey Description ...... 125 5.2.3 Development of Cluster Analysis Method ...... 125

5.3 Results ...... 127

5.3.1 Descriptive Statistics...... 127 5.3.2 Two-step Cluster Analysis ...... 134 5.3.3 Market Opportunities ...... 156

5.4 Discussion and Conclusions ...... 177

5.4.1 Discussion ...... 177 5.4.2 Limitations of this Study and Future Research Considerations ...... 181 5.4.3 Conclusion...... 183

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 185

6.1 Rationale for Utilization of Mixed Methods ...... 185 6.2 Quantitative Methods of Analysis and Objectives revisited...... 188 6.3 Suggestions for Future Research...... 191 6.4 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 192

REFERENCES ...... 196 APPENDICES ...... 210

Appendix A Focus Group Documents...... 210

Appendix A.1 Recruitment Poster ...... 211 vi

Appendix A.2 Focus Group Screening Form ...... 212 Appendix A.3 Focus Group Consent Forms ...... 214 Appendix A.4 Focus Group Topic Guide ...... 224 Appendix A.5 Results of Focus Group Ranking Exercises ...... 227

Appendix B Survey Documents ...... 233

Appendix B.1 Invitation Prenotice – English and Chinese ...... 233 Appendix B.2 Survey Cover Letter – English and Chinese ...... 235 Appendix B.3 Survey Questionnaire – English and Chinese ...... 239 Appendix B.4 Survey Reminder Notice – English and Chinese ...... 276

Appendix C Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Data ...... 278

Appendix C.1 PCA of the Importance of Product Characteristics ...... 278 Appendix C.2 PCA of Buyers’ Attitudes and Beliefs ...... 289

Appendix D Cluster Analysis Data ...... 311

Appendix D.1 Salted Duck Egg Cluster Analysis...... 311 Appendix D.2 Preserved Duck Egg Cluster Analysis ...... 316 Appendix D.3 Fresh Quail Egg Cluster Analysis ...... 321

Appendix E Entrenched Non-buyers ...... 326

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List of Tables

Table 1.1 Comparison of whole, fresh, raw duck, quail, and chicken egg nutrients ...... 4 Table 1.2 Nutrient contents of fresh duck eggs, preserved, and salted eggs (per 100g) ...... 5 Table 1.3 Value of imports and market concentration, eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved/cooked, 2010- 2011 for Canada ...... 33 Table 1.4 Percentage distribution of ethnic Chinese by total annual household income, Metro Vancouver, 2005 ...... 41 Table 4.1 Comparison of percentage distribution of household characteristics, sample versus population, Chinese Canadians, Metro Vancouver ...... 84 Table 4.2 Comparison of percentage distribution of main grocery shopper's demographic characteristics, sample versus population, Chinese Canadians, Metro Vancouver ...... 86 Table 4.3 Comparison of percentage distribution of demographic acculturation indicators, sample versus population, Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver ...... 88 Table 4.4 Comparison of percentage distribution of years lived in Canada, sample versus population, Chinese Canadian immigrants, Metro Vancouver ...... 89 Table 4.5 Frequency distribution of selected acculturation indicator variables, Chinese Canadians, Metro Vancouver ...... 90 Table 4.6 Percentage of respondents who purchased duck and/or quail egg products for at home consumption within the past 12 mths ...... 91 Table 4.7 Descriptive statistics for total annual purchases of types of duck and quail eggs ...... 95 Table 4.8 Estimated annual market size of Chinese Canadian household consumption of salted and preserved duck eggs, and fresh quail eggs, Metro Vancouver ...... 95 Table 4.9 Correlations between potential acculturation score variables ...... 101 Table 4.10 Acculturation score descriptive statistics ...... 102 Table 4.11 Cross tabulations of grocery shopper characteristics by purchase behaviour for any individual egg type ...... 103 Table 4.12 Cross tabulations of household characteristics by purchase behaviour for any individual egg type ...... 104 Table 4.13 Correlation analysis between quantitative variables and purchase behaviour for any duck or quail egg type...... 105 Table 4.14 Summary statistics of variables included in the logistic regression model ...... 106 Table 4.15 Parameter coding of categorical variables for logistic regression analysis ...... 106

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Table 4.16 Initial logistic regression estimates (constant only) for the purchase model of any duck or quail egg types ...... 107 Table 4.17 Logistic regression estimates (full model, block enter method) for the purchase model of any duck or quail egg types ...... 107 Table 4.18 Classification table for the full model ...... 108 Table 5.1 Geographic distribution of sample vs. population, by location and density of Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadians ...... 127 Table 5.2 Comparison of selected demographic characteristics of survey respondents to the Chinese Canadian population, Metro Vancouver ...... 128 Table 5.3 Mean level of importance of product characteristics when purchasing an egg type ...... 130 Table 5.4 Overall mean levels of agreement with attitude/belief statements by buyers of salted duck eggs, preserved duck eggs, and fresh quail eggs for at home consumption...... 133 Table 5.5 Mean levels of agreement with selected attitude and belief statements within each egg type, by buyers of salted duck eggs, preserved duck eggs, and fresh quail eggs ...... 134 Table 5.6 Number of cases per cluster, Ward's hierarchical method ...... 138 Table 5.7 Cluster means per variable, salted duck egg buyers ...... 141 Table 5.8 Mean values of variables per preserved duck egg buyer clusters ...... 144 Table 5.9 Cluster means per variable, fresh quail egg buyers) ...... 146 Table 5.10 Kruskal-Wallis tests of selected variable means, salted duck egg buyer segments ...... 148 Table 5.11 Chi-square analysis of categorical variables, by salted duck egg buyer segments ...... 149 Table 5.12 Kruskal-Wallis tests of selected variable means, by preserved duck egg buyer segments .. 151 Table 5.13 Chi-square analysis of categorical variables, by preserved duck egg buyer segments ...... 152 Table 5.14 Mann-Whitney tests of differences between selected variable means, by fresh quail egg buyer segments ...... 154 Table 5.15 Chi-square analysis of categorical variables, by fresh quail egg buyer segments ...... 155 Table 5.16 Mean likelihood suggested features will increase satisfaction with or willingness to try an egg type ...... 157 Table 5.17 Overall results for best package size and willingness to pay more for BC produced eggs, by egg type ...... 159 Table 5.18 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean likelihood of suggested features to increase product satisfaction with or willingness to try salted duck eggs, grouped by buyers versus non-buyers for at-home consumption ...... 161

Table 5.19 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean likelihood of suggested features to increase product satisfaction with or willingness to try preserved duck eggs, grouped by buyers versus non- buyers for at-home consumption ...... 163 Table 5.20 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean likelihood of suggested features to increase product satisfaction with or willingness to try fresh quail eggs, grouped by buyers versus non-buyers for at-home consumption ...... 165 Table 5.21 Correlation analysis of buyer ratings of likelihood of BC produced eggs to increase their satisfaction to their ratings of product characteristics and attitudes, salted duck egg and preserved duck egg buyers...... 167 Table 5.22 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean best package size, grouped by egg type and buyers versus non-buyers for at home consumption ...... 169 Table 5.23 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean willingness to pay more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, grouped by egg type and buyers versus non-buyers for at home consumption ...... 170 Table 5.24 Kruskal-Wallis tests for differences between mean likelihood scores for increased satisfaction from suggested features, grouped by salted duck egg buyer segment ...... 172 Table 5.25 Kruskal-Wallis tests for differences between mean likelihood scores for increased satisfaction from suggested features, grouped by preserved duck egg buyer segment ...... 173 Table 5.26 Mann-Whitney tests for differences between mean likelihood scores for increased satisfaction from suggested features, grouped by fresh quail egg buyer segment ...... 174 Table 5.27 Mean best package size by egg type and buyer segment ...... 175 Table 5.28 Kruskal-Wallis test for mean willingness to pay more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, grouped by egg type and buyer segment membership ...... 176 Table C.1 PCA results for importance of salted duck egg product characteristics ...... 282 Table C.2 PCA results for importance of preserved duck egg product characteristics ...... 284 Table C.3 PCA results for the importance of fresh quail egg product characteristics ...... 286 Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs...... 290 Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs...... 297 Table C.6 PCA results for buyers' beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs ...... 304 Table D.1 Agglomeration schedule, salted duck egg buyers, Ward's method ...... 311 Table D.2 K-means cluster analysis results, salted duck egg buyers ...... 313 Table D.3 Number of cases per final cluster, K-means procedure, salted duck egg buyers ...... 315 Table D.4 Agglomeration schedule, preserved duck egg buyers, Ward's method ...... 316 x

Table D.5 K-means cluster analysis results, preserved duck egg buyers...... 318 Table D.6 Number of cases per final cluster of preserved duck egg buyers, K-means method ...... 320 Table D.7 Agglomeration schedule, fresh quail egg buyers, Ward's method ...... 321 Table D.8 Number of cases per cluster, fresh quail egg buyers, Ward's method ...... 323 Table D.9 K-means cluster analysis results, fresh quail egg buyers...... 323 Table D.10 Number of cases per final cluster, fresh quail egg buyers, K-means method ...... 325 Table E.1 Mean responses to opportunity questions, entrenched non-buyers, all egg types ...... 326

List of Figures Figure 1.1 Geographic distribution of total world production in numbers of bird eggs other than chicken hen eggs, in shell, 2010 ...... 2 Figure 1.2 Structure of available marketing channels for duck and quail egg products in BC ...... 23 Figure 1.3 Percentage share of number of ducks on farms in Canada by province, 2006 ...... 25 Figure 1.4 Annual imports from Asia of bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, in number of dozens for Canada and BC, with BC percentage of total Canada import volume market share ...... 28 Figure 1.5 Percentage share of $CAD value of imports of bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, by province of import and year...... 29 Figure 1.6 Comparison of the ethnic Chinese population to the number of dozens of imports of bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, for Canada and BC, 1996 to 2009 ...... 30 Figure 1.7 Percentage share of import volume (dozens of eggs) into Canada and BC by country of origin, for eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, 1995 and 2009 ...... 31 Figure 1.8 Percentage share of import values ($CAD) by country of origin for eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, 1995 and 2009 for Canada and BC ...... 32 Figure 1.9 Ethnic Chinese population counts, single ethnicity, Census years 1971 – 2006 ...... 35 Figure 1.10 Number of ethnic Chinese immigrants by period of immigration, Metro Vancouver ...... 37 Figure 1.11 Place of birth of ethnic Chinese immigrants in Metro Vancouver (%), 2006 ...... 37 Figure 1.12 Ethnic Chinese population mother tongues, single language responses only, Metro Vancouver, 2006 ...... 38 Figure 1.13 Percentage age group distributions in Metro Vancouver 2006, ethnic Chinese vs. total population ...... 39 Figure 1.14 Highest level of education achieved, Metro Vancouver 2006, ethnic Chinese vs. total population ...... 40 Figure 2.1 Diagram of this study's mixed methods research design...... 46 Figure 2.2 Questionnaire design with branching ...... 53 Figure 4.1 Three-stage sequential mail-Internet survey protocol ...... 77 Figure 4.2 Types of duck eggs usually purchased, percentage of buyers ...... 92 Figure 4.3 Percentage distribution of purchase frequency, by egg type for at home consumption ...... 92 Figure 4.4 Percentage distribution of purchasing trends for duck and quail egg products for consumption at home in the past 12 months, compared to the year previous ...... 93 Figure 4.5 Percentage of market share volume by frequency of purchase ...... 96

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Figure 4.6 Percentages of buyers reporting egg purchases at different stores in Metro Vancouver, BC . 97 Figure 4.7 Percentage ranks of purchase occasion, salted duck eggs ...... 98 Figure 4.8 Main reasons for non-purchase and non-consumption of any duck or quail egg products ..... 99 Figure 5.1 Scree plot of number of clusters against squared Euclidean distance between clusters, salted and preserved duck egg buyers ...... 137 Figure 5.2 Scree plot of number of clusters against squared Euclidean distance between clusters, fresh quail egg buyers ...... 138 Figure 5.3 Percentage distribution of salted duck egg buyer segments ...... 139 Figure 5.4 Percentage distribution of preserved duck egg buyer segments ...... 142 Figure 5.5 Percentage distribution of fresh quail egg buyer segments ...... 145 Figure A.1 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying preserved duck eggs, immigrant group ...... 227 Figure A.2 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying preserved duck eggs, born in Canada group...... 227 Figure A.3 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying preserved duck eggs, immigrant group ...... 228 Figure A.4 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying preserved duck eggs, born in Canada group ...... 228 Figure A.5 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics when buying salted duck eggs, immigrant group ...... 229 Figure A.6 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics when bying salted duck eggs, born in Canada group ...... 229 Figure A.7 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying salted duck eggs, immigrant group ...... 230 Figure A.8 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying salted duck eggs, born in Canada group ...... 230 Figure A.9 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying fresh quail eggs, immigrant group ...... 231 Figure A.10 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying fresh quail eggs, born in Canada group ...... 231 Figure A.11 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics considered when buying fresh quail eggs, immigrant group ...... 232

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Figure A.12 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics considered when purchasing fresh quail eggs, born in Canada group ...... 232 Figure C.1 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of salted duck egg product characteristic components ...... 279 Figure C.2 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of preserved duck egg product characteristic components ... 280 Figure C.3 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of fresh quail egg product characteristic components ...... 280 Figure C.4 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of salted duck egg buyers' attitude and belief components .. 296 Figure C.5 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of preserved duck egg buyers' attitude and belief components ...... 303 Figure C.6 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of fresh quail egg buyers' attitude and belief components ... 310 Figure D.1 Dendrogram of clustering of salted duck egg buyers, Ward's method ...... 312 Figure D.2 Dendrogram of clustering of preserved duck egg buyers, Ward's method...... 317 Figure D.3 Dendrogram of clustering of fresh quail egg buyers, Ward's method ...... 322

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Glossary Acculturation is a process of change, both psychological and cultural, that occurs following meeting between cultures (Sam, 2010); studies tend to focus on how minorities from another culture adapt to a dominant, majority culture.

Balut is a fertilized duck egg incubated for approximately 17 to 19 days, then refrigerated and sold; must be cooked before consumption. Considered a delicacy by Filipinos, Vietnamese; less so by Chinese

Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) is a city with 100,000 or more inhabitants; boundaries defined by Statistics Canada

Century egg is a preserved duck egg

Country of origin (COO) refers to the country of manufacture of any of the egg products

Ethnic foods for the purposes of this thesis refers to non-European, non-United Kingdom foods and cuisine (that is, non-mainstream foods according to the dominant culture)

Foodways are the cultural, social and economic practices relating to the production and consumption of food

Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD) is a regional service, planning and political body with representatives from the Vancouver CMA municipalities, Greater Vancouver A, and the First Nation of Tsawwassen

Quail egg is a very small speckled brown and white egg from the quail bird; fresh quail eggs are sold raw in the shell, processed quail eggs are canned, smoked, or pickled and are sold ready to use

Metropolitan (Metro) Vancouver (previously the Greater Vancouver Regional District) for the purposes of this thesis, is the same as the Vancouver Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) n.e.s. is a trade data term that means “not elsewhere specified”

PCA refers to principal component analysis

Pidan are preserved duck eggs

Preserved duck egg is duck egg that has been covered in a special paste that “cooks” the egg through an alkaline fermentation process, turning the white into a gelatinous and translucent brown tea colour and the yolk into a green-gray colour; sold in the shell, ready to use. See also pidan, century egg, thousand year old egg.

Principal component analysis (PCA) is a statistical technique for reducing data

Salted duck egg is a duck egg that has been cured in brine or a salted paste so that the whole egg absorbs the salt; sold in the shell (raw or cooked) or in packages of yolks only

Thousand-year-old egg is a preserved duck egg xv

Vancouver CMA includes the following municipalities: Vancouver, Richmond, Burnaby, New Westminster, Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, Port Moody, Belcarra, Anmore, North Vancouver (City and District of),West Vancouver, Bowen Island, Lions Bay, Delta, White Rock, Surrey, Langley (City and District of), Pitt Meadows, and Maple Ridge; regional district electoral area Greater Vancouver A; and Indian reserves Semiamoo, Tsawwassen, and Musqueam 2

Visible Minority is a person who is non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour, and specifically excludes aboriginals

Xiandan are salted duck eggs

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank my committee members for their guidance and advice: Dr. Gwen Chapman, Dr. James Vercammen, Dr. Brent Skura, Ms. Kelleen Wiseman, M.B.A., and my supervisor, Dr. Kim Cheng. Dr. Chapman was particularly helpful for the qualitative research phase of my research and Ms. Wiseman proved an excellent sounding board and provided valuable advice throughout my whole thesis research, and particularly during the development of the questionnaire. I would especially like to thank Dr. Cheng for his unwavering support, patience, and guidance. I would not have been able to get through my long journey without his encouragement. I owe a debt of gratitude to the BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands and the British Columbia Specialty Birds Research Committee for funding my study, and the B.C. Egg Marketing Board for twice awarding me financial support. My focus group research was greatly helped by the presence of Ms. Angela To, who acted as my assistant at the focus group sessions. The success of my research would not have been possible without the contribution of Ms. Anissa Ip, a professional translator, for her translation of my survey documents into Chinese and to Mr. Ken Ng for checking that translation and for interpreting at a focus group session. I thank them both very much, for the care they took and their attention to detail. I would also like to thank the Chinese Canadian staff at the Faculty of Land and Food Systems and the students of LFS 490, who took the time to pilot test my survey and offer their valuable comments and feedback. I’d also like to thank my fellow students, Cait, Deepa, Fariba, Jianan, Masoumeh, and Xinrui, as well as Dr. Darin Bennett and Dr. June Kim, all at the Avian Research Centre, for their support, good humour, and encouragement.

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Dedication

To Pierre, for all your love and support, I thank you

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Duck and Quail Eggs: Traditional Alternatives to Hen Eggs To the majority of North Americans,‘eggs’ may conjure an image of chicken eggs sizzling in a fry pan for breakfast. To many people from around the world ‘eggs’ may not just mean chicken eggs, but duck eggs, quail eggs, or guinea fowl eggs, amongst others, and not necessarily as part of their breakfast either. Worldwide, there is no question that egg production is dominated by hens of the G. gallus domesticus species (domestic chickens). The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that worldwide in 2010, chicken hens produced approximately 1.2 trillion eggs, in shell (henceforth known as table eggs) compared to 82.6 billion other bird eggs, in shell (FAO Statistics Division, 2012a). These numbers are likely underestimated, particularly for other bird eggs, as production data are missing for some countries perhaps due to a backyard flock nature of production or lack of reporting to the FAO. A good example is Vietnam, which is known to have duck egg production, yet is missing from FAO production statistics. These alternative bird eggs may represent a smaller proportion of total worldwide egg production, yet they continue to have importance in many countries with worldwide production increasing 29.9% from 2000 to 2010, which is more than the 24.7% growth in table egg production over the same time period (FAO Statistics Division, 2012b). However as shown in Figure 1.1, production of alternative eggs is not evenly distributed throughout the world, with East Asia (primarily China) and Southeast Asia accounting for 92% of total world production (FAO Statistics Division, 2012c). Currently, production of other bird eggs in North and Central America is so small, or goes unreported, that the FAO does not report or estimate production data for the two regions.

2% 1%

3% 14% 2% Africa South America East Asia South Asia Southeast Asia Europe

78%

Figure 1.1 Geographic distribution of total world production in numbers of bird eggs other than chicken hen eggs, in shell, 2010

Source: Calculated from FAO Statistics Division (2012c)

Worldwide, the majority of alternative egg production is composed of duck and quail eggs, with duck eggs dominating. The other species’ eggs play regional or peripheral roles. Duck eggs, whether fresh or processed, are particularly popular in China and Southeast Asia, accounting for 10- 30% of total egg consumption in those regions (Pingle, 2009). China and Southeast Asian countries may dominate commercial duck egg production, but commercial production, as well as small farm/backyard production, can be found throughout the world, for example in France and India. In East and Southeast Asia, duck eggs are often processed into salted or preserved forms, techniques for which were developed in China centuries ago to prolong their shelf life in the absence of refrigeration (Hou, 1981). These types of processed duck eggs are considered traditional foods in many Asian cuisines. Known as ‘xiandan’ (鹹疍) in Chinese, salted duck eggs are made by coating fresh, raw duck eggs with a paste high in sodium chloride (table salt). An alternate method is to immerse the eggs in a solution of brine for approximately 30 days. Salt is absorbed through osmosis into the albumin and yolk and helps to preserve the eggs, which should then be cooked before consuming. Duck egg yolks are higher in fat content compared to chicken eggs and the salted duck egg yolks are particularly prized for the rich flavouring they lend to various dishes, including pastries such as Autumn Moon cakes. A well prepared salted duck egg should have an oily and gritty-textured yolk with a deep orange/red colour. 2

Preserved duck eggs, also known as ‘thousand year old eggs’ or ‘century eggs’, and called ‘pidan’ (皮疍) in Chinese, are prepared via an alkaline fermentation process: Traditionally a paste including ash and lime is packed around each egg, which is then covered in rice husks. The eggs are packed tightly in dark, cool, dry containers and allowed to cure for approximately 30 to 45 days. Through osmosis the lime is absorbed into the egg turning the albumin into a tea-coloured gelatinous texture with a grey- green yolk that can be either soft or hard depending on the length of time spent curing. The eggs are then ready to eat and depending on use do not have to be cooked. One typical use is to add chopped preserved duck eggs to congee. Another is to serve them as an appetizer with pickled ginger. A description of this type of egg preservation, by Wang Zizhen, dates back 500 years ago to the Ming Dynasty era (Hou, 1981). Quail are small game birds and one of the more popular breeds for meat and eggs is the Coturnix japonica, or Japanese quail. Domestic Japanese quail hens start egg-laying at about five weeks of age, eggs are about ten grams each, and a hen can produce 280 to 300 speckled brown eggs in a year (Minvielle, 1998). The feed conversion (feed/egg) ratio of 3.3 makes the Japanese quail the champion species in converting feed into eggs (Shanaway, 1994). Fresh quail eggs are typically used in gourmet meal preparations and are also often used in soups, sushi, and dim sum. Pickled quail eggs (boiled and then pickled in vinegar with or without spices) are a popular form of consumption, particularly in Europe: “Considerable quantities are consumed on the continent. In the UK it is a gourmet market and is very limited” (Scottish Agricultural College, 2008). Canned quail eggs (hard cooked and peeled), providing convenience and a much longer shelf life, are widely available in Asian food stores. Duck and quail eggs are inexpensive forms of animal protein, contain all amino acids needed for human health, provide many vital vitamins and minerals, and compare favourably to table eggs in some nutrient values (Table 1.1). Hou (1981) investigated the effects of processing on the nutrient content of duck eggs (Table 1.2)1 and found that processing resulted in higher protein and lower carbohydrate content compared to fresh duck eggs, that some minerals were enhanced, some decreased, but that vitamin content was reduced for preserved duck eggs (changes to vitamins in salted eggs were not provided nor discussed).

1 Readers will note the differences in nutrient values for fresh, raw, duck eggs between the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) figures in Table 1.1 and Hou’s in Table 1.2. Differences could be due to the breed of duck, duck feed, and differences in measurement methodologies or instruments. The USDA’s release documentation did not provide details about how the duck egg nutrient information was collected and analyzed, although with chicken eggs a random sample of eggs from various geographic areas of the United States was taken. Hou’s data is from ducks in China, breed unknown. 3

Table 1.1 Comparison of whole, fresh, raw duck, quail, and chicken egg nutrients

Duck egg Quail egg Chicken egg Nutrient Unit value per 100g value per 100g value per 100g Energy Kcal 185 158 143 Protein g 12.81 13.05 12.56 Total lipid (fat) g 13.77 11.09 9.51 Carbohydrate, by difference g 1.45 0.41 0.72 Sugars, total g 0.93 0.40 0.37 Calcium mg 64 64 56 Iron mg 3.85 3.65 1.75 Magnesium mg 17 13 12 Phosphorus mg 220 226 198 Potassium mg 222 132 138 Sodium mg 146 141 142 Zinc mg 1.41 1.47 1.29 Thiamin mg 0.156 0.130 0.04 Riboflavin mg 0.404 0.790 0.457 Niacin mg 0.200 0.150 0.075 Vitamin B-6 mg 0.250 0.150 0.170 Folate, DFE mcg_DFE 80 66 47 Vitamin B-12 µg 5.40 1.58 0.89 Vitamin A, RAE mcg_RAE 194 156 160 Vitamin A IU 674 543 540 Vitamin E mg 1.34 1.08 1.05 Vitamin D IU 69 55 82 Vitamin K µg 0.4 0.3 0.3 Source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, release 24, accessed March 31, 2012, ndb.nal.usda.gov

Table 1.2 Nutrient contents of fresh duck eggs, preserved, and salted eggs (per 100g)

Duck egg Protein Fat CHO Ash Ca P Fe Vit. A Vit. B1 Vit. B2 Nicotinic type g g g g mg mg mg IU mg mg acid Fresh 8.7 9.8 10.3 1.2 71 210 3.2 1,380 0.15 0.37 0.1 Preserved 13.1 10.7 2.2 2.3 58 200 0.9 940 0.02 0.21 0.1 Salted 14.0 16.6 4.1 7.5 102 214 0.4 Source: Hou (1981)

Eggs from duck and quail are traditional foods not only with nutritional importance, but also with economic and socio-cultural importance. Production systems range from medium to large scale commercial operations, to small farm and backyard operations that feed families as well as provide an additional source of household income. From an anthropology perspective, traditional foods also have symbolic meaning, acting as indicators of identity and are thus inextricably linked with culture (Fischler, 1988). With mass migration, globalization, and industrialization transforming societies around the world, traditional foodways are also transforming (Wu & Chee-Beng, 2001) creating opportunities as well as risks for the agri-food industry (Henry, 2002; WCM Consulting Inc., 2008; Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2012). Opportunities abound to provide culturally appropriate and healthful traditional foods to migrants in their new homelands, and new and diverse foods to society at large, and risks exist that with acculturation, and with the globalization and industrialization of the world food system, demand for some traditional foods will wane along with the agricultural biodiversity that supports them. In North America, duck and quail eggs and egg products are not traditional nor common foods and typically they are found only in metropolitan areas boasting ethnic and immigrant populations from areas of the world that have traditionally used these eggs in their cuisines. Metropolitan (Metro) Vancouver, British Columbia (BC), Canada, is such a city with an ethnically diverse population. In the 2006 Census over 200 ethnicities were recorded in Metro Vancouver (Statistics Canada, 2010a), with approximately 40% of the total population foreign born (2006 Census bulletin 06, 2008). The largest ethnic group is Chinese, representing 19.6% of the total Metro Vancouver population in 2006, including those reporting multiple ethnic ancestries (Statistics Canada, 2010a). Approximately 85% of the ethnic Chinese population in Vancouver are first generation Canadian (immigrants) and only 2% are third generation (Statistics Canada 2010b), representing a possibly strong market opportunity for BC based producers and processors of duck and quail eggs and egg products.

Farms in BC tend to be small in both size and sales and 98% of BC farms are family farms rather than farm corporations (BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, 2007). The 2006 Census of Agriculture indicated that the average farm size was 143 ha and approximately 48% of farms reported annual gross receipts of under $10,000 Canadian dollars (CAD) and a further 16% reported annual gross receipts between $10,000 to $24,999 CAD (BC Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, 2007). However, the agricultural industry in BC is the most diverse in Canada and this diversity lends itself to innovation and the pursuit of higher valued products and new niche markets, which are considered strengths of the BC agricultural sector (BC Ministry of Agriculture, 2011). In the BC government’s 2008 Agricultural Plan one of the major strategic themes was to support and encourage production of local food in the context of a changing world, as well as to support the continued economic and ecological viability of BC family farms (The British Columbia agriculture plan, 2008). The 2012 BC Jobs Plan Agrifoods Strategy, a five year strategic plan (http://www.gov.bc.ca/agri/down/bc_agrifoods_strategy.pdf), continues to emphasize the need for the production of high quality, high value foods in BC. Building on the strengths of the BC agricultural industry, ethnic niche markets could represent opportunities to fulfill these strategic public policy goals. Currently, there is some commercial production of fresh quail eggs and specialty balut2 duck eggs in BC. Although there are no sizeable commercial fresh duck egg or salted and preserved duck egg operations in BC, my research indicates the presence of some small flock production of fresh duck eggs and perhaps very small scale salted duck egg production. On a commercial basis, however, the market for salted and preserved duck eggs as well as processed quail eggs (typically pickled, canned, or smoked) is served by and dominated by imported products.

2 Baluts are produced by incubating a fertilized duck egg for approximately 17 to 19 days, at which point it is refrigerated and ready for sale. Baluts must be cooked before consumption and are usually boiled for approximately 30 minutes and then consumed hot. Baluts are considered a delicacy by Filipinos, Vietnamese, less so by Chinese.

1.2 Problem Statement With a growing number of immigrants from non-European countries, the population of Canada and BC is becoming increasingly heterogeneous. Subsequently, the market for food is becoming more diverse. In Metro Vancouver a large proportion of the population is from ethnic ancestries that traditionally consume specialty duck and quail egg products, however very little is known about the market for these products. Scant scholarly or agricultural extension research has been conducted on the consumer market for salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh or processed quail eggs in North America. Currently, the markets in BC for salted and preserved duck eggs and processed quail eggs are served by products imported primarily from Asia. Fresh quail eggs and duck baluts are produced locally, but without the support of a body of consumer or market research to guide producers, processors or retailers. Opportunities for BC producers and processors to enter and expand the market for duck and quail eggs and egg products may exist. However, information is needed on the size of the markets, the characteristics of buyers and consumers, their behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs, and potential market opportunities. This study aims to fill some of those information gaps. Due to language, budget, and scope constraints, it was decided to limit this research study to people in Metro Vancouver of Chinese ethnic ancestry. Vancouver hosts the second largest population of ethnic Chinese in Canada and the largest population of ethnic Chinese in BC. This is the largest ethnic group in Vancouver that traditionally consumes duck and quail egg products. Research was initially limited to salted and preserved duck eggs, fresh and processed quail eggs. However, too little data was obtained on processed quail eggs, so they have been dropped from this study’s statistical analyses. In addition, although sometimes consumed by ethnic Chinese, duck balut eggs are most popular with Filipino and Vietnamese ethnic groups and thus due to scope considerations, were also not studied.

1.3 Objectives The purpose of my research was to profile the Metro Vancouver ethnic Chinese consumer market for specialty duck and quail egg products: Salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs. This was accomplished through addressing the following research questions and objectives.

1.3.1 Objective 1 To use descriptive statistics to provide a general profile of the markets for duck and quail egg products in Metro Vancouver, including egg types bought, frequency of purchase, where bought, and why consumed, for example.

1.3.2 Objective 2 To develop a method to measure acculturation in each respondent so that it can be used as an input variable in further analyses. It is hypothesized that with acculturation purchases of the egg products are less likely.

1.3.3 Objective 3 To develop a logistic regression model to predict product purchase. What are the characteristics of purchasers and non-purchasers of the eggs, and which characteristics are most predictive of product purchase? To date, no literature addresses these fundamental questions for duck and quail egg products. A logistic regression model will provide a method of identifying key differences between characteristics of buyers versus non-buyers, including the impact of acculturation on consumption.

1.3.4 Objective 4 To segment the market based on: 1) buyers’ attitudes and beliefs about the products, and 2) the importance of product characteristics when buying. Once segmented, the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of each segment and their buying behaviours will be described. This will be accomplished using principal component analysis, cluster analysis, correlation analyses, and descriptive statistical analyses.

1.3.5 Objective 5 To explore potential market opportunities for locally produced duck and quail egg products. Is there a preference for BC produced duck eggs? If necessary, would potential buyers be willing to pay a premium for a BC produced duck egg? Will certain suggested features increase buyer satisfaction or non-buyers’ willingness to try fresh quail eggs? Opportunities will be uncovered through the results of the previous objectives and through the analysis of specific survey questions. To meet these objectives, a two-phase research design was planned and carried out, consisting of initial exploratory focus groups, followed by the main body of research, a random sample survey.

1.4 Organization of the Thesis The remainder of this chapter consists of a literature review, which includes an overview of relevant literature, a profile of the duck and quail egg industry in BC, and a demographic portrait of the Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver. In Chapter Two I review and discuss the methodology used in my study and provide justification for my research design. In Chapter Three I summarize the results of the exploratory focus groups I conducted prior to the main quantitative survey phase of my study. In Chapter Four I present a paper that focuses on the development of a logistic regression model to predict product purchase or non-purchase. Chapter Five contains a paper on the segmentation of the consumer market and market opportunities. Finally, in Chapter Six I provide a general discussion and summary of my research results, including overall conclusions and recommendations for future research.

1.5 Literature Review

1.5.1 An Overview of the Relevant Literature

1.5.1.1 Duck and Quail Egg Studies Compared to chicken eggs, there is a limited body of scholarly literature in English or in Western societies on salted or preserved duck eggs or quail eggs. Most literature to do with ducks and quails and their eggs has focused on production, processing and the chemical changes that occur during processing, as well as food safety and quality control issues, not consumer market studies. The following referenced studies are not meant to be exhaustive in nature, but to give examples of some of the research that has been conducted on duck and quail eggs to date and that have some relevance to the consumer market. Yannakopoulos and Tserveni-Gousi (1986) found that the age of the quail hen had a considerable influence on the characteristics of the eggs, with implications for egg quality. All egg component weights increased between 49 and 154 days of age, but egg shape, specific gravity and shell thickness decreased, which could increase breakage. Panda and Singh (1990) provided a comprehensive review of developments in processing quail meat and eggs and concluded that research data is still fragmentary and more studies were needed to improve yield and quality and to develop more quail egg and meat convenience foods. Kaewmanee, Benjakul, and Visessanguan (2009) examined the chemical changes that occur during processing of salted duck eggs, with particular attention paid to the yolk, the most prized part of the salted egg, while Chi and Tseng (1998) compared the physiochemical properties of

9 salted yolks from duck and chicken eggs and found that the salting of duck eggs produced more desirable characteristics in the yolk (such as orange colour, oiliness, and gritty texture) compared to chicken eggs. Wang and Fung (1996) reviewed the fermentation of duck eggs in their paper on alkaline fermented foods, finding that unlike other alkali fermentation processes, microorganisms were not part of the process. In light of perceived food safety concerns, Yang and Chen (2001) found that salt or alkaline preservation of duck eggs produced cholesterol oxidation products (as do chicken eggs), which may be correlated to some toxicological factors, though further studies were needed; and, Wang, Wu, Lin, and Chang-Chien (2009), in a study on human dietary exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p- dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in Taiwan, concluded little risk to the population of ingesting intolerable levels of the chemicals by consuming contaminated duck eggs. (Concerns about the contamination of duck eggs have often been expressed by Asian consumers. Concerns include lead contamination, due to lead in the paste or water used to produce the duck egg products, and chemical contamination, either inadvertent or through the use of banned additives during processing, such as the use of certain dyes to artificially enhance the colour of salted duck egg yolks.) Some studies have been done on the consumer acceptability of the eggs. Angalet, Wilson, and Fry (1976) used a consumer panel in Florida and a seven point hedonic scale to test the acceptability of five different pickled quail egg recipes and found that three of the preparations met a 70% threshold approval level and thus could be considered marketable. Trongpanich and Dawson (1974) studied consumer acceptability of duck eggs, using a sensory panel composed of members of American and Thai ethnic origin to rate the flavour, texture, and colour of salted duck eggs versus fresh duck eggs and found that in all three attributes, the Thais preferred the salted duck eggs and the Americans the fresh duck eggs. Americans disliked or rejected the salted duck eggs, which implied that finding a market for the salted duck eggs outside of their traditional Asian base would be difficult. There are previous studies on the market for duck and quail in BC and Canada, though they have been sporadic or incomplete, and do not focus on consumers. A 1989 report by Paulson, Nichols and Cheng (as cited in Kermode, 1997) found untapped potential in the BC game bird industry (which includes quail), but weaknesses in marketing and industry structure were limiting factors in its growth. Agriculture and Agri Food Canada produced a profile of the Canadian Game Bird Industry in 1991 (http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry-volaille/prindgb_eng.htm), but did not include any information on table eggs from the birds, referring to game bird meat only. Further, updated, research on the BC game bird industry was conducted by Kermode (1997) as part of her Master of Science thesis (unpublished). Results from her survey of game bird producers indicated that quail eggs were specialty, gourmet items,

10 produced by two commercial farms in BC and mainly sold through specialty distributors to the Chinese retail and restaurant/hotel market. Growth was concentrated in the restaurant/hotel market. Again, consumers were not surveyed. A further study, produced by View West Marketing and Zbeetnoff Agro Environmental Consulting in 2002 for the Avian Research Centre at The University of British Columbia, looked at the markets for ratite, waterfowl, and game birds in BC and found that some fresh duck eggs were being marketed through the Chinese communities and that duck baluts were showing considerable growth, however the production of, or market for, salted and preserved duck eggs was not covered in the report (View West Marketing Inc. & Zbeetnoff Agro-Environmental Consulting, 2002). The report estimated BC quail egg production at three million eggs per year and that the development of value added products from the eggs was needed to support sector growth. Consumer research was not part of the scope of the report, but the report did recognize the need for market research. Finally, Agriculture and Agri Food Canada produced a profile of the Canadian duck industry in 2007, see http://www.agr.gc.ca/poultry- volaille/prindd_eng.htm (Gaumond), but the report focused only on duck meat production and markets: No data was provided on duck eggs or their products. Given the lack of consumer-focused studies on duck and quail egg products in the literature, a review of other ethnic food market studies, studies on dietary acculturation, and other consumer market studies can provide some further context for my research.

1.5.1.2 Ethnic Food Market Studies Packaged Facts, an American market research firm, estimated in a 2003 report that the value of the market for shelf-stable, refrigerated, and frozen Asian foods was $400 million a year in the United States and that the overall market for Asian foods in the United States totalled $837 million a year (Arnott, 2003). Although the demand for various ethnic foods3 is growing in North America, scholarly consumer studies about specific ethnic food products are not yet commonplace. However, this is starting to change as governments, farmers, and processors open up to the possibilities of producing and manufacturing ethnic foods in Canada and the United States, and grocers look to increase their offerings of ethnic foods produced locally (Trichur, 2012). Govindasamy and colleagues have produced studies on the market for ethnic produce in the Northeastern United States (Govindasamy et al., 2006; Govindasamy et al., 2007b; Govindasamy &

3 For the purposes of this thesis, ethnic foods are defined as non-European and non-United Kingdom in origin (see Glossary). 11

Puduri, 2009; Govindasamy, Puduri, & Simon, 2010). In a regional survey that included Asian Americans, they found that 72% of Chinese Americans were willing to pay a premium for ethnic produce grown locally in the northeastern United States (Govindasamy & Puduri, 2009) and that 87% of Chinese bought their fruit and vegetables from ethnic Chinese stores (Govindasamy, Pappas, & Puduri, 2007a). Furthermore, a multinomial logit analysis indicated that income, age, and period of stay in the U.S. were significant factors influencing willingness to pay, and Chinese Americans were more likely to pay more than 10% more for locally produced ethnic produce compared to Puerto Ricans (Ariyawardana, Govindasamy, & Puduri, 2010). More recently, in a paper by Adekunle, Filson, Sethuratnam, and Cidro (2011), the consumption of ‘ethnocultural’ vegetables by ethnic Afro-Caribbean people in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) of Ontario Canada was studied and a separate market research report on the demand for ethnic vegetables by ethnic Chinese, Indian, and Afro-Caribbean in the GTA was produced (Adekunle, Filson, & Sethuratnam, 2011). It was found that income was positively related to consumption of ethnic vegetables by Chinese Canadians, years spent in Canada was negatively related to consumption, and that most would be willing to pay more if the vegetables are fresh and of better quality. Similar to Govindasamy et al.’s findings, 81.5% of Chinese purchased vegetables at Chinese grocery stores. However, the study also noted that only 15.1% of Chinese respondents replied that “tradition/culture” was a reason for consumption of a significant amount of vegetables in their diet. Jamal (1998) used ethnographic observation and in-depth interviews and found generational and gender differences amongst British Pakistanis’ food preferences: First generation British Pakistanis overall preferred to consume traditional Pakistani food, whereas the younger, second generation group consumed both Pakistani (inside the home) and British food (primarily outside the home) and had positive perceptions of British food. First generation British Pakistani men were reluctant to try British food compared to the women, who were inclined to consume British food as a means of connecting or conforming with their children. Although providing good insight into perceptions of Pakistani and British foods, the results cannot be generalized to the British Pakistani consumer food market as a whole because the sample size was too small, not randomly selected, and participant responses could have been influenced by the presence of the interviewer/observer. Kuperis, Vincent, Unterschultz, and Veeman (2000) investigated the ethnic Asian market in Washington, Oregon, and Vancouver, BC for Canadian fresh pork, however the study surveyed Asian retailers and distributors, not consumers. Their findings indicated that retailers and distributors perceived western Canadian pork as expensive.

Using data from the 2003 United States Consumer Expenditure Survey, Garcia-Jiménez and Mishra (2011) investigated the determinants of meat purchasing behaviour by ethnic groups, using socio-economic and ethnic factors in probit regressions. The study focused on Hispanic Americans compared to white Americans, African-Americans, and other ethnic minorities. Asian Americans were grouped within the ‘other’ category. Household weekly income and household size were all significant determinants and results varied by ethnic group. For the other ethnic group, weekly income was a significant determinant in the purchase of ground beef (a negative relationship), beef steak and other beef (positive relationships) and household size had a significant, positive relationship with the purchase of ground beef, roast beef, bacon, other pork, and seafood. It is notable that price was not a determinant of meat purchase across all ethnic groups. Related to the ethnic foods market, faith based food production, such as halal and kosher foods, has been receiving more attention recently due to large markets. In North America, the halal food market is estimated at $12 billion (CAD) and the kosher food market at $200 billion (CAD) (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2012). Several studies have examined the market for halal meat in various ethnic sub-populations or immigrant groups. Ibrahim, Liu, and Nelson (2008) surveyed Muslims in Atlanta, GA on their consumption of halal goat meat. Participants were randomly selected after Friday prayers at mosques and the survey was also distributed online via the cooperation of imams informing their congregations of the study and providing an online link to the survey. The majority of respondents were immigrants. Results indicated that consumption increased during the two Eid festivals and during special occasions such as marriage celebrations. Ibrahim (2011) subsequently reported on their willingness to pay a premium for halal goat meat. Using a multiple bounded probit model, results indicated that income and household composition were significant variables (positive and negative relationships, respectively) in the willingness to pay a premium for halal goat meat (p < 0.01), and the amount consumed per month and marital status were both positive, significant variables at the p < 0.10 level. Years in the United States, education, gender, and preference for the freshness of the meat were not significant variables. Bonne, Vermeir, Bergeaud-Blackler, and Verbeke (2007) used the theory of planned behaviour, self-identity as a Muslim, and dietary acculturation (see section 1.5.1.3) to investigate the determinants of halal meat consumption in France by immigrant Muslims, primarily from North Africa. Dietary acculturation was measured by one five-point scale question measuring preference for French versus ‘Country of Origin’ food. Overall, Muslim immigrants were found to retain their ethnic cuisine habits, even after many years in France. Low-acculturated Muslims were found to rely on their positive attitude

13 to halal meat as their main driver of consumption whereas high acculturated Muslims relied on attitude and perceived control over selection and consumption of halal meat. Goodwin, Holcomb, and Rister (1996) used a product placement study of five rice varieties in Asian American households in Houston Texas to identify household characteristics that influence rice demand and to estimate a quality adjusted price model for rice demand. A product placement survey and focus group interviews were used for data collection. Their results indicated that income and Southeast Asian ethnicity significantly and positively affected the price paid per pound of rice; years in the U.S. significantly and negatively affected price paid; and, household size and the presence of children had no significant influence. Finally, Batres-Marquez , Jensen, and Brester (2003) surveyed Salvadoran Americans in Los Angeles and Houston about household demographic characteristics, use of 30 different Salvadoran food items and their attitudes towards those food items. Using convenience and snowball sampling techniques, questionnaires were completed via personal interviews and cluster analysis was used to classify the market for Salvadoran food according to patterns of consumption of Salvadoran foods. Clusters were then further described using household demographic characteristics. Descriptive statistics were provided for each cluster’s consumption pattern, but statistical tests for significant differences between clusters were not presented. Overall, staple foods (for example beans, corn, and tortillas) were consumed widely by all four clusters; however more specialty Salvadoran foods were less widely consumed due to limited availability (particularly in Houston), expense, or poor quality. Over 88% of all respondents indicated that it was very important for Salvadoran products to be made in El Salvador, suggesting that any locally produced products would not be regarded as suitable substitutes.

1.5.1.3 Dietary Acculturation Studies Consumption of traditional Chinese foods by migrant populations and their descendants can be strongly impacted by the process of acculturation. I will provide a broader discussion of acculturation and its measurement in Chapter Two (methodology); however for the purposes of this section it is helpful to use a traditional characterization of acculturation: The process by which immigrants lose their original cultural traits and values and adopt those of their new host society (Deng & Walker, 2007). Given that food is a very important part of culture, consumption of traditional food products such as from duck and quail eggs may be affected over time by the process of acculturation. Some of the studies I reviewed in the ethnic food market section either explicitly or implicitly took acculturation into account, using such measures as length of stay in the host society, generation status,

14 and food preference, for example. In the health and social sciences many studies have been conducted on diet and acculturation. In healthcare studies, the aim has been to understand dietary changes in various immigrant groups because of the role dietary patterns are thought to play in several chronic diseases more common to Western populations (diabetes and heart disease, for example). Specifically, there have been a number of studies done on the adoption of a more westernized diet by Chinese immigrants to Canada and the United States. Yang and Fox (1979) found that length of residence in the United States was significantly and positively associated with changes in the diets of Chinese immigrants in Lincoln, Nebraska. Newman and Linke (1982) looked at the changes in Chinese immigrants’ food habits in New York City, specifically comparing ethnic Chinese mothers in a predominantly Chinese neighbourhood (Chinatown) and in a mixed ethnicity neighbourhood (Queens). All mothers were from southern China. Using a random sample and a questionnaire and interviews, they examined traditional food habits prior to immigration and over three different time frames of less than two years, two to five years, and over five years residency in the U.S. They found significant changes in food habits compared to pre- immigration, especially in the number of food items consumed and in their frequency, such as an increase in dairy and meat upon immigration. They noted that the frequency of consumption of quail eggs was reported as ‘never’ or ‘only once or twice a year’ both pre and post immigration. Chinese mothers living in Chinatown changed their habits less compared to mothers in the mixed ethnic neighbourhood. Newcomers (less than two years) showed the most change in food habits, but there was no clear trend after migration because the mothers in the United States for greater than five years showed a reversal in some food habits to more traditional Chinese ones. Hrboticky and Krondl (1984) investigated the acculturation to Canadian foods by Chinese immigrant adolescent males and found that higher hedonic flavour ratings and higher prestige ratings of Canadian foods were positively correlated with acculturation and that although acculturation was positively correlated with higher nutrition knowledge of the foods, that knowledge was not necessarily put into practice. These findings held whether acculturation was measured through generation status (first or second generation Chinese Canadian boys) or through preferred language use. Chau, Downes, Lee, and Tseng (1990) studied the food habits of elderly Chinese women in the San Francisco area, using a questionnaire that was administered through in-person interviews. Results indicated that a significant positive relationship existed between frequency of consumption of American foods and participants’ language reading ability and education level. No significant relationship was found between the participants’ age or years of residence in the U.S. and consumption of American

15 foods. Furthermore, a significant, positive relationship was found between age and years of residence in the U.S. with the traditional Chinese practice of balancing “hot” and “cold” foods (or “Yin and Yang” foods). A significant negative association was found between reading ability and education level and the practice of balancing hot and cold foods. Spindler and Schultz (1996) investigated dietary variety and ethnic food consumption among foreign born Chinese (FBC), Chinese-American (CA) (second and third generation Americans), and white American (WA) women using four day food journals for data collection and analysis. Participants ranged from 18 to 35 years of age and resided in the San Diego area of southern California. Results indicated that of the three groups, the CA women ate a significantly higher variety of foods and FBC ate a significantly lower variety. FBC women consumed a significantly lower variety of breads/cereals, dairy products, fats, and vegetables compared to the CA and WA women. CA women also demonstrated dietary acculturation through the reported consumption of not just ethnic Chinese foods, but significantly more other ethnic foods such as Mexican and Italian compared to FBC women. Lv and Cason (2004) found that Chinese immigrants in Pennsylvania increased their consumption frequency of Western foods and decreased their consumption frequency of typical Chinese foods (for example, bean sprouts, tofu, and duck meat), while Satia et al. (2001) found in their survey of Chinese American and Chinese Canadian women in Seattle, WA and Vancouver, BC that a majority had eaten tofu (96%) and a Chinese-style breakfast (66%) in the past month, but only 46% had eaten traditionally preserved foods (salted and preserved duck eggs would fall into this category). In addition, they found that two indicators of acculturation, media preference and age at immigration, were significantly associated with diet: Preference for Chinese media and an older age at immigration were associated with the maintenance of a traditional Chinese diet. Lv and Brown (2010) examined the impact of Western influences on family food systems of first generation Chinese Americans with at least one school age child. Results indicated that many families had adopted convenient American foods for breakfast but had retained Chinese foods for lunch and dinner. However, parents faced demands from their children for more Western foods, which they had learned to like in school. The father’s belief in the importance of Chinese dietary patterns had the most impact on its retention.

1.5.1.4 Other Consumer Studies of Ethnic Chinese in North America There have been other consumer studies of ethnic Chinese in North America that can be considered complementary to the investigation of their food consumption habits. Yang (2010), using

16 snowball sampling and in-depth interviews, investigated the impact of acculturation on the dining out behaviour of Chinese immigrants in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), comparing recent immigrants to established immigrants. Measuring acculturation by age at immigration, length of residence in the GTA, and ethnic identification, Yang found that the more recent ethnic Chinese immigrants (less acculturated) dined out more frequently than established ethnic Chinese immigrants, self-identified more strongly as Chinese, and reported the highest level of ethnic Chinese food purchases. Immigrants who arrived in Canada at a young age had the highest level of acculturation. Ownbey and Horridge (1997), studied acculturation levels and shopping orientations of Asian American consumers (including Chinese Americans) via a random sample mail survey. Their results indicated significantly different responses by high and low acculturation groups to two of the shopping orientation subscales: Shopping sex roles and shopping opinion leadership. The low acculturation group was significantly more oriented to traditional sex roles in shopping (shopping is a woman’s responsibility). The high acculturation group was significantly less oriented to giving shopping advice and suggestions to others. Wang (2004) investigated Chinese immigrant consumer behaviour in Toronto, ON as well as Chinese immigrant grocery shopping behaviour (Wang & Lo, 2007). As part of the 2004 study, Wang used a random sample survey to measure strength of ethnic identity and other measures of acculturation, and their relationship to preference for shopping at ethnic Chinese supermarkets versus mainstream supermarkets and to preference for using ethnic Chinese travel agencies versus mainstream travel agencies. In reference to the supermarkets, overall 69% of respondents indicated an equal preference for Chinese and mainstream supermarkets, but 95% reported visiting at least one Chinese supermarket during their normal shopping trips. A significant positive relationship was found between ethnic identity and supermarket preference: High Chinese identity was associated with a stronger preference for Chinese supermarkets. Although Chinese immigrants who had a longer length of stay in a Western society showed weaker preferences for Chinese supermarkets, the association was not statistically significant. Out of a number of variables tested, Chinese ethnic identity was the strongest predictor of preference for Chinese supermarkets. In the 2007 article, Wang and Lo further expanded on immigrant Chinese grocery shopping behaviour in the GTA. Using results from preliminary focus groups and data from the 2004 survey, they found that Chinese immigrants in the GTA were willing to travel outside of their local areas in order to gain access to ethnic Chinese supermarkets. Furthermore, Chinese supermarkets were found to act as social and cultural spaces for Chinese immigrants, not just as functional sources for groceries. However,

17 using multinomial logistic regression analysis, only ethnic identity and age were significant predictors (p < 0.05) of preference for Chinese supermarkets over mainstream supermarkets: Strong ethnic Chinese identity and older age were associated with a preference for Chinese supermarkets. Relative accessibility only became a significant preference predictor at the p < 0.10 level (a strong preference for Chinese supermarkets was positively associated with better relative accessibility to Chinese stores).

1.5.1.5 Summary This literature review has highlighted the lack of consumer research on duck and quail egg products in the Western literature. The review of ethnic food market studies has focused on studies of minority ethnic immigrant consumer markets for their traditional foods in a dominant host culture/society. The review has indicated that these studies used demographic and socio-economic data, as well as at least one indicator of acculturation, gathered by either quantitative (survey sampling; logistic and probit regression analysis, for example) or qualitative methods (depth interviews) and analysis to describe and/or model a particular ethnic consumer market for a food product(s). Many of these studies aimed to discover factors influencing consumption, or willingness to pay a premium, for an ethnic food product, for example years of stay, ethnic identity, age, household size, and income. The review of dietary acculturation studies has indicated that these studies aim to measure and/or describe changes in Chinese Canadian and Chinese American immigrants’ diets as they and their descendants adjust to living as a minority in their new dominant society/culture (in the context of the role diet plays in health). A variety of qualitative and quantitative methods and analyses were utilized. In particular, many of these studies have used correlational analysis to identify factors that are associated with changes in diet, such as length of stay in Canada or the United States, generation status, and language preference (all can be considered indicators of acculturation), and other social or demographic information such as age, education or income. The studies did not use a full scale acculturation index (see Sections 2.1.3.5) to measure acculturation. Satia et al. (2001) developed their own scale to measure dietary acculturation specifically. A measurement of acculturation has also been used in other consumer studies of ethnic Chinese in North America. In particular, Wang (2004) and Wang and Lo (2007) investigated Chinese immigrant consumer behaviour in Toronto, Canada, including grocery shopping behaviour. Chinese ethnic identity was the strongest predictor of preference for Chinese supermarkets. Again a variety of methods were used in other consumer studies of ethnic Chinese in North America, including in-depth interviews and a random sample mail survey.

1.5.2 The Duck and Quail Egg Industry in BC Although this study’s focus is on the consumer market for duck and quail eggs, a review of duck and quail egg industry information is helpful in order to provide potential (and current) duck and quail egg producers and processors the background context in which the current duck and quail egg consumer market exists and in which possible consumer market opportunities exist. Regulations, industry structure, and import/exports can all exert influence, directly or not, on the consumer market.

1.5.2.1 Regulatory environment Jurisdiction over agriculture is shared between the federal and provincial governments in Canada. Whereas production of agriculture products is exclusively provincial jurisdiction, inter-provincial and international trade of agriculture products is under federal jurisdiction. Intra-provincial ‘trade’ is under provincial jurisdiction. Given this, the marketing of agricultural products falls under both provincial and federal jurisdiction (Milne, 2007). The regulatory framework for the production, distribution, and marketing of duck and quail eggs and egg products can sometimes be confusing, especially when most regulations refer to and define eggs as being from chickens.

1.5.2.1.1 Supply Management Unlike the mainstream poultry species of chicken and turkey, waterfowl (duck) and game bird (quail) production for meat or eggs is not subject to supply management system regulations as set out under the Agricultural Products Marketing Act, Farm Products Agencies Act, and in BC, the Natural Products Marketing (BC) Act (Gaumond, 2007; Stevens, 2011). The purpose of the Natural Products Marketing (BC) Act (NPMA) according to Section 2 (1) of the online version (1996, c. 330) is to:

“…provide for the promotion, control and regulation of the production, transportation, packing, storage and marketing of natural products in BC, including prohibition of all or part of that production, transportation, packing, storage and marketing.”

Currently, there are eight marketing boards or schemes in BC regulating chickens, table eggs (from chickens), broiler hatching eggs, turkeys, hogs, cranberries, vegetables, and milk. These supply management systems regulate domestic production and limit imports. Production is limited through a quota licensing system, in which production is matched to demand. The aim of the system is to stabilize the markets, provide consumers with a steady supply of quality product at a reasonable price, and provide producers with stable, fair returns. The advantages to producers are considerable, however they

19 arguably come at a cost to the consumer (a less competitive market) and especially to potential new entrants who are either unable to access quota or cannot afford the quota purchase price. The waterfowl and game bird industries are not part of a supply management system and thus operate in free markets. This removes a major regulatory barrier to entry for producers interested in these markets and allows producers to set their own production levels and respond quickly to market needs and changes. However, it also exposes producers to market volatility, competition from imports, and, especially, a lack of marketing power and support. Producers are responsible for marketing their products themselves. Attempts have been made by alternative poultry producers in BC to work together to further their interests, for example via the BC Specialty Bird Producer Association, but membership in the Association is voluntary and it holds no regulatory power.

1.5.2.1.2 Production and Processing Regulations Duck and quail eggs and egg products are not defined as eggs within the federal Egg Regulations and Processed Egg Regulations and thus are technically not subject to those regulations. The BC Agriculture Produce Grading Act covers egg products, shell egg grading, and live, dressed, and eviscerated poultry regulations, among others. Duck and quail eggs and egg products are also not subject to these regulations. This means that fresh quail egg producers (or any fresh duck egg producers) do not have to get their eggs graded and therefore do not have to send their eggs to a registered egg grading or processing station. They may sell their eggs through various marketing channels (see Section 1.5.2.2). Duck and quail egg producers and processors may be subject, as applicable, to federal Food and Drugs Act and Regulations (including nutrition content claims and labelling and health claims), Canada Agricultural Products Act, Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act (for example packaging material and label languages and content), and Health of Animals Act and Regulations (disease and toxic substances control), and Organic Products Regulations (and Standards). Relevant provincial regulations include the Agricultural Land Commission Act (regulates on farm processing and retailing within BC); Farm Practices Protection (Right to Farm) Act (normal farm practices and dispute resolution re local bylaws or complaints), Food Products Standards Act, Meat Inspection Act (if spent birds are sold for meat); Food Safety Act; and Public Health Act Food Premises Regulations. On-farm processing of products is allowed in BC as long as at least 50% of the product being processed comes from the farm doing the processing (Strengthening farming, right to farm: Farm practices, 2004). Within provincial Agricultural Land Reserve areas, the Agricultural Land Commission

20 regulates the types of retail activities that may be carried out on a farm, places restrictions on the retail sales of products grown off the farm site as well as on the size of the area that can be used to sell any off-farm products (Strengthening farming, right to farm: Direct farm marketing, 2004; Strengthening farming, right to farm: Farm practices, 2004).

1.5.2.1.3 Import/export Regulations Although the international export of duck and quail eggs is not specifically subject to the Egg Regulations for table eggs, they may still be subject to any requirements set forth by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) or by destination countries (such as export inspection certificates). Imports are regulated by the CFIA, and the Canadian Border Services Agency (CBSA) is responsible for ensuring imports meet regulations. According to the CFIA’s Automated Import Reference System (AIRS), http://airs- sari.inspection.gc.ca/Airs_External/Decisions.aspx?lang=1, import regulations for salted and preserved duck eggs and frozen duck egg yolks are country specific and may stipulate certain manufacturing processes. In addition, imports must meet the Food and Drug Act and Regulations and applicable Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations. There are no tariffs on imports of salted and preserved duck eggs. In general, imports from Asia of salted and preserved duck eggs and salted, frozen duck egg yolks are subject to these specific import regulations as given for China, which are paraphrased from (AIRS)4:

1. Egg products must be accompanied by a Zoosanitary Export Certificate of Processing, signed by a government official from the country of origin that (among others)  Describes quantity and type of eggs  Verifies that eggs are from flocks free from specified diseases and plagues  Verifies that eggs have been inspected and free from dirt prior to processing  Verifies that eggs have been candled, are free of blood clots/spots, and are non-embryonated or come from farms without roosters present  Verifies that eggs have either been soaked in a water, tea leaf, salt, quick lime and alkali solution for at least 45 days or encased in a soil-free coating of rice-straw, ash, water, and salt for at least 30 days

4 Using HS code 040790 with OGD extension 0286 or 0287, origins Asia and China, and end use human consumption. 21

 Verifies that frozen salted duck egg yolks have been prepared in accordance to the requirements for whole salted duck eggs 2. Egg products must comply with the requirements of all applicable Canadian legislation (Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act and Regulations, for example) 3. Importers should follow specified standards and guidelines related to food safety and labelling in Canada Currently, fresh quail eggs are approved for importation from countries that are considered free of serious avian diseases by the CFIA. They must be accompanied by a Zoosanitary Export Certificate of Origin and must comply with the requirements of all applicable Canadian legislation. Fresh quail eggs may be imported into Canada without tariff. (Cooked, canned commercially sterile quail eggs are generally considered safe and free from avian diseases and although imports from producing countries may be subject to inspection, they are generally quickly cleared into Canada.) In the United States, imports of salted and preserved (and balut) duck egg products are not subject to inspection or grading by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service, but imports may be subject to other USDA and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations (http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Regulations_&_Policies/Importing_Egg_Products_&_Shell_Eggs/index.asp). Note that in the United States, unlike Canada, egg means the shell egg of the domesticated chicken, turkey, duck, goose, or guinea (quail is not part of this definition) (http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2002/janqtr/9cfr590.5.htm). With regard to inter-provincial trade, BC has also signed the BC-Alberta Trade, Investment and Labour Mobility Agreement (www.tilma.ca) and the subsequent New West Partnership Agreement (www.newwestpartnershiptrade.ca) with Alberta and Saskatchewan. These agreements encompass agricultural products and provide that goods from signatory provinces must be treated in a non- discriminatory way.

1.5.2.2 Industry Structure In the absence of supply management systems, the structure of the duck and quail egg industry can thus be described as comparatively ‘loose’ with respect to marketing the products. Individual producers and processors must find their own markets and producers have the option to sell their eggs through multiple channels which are indicated in Figure 1.2.

Farmers Importers

Processors Farm gate Farmers’ market

Wholesalers/ Distributors

Restaurants / Retailers

Consumers

Figure 1.2 Structure of available marketing channels for duck and quail egg products in BC. Green indicates primary channels; red indicates import channels

In reality, due to the smaller nature of the market for duck and quail eggs and egg products in comparison to table eggs, producers face limited options for marketing their eggs (i.e. few distributors), unless they are willing to vertically integrate or take on some aspects of marketing their eggs themselves. These limited options mean that producers and processors do not have market power and essentially must take the price offered by distributors. If the direct to retailer approach is taken, the producer or processor also does not hold market power, since the retailer controls access to shelf space,

23 the market is relatively small, and it is common practice in the grocery trade for suppliers to have to pay for access to shelf space at large supermarkets. Competitive forces in the industry can be considered as strong. There are no regulatory barriers to entry such as in supply managed sectors, and imports of processed duck and quail egg products are not currently restricted nor subject to tariffs. The Canadian and BC markets for processed duck and quail egg products are dominated by imports from Asia that hold economy of scale production advantages and a low cost labour advantage. Furthermore, inter-provincial competition is a threat (see Section 1.5.2.4). Input costs are considered high in BC (Kermode, 1997; View West Marketing Inc. & Zbeetnoff Agro-Environmental Consulting, 2002). Feeds are all imported (though they may be mixed in BC) and subject to increasing transportation costs. Despite the relatively weak position of the duck and quail egg industry in BC, previous reports have all noted its potential due to the growing ethnic population (Paulson, Nichols, & Cheng, 1989; Kermode, 1997; View West Marketing Inc. & Zbeetnoff Agro-Environmental Consulting, 2002). This potential may now be aided by a growing overall demand for local food products. Furthermore, the price of oil has increased in the past decade and is projected to increase further: Higher transportation costs may reduce or eliminate the competitive advantage imports enjoy due to economies of scale production and lower labour costs.

1.5.2.3 The Duck Egg Industry The duck egg industry in Canada and BC suffers from a lack of publicly available industry information or statistics. The 2006 Census of Agriculture data indicates that there were 5,483 farms in Canada reporting 5,140,628 ‘other’ poultry birds on their farms on census day (Statistics Canada, 2006). ‘Other’ poultry birds may include ducks, geese, quails, squabs (pigeons), tinamous, emus, ostriches, and pheasants. A 2007 Agriculture and Agri Food Canada profile of the duck industry in Canada (Gaumond) reported the total number of ducks in Canada at the 2006 census date was 1,087,945, for a 21% share of the other poultry bird census numbers. The percent distribution of numbers of ducks on farms in Canada by province is shown in Figure 1.3.

5.4 10.8 Ontario 12.5 48.1 Quebec BC 23.2 Alberta Other

Figure 1.3 Percentage share of number of ducks on farms in Canada by province, 2006.* *This may include geese, if farmers did not separate ducks from geese when reporting

Source: Census of Agriculture, 2006 (as cited in Gaumond, 2007)

Gaumond’s report also noted that the total number of ducks decreased in Quebec and Ontario in 2006 compared to previous years, but the numbers of ducks in Western Canada continued to increase. The number of ducks on BC farms in 2006 was 135,929 on 463 farms (Gaumond, 2007). Unfortunately, there is no data available on the number of duck layers and on duck egg production in Canada. The two major layer breeds are the Khaki Campbell, which can lay an average of 300 eggs per year, and the Indian Runner, which can produce approximately 250 eggs per year (Scottish Agriculture College, 2008). Peking and Muscovy are the two main duck breeds raised for their meat. In BC there is a large duck meat producer who also produces duck eggs for hatching and, as a side venture, balut duck eggs for local and export markets, the export markets primarily being Washington State and California. The baluts are sold to an independent distributor, who supplies retailers in Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley area of BC (personal communication with producer’s sales manager, 2009; names withheld to maintain confidentiality). In general, the duck egg industry in BC is not highly developed and there are no commercial salted and preserved duck egg processors in the province. Fresh duck egg production in BC appears to be by small flock operators and hobby farmers, who then sell the eggs directly to consumers or restaurants/hotels as specialty items. In my visits to Chinese retailers in Vancouver’s Chinatown, I initially did not find any retailers selling fresh duck eggs. However, eventually one retailer told me that another store sold fresh duck eggs and upon visiting that store, fresh duck eggs appeared to be for sale;

25 however the staff insisted that the eggs were jumbo-sized chicken eggs. I found fresh, uncooked salted duck eggs for sale at Vancouver area Filipino grocery stores (i.e. not imported from overseas), but staff would not reveal their origin. Although salted or preserved duck eggs are not commercially produced in BC, there is a producer in Alberta making duck baluts and salted duck eggs, marketing them as Treat™ brand products, and shipping them to BC. This producer/processor contracts with smaller producers for a steady supply of eggs. Treat™ brand baluts and salted duck eggs can be found in BC in T&T Supermarkets as well as in independent Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese grocery retailers, where they are sold individually. The volume and value of sales of Treat™ brand duck egg products is proprietary and unknown, as are sales data from T&T Supermarkets, Real Canadian Superstores, and independent Asian grocers. AC Nielsen does not track or provide aggregate data for duck and quail egg product sales. The majority of the salted and preserved duck egg market in BC, however, is still served by imports primarily from Asia.

1.5.2.4 The Quail Egg Industry Quail are classified as game birds and are raised for their meat and eggs, which are traditional foods in Asian and some European cuisines. With the growth of Asian and ethnic populations in Metro Vancouver, there should be a ready market for quail eggs. However, a previous study by Paulson, Nichols, and Cheng (1989) indicated potential growth but weaknesses in marketing and industry structure. Producers, government, and universities started to work together to develop the industry in BC. Unfortunately, official statistics for the quail egg industry in BC or in Canada are not available due to the small size of the industry and confidentiality issues. Most industry and market information is proprietary. However, in her unpublished MSc thesis, Kermode’s (1997) provincial survey of game bird producers indicated that quail meat and eggs were primarily raised and marketed for/to Chinese retail and restaurant establishments. There are no indications today that this has changed in BC, although fresh quail eggs can be found in some specialty European stores, such as Greek grocery stores. The majority of the market is found in the ethnic Chinese sector. Kermode found that in BC, farm size ranged from five to ten acres and that in 1994 there were two producers of quail eggs, producing approximately 451,250 eggs annually, and one producer for meat. She also noted that Ontario and Quebec produced large numbers of quail, with Quebec producing the greatest numbers, primarily for the meat market. Today in BC, there are three commercial quail egg producers in the Lower Mainland of BC (one large and two small); total annual production is unknown,

26 but was estimated at over 3,000,000 eggs in a 2002 market report (View West Marketing Inc., & Zbeetnoff Agro-Environmental Consulting). This represents an 85% increase in production over seven years. The 2002 report also noted that pickled quail eggs were a potential product for growth. According to Kermode, in 1994 producers were paid $0.07 per quail egg by wholesalers; the value of product was estimated at $49,638 in 1994, $31,588 wholesale and $46,930 retail; annual compound growth rates of 5% were expected from 1994 to 1997. Trade statistics for quail eggs are not available. The market for the fresh quail eggs is local and they are sold in packages of 24 through a few distributors (two, primarily, located in the Lower Mainland in close proximity to the large Metro Vancouver market) to retailers, restaurants, hotels, and in small volumes to consumers directly at their premises. As noted previously, producers may sell them directly to consumers, restaurants, grocery stores, or specialty poultry stores. Fresh and pickled are the most popular ways to eat these eggs. However, according to the 2002 market report, there is no evidence of a pickling processor in BC (View West Marketing Inc., & Zbeetnoff Agro-Environmental Consulting), nor in Canada (personal observation/research). The pickled and other processed quail egg market appears to be served by imports, imported directly by the large supermarket chains, Asian grocery wholesalers or distributors.

1.5.2.5 Trade Data

1.5.2.5.1 Imports of Salted and Preserved Duck Eggs The exact value and volume of imported salted and preserved duck eggs is unknown because import data is aggregated for these egg products, under the “eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked” category (‘n.e.s’ means not elsewhere specified and is a catch-all for eggs and egg products from species other than chickens or turkeys, and excludes any hatching eggs). Theoretically, data in this category could refer to eggs from ducks, geese, quail, or partridge, for example. Nevertheless, given the great popularity of the duck egg products, in the following Figure 1.4, it can be assumed that the majority of these egg imports are either salted or preserved duck eggs.

1,600,000 80.0

1,400,000 70.0

1,200,000 60.0

1,000,000 50.0

800,000 40.0

600,000 30.0 Percentage Dozens 400,000 20.0

200,000 10.0

0 0.0

1998 2006 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 Year of import

BC Canada BC % market share

Figure 1.4 Annual imports from Asia of bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, in number of dozens for Canada and BC, with BC percentage of total Canada import volume market share

Source: Derived from Statistics Canada International Trade Division (2010)

The volume of imports into Canada and BC has fluctuated over the 15 year period from 1995 to 2009, but the general trend indicates a slight rise in total volume into Canada. In contrast, BC’s share of import volume has declined from approximately 71% to 54% over the same time period. The 15 year average for total imports into Canada was 1,304,091 dozen eggs per year and BC’s average imports per year was 745,034 dozen eggs or 57% of total imports. Imports into a province do not necessarily stay in

28 that province and may be transported to other parts of Canada, but given the large numbers of Chinese Canadians in BC, it may be safe to assume that the majority of imports to BC remain in BC. In terms of the dollar value of imports into Canada, BC’s share dropped from 71% in 1995 to 56% in 2009, as shown in Figure 1.5. In 2009 the value of imports into BC was $1,526,228 CAD and the total value into Canada was $2,743,523 CAD. The average annual value (in nominal terms) of imports into Canada from 1995 to 2009 was $2,458,014 CAD.

1995 2009 2%

27% 44% 56%

71%

BC Ontario Other BC Ontario

Figure 1.5 Percentage share of $CAD value of imports of bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, by province of import and year

Source: Calculated from Statistics Canada International Trade Division (2010)

Figure 1.6 indicates that, overall, the numbers of ethnic Chinese were growing at a faster rate from 1996 to 2006 in Canada as a whole compared to in BC, and the growth of imports in Canada was growing at a slower rate compared to the ethnic Chinese population.

1600000

1400000

1200000

1000000

800000

Number 600000

400000

200000

0 1996 2001 2006 2009 Year

No. of ethnic Chinese in Canada No. of ethnic Chinese in BC No. of dozens imported into BC No. of dozens imported into Canada

Figure 1.6 Comparison of the ethnic Chinese population to the number of dozens of imports of bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, for Canada and BC, 1996 to 2009

Source: Calculated from Statistics Canada International Trade Division (2010)

Figure 1.7 compares the percentage share of imports (by volume of eggs) into Canada and BC by country of origin in 1995 and 2009. In 1995 ‘Others’ consisted of imports from Thailand and Vietnam. By 2009 China, Taiwan, and Thailand had all gained market share at the expense of Hong Kong and Vietnam.

Canada 1995 Canada 2009 2.65 0.39 0.54 5.92 8.23

91.04 91.23

China Hong Kong Taiwan Others China Taiwan Thailand

BC 1995 BC 2009 3.53 1.99 0.45 4.54

93.02 96.47

China Hong Kong Taiwan Others China Taiwan

Figure 1.7 Percentage share of import volume (dozens of eggs) into Canada and BC by country of origin, for eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, 1995 and 2009

Source: Calculated from Statistics Canada International Trade Division (2010)

Comparing the percentage share of the value of imports by country of origin, Figure 1.8 shows that China and Taiwan have gained share over other East Asian or Southeast Asian countries between 1995 and 2009.

Canada 1995 BC 1995 0.5 3.88 0.52 6.5 5.6 4.36

87.4 91.24

China Hong Kong Taiwan Others China Hong Kong Taiwan Thailand

Canada 2009 BC 2009 13.58 0.33 7.41

86.09 92.59

China Taiwan Thailand China Taiwan

Figure 1.8 Percentage share of import values ($CAD) by country of origin for eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked, 1995 and 2009 for Canada and BC

Source: Calculated from Statistics Canada International Trade Division (2010)

Comparing the volume to value data (Figure 1.7 to Figure 1.8), China’s exports to Canada (and BC) have a higher percentage of the market share by volume than by value. This may indicate either a lower cost of production or other countries may be able to charge a premium for their eggs (or both). For Canada in 2010, the total value of imported bird eggs, in shell, n.e.s, preserved or cooked was $2,708,657CAD; $3,216,368CAD in 2011 (Table 1.3, below). Statistics indicate that the top importers increased their market concentration from 2010 to 2011. In 2010 and 2011, three of the top importers were located in Metro Vancouver and the remaining in Ontario, in or close to the GTA. Two of the top Canadian importers were supermarket chains, Loblaw Inc. and T&T Supermarket Inc. (now owned by 32

Loblaw). The remaining importers were trading companies or food wholesalers. At the time of writing, further detailed information for 2010 or 2011 at the ten-digit HS Code level was not available.

Table 1.3 Value of imports and market concentration, eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, preserved/cooked, 2010-2011 for Canada

Number of Import Value Cumulative % of Import Value Cumulative % of importers 2010 ($CAD) total imports 2010 2011 ($CAD) total imports 2011 3 1,252,235 46 1,662,520 52 6 1,760,891 65 - - 8 - - 2,499,707 78 10 2,144,751 79 - - All 2,708,657 100 3,216,368 100.00 Source: Industry Canada, Canadian Importers Database http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/cid-dic.nsf/eng/home

Examples of imported brands include the following brands from China, imported by Canda Six Fortune Enterprise Co.: Six Fortune, Ever Growth, AS, and Len Xiang; Canda also imports NN preserved duck eggs from Taiwan (http://www.canda.ca/productsummary.aspx). Preserved and salted duck eggs are generally imported in cases of 24 packages, with 6 eggs per package, although jars of salted duck eggs are available at 9 eggs per jar and 12 jars per case. Hard and soft yolk preserved duck eggs, salted duck eggs and cooked salted duck eggs are available. Imported frozen salted duck egg yolks are also available in BC (data not shown).

1.5.2.5.2 Imports of Quail Eggs At the time of writing, fresh quail eggs are not imported into BC or Canada. Import data for Canada, specific to only fresh quail eggs is not available, but data for the general category “eggs, bird, in shell, n.e.s, fresh” would include quail eggs, and the last record of import for that category was in 2006 when 1200 dozen worth $1,612 CAD were imported into Quebec from China. (For processed quail eggs, it appears that canned quail eggs may be imported under HS code 040899 bird eggs not in shell – except dried. According to the Canadian Importers Database, in 2010 the total value of imports into Canada was $269,326 CAD and Thailand was the country of origin.)

1.5.3 Demographics of Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver, BC

1.5.3.1 Definitions For the purposes of my study, there are two relevant definitions that Statistics Canada uses when gathering population statistics: Ethnic origin and visible minority status. Ethnic origin refers to the ethnic or cultural origin(s) of a person’s ancestors, usually more distant than a grandparent (Statistics Canada, 2007a). This differs from visible minority status, which is defined as a person who is non- Caucasian in race or non-white in colour, but specifically excludes Aboriginals (Statistics Canada, 2007b). Just like the Canadian Census, I allowed survey respondents to self-select that they were of Chinese ethnic ancestry. I did not provide a specific definition for Chinese ethnic ancestry. When I refer to Chinese Canadians, I am referring to people who reside in Canada and whose ethnic origins are self-defined as Chinese (whether from China or elsewhere). The ethnic origin definition was used because it is broader in scope (doesn’t rely on race alone) and by definition incorporates the idea of Chinese cultural customs and norms. This is important because dietary preferences, food habits, and rituals are strongly identified with culture. As noted by Chang (1997) in his introduction to Food in Chinese Culture, eating food is not just a chemical process, but a cultural one too, and “people of different backgrounds eat very differently” (p.3). Cultures are dynamic, however, and so too are food preferences, habits, and rituals.

1.5.3.2 A Brief History of Chinese Immigration to BC Chinese immigration to BC (and Canada) has a long history dating back to the gold rush days in BC in the late 1850s and the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway from 1881 to 1884. The discriminatory, restrictive Chinese head tax introduced in 1885 and the Exclusion Act of 1923 choked off Chinese immigration to Canada until the repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1947. As Figure 1.9 indicates, however, it wasn’t until the late 1960s when Canadian immigration rules became universal in application, and based on a points system, that large numbers of ethnic Chinese began migrating to Canada and BC (“Across the generations,” n.d.; Tan & Roy, 1985; Li, 2005).

1200000

1000000

800000

600000 Canada

Number BC 400000 Metro Vancouver 200000

0 1971 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 Census year

Figure 1.9 Ethnic Chinese population counts, single ethnicity, Census years 1971 – 2006

Produced from Statistics Canada Census data 1971 – 2006 (Basavarajappa & Ram, 1983)

Initially, small numbers of Chinese immigrants to Canada arrived under family reunification rules and policies, and many Chinese migrated to urban Chinatowns in larger Canadian cities such as Toronto and Vancouver. Most were working class. However, with the adoption of the points-based system in the late 1960s, which encouraged independent and/or economic migrants, larger numbers of Chinese began to arrive. Between 1968 and 1994 over 500,000 ethnic Chinese immigrated to Canada, of which 68% were from the (now) Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter Hong Kong) and 22% from the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter mainland China or China), and the remainder from Taiwan (a disputed territory officially known as the Republic of China by Taiwanese or as the Province of Taiwan by the People’s Republic of China) and other Asian countries or areas (Li, 2005). Immigration patterns have changed over the years: Family reunification migrants have given way to independent and economic migrants (including entrepreneurs under the Canadian Business Immigration Program), attracting middle class, educated, urban Chinese, the majority of whom now arrive from China, not Hong Kong (Li, 2005). Most Chinese immigrants now settle in suburban areas, such as Markham, northwest of Toronto, and Richmond, in Greater Vancouver, or in other more affluent areas of cities, avoiding Chinatowns. Ethnic Chinese Canadians, therefore, come from different political, economic, and social/cultural backgrounds (Wang & Lo, 2005). Today, Chinese is the largest non-British Isles or non-European ethnic origin group in Canada, BC, and Metro Vancouver (excluding the “Canadian” category) (Statistics Canada, 2010a). In Canada, the majority of ethnic Chinese are located in two provinces, Ontario (47.9%) and BC (32.1%), and

35 within two cities, Toronto (39.9%) and Vancouver (29.8%). Metro Vancouver accounts for 93% of the ethnic Chinese population in BC and 19% of Metro Vancouver’s population is from an ethnic Chinese background. All figures above include both single and multiple ethnic origin responses (for example Chinese-Irish or Chinese-Canadian) and are derived from 2006 Census data (Statistics Canada, 2010a; Statistics Canada 2010d). After English and French, Chinese languages are the third largest mother tongue group in Canada (http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/rt-td/lng- eng.cfm#note1).

1.5.3.3 Generation Status, Period of Immigration, and Citizenship Status According to 2006 census data (Statistics Canada, 2010b), in Metro Vancouver most ethnic Chinese are immigrants and have become Canadian citizens. Of ethnic Chinese 15 years and older, 84.8% in Metro Vancouver are first generation Canadians (immigrants), compared to 47.2% in the general (Metro Vancouver, 15 years +) population; 13.2% are second generation (born in Canada) compared to 21.3% in the general population; and 2.0% are third generation or more (born in Canada and at least one parent born in Canada), compared to 31.5% in the general population. In total, taking into account all age groups, there were 294,600 ethnic Chinese immigrants in Metro Vancouver in 2006. As seen in Figure 1.10, the peak years of immigration were in the 1990s when over 130,000 or 44.7% of total ethnic Chinese immigrants arrived. Between 2001 and 2006, arrivals decreased by 16.4% compared to the previous census period. The majority, 83.1%, are Canadian citizens, 14.9% are landed immigrants and 1.9% are non-permanent residents.

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

Number 40,000

20,000

0 Before 1991 1991 to 1995 1996 to 2000 2001 to 2006 Years of arrival

Figure 1.10 Number of ethnic Chinese immigrants by period of immigration, Metro Vancouver

Source: Statistics Canada (2010b)

1.5.3.4 Place of Birth and Mother Tongue The majority of ethnic Chinese immigrants in Metro Vancouver are from East Asia, primarily mainland China and Hong Kong:

3.1

12.4 P.R. of China Hong Kong SAR 12.9 46.3 Other East Asia Southeast Asia Other 25.3

Figure 1.11 Place of birth of ethnic Chinese immigrants in Metro Vancouver (%), 2006

Source: Statistics Canada (2010b)

Percentage distribution of mother tongues is shown in Figure 1.12. In 2006, over 393,600 ethnic Chinese in Metro Vancouver reported a single mother tongue. Cantonese was the dominant mother tongue, accounting for 125,940 people, followed by Chinese (not specified) at 120,205, Mandarin at 69,265 and English at 62,970 (BC Stats, n.d.; Statistics Canada, 2010b).

3.9

16.0 Cantonese 32.0 Chinese, not specified Mandarin 17.6 English Other 30.5

Figure 1.12 Ethnic Chinese population mother tongues, single language responses only, Metro Vancouver, 2006

Derived from: BC Stats (n.d.) and Statistics Canada (2010b)

1.5.3.5 Age Groups Figure 1.13 indicates that the ethnic Chinese population in Metro Vancouver follows a similar distribution pattern to the total population for the region, but there are greater numbers of ethnic Chinese in the 40 – 49 year age group and less in the 19 years and younger group.

Total population 10 Percentage % Percentage Ethnic Chinese

0 ≤ 19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70+ Age group in years

Figure 1.13 Percentage age group distributions in Metro Vancouver 2006, ethnic Chinese vs. total population

Source: Statistics Canada (2010c)

1.5.3.6 Highest Level of Education Achieved Figure 1.14 compares the education levels of the total population to the ethnic Chinese population in Metro Vancouver. Of the Metro Vancouver ethnic Chinese population 15 years and older, 20.1% did not have a high school diploma, 25.7% had a high school diploma or equivalent, 24.3% had an apprenticeship, college, or university below bachelor level diploma or certificate, and 29.9% had achieved a bachelor degree or higher. Overall, greater percentages of ethnic Chinese had achieved a university diploma or university undergraduate degree or higher, compared to the total population.

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0 Percentage 10.0

5.0 Total Population Ethnic Chinese 0.0

Highest level of education achieved Figure 1.14 Highest level of education achieved, Metro Vancouver 2006, ethnic Chinese vs. total population

Source: Statistics Canada (2010b)

1.5.3.7 Household Income Table 1.4 provides the percentage distribution of individuals of ethnic Chinese origin in Metro Vancouver by total annual household income. For the Metro Vancouver population as a whole, median family income in 2005 was $64,332 and median income for all private households was $55,231 (Statistics Canada, 2007c).

Table 1.4 Percentage distribution of ethnic Chinese by total annual household income, Metro Vancouver, 2005

Percentage of ethnic Chinese Total annual household income in Metro Vancouver Below $20,000 15.5 $20,000 – $39,999 21.8 $40,000 - $59,999 18.4 $60,000 - $79,999 13.1 $80,000 - $99,999 9.7 $100,000 or more 21.5 Source: Statistics Canada (2007c)

1.5.3.8 Multiple Ethnicities Immigrants to Canada are less likely to report multiple ethnic origins than individuals born in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2008). With a majority of Metro Vancouver ethnic Chinese born outside of Canada it is not surprising that only 11.2% (45,150) of ethnic Chinese in Metro Vancouver reported a multiple ethnic ancestry in the 2006 Census (Statistics Canada, 2010a). In the more restrictive terms of visible minority groups in Canada, the Chinese visible minority group is less likely to be of mixed origin than other visible minority groups, with the exception of the Korean visible minority group: Only 7% of Chinese visible minorities in Canada are of multiple ethnic origins (3.7% for Korean visible minorities) (Statistics Canada, 2008).

1.5.4 Summary Although there are no previous studies in the literature for the consumer market for duck and quail egg products, other ethnic food market studies, dietary acculturation studies, and other consumer studies of ethnic Chinese in North America, provide a context for my study and confirm that my study approach (see Chapter Two, methodology) is not without precedent. Previous research into the duck and quail industry in BC revealed that it is small and that some aspects of the industry are fragmented (for example, hobby farm/backyard flocks for duck eggs), or concentrated on the restaurant trade (quail eggs). Although the industry suffers from weak market power and faces competition from imports, there may be opportunities to exploit the consumer market in the large and growing Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver. The overall purpose of my research is to utilize mixed method research design and advanced statistical analysis to develop a profile of the Chinese Canadian consumer market in Vancouver for duck and quail egg products, and to provide current or future producers and/or processors with relevant consumer market information, including an analysis of potential market opportunities.

2 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Methodology Review

2.1.1 Mixed Methods Research Mixed methods research utilizes both qualitative and quantitative data gathering methods to study a topic. According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2007), using both methods in one study is not new, but specifically creating a research design that puts and mixes both methods together into a comprehensive whole only began to emerge in the mid to late 1990s. Mixed methods research is a pragmatic approach to research, encouraging the use of the most appropriate mixture of qualitative and quantitative research tools to investigate, analyze, and answer a research question. The mixed method overcomes many of the individual weaknesses of using each method on its own, it produces more thorough and robust data for addressing a research problem, it can allow for the use of more than one worldview, and it allows for the use of both inductive and deductive reasoning (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). Use of both methods can provide a more complete picture when it is thought that one method alone cannot give enough evidence to answer a problem, or when it is suspected that results from one method may be contradicted by data from another method. Another appropriate use of mixed methods is to fill in gaps to improve a study with a second source of data, to explain quantitative results, or to first explore qualitatively (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). However, the thoroughness and information gained from a mixed methods design comes at the expense of the extra time and cost involved. Many mixed methods designs exist in the literature, with Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003) finding almost 40 distinct designs. For brevity and the purposes of this thesis, I will summarize four major mixed methods designs as identified by Creswell and Plano Clark (2007): Triangulation, embedded, explanatory, and exploratory.

There are variations, but in general triangulation employs the quantitative and qualitative methods during the same time period, with equal weight, and is used to directly compare and contrast the findings from each method or to validate or flesh out quantitative results with qualitative data. The embedded design uses one method (for example, quantitative) to provide a secondary set of data to support research based on the other method (for example, qualitative) and is used most often when a research question within the larger study is best studied using the secondary method. The secondary method is embedded in the research design of the primary method and can be executed using a one phase or two phase approach. In an explanatory design a sequential two phase process is utilized with a quantitative study deployed first, followed by a qualitative study directly linked to the results of the first study. The second phase is used to further explain the results of the initial phase. More weight is usually placed on the first quantitative stage. The exploratory mixed method is a two phase design, with an initial qualitative study that is then used to help shape and develop a following quantitative study. There are two variants of the exploratory design: The taxonomy development design and the instrument development design. In the taxonomy development design, the initial qualitative study is used to identify variables and create a classification system, or to explore and expand on a new theory. The second quantitative stage takes the results and formulates research questions or hypotheses that examine and expand on the results of the qualitative phase. In the instrument development design, a qualitative study is undertaken in order for the researcher to learn more about the study topic, the language and words used by participants, and the importance or not of possible questions and topics, in order to develop a relevant quantitative survey. The quantitative survey instrument is then used to probe the study problem further. More weight is placed on the quantitative phase.

2.1.1.1 Method Selected Other studies that have used a mixed methods design include Satia et al.’s (2001) use of individual interviews and focus groups to develop a quantitative survey of Chinese American and Chinese Canadian women’s food consumption habits and dietary acculturation; and, Wang and Lo’s (2007) study of Chinese immigrant grocery shopping behaviour, which involved preliminary focus groups followed by a randomized consumer survey. Prior to commencing research, I knew very little about specialty duck and quail eggs. Also, my ethnic ancestry is Irish and Scottish, not Chinese. Given my status as an ‘outsider’ to Chinese Canadian culture I decided that for exploratory, background information purposes, to help me gain an understanding of how the ethnic Chinese in Vancouver view these egg products, and to assist in the design of the survey questionnaire, some qualitative research was needed. Qualitative research would provide me with ‘insider’ or emic5 information. It would provide an opportunity for Chinese Canadians to express their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes towards the products, in their own words. Such insider information complements quantitative data. A mixed methods approach, which utilizes both qualitative and quantitative research methods, was warranted. Therefore a two phase exploratory (instrument development) design was chosen: Qualitative, exploratory research, followed by a random quantitative survey. The weight of my research is placed on the second, quantitative phase. A diagram of the research design and stages is provided in Figure 2.1.

5 Emic: Of, relating to, or involving analysis of cultural phenomena from the perspective of one who participates in the culture being studied (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/emic ) 45

qual qual Quan Quan qual + qual Quan Final data data data data Quan con- results results collection analysis collection analysis results clusions

Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: Procedure: focus descriptive interpretation random SPSS data Interpre- compare final inter- groups content and descript- mail analysis tation of and pretation analysis tion survey data contrast

qual = qualitative research (small q represents less research emphasis on this stage) Quan = quantitative research (capital Q represents more research emphasis is on this stage)

Figure 2.1 Diagram of this study's mixed methods research design

2.1.2 Qualitative Research Design

2.1.2.1 Qualitative Research Objectives The objectives of the qualitative research stage were to:

1. Familiarize myself with how the duck and quail egg products are used and perceived by Chinese Canadians 2. Explore and compare product use and attitudes between ethnic Chinese immigrants and people born in Canada from an ethnic Chinese ancestry 3. Gain specific information on shopping behaviour: Frequency of purchase, where purchased, and price considerations, for example 4. Use the results of the research to help inform the design of the quantitative survey to follow

2.1.2.2 Method Review and Selection I consulted Malhotra’s (2007a) text on marketing research to review qualitative research methods typically used in consumer product studies. There are three major qualitative research procedures used in exploratory marketing research: Projective techniques, depth interviews, and focus group interviews. The advantages and disadvantages of each procedure, according to Malhotra, are summarized below: Projective techniques hide the purpose of the research from participants and involve indirect, ambiguous questioning about the behaviour of others to help participants “project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings” about a subject (Malhotra, 2007a, p. 163). By interpreting and discussing others’ behaviours, participants project and reveal their own attitudes. There are four main types of projective techniques: association, completion, construction, and expressive. The major advantage of using a projective technique is that information may be gathered that a participant would otherwise be unable or unwilling to discuss or reveal if the purpose of the study was known or if the attitudes or beliefs being studied were thought to be held at a subconscious level. Disguising the purpose of research can also increase the validity of responses: When the purpose of research is known, there may be some participants who provide misleading responses, either intentionally or unintentionally. The major disadvantages of projective techniques are that both interviewers and data interpreters need to be highly skilled, analysis of the data is difficult, and there is a high risk of interpretation bias. A depth interview consists of a one on one interview, in which the purpose of research is known and an unstructured, direct line of questioning is used to explore feelings, attitudes, and beliefs about a 47 topic (Malhotra, 2007a). A general question guideline is prepared, but the interview is informal in nature and highly interactive in that the interviewer’s line of questioning often depends on the participant’s replies. Probing is used by the interviewer to gain greater understanding and uncover possible hidden issues. Commonly used techniques include laddering, hidden issue questioning, and symbolic analysis. The two major advantages of depth interviews are that a topic can be covered in great depth and the one on one format eliminates group influence and provides a more comfortable environment for discussion of any sensitive topics. One disadvantage of depth interviews is that a small number are usually conducted due to the time and cost involved, which results in a small pool of data to analyze. Another disadvantage is the loss of group synergy and involvement that may generate a broader range of information. A focus group interview consists of a moderator leading a small group of participants in a relatively unstructured, informal discussion about a known topic (Malhotra, 2007a). This is the most widely used qualitative market research technique. The aim is to gain insights through the flowing dynamic of group discussion. In a traditional focus group the groups are pre-selected to be homogenous in nature, small in size (8 to 12 people), and are usually conducted in an informal setting for one to two hours. A moderator’s discussion guide is prepared in advance and proceedings are audio, and often video, recorded. Non-traditional versions include conference call or online group interviews and the use of two moderators. The major advantage of focus group interviews is that group synergy and stimulation will lead to a wider range of information gathered compared to depth interviews or projective techniques. In addition, the nature of focus groups reduces the likelihood of moderator bias. Another major advantage is speed: Data from a greater number of people can be gathered in a short period of time. A disadvantage of focus groups is that they can be difficult to moderate and another disadvantage is that group discussions can result in data that may be difficult to analyze and interpret. Given that my research topic is neither sensitive nor likely to involve strong subconscious beliefs and attitudes, I rejected the use of projected techniques. I also rejected using depth interviews because the potential greater depth of detail would come at the loss of breadth of information from more participants. In addition, talking in-depth one on one about duck and quail egg products might quickly get boring for an individual, lowering their involvement and the quality of information gained. Given that my objectives were to explore attitudes towards, and the use of, duck and quail egg products by Chinese Canadians, and to help formulate a survey, the focus group procedure was selected as the most

48 appropriate to engage the participants and to generate a broad range of information from a greater number of people in a timely manner. Detailed focus group procedures, including group number, group design, and participant recruitment are presented in Chapter 3, along with the focus group findings.

2.1.3 Quantitative Research Design

2.1.3.1 Survey Methods There are four major modes for administering a consumer survey: Telephone, mail, in-person, and electronic. Malhotra (2007b) was consulted for the strength and weaknesses of each method.

2.1.3.1.1 Telephone Surveys Telephone surveys can be traditional (paper based) or computer assisted. Strengths include a high likelihood of obtaining sensitive information, high speed of data collection, moderate to high sample control and data collection flexibility (for example clarify questions for respondents), and moderate response rates and costs. Weaknesses include a typically low quantity of data (surveys can not be too long or too in-depth), a low diversity of questions, and a low ability to use physical stimuli. In the past, telephone surveys were the primary survey mode, especially for a randomized sample study where the objective is to generalize the results to a population. A high quality sample could be reached due to the widespread adoption of telephone land lines in most households in the developed world. Now, with the advent of cellular telephone service, the percentage of households with at least one landline telephone is declining: In 2008, 10.3% of BC households surveyed did not have a traditional landline and used cell phones only, and 46.7% of these cell-only households were comprised solely of 18 to 34 yr olds (http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/090615/t090615c1-eng.htm). In addition, call answer and call display features, and privacy legislation enforcing ‘do not call’ lists also contribute to declining coverage and rising non-response rates for telephone surveys. Cellular numbers are not published and because the subscriber pays for both incoming and outgoing calls, it is considered unethical, without prior permission, to conduct a randomized research survey using cellular numbers.

2.1.3.1.2 Electronic Surveys An Internet survey is posted online and respondents can be recruited through a variety of methods that direct them to a website to complete the survey. Strengths include their low cost, high speed, 49 elimination of interviewer bias, and moderate to high flexibility of data collection and question diversity. Weaknesses include low response rates, low control of the data collection environment, and low to moderate sample control. Email surveys are sent to email addresses and the survey is in the body of the email; access to the Web is not needed. The greatest strengths of this method are its high speed, low cost, and elimination of interviewer bias. However, there are many weaknesses including low flexibility of data collection, low sample control, low response rates, and low control of the data collection environment. Email surveys are most compatible for very simple, short surveys.

2.1.3.1.3 In-person Interview Surveys In-person interviews may be conducted via pre-arranged in-home interviews, door to door campaigns, or via an intercept method where participants are randomly selected from a carefully selected public area (for example in a mall, leaving a particular store, on the street). The strengths of in-person surveys lie in their high flexibility of data collection, high diversity of questions, high use of physical stimuli, moderate to high sample control and quantity of data collectible. Weaknesses include a high potential for interviewer bias, moderate to high costs, and low perceived anonymity of the respondent. Sensitive information is less likely to be obtained. If the sample size is small speed can be moderate for in-home interviews and potentially high for intercept interviews.

2.1.3.1.4 Mail Surveys Mail surveys can be deployed using traditional postal delivery or via mail panels. Strengths of the postal method include its low cost, elimination of interviewer bias, high perceived anonymity, and moderate diversity of questions and quantity of data obtainable. Weaknesses include a low speed, generally low response rate, low sample control, and low flexibility of data collection. Comparatively, mail panels can allow for moderate to high sample control and moderate response rates, but usually with higher costs. The quality of mail panels can vary significantly depending upon the care with which it is constructed. Results from mail panels usually should not be generalized to a population.

2.1.3.1.5 Summary and Method Selection For the purposes of this study, a randomized telephone survey was considered too costly for my budget, especially since multi-lingual interviewers would be needed (Mandarin, Cantonese, English). In addition, given the projected length of the survey, a high number of incompletes due to respondent fatigue was a strong possibility. 50

An Internet survey method had potential, however a large email database list of Chinese Canadians living in Metro Vancouver from which to sample randomly was not available. Additionally, email addresses are individual and my sampling unit is the household. Some market research firms are building groups of diverse people for Internet survey research, however many of the participants in these groups are not randomly selected, but self-selected, do not necessarily represent the population at large, or are still too small in number of some ethnic groups. For the above reasons, an online survey was rejected as a primary survey method. In-person interviews were rejected due to the amount of time involved to administer the questionnaire and to complete a large randomized sample survey. Recruitment of a range of representative respondents was considered too difficult for this method. Furthermore either an interpreter would be needed for some interviews, or multilingual interviewer(s) would need to be hired and trained to help administer the survey. Given my budget, the expected length of the questionnaire, language considerations, and the need for a large sample size at the household level, the traditional mail survey method, using a mailing list based upon major telephone companies’ landline subscribers, was chosen as most appropriate. As noted, mail surveys often have low response rates. However, several studies, including Dillman, Smyth, & Christian (2009), Converse, Wolfe, Huang, and Oswald (2008), and Messer (2009) indicate that using more than two survey methods can potentially boost response rates if a sequential design is implemented in the survey protocol. Therefore, to help boost response rates the mail survey was selected as the primary survey method and an Internet survey was selected as a secondary method. Further details are provided in Section 2.1.3.2.

2.1.3.2 Survey Protocol With two exceptions, the survey protocol followed Dillman et al.’s (2009) suggested mail survey implementation. A five-contact system is advised by Dillman et al.: Pre-notice, questionnaire, thank you/reminder notice, replacement questionnaire, and a final contact by a non-mail method. Budget considerations restricted my survey protocol to a three contact system: Pre-notice, questionnaire, and reminder letter/thank you with Internet option. Follow up by telephone to non-respondents was prohibited under the mailing list license purchased. Dillman et al. also counsels including an incentive token of appreciation with the questionnaire, but The University of British Columbia ethical guidelines do not allow for such pre-paid financial inducements. Instead, survey recipients were invited to return a draw form to me for a chance to win one of five $100 gift cards.

A personalized pre-notice/invitation letter on University of British Columbia letterhead was initially mailed one week prior to the questionnaire. This notified respondents to expect a questionnaire, expressed appreciation for their participation and was written to stimulate interest in responding. Three weeks after the questionnaire was mailed a reminder/thank you letter, including a personalized link to an option to complete the survey online, was mailed to non-respondents.

2.1.3.3 Questionnaire Design

2.1.3.3.1 Languages All documents were provided in both English and Chinese (See Appendix B). A professional translator was hired to translate all survey correspondence into Chinese. Practicality limited the translation to traditional Chinese, which was selected because the majority of immigrants of ethnic Chinese background are older and are from areas where traditional Chinese has dominated. The translation was reviewed by a second translator and by Dr. Kim Cheng, my supervisor.

2.1.3.3.2 Mail Questionnaire Format The questionnaire was designed following Dillman et al.’s (2009) tailored design approach. A standard, 8.5” by 11” booklet design was chosen for the paper questionnaire, using a portrait format. Conventional formats, such as the booklet design, are familiar to many people and are easy to handle and read by respondents. This format also had the benefit of fitting into a 9” by 12” envelope so that it could be mailed flat. For ease of respondent’s use, two separate booklets, identical in design, were created in each language. The booklets were coded to flag any duplicate submissions. As shown in Figure 2.2, the questionnaire was designed in sections to reflect different buying or consumption habits (or not) in the past year. An introductory question on the first page set the stage for the rest of the survey, guiding each respondent to their appropriate starting section, and branching thereafter.

Which of the following products have been purchased for consumption at home within the past 12 months?

At least one of the Only prepared foods None: Did not buy at individual duck or quail containing at least one of all for consumption at egg types the egg types home

PART A Buyer behaviour and Household attitudes consumption away from home in past 12 months? PART B Consumption at home

Yes No Household consumption away from home in past 12 months?

No Yes

PART C Away from home consumption

PART D PART E Why not Opportunities bought/consumed anywhere?

PART F Demographics and acculturation

Figure 2.2 Questionnaire design with branching

Part A was for respondents who had purchased for at home consumption any of the individual egg types in the past year. Part B was for Part A respondents as well as for respondents who had bought, within the past year and for at home consumption, prepared foods that contained at least one of the egg types. Part C was designed to examine away from home consumption of the eggs. Part D was designed to examine why non-buyers and non-consumers, at home or away from home, did not purchase/consume any of the egg types in the past year. Buyers of at least one egg type for at home consumption and/or away from home consumers of at least one egg type, were eligible to answer Part E, the opportunities section. The objective of this section was to test how likely different product features would increase respondents’ satisfaction with the eggs or increase their willingness to try an egg type that they currently did not buy or consume. Among other features, respondents were asked specifically about BC produced products versus Asian or Chinese made products, using Likert-type scale questions. In an open ended question for each egg type respondents were invited to express in their own words anything that would increase their satisfaction with or willingness to try the eggs. Willingness to pay extra for BC produced products was also tested in this section. Finally, Part G asked the respondents primarily for social-demographic information and included some questions about their dietary habits. A series of questions included in Part G were designed to measure the respondent’s level of acculturation.

2.1.3.3.3 Online Questionnaire Format The online survey was designed to be accessed by an individual pass code provided in each reminder/thank you letter sent to initial non-respondents. This pass code replicated the individual codes on the paper surveys so that duplicate submissions could be flagged. Respondents could choose between English or Chinese versions. To minimize measurement error due to differences in modes, the web-based questionnaire was designed to mirror as closely as possible the layout, overall format, and branching of the paper survey. Rather than see one question per web page, whenever possible each online survey web page contained the same number of questions in the same layout as the paper survey. Respondents were allowed to go backwards and forwards in the online questionnaire and to skip questions they did not want to answer, except for key branching questions.

However, one major difference involved branching: Based on their answers to previous questions, online survey respondents would not see non-applicable questions or sections. All sections of the survey were visible to paper-based respondents.

2.1.3.3.4 Development of Questions The questions and their sequence were developed and worded based upon the objectives of the research, the demands of the required statistical analysis, and the results of the focus groups. Guidelines provided by Dillman et al.’s tailored design approach (2009); Bradburn, Sudman, and Wansink (2004); and, Gray and Guppy (2003) were followed to help create a survey that would be enjoyable for the respondent and would reduce non response and measurement errors.

2.1.3.3.5 Pilot Test Before implementation, the survey was pilot tested by 10 Chinese Canadian UBC non-faculty staff (paper version) and by 45 undergraduate students of various ethnicities, including Chinese (online version). Both language versions were tested, with the Chinese version tested by 5 staff and students. Based on feedback received, the survey was revised accordingly.

2.1.3.4 Statistical Analysis Paper survey responses were manually entered, and online responses were directly downloaded, into PASW Statistics software for analysis (PASW Statistics Grad Pack 17.0.2, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). A significance level of P < 0.05 was set for all assumptions. Different statistical methods were applied based upon the measurement scale for each question and the assumptions of the statistical methods (Field, 2009). Basic frequency and descriptive analyses were completed for all quantitative questions. Results of open ended questions were recorded and classified into common categories as appropriate. For nominal and ordinal variables, cross tabulations, chi-square, and correlation analyses using Pearson’s, Spearman’s rho, or Kendall’s tau b as appropriate and Cramer’s V, Lambda or Phi as measures of the strength of associations, were used to check for significant associations between demographic questions and whether a respondent had purchased any duck or quail egg types. Results from these analyses were used to choose and prepare variables for inclusion into a single block-enter logistic regression model analysis (some variable categories needed to be reduced in number, for example).

Attitudes and beliefs and the importance of product characteristics were measured by 5-point Likert-type scale questions. Descriptive statistics were run. Visual inspection of histograms and P-P plots, and values of skew and kurtosis, indicated that responses to the scale questions, as well as metric data such as household size, acculturation score, etc., were not normally distributed. This was confirmed by significant results from Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Thus non-parametric statistical tests, such as the Kruskal-Wallis test (for differences in mean responses between/across each egg type), Friedman’s ANOVA (for differences in mean responses within each egg type) and post hoc Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon signed ranks tests were selected as most appropriate. To segment the market, principal component analysis (PCA), pioneered by Pearson (1901), with extraction via analysis of the covariance matrix with oblique rotation, was then used twice to reduce (1), the number of product characteristic variables and (2), the number of attitude/belief variables, for input into subsequent cluster analyses of buyers of each egg type. Oblique rotation was chosen due to the underlying dependence between some of the variables. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (as cited in Field, 2009, p. 647) was used to confirm the adequacy of the sample for PCA purposes. The component scores resulting from the PCAs were then entered into a two-step cluster analysis process for buyers of each egg type, using Ward’s hierarchical method (as cited in Malhotra, 2007c, p. 642) to discover the number of clusters to extract, followed by Lloyd’s standardized k-means algorithm, an iterative and classification method to classify each case into a cluster membership (as cited in Mazzocchi, 2008, pp. 268-271). The finalized clusters (buyer segments) were then subjected to further descriptive statistical analysis and non-parametric means tests, including using demographic and buyer behaviour data. Market opportunities were likewise measured on 5-point Likert-type scales for each egg type and results were analyzed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric statistical tests as appropriate. Missing values were excluded from analysis on a pair-wise basis, unless otherwise noted, in which instance missing values were excluded on a case-wise basis.

2.1.3.5 Development of an Acculturation Index Food, diet, and cuisine are important parts of cultures and subcultures around the world. Consumer behaviour is influenced by culture, so to better understand the Chinese Canadian consumer market for duck and quail egg products, it was important to include a measurement of acculturation for the purposes of this study. It was hypothesized that an acculturation measurement would help differentiate market segments and buyers from non-buyers. It would also provide an indication of the impact of immigration levels and cultural ties on future demand.

Acculturation has been considered as a unidimensional and one-directional process (immigrants assimilate into their new society by gradually losing their culture of origin), then as a bi-dimensional process (immigrants affect their host society and the host society affects immigrants and immigrants can adopt aspects of their new culture with or without loss of their culture of origin), and now as a multidimensional construct, in which all parties can accommodate and choose to adopt a variety of behaviours, attitudes, and values, and ethnic identity of either the dominant host culture or ethnic subculture (Berry, 2003; Chia & Costigan, 2006; Deng & Walker, 2007). Furthermore, the concept of acculturation can be divided into roughly two structural domains: An internal domain that is psychological in nature and includes identity and values, and an external domain based on behaviour (Chia & Costigan, 2006). Acculturation indices have been developed for specific ethnicities as well as different purposes. The Suinn Lew Asian Self Identity Acculturation Scale (Suinn, Rickard-Figueroa, Lew, & Vigil, 1987; Suinn, Ahuna, & Khoo, 1992; Suinn, Khoo & Ahuna, 1995) has been widely used as a comprehensive measurement of acculturation in Asians in the United States and has been adapted to other countries. The Suinn Lew and similar scales provide a general measure of acculturation, asking about demographic details (age at immigration, mother tongue, language preference, generation, etc.) social relations, media preferences, and ethnic identity and pride to measure over-all acculturation, including internal and external domains. Relevant to Canada, both Chia and Costigan (2006) and Deng and Walker (2007) have created scales to measure the multi-dimensionality of acculturation in Chinese Canadians. Other acculturation scales are more specific in aim, such as diet related scales for health care purposes. As previously noted in Section 1.5.1.3, a number of dietary acculturation measurements can be found in the literature (Yang & Read, 1996; Satia, et al., 2001; Lv & Cason, 2004; Servaes, 2007). Although the Suinn-Lew, Chia and Costigan, or Deng and Walker scales are thorough, they were impractical given their length and the fact that my primary subject was the market for specialty duck and quail egg products and not social policy, for example. Including such scales would create an unacceptable burden for the respondent, create respondent fatigue, and result in lower response rates. Other studies that have included an explicit measure of acculturation as a survey component, have also eschewed the use of full multi-dimensional acculturation scales (see Adekunle, Filson, Sethuratnam, & Cidro, 2011, for example). In addition, I did not want to limit the measurement of acculturation to diet only. I wanted to provide a relatively straightforward, basic indicator of acculturation using, for the most part, readily available demographic data, so that interested readers or producers could approximate the measurement in the future, as needed.

Therefore ten questions were selected to provide an indication of acculturation in Chinese Canadians living in Metro Vancouver: Mother tongue, reading language ability, birthplace, years in Canada, residential status, generation status, grandparents’ birthplace, household ethnic mix, balancing yin-yang foods, and household food preference. Historically, the Chinese have practiced a yin-yang principal for achieving and maintaining health and apply it when making dietary choices. This principal and the household food preference question were incorporated into the scale, based on earlier dietary acculturation studies (Satia et al., 2001; Lv & Cason, 2004). The eight other questions are typical traditional (linear) measures of acculturation in the external domain. Internal domain measurements, such as identity and value related questions were excluded from the scale.

2.2 Justification for Research Question and Design Markets exist in North America for specialty duck and quail egg products. The market for specialty duck products, such as salted or preserved duck eggs, is typically served by imported products from Asia. With the increasing numbers of immigrants and citizens of Asian ancestry, the potential exists for North American specialty bird producers to enter the market for these products. However, my research indicates that no studies on the consumer market in North America for salted or preserved duck eggs, or fresh quail eggs have been published. This study aims to start to fill this gap in the literature by using a random sample survey of the large ethnic Chinese population in Metro Vancouver, using preliminary focus groups to help inform the survey, and providing interested readers an opportunity to hear the voices of Chinese Canadians on the topic of these egg products.

3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: FOCUS GROUPS

3.1 Introduction The objectives of the qualitative research stage were to:

To meet these objectives, focus groups were selected as the most appropriate qualitative research method (see Section 2.1.2.2) and the first phase of my mixed methods study commenced with two exploratory focus groups. Homogenous groups can help create the best atmosphere for generating good discussions and results (Malhotra, 2007a), with the moderator responsible for eliciting the diversity and variety of within group opinions (Puchta & Potter, 2004). To create homogenous groups and to meet the objective of exploring immigrant versus born in Canada differences, two focus groups of 8 to 12 participants each were planned: One to consist of ethnic Chinese immigrants (the IM group) and the other to consist of people born in Canada from an ethnic Chinese ancestry (the BIC group). Based on need, the use of an English – Mandarin – Cantonese interpreter was planned for the IM group session.

3.2 Recruitment and Screening Recruitment commenced in mid-September 2009 and consisted of the placement of posters at The University of British Columbia and at community centre bulletin boards in Vancouver, Richmond, and Burnaby, the municipalities in Metro Vancouver with the highest concentrations of ethnic Chinese Canadian residents. See Appendix A.1 for a copy of the poster. An advertisement was also placed in a weekly east Vancouver community newspaper (east Vancouver has a high concentration of residents of Chinese ancestry). The advertisement was in English only; the recruitment posters were in English and Chinese. This recruitment strategy was selected to try to recruit both men and women from a range of ages (19 years or older) and education, of Chinese ethnic background, resident in the Metro Vancouver 59 region, and who have some familiarity with the duck and quail egg products. As an incentive and as a token of appreciation for their time, potential participants were told that they would receive a $30 grocery store gift certificate at the end of their group session. A screening questionnaire (see Appendix A.2) was created to ensure prospective participants met all study requirements; to gather some demographic information for group placement and to compare the groups to the study population; and, to help co-ordinate a suitable meeting date and time for each group session. If the prospect did not meet the screening criteria, the form was destroyed. Respondents were assured that their participation and identity would remain confidential and unpublished. After an initial low response rate from ethnic Chinese immigrants, the snow ball technique6 (Goodman, 1961) was employed to bring participation in that group up to 10 people.

3.3 Topic Guide Development A copy of the topic guide is provided in Appendix A.4. The topic guide was developed in order to meet the qualitative research objectives and to ensure a productive yet comfortable focus group session for all participants. The strategy of initiating the sessions with introductions and then a general discussion about the various egg types was used to help make the participants feel at ease and to help me gain a general understanding of how the egg products are used and talked about by the participants. This was followed by a brainstorming session, which asked participants for all features that they might consider if they were to purchase each particular egg type. This technique was used to stimulate the group and to gain as much understanding as possible of how they shopped for the eggs, or, if they hadn’t bought a particular egg type, what they thought they might consider if they were to buy. The features were recorded on a chalk board and then a ranking exercise was conducted to gain further insight into the importance or not of the various features mentioned. Individual participants were asked to rank the most important, top 3 features when buying and the 3 least important features they would consider. To facilitate the ranking, each participant was given a form with blank spaces provided to write their personal top 3 and bottom 3 features for each egg product. Following the general discussion, brainstorming, and ranking exercise, questions and discussions became more specific and

6 The snowball technique is a non-probability sampling method in which a randomly selected study participant(s) is asked to itdentify another person who meets the recruitment criteria and refer them to the researcher as a potential study participant. That person can then refer another person, and repeat the process (or some variation) until a sufficient number of subjects is reached. 60 covered areas of interest (where purchased, for what occasion(s), who consumes, and recipes, for example). The topic guide was generally followed for both group sessions, with some variations in question content and sequences due to the interactive nature of focus groups and differences between the two groups.

3.4 Setting, Moderator, and Duration The focus group sessions were scheduled one week apart in November 2009 on a weekday evening. The same informal private room was rented for both sessions, at a centrally located Vancouver Public Library branch. The location was accessible by public transit and also provided ample free parking. Water, juice, and snacks were served. The groups were moderated by me. To prepare, I drew upon past work experience in focus group moderation and also referred to Puchta and Potter’s (2004) book on focus group practice. The groups were audio recorded in an mp3 format. In addition, a trained, undergraduate student of ethnic Chinese background was present to assist me and to act as an observer and take notes. A male interpreter was present for the IM group session only. My supervisor, Dr. Kim Cheng, observed the IM group discussion, but not the BIC focus group. A chalk board and packages of the duck and quail egg products were used as props to facilitate discussion. The duration of the IM group session was 1 hour 50 minutes and the BIC session was 1 hour 35 minutes long.

3.5 Focus Group Analysis Each focus group was immediately followed by a debriefing session with my assistant to compare perspectives and to receive her notes and the ranking exercise forms. Next, the recorded audio sessions were transcribed by me into MS Word, using AVS Audio Editor Software, which allowed me to boost harder to hear voices and to slow down rapid dialogue to improve the accuracy of the transcription. The sessions were then analyzed for specific information as well as general themes and trends using descriptive content analysis. Descriptive content analysis is a method that summarizes the informational content of the focus group transcript data with respect to the research objectives and questions. It is appropriate for exploratory research for questionnaire development, rather than for ‘thick’ analysis, inference and interpretation. A summary of findings follows.

3.6 Summary of Focus Group Findings

3.6.1 Group Demographics Ten people, excluding the interpreter, participated in the ethnic Chinese IM group: One male and nine females. Seven people participated in the BIC group: Three males and four females. On the evening of November 16, 2009 the IM focus group was conducted. All could speak Cantonese, with 8 originally from Hong Kong, one from Macau, and one from Singapore. Seven had immigrated more than 20 yrs ago, two had immigrated between 15 and 19 yrs ago, and one person had immigrated less than 5 yrs ago. One person was a child at time of immigration (9 yrs old), the rest were adults. Only four participants provided their level of education completed: One with a high school diploma, one with a university degree, and two with a graduate university degree or diploma. Seven participants were 55 yrs of age or older, two were aged 40 to 49 yrs, and one person was 30 to 39 yrs of age. The BIC focus group was held one week later on the evening of November 23, 2009. Eight participants were recruited, but one male had to drop out at the last minute. Six participants had completed post-secondary degrees or college/technical diplomas and one had completed a graduate degree. One participant was 25 to 29 yrs of age, four were 40 to 49 yrs of age, and two were 50 to 59 yrs of age. Five were second generation Canadians (one of whom had a grandparent who had arrived in Canada around the turn of the 20th Century, but returned to China) and two were third generation Canadians (one of whom had great grandparents born in Canada, but they returned to China).

3.6.2 General Familiarity with the Egg Types The IM group was familiar with preserved and salted duck eggs, and a little less familiar with fresh or canned quail eggs. Most bought and cooked with the duck egg products, either currently or in the past. Only one had purchased fresh quail eggs in the past year, although they were all familiar with them and had consumed them in the past, whether at home or at a restaurant. The BIC group, however, had less experience with the egg types. Four had purchased at least one of the products for at home consumption in the recent past, but three only had familiarity through childhood memories or via occasionally eating them in dishes while dining out. Most of the BIC group did not know that the preserved duck eggs came in hard yolk or soft yolk varieties. One BIC participant thought it had just been by chance that the yolks were different. This same person also mistook the snowflake-like pattern that often occurs on the whites of preserved duck eggs as mold or something bad.

No one in the BIC group seemed to know that the snowflake patterns are often an admired characteristic of preserved duck eggs.

3.6.3 Buying Considerations The IM group’s familiarity with salted and preserved duck eggs was reflected in the specifics discussed about the different egg types. For example, when initially asked about what they considered when buying salted duck eggs, the IM group responded with ‘quality’ but that here in Canada they are thwarted from properly inspecting and choosing salted duck eggs:

“Quality is the critical point” - Female 1 “How do you tell the quality?”- Moderator “This is no choice”- Female 2

“Here in Canada, we cannot chose which one we like. In Hong Kong, we can…you know the light…through the lights and then if they are heavy or not. Now in Canada they are already wrapped.” – Female 3

“So, how would you decide which of the packages to buy?” – Moderator

“As long as it is not broken! [Others laugh] That’s the only way. And, sometimes they are broken as well.” – Female 4

One of the younger females buys packages of frozen salted duck egg yolks only because she uses only the yolks in cooking, which is not uncommon. However, one of the older immigrant females stated that the packages of yolks-only are not satisfactory:

“But these days I do not like the yolks only because they do not meet my criteria. What I like is the yolk [to be] sandy and some oil leaking out. That’s very tasty.” – IM Female 5

She goes on to state that the yolks are too dry, others agree with her, and:

“For the whole egg itself, we cannot choose, so we do not know what is inside, we can only buy what we have.”

The BIC group , on the other hand, had much less experience in purchasing the products and for the majority of them, asking them what they considered or would consider when buying any of the egg types was more theoretical than based on experience. They were quicker than the immigrants to reel off a number of things they would consider, but quality was not one of them and they did not mention any of the specifics of a sandy, oily yolk texture as a mark of quality in a salted duck egg. For the preserved

63 eggs, country of origin (COO) was one of the first considerations mentioned and agreed upon by many. Nutritional information such as cholesterol, sodium content, and calories would also be considered when buying. Lead-free was important too:

“…a while ago, you read in the papers that there was some issue about some of these eggs having lead…for a while we were scared to even buy anything made in China.” – BIC Male 3

However, one of the BIC females with a bit more egg buying experience was in agreement with the immigrant group that packaging was an issue when purchasing:

“How it’s packaged, because I can see that [referring to fresh quail eggs], but that other one is not clear, so you can’t see the product.” – BIC Female 4

“So you would prefer to be able to see the product?” – Moderator “Yes. When it is enclosed like that, you can’t really see what it’s like.” – BIC Female 4

The BIC group also spontaneously mentioned price and brand as considerations, whereas the immigrant group had to be prompted by me about price and brand. Another issue for the BIC group was their lack of reading ability in Chinese, which for some resulted in an either real or perceived issue with labels not having enough English on them. Finally, due to their lack of experience in buying the duck egg products, some of the women admitted to ‘going with the trend’:

“If there’s multiple brand, I also take note to see which is moving faster. Because, I think of why people are purchasing one particular brand more than another and I’m trying to decide if I should go with the trend.” – BIC Female 2

“I do the same thing!” – BIC Female 3

Most buyers, whether they were immigrants or born in Canada, bought the duck or quail egg products at either T&T or Superstore. One immigrant mentioned she’d sometimes buy the duck egg products at a Vietnamese store. One of the BIC group voiced their frustration at the difficulty they had shopping in T&T because they could not read Chinese, and they’d have to ask a stranger for help.

3.6.4 Ranking Exercise After buying considerations were discussed, the participants individually filled out the provided form to rank the three most and three least important features they would consider when buying. Results suggest differences between the two groups. For preserved duck eggs, freshness and quality earned the

64 most first place votes in the IM group, whereas nutrition information earned the most first place votes in the BIC group, followed by price. Results were similar for salted duck eggs. For fresh quail eggs, first place votes were dispersed, but quality earned the most first place votes in the IM group and freshness, nutrition information, and price tied with the most first place votes in the BIC group. Differences are also apparent in the rankings for the least important characteristics. For both preserved and salted duck eggs, price earned the highest number of last place (least important) votes by IM participants. Whereas in the BIC group, for preserved duck eggs, recipes and nutrition information received the highest number of least important votes; for salted duck eggs, it was freshness and nutrition information. Price and package size earned the highest number of least important votes for fresh quail eggs in the IM and BIC groups respectively. Detailed results can be found in Appendix A.5

3.6.5 Consumption Habits The salted and preserved duck egg products were consumed infrequently by the majority of all participants. For the BIC participants, salted duck eggs were most often consumed in moon cakes at the Autumn Festival and preserved duck eggs were consumed in congee while dining out. Only one of the female and one of the male BIC participants consumed salted duck eggs regularly at home: The female ate the eggs only when prepared in dishes by her father. He would cook with them on a weekly basis and she would eat the dishes when she was in the mood for it, which was frequently, but not necessarily every week. The male’s consumption, which was described as fairly frequently, depended on his wife’s or mother-in-law’s cooking. Some participants of both groups had not eaten one or the other duck egg product in years or since childhood. The IM participants were infrequent consumers of the duck egg products, but would sometimes use them in specific dishes that they would cook at home. They ate salted duck eggs in purchased moon cakes and they would also consume preserved duck eggs in congee, either while dining out or by take- home. In general, both groups were very infrequent purchasers or consumers of quail eggs. Some had never bought quail eggs. Most hadn’t purchased or consumed the eggs in years. The same BIC male that ate salted duck eggs at home on a regular basis also ate the canned quail eggs fairly frequently in dishes prepared by his wife and ate the fresh quail eggs in dishes prepared by his mother in law. One immigrant female did buy the quail eggs to give to her children at parties and another BIC female bought them for her children at Easter.

3.6.6 Meal Time at Home A number of BIC and IM group members reported buying the eggs less frequently than they might like because other family members would not eat the eggs:

“She seldom buys the salty egg and the century egg because of the younger generation. Because she cooks for the entire family, so although herself may like to have it, it seems the sons and daughters they don’t like it, so she seldom buys it.” – Interpreter for IM female 7

“I’m the only one in the household who will eat that. My son, you know that green thing in the congee, maybe. My daughter, definitely, won’t even touch it. And my husband, [she laughs] you know, won’t even go near it! So, if they are not eating it, then I don’t make it that often.” – BIC female 1

3.6.7 Cooking Skills and Recipes The IM group members knew how to cook with the eggs. They could name and discuss a number of recipes in which to use the eggs, but they felt like they were limited in use to the few dishes that the eggs are traditionally used in and that, unlike chicken eggs, they are not everyday foods. They would cook them in recipes occasionally, when they felt like making a particular dish. In general, the BIC group members did not know the recipes in which to use the various egg types. Three had good memories of dishes, but could not or would not cook them themselves. The majority had not been taught how to cook by their parents and had been sent out of the kitchen to do their homework when they were young. A few who had memories of dishes made with the egg types, described them as complicated and time consuming:

“It’s a whole day thing.” – BIC female 1

“They’re associated with very complicated recipes that go back to our parent’s or grandparent’s generation.” – BIC female 2

“There wouldn’t be much use in my kitchen. If we were to make a Chinese dish, it wouldn’t be as traditional.” – BIC male 1

However, there were some memories of simple dishes:

“When I was a kid I remember eating it and it was prepared quite simply. The duck eggs, the salty ones were boiled, and you’d dig in the end with your chopsticks to have with your rice. And, the century egg, I remember just washing it off and cracking it and having to mix it with soy sauce and sesame oil, and then just eating it with rice.” – BIC female 3

The IM group appeared doubtful that new recipes could tempt them to buy and serve any of the egg types more often, mostly because the eggs are not seen as an everyday type of food, but also because some appeared to have difficulty with the idea that the eggs could be used in new ways. The youngest immigrant expressed the most interest in new recipes. In contrast, although the BIC group reported less consumption and more aversion to the eggs (see Section 2.2.6.1), they appeared to be more open to trying an egg type they hadn’t had in a while, or ever, and more open to trying new recipes, provided that they were convenient and did not take too long to make.

“I might buy the quail eggs, if I found a cool recipe I wanted to try.” – BIC female 3

And, later on:

“If there were more recipes, maybe I would kind of expand my horizon a bit. You know, if somebody would take the time to invent or create or add these ingredients in maybe.” – BIC female 1

“Something fairly simple that is not going to take you hours?” – Moderator “Oh yeah, Kraft kitchen stuff, you know.” – BIC female 1 (she, others laugh) “We need Kraft kitchen to test!” – BIC female 2

“Yeah, maybe we need someone there, might take on the challenge and come up with some ethnic dishes that will incorporate these.” – BIC female 1

3.6.8 Eating Out Congee was overwhelmingly the most popular dish in which the preserved duck eggs were consumed by either group. Autumn Moon Cake was the most cited method for consuming salted duck eggs, although this just involves the yolk. Neither the IM nor the BIC group make Autumn Moon Cake or would make Autumn Moon Cake at home; it is always bought. Neither group specifically mentioned a restaurant dish that included quail eggs. One of the older BIC participants remarked how difficult it was to get any of the more elaborate traditional Chinese dishes that would use any of the duck or quail egg products, stating that restaurants just do not make that stuff anymore, possibly because of the time involved as well as the fact that people do not ask for the dishes, especially the younger generations.

3.6.9 Attitudes

3.6.9.1 Nostalgia and Aversion Two opposing attitudes that presented during the focus groups, especially for the BIC group, were aversion and nostalgia. Three members of the BIC group, in particular, reminisced and expressed nostalgia for some of the traditional Chinese dishes that they used to eat that contained the duck or quail egg products. This involved memories from when they were growing up, their mother’s or grandmother’s cooking:

“Once in a while I think about the home cooked meals and I drool about it…” – BIC male 3

Or:

“I’m just thinking about eating all this when I was a kid. I just loved it.” – BIC female 2

Then, later:

“So many memories!” – BIC female 1

“Yeah, I even visualize it all the time! Like there is a minced pork paddy and the century eggs are usually right there, in the middle.” – BIC male 3

“Right there…middle…yeahhhh” – BIC female 1 “And it’s usually really orange, not yellow, but orange colour.” – BIC male 3 “Yeah. You can never duplicate it.” – BIC female 1

The immigrant group members’ discussion was less nostalgic and more matter of fact in tone when discussing their consumption of the egg products:

“In the sticky rice wrap we also put the yolk of salted duck egg.” – IM female 5

“It’s a very yummy egg; it’s used in congee, right. Or just sugar and wine…it’s quite tasty…and ginger.” – IM female 3, referring to preserved duck eggs

However, some of the BIC group members and one of the IM group members expressed aversion to the egg products, especially the preserved duck egg:

“Those century ones, I don’t eat them. I had a bad experience when I was young already…and the smell itself, I think is terrible.” – BIC female 4

“Earlier this year I had the preserved egg in congee in a restaurant, but I never eat the preserved egg, I always pass it off to someone else.” – BIC male 2

“Well, that green slimy thing…” – BIC female 1 (although she will eat it out of politeness)

“I read on Internet there’s something, they soak in ammonia or something like that…” – IM female 8, referring to preserved duck eggs

Aversion was also an issue with their children and sometimes their spouses (see Section 3.6.6).

3.6.9.2 Uncertainty about Health and Safety Both groups expressed concern about how healthy and safe the duck and quail egg products were to consume. The most common health concerns were the cholesterol content in all of the eggs and the sodium content in the salted duck eggs. There were different perspectives about the cholesterol content of quail eggs. One IM group member said she did not eat quail eggs because they are high in cholesterol, but one BIC participant stated that the quail eggs were eaten in her household when she was growing up, specifically because they were lower in cholesterol. According to the United States Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (www.ndb.nal.usda.gov), per gram, chicken eggs have the lowest cholesterol, quail eggs have the next highest level, and duck eggs have the highest level of the three. The BIC participant’s elders may have consumed less total cholesterol because of the small size of the quail egg. In addition, the healthfulness of the duck eggs can be questioned, simply by being processed, as noted by BIC female 4:

“My son and his friends say, ‘how can that be healthy ‘cause of the preservation and the expiry dates [lack of] and it’s sitting on the shelf, it’s not refrigerated?’…”

The IM group recited concerns about the safety of consuming the duck egg products, especially if imported from China. Concerns included potential lead content in preserved duck eggs, the use of ammonia or other chemicals in preserved duck eggs, and the injection of Sudan red dye7 into salted duck egg yolk to make them a more desirable orange-red colour. The BIC group mentioned potential lead content in preserved duck eggs and in the tins of canned quail eggs; the use of chemicals to make the eggs instead of traditional means.

7 Sudan red dye has been linked to cancer in rats 69

“We think there are so many fake things from China, so we try to avoid.” – IM female 5

“These days, people are reluctant to buy egg yolk alone because in China they put artificial colouring to make it look red and it’s harmful to the health.” – IM female 7

“Like a while ago, you read in the papers that there was some issue about some of these eggs having lead.” – BIC male 3

There were mixed feelings about how much they should trust the food inspection system:

“Would you avoid the ones that are made in Taiwan or made in China?” – Moderator “No. Not really. No. Now, they’ve tightened up the regulations…” – BIC male 3

“I think I’d avoid China. I’d buy Taiwan first. I’ve spoken with food inspectors and they do have agreements where it is inspected in China, not in Canada, so it’s kind of scary to me.” – BIC female 3

Or this exchange in the IM group:

“How come we don’t trust our food safety department? People keep saying that food from China is no good, right? But I, I’m quite skeptical about it, right? Most of, not all of them are no good.” – IM female 3

“No, you are right.” – IM female 8 “Yeah” – IM female 3 “But, we have heard so many horror stories, so…” – IM female 8 “But we have got to trust our food safety department, right?” – IM female 3 “But the food inspection is in China, isn’t it?!” – IM female 1

3.6.9.3 The ‘Troublesome’ Quail Egg Members of the IM and BIC groups expressed some frustration with cooking with quail eggs:

“These two ladies were saying that the reason they don’t eat quail egg for years is that because it is troublesome and because it tastes similar to chicken eggs, just regular chicken, so is similar to chicken egg, so why bother, and they are more expensive…and troublesome to peel.” – Interpreter on behalf of IM females 4 and 7

“Quail eggs. This one is nicer fresher, but it is very difficult to peel. It takes so much effort…but that is very hard actually [referring, unfavourably, to the texture of the canned quail eggs]. But when I do my own cooking, I use that [points to canned quail eggs], simply because it is convenient.” – IM female 2

BIC male 3 explained that his wife would only cook with the canned quail eggs because they were convenient and that only his mother in law would buy the fresh quail eggs and only when she had time to peel them. However, BIC female 4 expressed that children at Easter loved to find and peel hard boiled quail eggs, so she would not have to peel them then.

3.6.9.4 Price In neither group was price seen as a barrier to purchasing the preserved or salted duck eggs. They were not considered expensive items, as evidenced by these quotes:

“It wouldn’t deter someone who needs to purchase it to make it in a recipe. It’s reasonably priced…” – BIC female 2

“Price is not much important.” – IM female 3

However, in the ranking exercise the BIC group did indicate that price was an important feature when considering purchase. This may suggest that although the price is not considered a barrier to purchase, they may be price sensitive. In addition, despite indicating that price was not important, the IM group still did comparison price shopping: One participant mentioned that the price was reasonable at Superstore and another that price-wise Chong Lee is cheaper than T&T Supermarket. When prompted about sales, they agreed that the products seldom were on sale and that:

“Even on sale, you only save 20 cents at most” – IM female 6 “They are cheap enough already.” – IM female 8

This mixed message on price may also indicate a reluctance of participants to show that they may be ‘cheap’ or need to be frugal when buying groceries, especially given the relative low price of the egg

71 products compared to meat. Or, it may simply mean that they are price aware (and who doesn’t like saving money?). Some participants in the BIC group were able to provide price ranges they had seen for the duck egg products, from about $1.98 to anything under $3.00 as “good”. The BIC group had to guess at the fresh quail egg prices, estimating between $3.99 and $5.00. They did not voice any opinion that the quail eggs were expensive, though they did acknowledge that the duck egg products were more expensive than buying chicken eggs. When prompted to explain the variation in price for the duck egg products, the BIC group members speculated that it was due to the country of origin or that one brand might really be superior to another brand and therefore warrant the higher price. For a locally made salted or preserved duck egg product, the BIC group said they would pay a 10% to 20% premium. They were willing to pay more for access to a (perceived) safer and superior product, and to support local farmers. The IM group was generally willing to pay up to 20% more for locally made products, which were thought would be safer and ‘fresher’. However, one IM female noted that the quality would have to be better or she would not bother paying extra. However, the IM group was unaware that salted duck eggs made in Alberta were available, individually, at T&T Supermarket. When informed that they could buy these made in Alberta salty duck eggs at $1.09 each, they all agreed that was expensive and one woman, in particular, said it was too expensive and that at that price she would buy the ones from China instead.

3.6.9.5 Place of Purchase Everyone had bought or was aware that they could buy all of the egg products at T&T Supermarket, a large, modern Asian food supermarket chain in Canada with multiple locations in Metro Vancouver. Both groups mentioned that Superstore sold salted and preserved duck eggs. One of the female immigrant participants mentioned that she had occasionally bought salted duck eggs from a smaller, independent Vietnamese grocery store. The immigrants also cited Chong Lee Market (a small, local Vancouver Asian grocery store chain) as a good place to buy the egg products, but the BIC group did not mention them. Access to the products was considered good, though a few mentioned it would be more convenient if their local mainstream chain grocery store would also carry them, eliminating a special trip to purchase. No one ventured to Chinatown to buy the eggs and one BIC participant voiced concerns about buying from smaller grocers:

“Like, we would never buy this stuff in the smaller groceries, cause you get this feeling like it’s been there for a long time and you haul it out, there’s dust on the…but if you go to T&T and you see the turnover of it, you’re more trusting to buy it.” – BIC Male 3

Both groups agreed that within stores it could be hard to find the duck egg products and the canned quail egg products and that if they weren’t looking for them, they would not know they were available. If they went to an unfamiliar store, they would need to ask for their location. A few people from both groups knew that Superstore kept the salted and preserved duck eggs in the fresh vegetable section, next to the Chinese vegetables. The participants who had never purchased fresh quail eggs knew that they could be found in the refrigerated area near the chicken eggs at T&T. Two of the BIC participants noted that they sometimes struggled when shopping in T&T because they could not read Chinese, not enough staff were around to help, and they would have to find another shopper to translate for them. The perception was that the labels did not have enough English on them.

3.6.9.6 Brands Only the IM group was able to come up with four brand names for the salted and preserved duck eggs: Grand Maple, Six Fortune, Aunty Duck, and Watsun, however they did not differentiate, or appear to be able to differentiate, between the brands. One woman stated that she:

“[Just trusts] the Real Canadian Superstore, so I go there to buy and I know its good.” – IM female 3

The BIC group could not come up with a single brand name for the duck egg products and could not differentiate between brands, except for the perception that more expensive was generally thought to be reflective of higher quality. When deciding which product to buy, two women said that when there were multiple brands offered, they relied upon noting which brand was moving faster off the shelves as an indicator that it was the better brand to buy. Neither the IM group nor the BIC group appeared to be aware of any brand names for the fresh or canned quail eggs. In addition, neither group was aware of the made in Alberta Treat™ brand of fresh salted duck eggs, available at T&T Supermarkets.

3.6.10 Summary and Conclusions Overall, the BIC group expressed a more emotional connection to the topic than the IM group. They expressed more nostalgia as well as more aversion to some of the products. This may be the result of their lower overall familiarity with the products: The majority rarely eat some of the duck or quail egg products and they do not have the skill and knowledge to cook specialty dishes using the eggs. The IM group was more dispassionate in their discussion, only expressing greater emotion when discussing (1) their inability to properly examine and select salted or preserved duck eggs due to the modern packaging, and (2) where or if they could ever find fresh duck eggs in Metro Vancouver. These specialty duck and quail egg products are nothing new to them, they know the recipes they like to use the eggs in, and appear to be somewhat predictable and set in their ways in their use and consumption of the eggs. In both groups, some participants bought less of an egg type, or had given up buying, due to other family members’ dislike of the egg(s). Health concerns appeared to be more top of mind for BIC participants, who prioritized checking the nutrient/ingredient label when purchasing, compared to the IM group, who prioritized quality and freshness. On the surface, price is not a big concern for both groups, particularly the IM group. The products are not considered high priced nor would they take up a large percentage of a grocery budget. However, there appears to be a limit, with some BIC participants noting price as a 2nd or 3rd top consideration when buying and IM group participants saying that they would not buy the Alberta Treat™ brand salted duck eggs at $1.09 each. It is notable that all of the IM and most of the BIC group members were from a Cantonese cultural heritage. The voices and opinions of ethnic Chinese from Mandarin speaking areas, such as northern areas of China, are missing from my qualitative research. Immigration from the Mandarin speaking areas of China is now much higher than from Cantonese speaking areas (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2010) and it is unknown if their attitudes and opinions and buying/consumption habits of the egg types differ. Overall, the focus groups provided me with valuable information to help create the survey questionnaire, particularly the attitude questions and the opportunities questions. They reinforced that some measure of acculturation would be needed to further compare and understand immigrant and born in Canada consumption. They also helped me understand the importance of family meal time, and that the consumption or not by family members may be influential. Only quantitative data, however, can measure and test buyer behaviour and the strength and extent of attitudes, behaviours, and opinions in the greater Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver.

4 LOGISTIC REGRESSION MODEL: PREDICTING DUCK AND QUAIL EGG PRODUCT PURCHASES BY CHINESE CANADIANS

4.1 Introduction With the increasing ethnic diversity in the metropolises of North America, niche markets for ethnic foods8 may provide promising opportunities for local producers and processors. The population of Metropolitan Vancouver (Metro Vancouver) in British Columbia (BC) is an example of such a highly diversified metropolitan area: Over 200 ethnic origins are represented and 41.4% of the population is from a visible minority group (BC Stats, n.d.). The largest visible minority group in Metro Vancouver, at 19% of the population (402,000), is from an ethnic Chinese background (Statistics Canada, 2010a). Like other visible minority groups in Canada, the vast majority of Chinese Canadians reside in urban areas and Metro Vancouver accounts for 93% of all ethnic Chinese in BC (Statistics Canada, 2011a). In Canada, Chinese Canadians are the second largest visibly minority group after South Asians (Statistics Canada, 2011b). With a relatively large and established population, niche markets for ethnic Chinese foods show promise. However, ethnic food market information is often scarce. This is especially true for duck and quail egg products: Published and specific production, import/export, and consumption data are not available. It is also unknown to what extent consumption is impacted by acculturation and/or demographic characteristics. These egg products have a long history in Chinese cuisine and are often used in distinctly different ways compared to the use of chicken eggs. Imports currently dominate the market for salted and preserved duck eggs, but the market may provide opportunities for local producers and processors. Fresh quail egg producers may also find unexplored marketing opportunities. The objectives of this study were (1) to profile Chinese Canadian purchase and non-purchase of salted and preserved duck eggs, and fresh quail eggs in the Metro Vancouver area; (2) to understand the demographic characteristics and acculturation indicators that may impact purchase; and, (3) to create a model to estimate a Chinese Canadian’s probability of purchase of any of the egg types, using logistic regression analysis and respondents’ demographic characteristics and acculturation scores as predictor variables.

8 For the purposes of this thesis, ethnic foods are defined as foods and cuisine non-European and non-United Kingdom in origin (see Glossary). 75

4.2 Materials and Methods A mixed methods research design was selected. Two initial exploratory focus groups, one group consisting of ethnic Chinese immigrants and the other group consisting of native-born Canadians from an ethnic Chinese ancestry, were conducted to gain background information, emic knowledge, and to help inform the design of the questionnaire (qualitative research stage; see Chapter Three). Upon conclusion of the qualitative research stage, the quantitative research stage commenced with questionnaire design.

4.2.1 Questionnaire Design The rationale and details of the questionnaire design has been described in Chapter Two and the questionnaire outline was provided in Figure 2.2. This paper focuses on data from Part F (demographic and acculturation indicator questions), from Part D (non-buyers/non-consumers), and the questions of Part A providing egg type purchase information. The questionnaire and survey protocol were approved by The University of British Columbia Behavioural Research Ethics Board, certificate H10-00571.

4.2.2 Survey Protocol Groceries are usually purchased at a household level; therefore the household was selected as the sampling unit. A sequential mixed mode mail-Internet survey method was selected based upon the ability to randomly sample Chinese Canadians at the household level in Metro Vancouver and upon the benefit of allowing respondents to fill out the questionnaire at a convenient time of their choosing. A geographically stratified random sample of names and addresses for Chinese Canadian households in Metro Vancouver was purchased from a commercial list company, under license from the local telephone landline providers. The list was cross-checked with a validated list of Chinese surnames from Quan et al. (2006) to minimize the inclusion of non-Chinese households. This sampling procedure was considered an acceptable trade off of sampling frame coverage against ensuring randomness at the household level. (Households without landlines, and households with an ethnic Chinese member, but whose landline subscriber does not have an exclusively Chinese surname, are excluded from the sampling frame.) A three stage survey protocol (Figure 4.1) was designed primarily upon Dillman et al.’s (2009) tailored design approach. Two recommended follow up stages, one with another copy of the questionnaire and one by different means than mail, were not included in the protocol due to the extra

76 associated cost and the prohibition of contact by telephone per the terms of the list license agreement. All survey documents were provided in both English and Chinese and can be found in Appendix B.

Reminder letter Invitation letter Questionnaire with Internet July 12, 2010 July 19, 2010 option August 9, 2010

Figure 4.1 Three-stage sequential mail-Internet survey protocol

The survey was conducted according to ethical guidelines required by The University of British Columbia’s Behavioural Research Ethics Board and respondents were assured of the confidentiality of their responses. An initial 1500 letters of invitation were mailed in July 2010. A net of 1479 questionnaires were mailed a week later and the person 19 years or older most responsible for grocery shopping for their household was asked to complete the survey. Respondents were requested to return the survey by August 20th and a pre-paid return envelope was provided. Sixteen recipients had telephoned upon receipt of the invitation, refusing to participate, and five recipients called to remove their household from the survey because they were not ethnic Chinese. These households were removed from the sample and did not receive questionnaires. After the questionnaire was mailed, a further 14 households called to refuse to participate. These 14 households did not receive reminder notices but remained in the sample as non-respondents. A follow up reminder notice was mailed on August 9, 2010 to all households that had not yet returned the questionnaire. The reminder included the option to complete the questionnaire online and provided a Canadian hosted survey site URL (www.fluidsurveys.com) and a unique invite access code for each household. The invite code matched a code on the paper survey, which allowed for the identification of any duplicate surveys received. Respondents were again encouraged to complete the survey by August 20, 2010. The paper and online surveys were closed immediately after Labour Day, on September 7, 2010.

4.2.3 Statistical Analysis Paper survey responses were manually entered, and online responses were directly downloaded, into PASW Statistics software for analysis (PASW Statistics Grad Pack 17.0.2, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). A significance level of p < 0.05 was set for all assumptions. Different statistical methods were applied based upon the measurement scale for each question and the assumptions of the statistical methods (Field, 2009). Basic frequency and descriptive analyses were completed for all variables of interest in Part A and Part F. For nominal and ordinal variables, cross tabulations, chi-square, and correlation analyses using Pearson’s, Spearman’s rho, or Kendall’s tau b as appropriate and Cramer’s V, Lambda or Phi as measures of the strength of associations, were used to initially check for significant associations between demographic questions and whether a respondent had purchased any duck or quail egg types. Results from these analyses were used to choose variables for inclusion into a single block-enter logistic regression model analysis. Missing values were excluded from analysis on a pair-wise basis, except for the logistic regression analysis (see Section 4.2.4.2), in which missing values were excluded on a case-wise basis.

4.2.4 Logistic Regression Model To gain an understanding of the demographic characteristics and level of acculturation of buyers and non-buyers of duck and quail egg products, the empirical analysis was divided into two parts. In part one, an ‘external domain’ acculturation measurement score was constructed. In part two a logistic regression model for probability of purchase was estimated.

4.2.4.1 Acculturation Score Development For the purposes of the measurement of acculturation and to reduce the number of variables for input into a logistic regression model of purchase behaviour, responses to ten initial acculturation-related questions (variables) were re-coded from nominal or ordinal categories into a score grid between 0 (least acculturated) to 1 (most acculturated) so that higher scores would correlate positively with higher acculturation. The ten initial variables were: Mother tongue, language reading ability, place of birth, years lived in Canada, residential status, generation status, birthplace of grandparents, ethnic background of household members, balancing yin/yang foods, and food preferences.

Answers for the mother tongue question were collapsed into three categories: Chinese only (0), Chinese and English (0.5), and English only (1.0). Birthplace answers were collapsed into 6 categories: Mainland China (0), Taiwan (0.20), Hong Kong (0.40), Other Asia (0.60), Other (0.80), and Canada (1.0). Years in Canada answers were re-coded into 5 categories: ≤ 5 yrs (0), 6-10 yrs (0.25), 11-20 yrs (0.50), >20 yrs (0.75), and “born in Canada” (1.0). Residential status categories were re-coded into “non-landed” (0), “landed immigrant” (0.33), “naturalized Canadian citizen” (0.66), and “Canadian citizen by birth” (1.0). A large number of “Not sure” (Canadian born grandparents variable) and “Don’t know” (balancing yin/yang foods variable) responses were treated as missing values, rather than imputing the mean item score. Non-parametric correlations between the ten variables were tested using Kendall’s tau b, a more accurate estimation of the correlation in the population given a large number of tied ranks, compared to using Spearman’s rho (Field, 2009). Based on results, final acculturation variables were selected and summed and an acculturation score for each respondent was then calculated as the mean of the non-missing responses (Satia et al., 2001).

4.2.4.2 Logistic Regression Model Development Whether a Chinese Canadian consumer chooses to purchase a duck or quail egg product, or not, may be based upon a variety of factors, including their personal characteristics and likes or dislikes, features of the egg product(s), and the context in which a purchase decision is being made. It is impossible to fully measure or observe all the variables that impact the buying decision, however, methods have been developed to model consumer choice bechaviour. The binary logistic regression model is one method that can be used to model and predict consumer choice behaviour, or group membership, when the outcome is discrete (for example, purchase or non-purchase) and the predictor variables are continuous and/or categorical. It is a flexible technique because it has no assumptions about the distributions of predictor variables, if they are linearly related, or exhibit equality of variances (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). It is based upon utility theory and is a random utility discrete choice model. As an economic or marketing concept, utility can be thought of as a representation of how useful a product or service is in meeting the wants or needs of a consumer. Utility theory assumes that consumers make rational choices to maximize their perceived utility and that utility is a random function (McFadden, 1980, p.S14). In a random utility discrete choice model, measureable information about a consumer, the product, and the context of the purchase can be used to help predict choice. However due to the fact that not all factors influencing a purchase can be measured, there is also an unmeasurable random error component. Given a large enough sample of individuals and measurement of their choices, predictions can be made about the probability of an individual choosing a particular product or not (or choosing between products). In this study, my objective is to model the Chinese Canadian consumer’s decision to purchase, or not, duck and quail egg products, based upon the consumer’s characteristics only. In a binary logistic regression model, the expected value of the dependent or outcome variable, Y (purchase or non-purchase of eggs), is the probability, p, of Y occurring (i.e. Y = 1), given known values of Xni. P(Y) is modeled by the logit transformation of p, In[p/(1-p)], such that

In [p/(1-p)] = β0 + β1x1 + … + βnxni + εi

The linear regression equation is the natural log of the probability of purchase, p, divided by the the probability of non-purchase, 1- p, that is, the natural log of the odds.

Or, in the logistic function of

P(Y) = ______1______ε 1 + ℮xp- (b0 + b1X1 + … + bnXni + i)

where b0 is the intercept (constant), Xn is the vector of independent variables that may affect Y, and bn is the vector of coefficients of Xn. The model uses the maximum likelihood method of estimating the values of the parameters. The log-likelihood statistic was used to assess if the full model was significantly better than the model with the constant-only. The percentage of cases correctly categorized into buyers or non-buyers 2 2 2 were used to assess the overall fit of the model. Cox and Snell’s RCS , Nagelkerke’s RN , McFadden’s p , were also used to assess fit, while their drawbacks are noted (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). The Wald statistic was used to test if the b coefficient for each predictor variable was significantly different from zero and therefore a significant predictor of the outcome (Field, 2009).

Note that in logistic regression the estimated regression coefficient bn cannot be interpreted in the same manner as in a linear regression model because the slope is not constant. The effect of a unit increase in Xn varies depending on the starting point on the X scale (Kutner, Nachtsheim, Neter, Li,

2005). However, bn can be interpreted using the odds (p/1 – p) for given levels of Xn because the estimated odds can be multiplied by ℮xp(bn) for any unit increase in X (see Kutner et al., 2005, p 567). The odds ratio is the change in odds of being in one of the outcome categories (in this case, purchasing an egg type), when the value of a predictor variable is increased by one unit (Field, 2009). For example:

If the estimated odds of purchase when X = Xj is denoted by (OddsA), and if the estimated odds of purchase when X is increased by one unit, X = Xj + 1, denoted by (OddsB), then:

OddsB/OddsA = ℮xp(bn) = odds ratio

If the odds ratio is greater than 1, as the predictor increases, the change in the odds of purchase occurring is positive, that is, in favour of purchase. For example, if we have fitted the logisitic function and the model estimates that p = 0.8 for X = Xj, then the odds of purchase are 0.8/0.2 = 4.0. The odds of purchase are 4:1 in favour of purchase. If X is increased by one unit to Xj + 1, and the logistic regression estimates the new probability of purchase as p = 0.9 for X = Xj + 1, the new odds of purchase are 0.9/0.1 = 9.0. The odds ratio is 9.0/4.0 = 2.25. The original odds of purchase has increased by 2.25 times, or 81

225% with a one unit increase in the predictor variable. If the odds ratio (or the odds) is less than 1, as the predictor increases, the change in the odds of purchase occurring is negative, that is, not in favour of purchasing, but towards not purchasing. For example, if the fitted logistic regression model estimates that p = 0.8 for X = Xj, then the odds of purchase are 0.8/0.2 = 4.0. The odds of purchase are 4:1 in favour of purchase. However, if X is increased by one unit to Xj + 1, and the logistic regression estimates the new probability of purchase as p = 0.6 for X = Xj + 1, the new odds of purchase are 0.6/0.4 = 1.5. The odds of purchase are now 1.5:1 in favour of purchase. The odds ratio is now 1.5/4.0 = 0.375. The original odds of purchase (4.0) have decreased by 0.375 times to 1.5, or by 62.5%. Clearly, the further the odds ratio is from 1:1, whether positive or negative, the greater the impact of the change in the predictor variable. Thus the odds ratio can be used as a means to interpret the effect size of a predictor variable (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Kutner et al. (2005) also notes that if a unit increase in X is quite small, the estimated odds ratio may not adequately show the change in odds when the differences in X are large (or if a one unit increase in X is actually quite large and the differences in the X measurements are measured in fractions of one unit). To account for this, he recommends estimating the odds ratio when there is a difference of c units of X, such that:

Odds ratio = ℮xp(cbn)

For example, if all else is equal, and respondent A scores 0.2 out of 1.0 on the acculturation score and respondent B scores 0.3 out of 1.0, the estimated odds ratio can be calculated as ℮xp(0.1bn), where bn is the coefficient for the acculturation score.

An estimated coefficient bn for a predictor variable, X, can vary and confidence intervals can be calculated. It follows that the odds ratio for changes in X can also vary and confidence intervals can be calculated for the odds ratio to provide an estimate of how the odds vary to changes in X for a given confidence level (95% in my analysis). If an odds ratio confidence interval crosses one, it indicates that the direction of change in the odds is not consistent for changes in X and therefore X should not be interpreted as a reliable predictor variable.

4.3 Results

4.3.1 Survey Sample Size A total of 1,479 questionnaires were mailed out to the randomly selected households. Sixty three were returned to sender undeliverable, for a net initial sample of 1,416 households. A net total of 410 usable surveys (28.9%) were processed for analysis. Comparing modes, 93.9% (385) of respondents replied by mail and 6.1% (25) by the follow up Internet option. Unless otherwise noted, survey answers are considered accurate at the 95% confidence level with a 5% margin of error (I am 95% certain that answers are accurate within a range of plus or minus 5%). This is based upon a required minimum sample size of 384 respondents9.

4.3.2 Survey Data

4.3.2.1 Survey Language and Mode More respondents chose the Chinese language version (54.4%) than the English version (45.6%). No significant association between language choice and whether they replied by mail or Internet was found χ2 = 0.061(1), p-value = .804, at the 0.05 (2 tailed) level.

4.3.2.2 Characteristics of Responding Households To see how representative the sample was to the Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadian population, a comparison of sampled household characteristics to the Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadian population is shown in Table 4.1. Responses were received from households in all eight of the geographically stratified sampling areas and followed the overall distribution pattern of the Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver. Responses from two outer suburban zones, with lower concentrations of Chinese Canadians, were underweight compared to the population (1.0% versus 2.7% in the outer north eastern suburbs; 4.9% versus 6.0% in the outer eastern suburbs).

9 Calculated as: n = [t2 x p(1-p)] / m2, where n = required sample size, t = the desired 95% confidence level (standard value of 1.96), p = estimated percentage picking a particular answer (conservatively set at 0.5), and m = margin of error at 5% (standard value of 0.05). 83

Table 4.1 Comparison of percentage distribution of household characteristics, sample versus population, Chinese Canadians, Metro Vancouver

Sample Population Variable Freq. % % Geographic location (n=405) Maple Ridge, Pitt Meadows, Port Coquitlam, Port Moody, Anmore and Belcarra 4 1.0 2.7a

Delta, White Rock and Tsawwassen 6 1.5 1.7

North Vancouver (City and District), West Vancouver, Bowen Island, Lions Bay, and Electoral Area A* 11 2.7 3.8

Langley (City and Township), and Surrey 20 4.9 6.7 Coquitlam 22 5.4 5.3 Burnaby and New Westminster 81 20.0 16.6 Richmond 86 21.2 19.6 Vancouver 175 43.2 43.6 Total annual household income (n=370) Below $20,000 45 12.2 15.5b $20,000 - $39,999 90 24.3 21.8 $40,000 - $59,999 78 21.1 18.4 $60,000 - $79,999 55 14.9 13.1 $80,000 - $99,999 33 8.9 9.7 $100,000 or more 69 18.6 21.5 Household size (number of persons) (n=378) One person 47 12.4 5.1c Two persons 81 21.4 15.9 Three persons 76 20.1 21.7 Four persons 111 29.4 28.5 Five persons 39 10.3 15.2 Six persons 13 3.4 7.9 Seven persons or more 11 3.0 5.7 Children <19 yrs present in household (n=405) 152 37.5 37.1 Sources: from 2006 Census data, a Statistics Canada (2010f); b c Statistics Canada (2010c) *Electoral Area A corresponds to census subdivision Greater Vancouver A. Some respondents may not have known that they live in Area A and may have indicated a different location. 84

The total annual household income of respondents also follows the distribution pattern for the Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadian population. However, very low income (< $20,000) households and higher income households (> $100,000) are under-represented by approximately 3% and the income groups from $20,000 to $59,999 are over represented by approximately 3%. There was a high item non response rate of 9.8% (40) on the household income question. This is not unusual as many people prefer not to disclose income information even when assured of confidentiality. The median category for total annual household income was $40,000 to $59,999. Household size was calculated from Question 12, Part F. The results, although following the population distribution, skew to smaller households (overweight in one and two person households). Household size could not be calculated for a number of cases with missing values (non-responses, n=14) or non-interpretable/conflicting responses (n=18) and should be interpreted with caution. Mean sample household size was 3.3 persons per household; mean population household size was 3.8 persons per household. Median sample household size was 3 persons per household.

4.3.2.3 Demographic Characteristics of the Household’s Main Grocery Shopper The main grocery shopper for each household (required to be at least 19 years of age) was eligible to fill out the questionnaire. Table 4.2 presents a comparison of the household’s main grocery shopper to the Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver. Females represented 55.6% of respondents, males 44.4%; females are over represented compared to the population, but this is not unexpected as grocery shopping still tends to be dominated by women. Younger age groups of < 40 years are considerably under-represented in the responses received. Age groups from 40 to 69 years are over represented, and the 70+ age group is slightly under represented. The median age range in the sample was 50 to 59 years. Respondents were asked to select from a provided list, their highest level of education attained. Survey respondents generally had higher levels of education than the Metro Vancouver ethnic Chinese population. The median education level attained was a university certificate or diploma below the bachelor level.

Table 4.2 Comparison of percentage distribution of main grocery shopper's demographic characteristics, sample versus population, Chinese Canadians, Metro Vancouver

Sample Population a Variable Freq. % % Sex (n=405) Male 180 44.4 47.2 Female 225 55.6 52.8

Age (n=408) 19 – 29 yrs 10 2.5 20.7 30 – 39 yrs 45 11.0 17.6 40 – 49 yrs 112 27.5 23.8 50 – 59 yrs 145 35.5 18.0 60 – 69 yrs 58 14.2 8.8 70 + yrs 38 9.3 11.0 Education (n=396) Elementary school 12 3.0 20.1 High School certificate or equivalent 97 24.5 25.7 Apprenticeship, trades certificate or diploma 29 7.3 4.2 College, CEGEP diploma or certificate 57 14.4 12.0 University certificate or diploma below bachelor level 24 6.1 8.1 Bachelor degree 112 28.3 20.9 University certificate or diploma above bachelor level 14 3.5 2.0 Degree in medicine/dentistry/veterinary medicine/optometry 6 1.5 0.9 Master degree 40 10.1 5.1 Earned doctorate 5 1.3 0.9

Source: a percentage of Chinese population 15 yrs or older, from the 2006 Census data (Statistics Canada, 2010b)

4.3.2.4 Acculturation Variables Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 present frequency distributions of selected demographic variables that may indicate the level of acculturation of the respondents and their household. In Table 4.5, frequency tables are provided for all other acculturation indicator variables. Eighty-nine percent of respondents were immigrants to Canada, and 11% were born in Canada. The most responses were received from Hong Kong emigrants (37.8%), followed by PR of China emigrants (30.5%) and Taiwanese emigrants (10.0%). Compared to 2006 Census data, ethnic Chinese Canadians born in Canada and immigrants from the PR of China are under-represented in the sample. A majority 53.4% reported Cantonese as their mother tongue, 19.5% reported Mandarin, 7.8% reported English, 6.1% Cantonese and English, and 2.9% Mandarin and English. The dominance of Cantonese reflects the historical pattern of Chinese immigration to Canada: Cantonese speaking Hong Kong emigrants were the main source of Chinese immigrants from post-World War II until the mid- 1990s, and initial (1973 – late 1980s) immigrants from the PR of China were predominantly from the nearby Cantonese speaking Guangdong Province (Li, 2005). More recently, ethnic Chinese immigrants are predominantly from Mandarin speaking areas of mainland China; however responses from recent immigrants are under-represented in the sample data.

Table 4.3 Comparison of percentage distribution of demographic acculturation indicators, sample versus population, Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver

Sample Population1 Variable Freq. % % Birthplace (n=410) Canada 45 11.0 24.8 Mainland China 125 30.5 33.9 Hong Kong 155 37.8 18.6 Other East Asia 41 10.0 9.4 Other Southeast Asia 1 .2 9.1 Macau 7 1.7 Malaysia 10 2.4 Philippines 5 1.2 3.0 Singapore 2 .5 Other 19 4.6 1.2 Residency status (n=405) Non-permanent resident 0 0.0 1.9 Landed immigrant 29 7.2 14.9 Canadian citizen (naturalized) 331 81.7 58.4 Canadian citizen (by birth) 45 11.1 24.8 Generation status (n=408) 1st generation Canadian 364 89.2 84.8 2nd generation Canadian 37 9.1 13.2 3rd generation or more Canadian 7 1.7 2.0 Mother tongue (n=401) English 32 8.0 15.7 Cantonese 219 54.6 31.3* Mandarin 80 19.5 17.2* Other Chinese dialect or Chinese not specified 17 4.1 29.9* Cantonese and English 25 6.1 Mandarin and English 12 2.9 5.9 Other Chinese dialect and English 5 1.2 Other 11 2.7 Ethnic ancestry of household (n=399) Single: Chinese ancestry only 357 89.5 Mixed: Chinese and other ancestry(s) 42 10.5 1Calculated from 2006 Census data, Statistics Canada (2010b) *Calculated from 2006 Census data, Statistics Canada (2010e)

As indicated in Table 4.4, the majority of immigrant respondents have lived in Canada for more than 10 years. No recent immigrants arriving within the past two years responded to the survey. Well established immigrants (> 20 years in Canada) are over represented in the sample compared to the population. Overall, respondents were older, more established immigrants with higher educational levels than the overall Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver. Younger, second generation Chinese Canadians, and immigrants from mainland China were under represented in our respondents.

Table 4.4 Comparison of percentage distribution of years lived in Canada, sample versus population, Chinese Canadian immigrants, Metro Vancouver

Survey data Census data (2006) Population1 Years in Canada % Period of immigration %

< 2 years 0.0 2 – 5 years 4.9 2001 - 2006 18.5 6 – 10 years 10.2 11 – 20 years 43.1 1991 – 2000 44.7 > 20 years 41.8 Before 1991 36.8 1Source: calculated from Statistics Canada (2010b)

With respect to the other acculturation variables (Table 4.5), responses were skewed to a greater ability to read in Chinese than in English, to a preference for Chinese/Asian food over Canadian/Western food, and to agreement that the household balances yin/yang foods. Given that 13.9% of respondents did not know if their household balanced yin/yang foods, results to the yin/yang foods question should be interpreted with caution (although it is likely that if they did not know about yin/yang balance, their household would not be balancing yin/yang foods). Finally, the sample was underweight in ethnic Chinese born in Canada, so it follows that few respondents reported that their grandparents were born in Canada.

Table 4.5 Frequency distribution of selected acculturation indicator variables, Chinese Canadians, Metro Vancouver

Sample Variables Freq. %

Reading ability (n=406) Read only English 64 15.8 Read English better than Chinese 41 10.1 Read Chinese and English equally well 113 27.8 Read Chinese better than English 145 35.7 Read Chinese only 43 10.6

Birthplace of grandparents (n=384) All born in Canada 5 1.3 Some born in Canada, some outside Canada 11 2.9 All born outside Canada 363 94.5 Not sure 5 1.3

Balance yin/yang foods (n=402) 1 = Strongly disagree 27 6.7 2 28 7.0 3 123 30.6 4 82 20.4 5 = Strongly agree 86 21.4 Do not know 56 13.9

Household food preference at home (n=406) Exclusively Chinese/Asian food 11 2.7 Mostly Chinese/Asian food, some Canadian/Western 227 55.9 About equal 147 36.2 Mostly Canadian/Western food 19 4.7 Exclusively Canadian/Western food 2 0.5

4.3.3 Egg Purchases A large majority of respondents (76.8%) had purchased for consumption at home at least one type of duck or quail egg product and/or prepared foods containing an egg type, within the past 12 months (Table 4.6). Salted and preserved duck eggs had been purchased by the majority of respondents, with 7.7% more respondents reporting purchases of salted duck eggs compared to preserved duck eggs. Only a small minority of respondents (14.6%) had purchased fresh quail eggs. Small percentages of respondents reported purchases of only one type of egg product exclusively: 5.9% purchased only salted duck eggs; 3.7% purchased only preserved duck eggs; 0.7% purchased only fresh quail eggs; and, 3.9% purchased only prepared foods containing at least one of the duck or quail egg types.

Table 4.6 Percentage of respondents who purchased duck and/or quail egg products for at home consumption within the past 12 mths (n = 410)

Buyers

Duck or quail egg product No. %

Any individual egg type and/or within prepared foods 315 76.8

Any individual egg type 299 72.9

Within prepared foods 146 35.6

Only within prepared foods 16 3.9

Salted duck eggs 264 64.4

Preserved duck eggs 245 59.8

Fresh quail eggs 60 14.6

Answers are considered accurate at the 95% confidence level, with a 5% margin of error

Whole, raw salted duck eggs and soft yolk preserved duck eggs were the egg-types buyers most usually purchased (Figure 4.2).

Salted duck eggs % Preserved duck eggs %

8 21 36

88 77

Whole, raw Whole, cooked Yolks only Soft yolk Hard yolk

Figure 4.2 Types of duck eggs usually purchased, percentage of buyers

4.3.3.1 Frequency of Purchase and Purchasing Trend Purchases of duck and quail egg products for consumption at home were infrequent with only 3.8% of salted duck egg buyers, 2.9% of preserved duck egg buyers, and 0% of fresh quail egg buyers purchasing every 1 to 2 wks (Figure 4.3). The median purchase frequency for both duck egg products was every 3 to 4 months and for fresh quail eggs was once a year.

70 60

50 40 30 Salted duck eggs(n=264)

Percentage 20 Preserved duck eggs (n=245) Fresh quail eggs (n=60) 10 0 Once or Every 3 to Every 2 Once a Every 1 to twice a 4 months months month 2 weeks year Purchase frequency

Figure 4.3 Percentage distribution of purchase frequency, by egg type for at home consumption

Compared to one year ago, only small percentages of respondents reported purchases ‘increasing a little’: 6.8% for salted duck eggs; 4.9% for preserved duck eggs; and 15.0% for fresh quail eggs (Figure 4.4). No household reported increasing purchases a lot. For all products, the median and mode of the trend was for no change. Overall, responses were skewed to a no change – declining trend, compared to one year ago.

50 40 30 20 Percentage Salted duck egg (n=264) 10 Preserved duck egg (n=245) 0 Fresh quail egg (n=60)

Purchase trend

Figure 4.4 Percentage distribution of purchasing trends for duck and quail egg products for consumption at home in the past 12 months, compared to the year previous

For the duck egg products, correlation analysis indicated weak, but significant, positive correlations between frequency of purchase and purchase trend. As frequency of purchase declines, the purchase trend declines (i.e. someone who buys once or twice a year is significantly more likely to report purchases are decreasing rather than increasing, compared to last year). For salted duck eggs: Kendall’s tau b = .145, p-value = .008 (2 tailed); preserved duck eggs: Kendall’s tau b = .204, p-value = .000 (2 tailed); both significant at the p < 0.01 level. No significant correlation was found between frequency of purchase and purchase trend for fresh quail eggs: Kendall’s tau b = .013, p-value = .916 (2 tailed) at the p<0.05 level.

4.3.3.2 Package Size Respondents were requested to write in a provided space the usual package size purchased. Prompts were not provided. For salted duck eggs, 93.8% of valid responses indicated 6 eggs per package were purchased most often, 3.3% usually purchased 4 eggs per package, 2.1% usually purchased individual salted eggs or multiples of individual eggs (for example 2 or 3), and 0.8% reported buying a dozen per package or 425g per package. For preserved duck eggs, 94.8% of valid responses reported most often purchasing 6 eggs per package, 1.7% usually purchased 4 eggs per package, 3.0% usually purchased individual eggs or multiples of individual eggs, and 0.4% reported buying a dozen eggs per package or 425g packages. A greater variety of fresh quail egg package sizes were reported purchased: 34.7% and 59.2% of valid responses reported most often purchasing 12 and 24 eggs per package respectively, and 6.1% reported various other numbers of eggs per package purchased. Median fresh quail egg package size purchased was 24 eggs.

4.3.3.3 Total Number of Eggs Purchased Annually Statistics for total number of salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs purchased annually are presented in Table 4.7. For all three egg types, a few respondents reported purchasing large numbers compared to the mean, resulting in large standard deviations. The total number of eggs purchased annually was positively correlated to frequency of purchase. For salted duck eggs: Kendall’s tau b = .694, p-value = .000 (2 tailed); for preserved duck eggs: Kendall’s tau b = .704, p-value = .000 (2 tailed); for fresh quail eggs: Kendall’s tau b = .650, p-value = .000 (2 tailed); all significant at p < 0.001 level. The more frequent the purchases, the higher the number of eggs purchased annually. Infrequent purchasers, therefore, did not buy large quantities at a time. In addition, the total number of salted or preserved duck eggs purchased annually was positively correlated to the year over year purchasing trend. For salted duck eggs, Kendall’s tau b = .198, p-value = .000; for preserved duck eggs, Kendall’s tau b = .192, p-value = .000; all significant at the p < .01 level. No significant correlation was found between the total annual number of fresh quail eggs purchased and the purchasing trend: Kendall’s tau b = -.125, p-value = .303 (2 tailed), at the p < .05 level.

Table 4.7 Descriptive statistics for total annual purchases of types of duck and quail eggs

Statistic Salted duck Preserved duck Fresh quail N Valid 249 229 53 Missing 15 16 7 Mean 26.3 22.8 52.4 S.E. of Mean 1.6 1.6 6.8 Median 18.0 12.0 42.0 Mode 6.0 6.0 12.0 Std. Deviation 25.9 24.0 49.4 Range 179.0 155.0 276.0

4.3.3.4 Estimated Market Size A estimate of the annual consumer market size for purchases of each egg type for at home consumption can be made using census data and the mean number of eggs purchased annually. A total of 402,000 ethnic Chinese reside in Metro Vancouver. Based upon the Chinese Canadian population’s mean household size of 3.79 persons per household in Metro Vancouver (Statistics Canada, 2010c), there are approximately 106,069 Chinese Canadian households. Using the percentages of respondents (the household’s grocery shopper) who indicated that they purchased a particular egg type for consumption at home, and the mean number of eggs purchased annually, an estimate of the market size can be made. Results are shown in Table 4.8. The market is largest for salted duck eggs; the market for at-home consumption of fresh quail eggs is considerably smaller than for the duck egg products.

Table 4.8 Estimated annual market size of Chinese Canadian household consumption of salted and preserved duck eggs, and fresh quail eggs, Metro Vancouver Salted Preserved Fresh duck eggs duck eggs quail eggs Total number of Chinese Canadian households 106,069 106,069 106,069 Percentage of respondents who purchased 64% 60% 15% Net number of households who purchased 67,884 63,641 15,910 Mean number of eggs purchased annually per household 26.3 22.8 52.4 Total number of eggs purchased annually 1,785,342 1,451,015 833,684 Total number of eggs purchased annually in dozens 148,779 120,918 69,474

4.3.3.5 Market Share by Frequency of Purchase Figure 4.5 indicates that the percentage of market share volume for salted and preserved duck eggs is almost evenly split between frequent purchasers (once a month or more frequently) and infrequent purchasers (every three to four months or less frequently). Respondents who bought infrequently were responsible for 64% of the fresh quail egg market volume.

Salted duck eggs Preserved duck eggs

13 20 10 20

27 31 22 24 18 15

Fresh quail eggs

25 33

11 31

1 or 2 times per yr Every 3 to 4 mths Every 2nd mth Once a mth Every 1 to 2 wks

Figure 4.5 Percentage of market share volume by frequency of purchase

4.3.3.6 Usual Purchase Location Respondents were asked to check off as many locations as applicable to where they usually purchased each duck or quail egg type (Figure 4.6). For all egg types, T&T Supermarket was the most popular store for purchase: Over 80% of respondents bought salted or preserved duck eggs and over 60% of respondents bought fresh quail eggs at T&T. For all three egg types, independent Asian grocery stores were the second most popular location for purchase.

Other

Farmer's market or farm gate

Osaka Fresh quail eggs (n=56) T & T Supermarket Preserved duck eggs (n=236) L o c a t i o n o i t a c o L Real Canadian Superstore

Salted duck eggs (n=260) Independent Asian

H-Mart

0 20 40 60 80 100 % of valid cases

Figure 4.6 Percentages of buyers reporting egg purchases at different stores in Metro Vancouver (buyers could choose multiple responses)

4.3.3.7 Purchase Occasion Respondents were asked to rank their top two occasions for purchasing duck or quail egg products. Online survey data was not reliable for this variable and was excluded from analysis10. In the paper mode, in a large number of cases only one, first choice reason was provided. Some paper mode respondents checked off more than two responses. These multiple responses were re-coded to ‘777’ and were excluded from the ranking analysis, but were analyzed separately. For salted duck eggs (Figure 4.7), within the first choice rankings, 89% ranked ‘usual meal planning’ as their top reason for purchase, followed by 9.2% citing ‘Chinese festivals’. Within the rankings for second choice reason for purchase, 41.5% ranked ‘entertaining family and friends’ as their second choice, followed by ‘Chinese festivals’ (24.4%) and ‘usual meal planning’ (22.0%). Overall, when 1st and 2nd choice votes are combined, ‘usual meal planning’ received the most votes, followed by ‘Chinese festivals’. Twenty one respondents checked multiple, unranked responses (n= 53, coded 777), and ‘usual meal planning’ was most frequently selected (38.9%) followed by ‘Chinese festivals’ (33.3%), and ‘entertaining family and friends’ (11.1%).

10 A restriction limiting responses to two (1st choice and 2nd choice) per egg type failed and results showed ranking for all occasions rather than just the top two. 97

Other

Entertaining family & friends

Other holidays (e.g. Christmas)

Chinese festivals (e.g. Autumn Moon) Multiple choice (n=53)

Occasion 2nd Choice (n=42) Special celebrations (e.g. birthdays) 1st Choice (n=219)

Usual meal planning

0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage

Figure 4.7 Percentage ranks of purchase occasion, salted duck eggs

For preserved duck eggs, results (not shown) were similar to the pattern for salted duck eggs. Within the first choice rankings (n=198), 91.9% ranked ‘usual meal planning’ as their top choice, followed by ‘Chinese festivals’ (4.0%). Within preserved duck egg 2nd choice rankings (n=29), 58.6% chose ‘entertaining family or friends’, 20.7% chose ‘Chinese festivals’, and 13.8% chose ‘usual meal planning’. Within respondents selecting multiple, unranked occasions for purchase (n=45), 42.2% selected ‘usual meal planning’, 20% selected ‘Chinese festivals’, and 24.4% selected ‘entertaining family and friends’. For fresh quail eggs (results not shown), ‘usual meal planning’ was again the top choice within first choice rankings (n=51) receiving 78.4% of the votes, followed by ‘special celebrations’ at 9.8%, and ‘entertaining family or friends’ at 5.9% of first choice votes. Only six respondents provided a 2nd choice ranking: Three chose ‘entertaining family and friends’, two chose ‘special celebrations’, and one chose ‘Chinese festivals’. Within respondents who selected multiple, unranked occasions for purchase (n=10), ‘special celebrations’ was the most frequently selected (30%).

4.3.3.8 Non Purchasers/Non Consumers The main reasons for non-purchase and non-consumption of any duck or quail egg products, either at home or away from home are provided in Figure 4.8. Health concerns (concerns about sodium content or cholesterol levels, for example) and preference for fresh, unprocessed eggs lead the non- purchase/non-consumption reasons for the duck egg products. For fresh quail eggs, health concerns followed by unfamiliarity with the products were the most often cited reasons for non-purchase/non- consumption. When asked if anything would make them buy or try these eggs, the most frequent response was if the eggs were to be proven to have health benefits.

15 Percentage 10 Salted duck eggs Preserved duck eggs 5 Fresh quail eggs 0

Figure 4.8 Main reasons for non-purchase and non-consumption of any duck or quail egg products (n=95)

4.3.4 Logistic Regression Results

4.3.4.1 Acculturation Score (AS) To test if the acculturation variables were significantly associated with each other, and therefore supporting the assumption that they are each providing a measurement of acculturation, a correlation analysis was conducted. The correlation matrix of the ten variables tested for inclusion in the AS is shown in Table 4.9. Missing values were excluded on a case-wise basis and to be conservative, correlations were tested using Kendall’s tau b due to 1) a large number of tied ranks, and 2) not normally distributed variable scores. Correlation coefficients are thus lower than they would be if Spearman’s rho was used. Results indicate that all variables, except in two instances, are significantly associated with each other. Based on these results, the “grandparents’ birthplace” variable was eliminated from inclusion in the overall AS. This variable had weak significant correlations and one non-significant correlation. There was a lack of variability in the answers to this question and there were a large number of “not sure” responses or missing values. Eliminating it from the AS and the logistic model would have minimal impact because the generation status question, with stronger significant correlation coefficients, could still act as a measure of depth of roots in Canada. Despite some weak or non-significant correlation coefficients, and a large number of “don’t know” responses, the “balance yin/yang foods” variable was included in the AS because this was one of only two variables that asked directly about cultural food habits or behaviours. A net total of nine variables was then included in the calculation of the overall AS measure: Mother tongue, reading language ability, birthplace, years in Canada, residential status, generation status, household ethnic mix, balancing yin/yang foods, and household food preference. Summary statistics for the AS results are shown inTable 4.10.

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Table 4.9 Correlations between potential acculturation score variables

Balance Household Mother Reading Years in Residential Generation Grandparents’ Household yin/yang food tongue ability Birthplace Canada status status birthplace ethnicity foods preference Mother Correlation Coefficient 1.000 tongue Sig. (1-tailed) . N 408 Reading Correlation Coefficient .318** 1.000 ability Sig. (1-tailed) .000 . N 404 406 Birthplace Correlation Coefficient .280** .491** 1.000 Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 . N 408 406 410 Years in Canada Correlation Coefficient .325** .458** .475** 1.000 Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 .000 . N 407 405 409 409 Residential Correlation Coefficient .398** .403** .510** .595** 1.000 status Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 . N 403 401 405 405 405 Generation Correlation Coefficient .534** .449** .508** .524** .783** 1.000 status Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 . N 406 404 408 407 403 408 Grandparents’ Correlation Coefficient .172** .173** .192** .203** .220** .257** 1.000 birthplace Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 . N 377 375 379 378 374 377 379 Household Correlation Coefficient .196** .234** .204** .229** .235** .257** .138** 1.000 ethnicity Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .004 . N 397 395 399 398 395 397 368 399 Balance Correlation Coefficient .132** .233** .174** .124** .122** .169** .073 .068 1.000 yin/yang Sig. (1-tailed) .003 .000 .000 .003 .006 .000 .077 .085 . foods N 344 344 346 345 341 345 316 341 346 Household food Correlation Coefficient .299** .321** .296** .297** .308** .341** .088* .225** .092* 1.000 preference Sig. (1-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .038 .000 .026 . N 404 402 406 405 401 404 375 398 346 406 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed); * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).

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Table 4.10 Acculturation score descriptive statistics (n=410)

Statistic Value

Mean .35

Std. Error of Mean .01 Median .31

Std. Deviation .17 Skewness 1.50

Kurtosis 1.70 Range .87

Minimum .06 Maximum .94

Percentiles 25 .24

50 .31 75 .39

No respondent’s score was zero. Scores are not normally distributed, with scores clustered to the lower end of the scale (less acculturated) and positive kurtosis, indicating a pointy and heavy tailed distribution.

4.3.4.2 Potential Predictor Variables for the Purchase Model Grocery shopper demographic characteristics and household characteristics were all reviewed for inclusion in the logistic regression analysis. Initial cross tabulations and Chi-square tests of each variable category and the buy/not buy behaviour were conducted, with results shown in Tables 4.11 and 4.12. Empty cells or expected cell counts of less than five for age, education, and location variables were found. To remedy, categories in these variables were reduced and the analysis was run again (not shown), but there were no overall changes to the results: Education and total annual household income were the only two variables to indicate a significant association with purchase or non-purchase.

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Table 4.11 Cross tabulations of grocery shopper characteristics by purchase behaviour for any individual egg type

Chi- Doesn’t Square buy % Buys % (df) p-value Sex (n = 405)

Male 28.9 71.1 Female 25.6 74.4 .558(1) .445 Age (n = 408)

19 – 29 years 10.0 90.0 30 – 39 years 40.0 60.0 40 – 49 years 30.4 69.6 50 – 59 years 26.2 73.8 60 – 69 years 24.1 75.9 70+ years 15.8 84.2 8.625a .125 Education (n = 396)

Elementary school 0.0 100.0 High school certificate 17.5 82.5 Apprenticeship/trade certificate or diploma 31.0 69.0 College or CEGEP certificate or diploma 24.6 75.4 University certificate or diploma lower than bachelor level 33.3 66.7 Bachelor degree 25.9 74.1 University certificate or diploma above bachelor level 57.1 42.9 Degree in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, optometry 16.7 83.3 Master degree 45.0 55.0 Earned doctorate 40.0 60.0 23.727b .005* a 1 cell (8.3%) has expected cell count less than 5 b 6 cells (30%) have expected count less than 5 * Association is significant at the p < .01 level (2-tailed test)

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Table 4.12 Cross tabulations of household characteristics by purchase behaviour for any individual egg type

Doesn’t Buys % Chi- p-value buy % square (df) Geographic location (n = 405)

Burnaby or New Westminster 28.4 71.6

Coquitlam 18.2 81.8

Delta, White Rock, or Tsawwassen 33.3 66.7

Langley (City or Township), or Surrey 20.0 80.0

Maple Ridge, Pitt Meadows, Port Coquitlam, Port Moody, Anmore, or Belcarra 0.0 100.0

North Vancouver (City or District), West Vancouver, Bowen Island, Lions Bay, or Electoral Area A 36.4 63.6

Richmond 23.3 76.7

Vancouver 30.0 69.7 5.082 (7)a .650

Total Annual Household Income (n = 370)

Below $20,000 17.8 82.2

$20,000 to $39,999 18.9 81.1

$40,000 to $59,999 24.4 75.6

$60,000 to $79,999 30.9 69.1

$80,000 to $99,999 24.2 75.8

$100,000 or more 42.0 58.0 13.801 (5) .017*

Presence of children < 19 years of age (n = 405)

No 26.9 73.1

Yes 27.6 72.4 .027 (1) .869 a 5 cells (31.3%) have expected count less than 5 * Association is significant at the p < .05 level (2 tailed test)

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Next, a multi-way cross-tabulation of all the potential explanatory categorical variables with the purchase/non-purchase dependent variable was conducted to review if data were present for all combinations of the variables. Expected frequencies in each cell were reviewed to see if they were greater than 1 and if no more than 20% were less than 5, in order to meet statistical assumptions for goodness of fit tests for logistic regression (Field, 2009). Multiple cells had expected frequencies of less than 5 or had empty cells. The sample size was not large enough to include all potential predictor variables in the logistic regression analysis. Based on the previous cross tabulations, age, education, and income variables were collapsed into three, two, and two categories each respectively and were selected for input into the logistic regression analysis. Income and level of education are known to be correlated. The survey measured income at the household level and education at the level of the responding individual, preventing an exact direct comparison (except for respondents who lived alone, or were the sole income earner in the household – which was not measured). A weak but significant correlation was found between the respondent’s level of education and total annual household income: Rs = .287, p=.000 (one-tailed test). The effect of this correlation will be further tested when the logistic regression model is tested for multi collinearity (next section). Finally, correlations between predictor quantitative variables and purchase behaviour were tested. As indicated in Table 4.13, both the AS and household size variables were significantly associated with purchase behaviour. Acculturation is negatively correlated to purchasing behaviour: As the AS increases, the proportion of egg buyers decreases.

Table 4.13 Correlation analysis between quantitative variables and purchase behaviour for any duck or quail egg type

Buy/not buy p-value Rs Acculturation score correlation coefficient -.335 .000* Household size correlation coefficient .158 .000*

* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

In total, five variables were chosen for the logistic regression purchase model: Acculturation score, household size, age, education, and household income.

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4.3.4.3 Logistic Regression Analysis Summary statistics for variables included in the logistic regression analysis and parameter codings for the categorical variables used in the logistic regression analysis are provided in Tables 4.14 and 4.15 respectively. Cases with missing values were excluded from analysis.

Table 4.14 Summary statistics of variables included in the logistic regression model (n = 346)

Variable SPSS Std. Min. Max. Mean Median coding Deviation Acculturation .064 .937 .347 .298 .169 score

Household size 1 12 3.315 3.000 1.601

Age in years 49 or less 0 50 to 59 1 60 + 2 1.00

Education College or CEGEP or less 1 University certificate or diploma or higher 0 1.00

Total annual < $60,000 household income 1 $60,000 + 0 0.00

Table 4.15 Parameter coding of categorical variables for logistic regression analysis (n = 346)

Parameter coding Frequency (1) (2) Age in years 49 or less 142 0.000 .000

50 – 59 126 1.000 .000

60 + 78 .000 1.000

Total annual household < $60,000 199 1.000 income $60,000 + 147 .000

Highest education attained College or CEGEP or 168 1.000 less University certificate or 178 .000 diploma or higher

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The null hypothesis is that there is no difference between the predictive abilities of the model with the constant only and the full model with all the predictor variables. The alternative hypothesis is that the full model will be significantly better at predicting the observed behaviour. The estimates for the initial logistic regression model with only the constant (intercept) in the model are presented in Table 4.16. The estimates for the full logistic regression model (block enter) are shown in Table 4.17 and the classification table for the full model is shown in Table 4.18.

Table 4.16 Initial logistic regression estimates (constant only) for the purchase model of any duck or quail egg types (n = 346)

Wald Odds Variable B S.E. statistics df p-value ratio Constant 1.001 .121 68.110 1 .000* 2.720 -2 Log likelihood 402.777; * significant at the p <.001 level

Table 4.17 Logistic regression estimates (full model, block enter method) for the purchase model of any duck or quail egg types (n = 346)

95% C.I. for odds Variable (parameter Wald Odds ratio code) B S.E. statistics df p-value ratio Lower Upper Acculturation score -3.759 .779 23.277 1 .000* .023 .005 .107 Household size .296 .100 8.724 1 .003* 1.345 1.105 1.637 Age (≤ 49 yrs) 2.673 2 .263 Age (1) (50-59 yrs) .319 .302 1.116 1 .291 1.376 .761 2.488 Age (2) (60 + yrs) .582 .372 2.447 1 .118 1.790 .863 3.714 Education(1) (≤ college) .077 .282 .075 1 .784 1.080 .622 1.877 Income(1) (< $60,000) .391 .289 1.832 1 .176 1.478 .839 2.601 Constant .964 .542 3.162 1 .075 2.622 -2 Log likelihood 350.594 (initial with constant only, 402.777); χ2 = 52.183 (6); * significant at the p <.01 level; Cox and Snell R2 = .140; Nagelkerke's R2 = .204; McFadden’s p2= .130

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Table 4.18 Classification table for the full model (n = 346)

Predicteda Buys any type of duck or quail egg Observed No Yes Percentage correct No 28 65 30.1 Buys any type of duck or quail egg Yes 15 238 94.1 Overall percentage 76.9

a. The cut value is .500

The two models, initial and full, can be compared by using the likelihood ratio statistic (LR) to test the differences in their log-likelihoods (LL):

LR = -2[LL (full model) – LL (initial model)]

The likelihood ratio has a Chi-square distribution, with degress of freedom equal to the number of parameters of the full model minus the number of parameters in the constant model. The resulting Chi- square, χ2 = 52.183 (6), is significant at the .05 level of significance. The null hypothesis is rejected and the result supports the alternative hypothesis that the full model is significantly better at predicting the purchase outcome compared to the constant only. The predictive ability of the model can also be used to assess the model. The full model correctly predicts 76.9% of the observed behaviour overall, compared to 73.9% for the initial model. The full model correctly predicts 94.1% of buyers (the model is highly sensitive), but correctly predicts only 30.1% of non-buyers (the model has low specificity). The initial model was not able to correctly predict any non-buyers. The contribution of an individual predictor variable to the full model is tested by the Wald test, in which the squared coefficient of a predictor is divided by its squared standard error, yielding another Chi-square statistic. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference in predictive ability between the constant and an individual predictor variable. In Section 4.3.4.2, acculturation score, household size, education level, and total annual household income were all significantly associated with the buy/not- buy outcome and it was expected that these predictor variables would be significant contributors to the full model. However, as shown in Table 4.17, the Wald test indicates that only the acculturation score and household size variables are significant predictors (at the p < .01 level). In addition, the age, education, and income variables’ 95% confidence intervals for their respective odds ratio cross 1

108 indicating that they are not reliable predictors of the outcome. Yet, when these variables are excluded, the model correctly predicts only 74.6% of the observed behaviour overall (results not shown). The effect on the model of the significant acculturation score and household size variables can be interpreted using their respective b coefficients and odds ratios. As noted in Section 4.2.4.2, when the odds ratio statistic is less than one, the change in odds in favour of purchasing an egg type is negative, or decreasing, given an increasing predictor variable. Therefore, the estimated acculturation score odds ratio of 0.023 indicates that the estimated original odds of purchase are decreased by 0.023 times for a one unit increase in the score, all else remaining equal. In this case, the one unit increase in the acculturation score is from 0 (least acculturated) to 1 (most acculturated) on the acculturation scale. This is a large change in the estimated odds, which is easier to understand by looking at the inverse, which gives the estimated odds ratio of non-purchase: 1.0/0.023 = 43.478. This means that the estimated original odds of non-purchase have increased approximately 43 times from a respondent with an acculturation score of zero to a respondent with an acculturation score of one, all else remaining equal. The 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio ranges from 0.005 to 0.107, given a change in the acculturation score from 0 to 1. This is a wide interval, however it does not cross one. It reliably indicates that the odds of purchase decrease between the least acculturated and the most acculturated respondents. An estimated odds ratio of 0.023 can be interpreted as a large effect size. It explains the estimated change in the odds of purchase between the two extremes of the scale. The changes in the estimated odds of purchase for the small incremental differences measured in respondents’ acculturation scores are better illustrated using Kutner et al.’s (2005) formula (see 4.2.4.2), such that, for example, the odds ratio for a 0.10 increase in the acculturation score is estimated as ℮xp[0.10(-3.759)] = 0.687, which is a much smaller effect size. For household size, the odds ratio indicates that the estimated original odds in favour of purchase of any duck or quail egg product are increased by 1.345 times, given a one person increase in household size, all else remaining equal. The 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio ranges from 1.105 to 1.637. It does not cross one; it reliably indicates that as the household size increases by one person, the odds of purchase are increasing (all else remaining equal). To measure the effect size of the model, there is no equivalent to R2 in logistic regression (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007), and there are drawbacks to the ‘pseudo-R2 s’. The Cox and Snell R2 , for example, cannot achieve a maximum value of 1. In the full model results, Nagelkerke’s R2 = .205 is weak, although McFadden’s p2 = .130 is better, given McFadden’s measure differs from R2 in that values

109 in the .2 to .4 range are considered highly satisfactory (Hensher & Johnson, 2001, as cited in Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007, p.460). Further model assessment was undertaken to check the fit of the model to the observed data and to check if outliers or influential cases biased the model. An examination of the standardized residuals indicates that 4.6% lie outside +/- 1.96 and 0.0% lie outside +/- 2.58, suggesting that the fit of the model is good. Checking for influential cases, all values for Cook’s distance were less than one, suggesting no cases were unduly influencing the model (Field, 2009). A further check utilizing leverage values reveals no concerns: Expected leverage, (k + 1)/N, was calculated as .023, and no cases had leverage values of three times greater than the expected leverage value (Field, 2009). DFBeta statistics were all less than one for all predictor variables, which supports, along with the Cook’s distance values, that no cases are unduly influencing the model. The model was tested to see if all logistic regression assumptions were met. Test results for linearity of the logit showed that no interaction terms between each independent quantitative variable (household size and acculturation score) and the log of itself were significant. The assumption of linearity of the logit has not been violated. Test results for multi collinearity revealed tolerance values ranged from .829 to .940 for the independent variables, well above Menard’s suggested level of concern of 0.1 (as cited in Field, 2009, p. 297). In addition, VIF values were well below the threshold of concern of 10 as suggested by Meyers (as cited in Field, 2009, p. 297), ranging from 1.064 to 1.206. These results suggest that multi collinearity is not an issue and the independent variables do not correlate highly. Overall, results indicate that the full model is a good fit to the observed data. The equation below shows the general simplified model:

yi = β0 + β1(Acculturation scorei) + β2(Household sizei) + β3(Agei) + β4(Educationi) + β5(Total

annual household incomei) + εi

Where yi is the probability that an individual, i, purchases a duck or quail egg product, β0 is the constant, and βn is the coefficient of the predictor variable(s), and εi is the error term.

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4.4 Discussion

4.4.1 Survey Sample Size and Characteristics My survey sample netted 410 usable responses, exceeding the recommended minimum threshold of 384, given the size of the Chinese Canada population in Metro Vancouver and for a 95% confidence level with a 5% margin of error (Mazzocchi, 2008). The 28.9% net response rate was moderate. Response rates for mail survey’s range from less than 15% to close to 80% depending on context, inducements, and number of follow ups (Malhotra, 2007b). Previous random sample mail surveys of ethnic Asians or Chinese residing in Western countries indicate a tendency for low participation rates in research studies. Ownbey and Horridge, in their 1997 random sample mail survey of Chinese and Filipino Americans in San Francisco, achieved a net response rate of 21% (124 useable surveys). Wang (2004) attempted to improve response rates by calling Chinese Canadian households in her sample first, to gain participants’ consent and to screen for first generation immigrants. The response rate to the telephone calls was 16%. Despite pre-calling, the subsequent mail survey resulted in a response rate of only 52% or 317 usable surveys (just over 8% of the original sample). Govindasamy et al.’s mail survey in the U.S. of Asians and their demand for ethnic produce resulted in a net response rate of 25% from the ethnic Chinese strata of the sample (Govindasamy et al., 2006; Govindasamy et al. 2007a). Given these response rates, the 28.9% response rate for this survey is acceptable, although still lower than expected. Survey response may have been negatively impacted by controversy surrounding the Canadian federal Conservative government’s announcement to scrap the long-form census for the 2011 Census, citing concern for the privacy of Canadians (Ditchburn, 2010). The controversy was widely reported, made headline news, and played out in the mainstream and Chinese media for weeks in the summer of 2010, starting from just before my survey invitation letter was mailed and continuing through the survey time period. Influenced by privacy concerns stirred up by the Conservatives, and given some of the sensitive questions asked in Part F, survey recipients may have decided not to respond. The sample population was found to be older in age and higher in education levels compared to the population and some differences were also found between household income levels. However, proportionately fewer 19 to 29 year olds in the sample compared to the population are expected, because not all young adults are the main grocery shoppers for their households and many are still living with their parents well into their twenties due to the high cost of living in Vancouver, and the need to finish school, pay off student loans, and save some money before setting up their own household. The skew to higher education levels in the sample could be due to a greater familiarity with the idea and process of

111 academic or marketing survey research compared to Chinese Canadians with high school or lower education. The household income differences on some categories (approximately 3%) are moderate and thus not a major concern. Finally, lower than expected born in Canada ethnic Chinese responded to the survey. An explanation is difficult. There may have been widespread disinterest in the subject matter across this portion of the sample, but that remains as conjecture.

4.4.2 Egg Purchases This study revealed that the majority of respondents bought salted or preserved duck eggs at least yearly, though infrequently, at a median of every three to four months. In previous research that included less acculturated Chinese Canadian females in Vancouver, BC, Satia et al. (2001) found that 46% of respondents had consumed traditionally preserved foods (which would include salted and preserved duck eggs) in the past month. Although not a direct comparison, results of this study indicate a lower frequency of purchase, with only 16.3% and 14.3% of respondents reporting at least monthly purchases of salted and preserved duck eggs, respectively. Given the overall infrequency of purchase, this study suggests that salted and preserved duck eggs are peripheral foods (Passin & Bennett, 1943) in the diets of Chinese Canadians. Results also indicate that the dominant versions of each egg type in the market are whole, raw salted duck eggs and soft yolk preserved duck eggs. An important finding of this study suggests that market share (by volume), is not dominated by the frequent purchasers, with the majority of the market split 40% - 40% between high frequency and low frequency purchasers. This could have potential marketing implications, since not one but two major groups of consumers may have different needs and respond differently to marketing promotions. With a significant positive correlation found between purchase frequency and year over year purchase trend, results further suggest that frequent buyers form a more loyal market core and that the overall market may be vulnerable to decline from infrequent buyers. This finding indicates that the infrequent buyer should not be ignored. It could be assumed that infrequent buyers might be purchasing just for special occasions, but ‘usual meal planning’ was overwhelmingly the overall highest ranked reason for purchase, regardless of purchase frequency. This indicates that promotion may be necessary to keep the eggs ‘top of mind’, particularly for infrequent buyers. Comparing the estimated annual market sizes for salted and preserved duck eggs, approximately 149,000 dozen and 121,000 dozen respectively, to the 663,000 dozens of imports of other bird eggs, in

112 shell, n.e.s., preserved or cooked, into BC in 2009 (see Figure 1.4), my results suggest that Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver may account for approximately 40.7% of the imported market volume. The majority of the import volume may be going to the hotel or restaurant or processing segments, and a small amount of the volume may be going to other, smaller, consumer segments for at-home consumption, such as the Filipino segment. For fresh quail eggs, only a minority of 14.6% of respondents purchased the eggs within the past year and the majority of those purchased only once or twice a year, similar to much older previous findings by Newman and Linke (1982). Furthermore, infrequent purchasers accounted for 64% of the market share by volume. The Chinese Canadian retail market for these eggs appears to be small, as shown by the estimated annual market size of 834,000 eggs or 27.8% of an assumed annual production of 3,000,000 fresh quail eggs in BC (see Section 1.5.2.4). These results imply significant marketing may be required to expand the Chinese Canadian retail market in Metro Vancouver for fresh quail eggs and suggests that if funds are limited, marketing efforts should continue to focus on hotels and restaurants, which were previously identified by Kermode (1997) as growth sectors, or investigate other consumer segments. Although the majority of respondents reported purchasing the most typical package size (six for salted and preserved duck eggs, 24 for fresh quail eggs), 8.3% of salted duck egg purchasers, 6.9% of preserved duck egg purchasers, and 28.3% of fresh quail egg purchasers left the question blank, suggesting that they had trouble recalling the package size usually purchased. Others reported package sizes that are not, to the best of my knowledge, commercially available. Inability to recall the package size may be a result of low involvement in the purchase process, infrequent purchases, or an overall lack of knowledge about the egg products they’ve bought. This may or may not be an issue, but implies that there could be a need to raise product awareness about package sizes and options amongst consumers. Respondents indicated that T&T Supermarkets were clearly the most frequent purchase location for all of the egg types, followed by independent Asian grocery stores. This result supports previous research (Adekunle et al., 2011b; Govindasamy et al., 2007a;Wang, 2004; Wang & Lo, 2007) that indicates that ethnic Chinese or other non-European ethnic groups in North America either purchase or prefer to purchase their ethnic groceries or produce at Chinese (or other non-European ethnic) grocery stores. Wang’s 2004 study did indicate an overall equal preference for mainstream and Chinese supermarkets in 69% of respondents, but 95% of respondents visited at least one Chinese grocery store in their regular grocery shopping activities. In this study, The Real Canadian Superstore – a mainstream supermarket – placed third in usual purchase location. Results clearly indicate that accessing shelf space

113 at Chinese/Asian grocery stores, especially T&T Supermarkets, is very important for the success and growth of local duck and quail egg producers and processors. (Note that Real Canadian Superstore and T&T Supermarkets are now owned by the same company, Loblaw Inc.) Among non-purchasers and non-consumers of any of the duck or quail egg products, the most prevalent reason for non-purchase was health concerns, not unfamiliarity with the products. This suggests that most non-buyers have good product awareness and that their health concerns would need to be satisfied before they could possibly be converted to buyers.

4.4.3 Acculturation Score The overall (n = 410) mean acculturation score was low at .35 ± .17 s.d. (median score was .31). Given the sample is dominated by Chinese immigrants and a majority returned the Chinese language questionnaire version, a low mean score might be expected. In contradiction, the sample is overweight in immigrants who have resided in Canada for more than 20 years, suggesting that the acculturation score should be higher. Results indicated that reading ability in English, Western food preferences, no longer balancing yin/yang foods, and mixed ethnic households are positively correlated to term of residency, and should help raise the acculturation score. However, in Canada, multi-culturalism is celebrated, encouraged, and promoted by the government; this assists in the retention of culture and contrasts with a ‘melting pot’ stance that encourages assimilation. In Metro Vancouver the large Chinese Canadian population provides a critical mass of community, businesses, and services catering to ethnic Chinese, including print and electronic media. Chinese foods and groceries are widely available. With this support structure, acculturation could be slowed considerably. In particular, food habits change slowly and the process is dynamic and multifaceted (Hartwell, Edwards, & Brown, 2011). Wang (2004), for instance, found that length of residence in the Greater Toronto area was not significantly associated with a decrease in preference for Chinese supermarkets. The longer length of residency in Canada reported by immigrant respondents in this study was not enough to overcome the influence of their cultural heritage. As noted by Chia and Costigan (2006) cultural contact is positively related to external Chinese domains (behaviour). In my acculturation scale, cultural contact was represented by birthplace, years of residence in Canada, generation status, mother tongue, and language reading ability. To keep the survey a manageable length, direct cultural contact, such as use of English or Chinese language media or travel to China or other Asian countries with ethnic Chinese populations, was not measured. Although the inclusion of direct cultural contact questions may provide a fuller portrait of Chinese Canadian external domain acculturation, the language reading ability question was specifically included to act as an

114 approximate proxy for the use of English or Chinese language media. It is recognized however, that reading comprehension in Chinese is more difficult than speaking ability (therefore indicative of lower acculturation). The inclusion of one additional question about language spoken most often at home, or at the workplace, may remedy this as well as provide a good estimate of direct cultural contact, with the added benefit of easy comparison to the population (language used at home and at work are tracked via the Census of Canada).

4.4.4 Logistic Regression Model The logistic regression model provides a high power of accurate prediction, predicting correct outcomes 76.9% of the time and the model was found to be a good fit to the observed data. The most important findings are that acculturation and household size are significant predictors of duck or quail egg product purchase or non-purchase. Household size is a positive predictor for purchase of any of the duck or quail egg products. This could be due to the eggs being a less expensive form of protein to feed a larger household, compared to meats and fish, or the possibility that larger households may eat out at restaurants less and therefore consume more of the eggs at home compared to smaller households. Another explanation may be that with more food to buy for a larger household, more variety may be purchased. If there is extended family in a household, such as minor children, adult children, and/or grandparents, they may create more of a demand for dishes that utilize the eggs. As an example of the impact of the acculturation score predictor variable, the model indicates that the probability of purchase for a 55 year old Chinese Canadian with annual household income less than $60,000, an education level of less than a bachelor degree, three people in their household, and an acculturation score of 0.20 is 87%, versus 82% for a Chinese Canadian with all the same characteristics except for a 0.30 acculturation score, or versus 45% with a 0.75 acculturation score. In the second last example, with an 82% probability of purchase, if all other variables are kept unchanged but household size is reduced from 3 to 2 people, the probability of purchase drops to 77%. My finding that the probability of purchasing the duck or quail egg products decreases as acculturation to Canadian/Western society increases is similar to 1) previous studies that indicated that peripheral foods are more likely than core foods to be dropped from the diet as acculturation occurs (Hrboticky & Krondl, 1985; Jerome, 1980; Passin & Bennett, 1943); and, 2) other studies of ethnic food consumption or dietary acculturation that used at least one proxy measurement for acculturation, such as years in the new host society, for example (Adekunle et al., 2011a; Gilbert & Khokhar, 2008; Jamal,

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1998; Lv & Cason, 2004; Satia et al., 2001; Yang & Fox, 1979). It should be noted, however, that not all studies have indicated a negative association between a measurement of acculturation and maintenance of a Chinese diet or use of a particular food. Newman and Linke (1982) and Chau et al. (1990), for example, found no significant correlation between length of residence in the United States and the maintenance of a Chinese diet. Overall, however, the low mean acculturation score for the sample and the indication that Chinese Canadians are slow to acculturate to Canadian/Western society is favourable for the demand by Chinese Canadians for duck and quail egg products in Metro Vancouver. Although age, income, and education were not significant predictors of purchase/non-purchase in the model, their inclusion nevertheless improved the accuracy of prediction. Income has had a mixed influence in the inclusion or exclusion of traditional foods in the diets of minority groups that are adjusting to a new culture. In this study, lower income was positively associated with purchase of the duck or quail egg products, but according to Adekunle et al. (2011a), for example, higher income is associated with a greater likelihood of Chinese Canadians purchasing ethno-cultural vegetables. These opposing results can be explained, however, by a tendency for higher income households to purchase more expensive types of protein (for example meats instead of eggs) (Garcia-Jimenez & Mishra, 2011) and more vegetables (which are often more expensive than many processed foods). These differing results across studies support the premise that the influence of income is contextual. The non- significance of the age and education variables was similar to findings in Adekunle et al.’s (2011a) study of Chinese Canadian expenditures on ethno cultural vegetables in which age and education were also non-significant predictors. In contrast, Ariyawardana et al.’s (2010) research on factors influencing Chinese Americans and Puerto Rican’s willingness to pay for ethnic specialty produce in the Eastern Coastal United States, did find that age was a significant, positive factor. It should be noted, however, that the above comparisons are indirect, given the different dependent variables and different measurements used for age, income, and education, but they nevertheless provide a useful context for this study’s results. The excluded variables of sex, presence of minors in the household and geographic location may have reduced the predictive power of the model, but because earlier Chi-square analysis indicated non- significant relationships with buying behaviour, the impact of their exclusion may be minimal. In Metro Vancouver, people of ethnic Chinese descent are found in areas of high concentration and low concentration; residents of low concentration do not enjoy the same access to businesses and services that cater to the ethnic Chinese community. This suggests that geographic location should be a good

116 predictor of purchase or non-purchase. In a much earlier study, Newman and Linke (1982) found that immigrant Chinese women in the Chinatown area of NYC changed their food habits less over time compared to those living in the mixed ethnic suburb of Queens, NY. However, more recent research by Wang and Lo (2007) of Chinese Canadian immigrants in the Greater Toronto Area indicated that they were willing to travel outside of their local areas to access Chinese supermarkets, and furthermore that accessibility was not the main determinant for preference for Chinese grocery stores. Ethnic identity exerted a stronger effect. Results from my study, which also included born in Canada ethnic Chinese, imply a similar conclusion to that of Wang and Lo. The exclusion of geographic location from the model may not be material. Perhaps more interesting is this study’s finding that minors in the household are not significantly associated with the purchase/non-purchase of any of the duck or quail egg types. Preliminary focus group participants, both immigrant and born in Canada, indicated that for some of those who purchased the eggs, they seldom bought because their children would not eat the egg products and it was thought that this might translate into a predictor for purchase/non-purchase. As noted by Hrboticky and Krondl (1984) “Westernization of food habits also proceeds more rapidly in families with children…who interact extensively with non-ethnic peers and introduce new foods into the family.” Other studies have also noted the influence of youth and children on family food choices and the adoption of Western foods (Jamal, 1998; Lv & Brown, 2010). In this study, respondents are buying or not buying the duck and quail egg products regardless of the presence of minor children in the household, yet this is somewhat contradicted by the finding that household size is a positive, significant predictor of purchase. Household size, however, may not be simply a function of minor children in the household, but adult children and/or grandparents too. The conflicting results between the focus groups and the survey do suggest that further analysis or research is needed to better understand the impact of minor children in the household on purchase behaviour (association with frequency of purchase, total number of eggs bought annually, year over year purchasing trend, for example) and the potential impact of the absence of this variable from the model. (Note that the proportion of minor children in the sample households is the same as in the population, reducing probability of non-response error as an explanation.) Although this study found that sex is not significantly associated with purchase or non-purchase and therefore its exclusion from the model may not be material, some previous studies have indicated that gender does play a role in family food habits. Lv and Brown’s (2010) depth interviews of Chinese American parents in Pennsylvania, found that in the face of their children’s requests for more Western style food, that it was the fathers’ desire to maintain a traditional Chinese dinner that had the most

117 impact on its retention. There are also suggestions that women may be more flexible to changing family food habits due to pressure from children to serve Western foods and a desire to please their children. Jamal’s 1998 study of British Pakistanis, for example, supports this theory. His qualitative study of British Pakistanis found that it was the father who played a key role in maintaining traditional diets. Finally, in terms of methodology, it should be noted that an alternative approach to model the purchase behaviour of Chinese Canadians when buying duck or quail eggs is the Tobit regression model (Tobin, 1958). In the logistic regression model, the outcome is modelled as a discreet choice between buying and not buying. However, this outcome can be considered ‘censored’ according to Tobin, because the amount that a consumer can buy is limited to 1 in the model, whereas in reality, a consumer may choose to purchase any number of duck or quail eggs. Tobin devised a model to overcome this drawback to discrete choice models, and in his Tobit regression model, a prediction can be made as to whether or not a purchase is made, as well as the amount purchased for those who do choose to purchase. A model of the amount purchased would provide valuable additional marketing intelligence. In summary, the major finding of my logistic regression analysis suggests to producers, processors, and retailers that acculturation, although negatively associated with purchase, is at a low level and is a slow process in Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver. However, longer term, this implies that a steady supply of new ethnic Chinese immigrants is needed to keep up the demand for salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs, especially if, as peripheral foods, they are more likely to fall out of the diet as acculturation continues. This stance assumes that the acculturation process to the current, dominant United Kingdom/European-based diet remains linear and does not change. However, with increasing numbersof immigrants to Metro Vancouver, the current dominant culture is bound to be influenced and changed. With the mixing of cultures, the process of dietary acculturation could be altered and in this process there may be opportunity for some current peripheral foods to not only maintain their dietary position, but improve it if the Chinese Canadian and wider population adopt a more cosmopolitan diet. Either way, my results suggest that product promotions may be required to maintain product awareness and sales. Finally, it should be noted that most of the acculturation score component data and the household size data can be found from publicly available Statistics Canada data, making it possible for producers, processors, and marketers to update the model over time.

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4.4.5 Study Limitations and Future Directions In reviewing the methodology, readers should bear in mind that cross-sectional data was used and therefore acculturation over time, or from one generation to the next, is assumed. However, given the time, expense, and complexity inherent in a longitudinal study, the majority of studies that contain a component of acculturation have, like this study, adopted an inferential approach based on cross- sectional data. Other factors to consider are: First, data for this study was collected from Chinese Canadian households located in Metro Vancouver, a city with a large and very well served Chinese Canadian population. Other Chinese Canadian or Chinese American populations, especially from smaller communities, may differ in their demographics and level of acculturation. Furthermore, the sampling method and the resulting sample’s characteristics may have contributed to the results. The exclusion of households with cell-only service, for example, may have contributed to the under representation of Chinese Canadians less than 40 years of age as well as the absence of response from very recent immigrants (living in Canada for less than two years). Other sample characteristics that may have contributed to the results include: Under representation by born in Canada ethnic Chinese, over representation from well-established immigrants, and a skew to higher education levels than found in the population. Using mail as the primary survey mode may have allowed for a higher likelihood of a self-selection participation bias: Households that purchase duck or quail egg products may have been more interested and motivated to complete and return the questionnaire compared to non-purchasing households. Second, the modest sample size and response rate limited the frequency of responses in some categories of responses, requiring the variables’ categories to be collapsed into fewer, less heterogeneous categories for cross tabulation, Chi square, and logistic regression analysis. The age, education, and household income categories were all reduced, resulting in a lack of within-category variability and a potential loss of finer detail. Third, it is acknowledged that the acculturation score created for use in this survey does not represent a full portrait of acculturation of Chinese Canadians to the greater Canadian society and should not be interpreted as such. Finally, recollections by participants of their past behaviour can sometimes be found faulty in comparison to data from grocery store scanners that reveal actual behaviours and preferences. Grocery store scanner data for duck and quail egg products is proprietary and not publicly available. Some

119 results, such as total annual number of eggs bought or year over year purchasing trend, for example, may not be 100% accurate, but nevertheless provide a best estimate of buyers’ purchasing behaviours. For these reasons, generalisation of results beyond the sample characteristics is cautioned and findings should be considered exploratory, not conclusive. Nevertheless, this study provides a useful profile of the market for salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs in Metro Vancouver, BC., particularly with respect to frequency of purchase, year over year trend, purchase location, purchase occasion, and the significance of acculturation and household size to Chinese Canadians’ purchase behaviour, which all showed clear trends. The roles that age, education, household income, and the presence of minors in the household play in the market for duck and quail egg products could benefit from further examination. In addition, the logistic regression model deliberately focused on the level of acculturation (measured on external domains) and other demographic information from buyers, but other factors, such as attitudes and beliefs towards the eggs, may influence the purchase decision. Measurement of internal domains of acculturation, such as self – identity, could also be significant predictors of purchase behaviour. Future research and analysis that includes such factors might increase the accuracy of the logistic regression model and provide additional understanding of purchase or non- purchase behaviours that could have marketing implications. To gain further depth of understanding of the nature of the consumer market, research specifically targeting Mandarin speaking immigrants, very recent immigrants, younger Chinese Canadians (< 40 years), or born in Canada ethnic Chinese would also be beneficial. Further analysis using the Tobit regression to model the buy/not-buy choice including the predicted amount purchased is recommended. My market research has focused on the purchase of the individual egg products for consumption at home. A comparison of the estimated annual market size in dozens for salted and preserve duck eggs, to the annual volume of imports in dozens, suggests that 59% of the imports are not purchased by Chinese Canadians for at home consumption. This implies that the majority of the market volume is going to the hotel/restaurant or processing segments, and it suggests that some may also be going to other, smaller, consumer segments. In terms of processing, the egg products may also be consumed in prepared foods. For example, salted duck egg yolks are often consumed in Autumn Moon cakes, purchased from grocers and bakeries. My survey results indicated that 35.6% of respondents had purchased prepared foods in the past year, for at home consumption, that contained at least one of the egg types. The individual egg types may also be consumed in dishes consumed in restaurants, or at banquets, or other places away from home. Summary information from the survey indicated that 8.8% of total respondents reported consumption of the egg types only outside of the home. Furthermore, 57.6% of respondents who did

120 purchase at least one of the egg types for at home consumption also reported that they or other household members knowingly consumed at least one of the egg types outside of their home in the past year. Restaurants or bakeries were the most popular venue for outside of home consumption: 36.1% of all respondents reported consumption of salted duck eggs, 37.1% of all respondents reported consumption of preserved duck eggs, and 8.8% of all respondents reported consumption of fresh quail eggs at restaurants or bakeries. Future research is needed to further illuminate the consumer market in the take-away and away-from-home consumption segments. This study focused on only one particular segment of the consumer market for duck and quail egg products: the Chinese Canadian consumer. However, there are other established ethnic markets for the products, such as Korean Canadians, Vietnamese Canadians, and Filipino Canadians, for example, and there may be significant differences in these market segments compared to the Chinese Canadian market. Finally, this study was limited to the Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver, future research in other geographic areas would also contribute to a greater understanding of the overall ethnic Chinese market for these specialty duck and quail egg products in North America.

4.5 Conclusion Overall, study results indicate that the majority of Chinese Canadians purchase duck or quail egg products infrequently, and that the year over year trend is to no change or a declining trend in purchases. The core market for duck and quail egg products currently rests in the stable, frequent purchaser who purchases primarily for regular meal planning reasons. Infrequent buyers also play a large role in the market, but are at risk of a decreasing frequency of purchase or of eliminating the products from their diet over time. Based on 2009 import volumes into BC and estimated total annual purchases per household, Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadians who purchase salted or preserved duck egg products for at home consumption account for approximately 41% of the import volume, indicating that they play a significant role in the market, but that the majority of the market may be in the restaurant/hotel and processing segments. The majority of the fresh quail egg market in BC also appears to reside in other segments, given that my results suggest that only 28% of the total annual number of fresh quail egg produced in BC are purchased at the retail level by Chinese Canadians. Overall, however, these results indicate that there is a consumer niche market in Metro Vancouver for duck and quail egg products; however, it may be a market with limited growth prospects unless action is taken to promote demand. Opportunities for growth may reside in promoting more frequent

121 purchase for usual meal planning. A secondary market exists for infrequent, special occasion use, especially for salted and preserved duck eggs during Chinese festivals. Chinese festival purchases may be more closely linked to internal domains of acculturation (i.e. orientation to Chinese identity rather than Canadian identity) than external, behavioural domains. This suggests that opportunities may exist to maintain and expand this secondary market if a promotional approach is used that appeals to and supports Chinese Canadians’ pride in their Chinese identity and ancestry. In the realm of non-buyers, study participants cited health concerns as the main reason for non- consumption of any of the egg types. This suggests that some form of reassurance is needed to either bring these non-consumers back as buyers or to prevent future losses of current buyers. Health concerns may be more perceived than real and the nature of health concerns could be further explored, to distinguish between real and perceived concerns and, subsequently, the best method to address their concerns. Lead contamination, for example, has been a concern with the salted or preserved duck eggs. Some packages now declare “lead-free” on their label. This may or may not be enough for some consumers and backing this up with, for example, web-based information about the quality assurance or testing process followed may be necessary. The logistic regression model provides a good fit and estimation of probability of purchase and indicates that the market for these products may be found in larger or multi-generation households and with less acculturated grocery shoppers. Clearly, although acculturation was low in the sample, this implies that the market for duck and quail egg products will depend upon the continued presence of new ethnic Chinese immigrants to the Metro Vancouver area. Regardless, because this study indicates that these egg products are mostly peripheral foods in the diets of Chinese Canadians, in the long term these products may also require a healthy level of promotion to sustain sales from current buyers. As the first consumer study of the market for specialty duck and quail egg products in North America, this research makes a significant contribution towards understanding this niche market and presents a baseline for future research. It also provides evidence for potential market opportunities for producers, processors, and retailers in the large ethnic Chinese population of North America.

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5 CLUSTER ANALYSIS: SEGMENTATION OF THE CHINESE CANADIAN MARKET FOR DUCK AND QUAIL EGG PRODUCTS

5.1 Introduction With the increasing ethnic diversity in the Metropolises of North America, interest in niche markets for ethnic foods has grown among food producers and processors (Trichur, 2012). In addition, consumer interest and support for local food production and processing has grown in recent years as witnessed by a 151% increase in farmers markets in the United States from 2002 to 2012 (USDA Agricultural Marketing Services, 2012). Offering a local or regional source for ethnic foods may provide promising opportunities for producers and processors. However, with the exception of some ethnic foods11 that have crossed over to the mainstream, such as Mexican cuisine in the United States, there is a very limited body of published literature or statistics regarding consumer preferences and demand for ethnic foods in North America. This makes identification of marketing opportunities difficult. Such is the case for duck and quail egg products, which are used in Chinese cuisine. My research examined the market for duck and quail egg products in the Chinese Canadian population in Metropolitan Vancouver, British Columbia (BC). Metro Vancouver, with a population of over 402,000 Chinese Canadians, or 19% of the population and growing (Statistics Canada, 2010a), may represent opportunities for local producers and processors to service this market. The objectives of this study were to profile consumer attitude and beliefs about duck and quail egg products; to segment the consumer market based upon these attitudes and beliefs; and to explore marketing opportunities. Products studied included salted duck eggs, preserved duck eggs (‘century’ or ‘thousand year old’ eggs), and fresh quail eggs. Results of this study will help producers, processors, and retailers better understand consumer preferences, attitudes and beliefs, and to adjust their production and marketing accordingly.

11 For the purposes of this thesis, ethnic foods are defined as non-European and non-United Kingdom foods and cuisine in origin (see Glossary). 123

5.2 Methodology

5.2.1 Research and Questionnaire Design Mixed methods research was conducted in two stages. Initial exploratory qualitative research was carried out, followed by the main emphasis of my study, a quantitative consumer survey. Two initial exploratory focus group discussions with Chinese Canadians were conducted in November of 2009 for background information purposes and to assist in the questionnaire development (see Chapter Three). The quantitative study was then designed and conducted, following Dillman et al.’s tailored design approach (2009). It consisted of a random sample survey of Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadian households using a six part questionnaire (see Section 2.1.3.3.2). This paper focuses on data gathered from the attitude and belief questions in Part A of the survey, the opportunity questions in Part E, and the demographic and acculturation information from Part F. The rationale for the study’s design, and more information on the questionnaire design, can be found in Chapter 2 Methodology. Paper and electronic versions of the survey were created – a mixed mode design. The electronic version was designed to match the paper survey as closely as possible in order to minimize any error or differences due to mode choice (Dillman et al., 2009). All survey documents were provided in both English and Chinese. The English documents were translated into Chinese by a professional translator and checked for accuracy by a second translator and by my thesis supervisor, Dr. Kim Cheng. The questionnaire was pilot tested by ten Chinese Canadian UBC non-faculty staff (paper version) and by 45 undergraduate university students of various ethnicities, including Chinese (electronic version). Both language versions were pilot tested, with the Chinese version tested by staff and students whose mother tongue was Chinese. The questionnaire was revised accordingly. See Appendix B.3 for the complete English and Chinese language questionnaires. The study’s design and execution was carried out with the approval of, and in strict adherence to, UBC’s Human Behavioural Research Board’s ethical guidelines, certificate H10-00571. Respondents’ confidentiality was assured. In addition, in both the paper and electronic versions, respondents did not have to answer questions they did not wish to answer, with the exception of a few branching questions in the electronic survey.

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5.2.2 Survey Description A mail survey of 1500 randomly selected Chinese Canadian households located in Metropolitan Vancouver was conducted in the summer of 2010. Using a purchased license agreement, the geographically stratified sample was randomly drawn using Quan et al.’s (2006) validated Chinese surname list, from a database of area telephone service subscribers. A three stage survey protocol was followed (see Section 4.2.2): Invitation, questionnaire, and a final reminder notice which included an option for respondents to complete the survey online. This option was included to provide an incentive for people who may prefer a different method of response to complete the questionnaire and thus increase the response rate (Dillman et al., 2009). The online survey option was hosted by a Canadian-based survey company, www.fluidsurveys.com, using secure servers located in Canada. Access was controlled by an individual invite code and an URL address provided to each respondent in their reminder notice. The household member most responsible for household grocery shopping, and at least 19 years of age or older, was asked to complete the questionnaire. The survey (paper and electronic versions) was open for seven weeks and closed immediately after the Labour Day weekend on September 7, 2010.

5.2.3 Development of Cluster Analysis Method Results were manually entered into PAWS statistical package (SPSS version 17), quality control checked, and then subjected to various statistical analyses. Attitudes and beliefs and the importance of product characteristics were measured by 5-point Likert-type scale questions. Descriptive statistics were run. Visual inspection of histograms and P-P plots, and values of skew and kurtosis indicated that responses to the scale questions as well as metric data such as household size, acculturation score, etc., were not normally distributed. This was confirmed by significant results from Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Thus non-parametric statistical tests, such as the Kruskal-Wallis test (for differences in mean responses between/across each egg type), Friedman’s ANOVA (for differences in mean responses within each egg type) and post hoc Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon signed ranks tests were selected as most appropriate. Originally invented by Karl Pearson (1901), principal component analysis (PCA) with extraction via analysis of the covariance matrix with oblique rotation, was used twice to reduce (1), the number of product characteristic variables and (2), the number of attitude/belief variables, for input into subsequent cluster analyses of buyers of each egg type. Oblique rotation was chosen due to the underlying dependence between some of the variables. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (as cited in Field, 2009, p.647)

125 was used to confirm the adequacy of the sample for PCA purposes. The component scores resulting from the PCAs were then entered into a two-step cluster analysis process for buyers of each egg type, using Ward’s hierarchical method to discover the number of clusters to extract, followed by Lloyd’s K- means iterative and classification method to classify each case into a cluster membership (as cited in Malhotra, 2007c, pp.642-643). The finalized clusters (buyer segments) were then subjected to further descriptive statistical analyses and non-parametric means tests, including using demographic and buyer behaviour data. Market opportunities were likewise measured on 5-point Likert-type scales for each egg type and results were analyzed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric statistical tests as appropriate.

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5.3 Results

5.3.1 Descriptive Statistics

5.3.1.1 Survey Response Rate and Language Choice A total of 410 usable questionnaires were received, 94% paper and 6% online, for a net response rate of 28.9%. More respondents (54.4%) chose the Chinese language version than the English version (45.6%). No significant association between language choice and whether they replied by mail or Internet was found [χ2 = .061(1), p-value = .804, at the p < 0.05 level].

5.3.1.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample As shown in Table 5.1, the sample was closely representative of the population in terms of the proportion of Chinese Canadian respondents located in municipalities with higher versus lower concentrations of ethnic Chinese Canadians.

Table 5.1 Geographic distribution of sample vs. population, by location and density of Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadians

Sample Population % % High proportion of ethnic Chinese: Vancouver, Richmond, Burnaby/New Westminster 84 82

Low proportion of ethnic Chinese: All other Metro Vancouver municipalities 16 18

Source: Population statistics derived from 2006 Census (Statistics Canada, 2007c)

There were some demographic differences between respondents and the Metro Vancouver ethnic Chinese population. Overall, survey respondents were older, better educated, and lived in households with higher total annual incomes compared to the Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadian population (Table 5.2). In addition, in characteristics related to ties to their ethnic and cultural background, the sample was found to be under represented by ethnic Chinese born in Canada (second generation or higher) and over represented by longer established immigrants and by immigrants not born in mainland China (for example, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau).

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Table 5.2 Comparison of selected demographic characteristics of survey respondents to the Chinese Canadian population, Metro Vancouver Sample Population % % Sex (n = 405) Male 44.4 47.2 Female 55.6 52.8

Age in years (n = 408) 19 – 29 2.5 20.7a 30 – 39 11.0 17.6 40 – 49 27.5 23.8 50 – 59 35.5 18.0 60 -69 14.2 8.8 70+ 9.3 11.0

Education (n = 396) High school or less 27.5 45.8a (highest level attained) Apprenticeships/skilled trades 7.3 4.2 College or CEGEP2 14.4 12.0 University diploma or Bachelor degree 34.4 29.0 University degree > than bachelor 16.4 8.9

Total annual household Below $20,000 12.2 15.5 income (n = 370) $20,000 - $39,999 24.3 21.8 $40,000 - $59,999 21.1 18.4 $60,000 - $79,999 14.9 13.1 $80,000 - $99,999 8.9 9.7 $100,000 or more 18.6 21.5

Household size One 12.4 5.1 (persons) (n = 378) Two 21.4 15.9 Three 20.1 21.7 Four 29.4 28.5 Five 10.3 15.2 Six 3.4 7.9 Seven or more 3.0 5.7

Generation status (n = 1st generation Canadian 89.2 84.8a 408) 2nd generation Canadian 9.1 13.2 3rd generation or more Canadian 1.7 2.0

Immigrants’ years 5 yrs or less 4.9 18.5 in Canada (n=365) 6 to 10 years 10.2 22.1 11 to 20 years 43.1 22.6 > 20 years 41.8 36.8

Birthplace (n=410) Canada 11.0 24.8 Mainland China 30.5 33.9 Other 58.5 41.3 1 Source: population statistics from or calculated from 2006 Census (Statistics Canada, 2010b; Statistics Canada, 2010c) 2 CEGEP refers to the general and vocational public college system in Quebec, Canada and a CEGEP diploma is a pre-requisite for admittance to Quebec-based universities a As a percentage of the ethnic Chinese population 15 years of age or older

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5.3.1.3 Products Purchased Within the past twelve months, 76.8% of respondents/grocery shoppers reported buying for consumption at home at least one of the duck or quail egg products and/or prepared foods containing at least one of the egg types. A total of 40.2% bought at least one of the individual egg types and no prepared foods containing an egg type and conversely, 3.7% bought only prepared foods containing an egg type and none of the individual egg types. Almost one quarter of grocery shoppers (23.2%) reported that they had not purchased any of the duck or quail egg products, or any prepared foods containing at least one of the egg types, for at home consumption. Overall, 64.4% of grocery shoppers reported purchases of salted duck eggs, 59.8% reported purchases of preserved duck eggs, and 14.6% reported purchases of fresh quail eggs. In the category of prepared foods that contain any of the egg types, 35.6% of grocery shoppers reported buying such foods for consumption at home. The low number of respondents who reported purchases of fresh quail eggs presented some limitations for statistical analysis, which are noted when applicable.

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5.3.1.4 Importance of Product Characteristics Buyers of each individual egg type were asked to rate on a 5-point Likert-type scale the level of importance of each of eight salted or preserved duck egg, or nine fresh quail egg, product characteristics that they might consider when purchasing, with 1 = not at all important and 5 = very important. Results are presented in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Mean level of importance of product characteristics when purchasing an egg type

Salted duck Preserved duck Fresh quail egg buyers egg buyers egg buyers (n=215) (n = 211) (n=53) Characteristics Mean ± S.D.1 Mean ± S.D.1 Mean ± S.D.1 Best before date 4.69 ± 0.79a 4.60 ± 0.89a 4.79 ± 0.69a Cracked or thin shells n.a. n.a. 4.68 ± 0.94a Packaged-on date 4.39 ± 1.07b 4.36 ± 1.05b 4.53 ± 0.95ab Country of origin 4.00 ± 1.26c 3.98 ± 1.22c 3.81 ± 1.27bc Brand name 3.43 ± 1.42d* 3.62 ± 1.30d* 2.96 ± 1.33de Price 3.10 ± 1.35def 3.18 ± 1.32ef 3.21 ± 1.31cd Local product 3.01 ± 1.38de 3.00 ± 1.33e 3.42 ± 1.29ce Nutrition label 2.91 ± 1.42ef 3.00 ± 1.30ef 3.19 ± 1.36cd Organic product 2.68 ± 1.44f 2.71 ± 1.36f 3.04 ± 1.40d 1 Letters indicate significantly different mean scores within each egg type (Friedman’s ANOVA with post hoc Wilcoxon signed rank tests using Bonferroni correction) * Indicates significantly different brand name mean scores for respondents who purchased both salted and preserved duck eggs (n=161), Wilcoxon signed rank test. z = -2.198, p < .01

Comparing across egg types, mean ratings of the importance of each characteristic for salted and preserved duck egg buyers followed a similar pattern. Ratings were highest (important – very important) for attributes of freshness (‘best before date’ and ‘packaged on date’), and lowest (not important – neutral) for ‘organic product’. ‘Local product’ was rated neutrally. ‘Country of origin’ was rated as ‘important’ and received the highest importance rating after the freshness characteristics. The only significant difference was found with the ‘brand name’ characteristic: It was rated significantly higher in importance for preserved eggs by respondents who purchased both types of duck eggs and no fresh quail eggs (n=161, Wilcoxon signed-ranks test, z = -2.918, p < .01, r = -.16). In comparison, fresh quail egg buyers also rated basic quality measures highly, with ‘best before date’, ‘packaged on date’, and ‘cracked or thin shells’ rated as important – very important. However, ‘local product’ was scored higher (neutral – important) than for the duck egg products (neutral), and brand name scored lowest (neutral), lower than ‘organic product’. For respondents that bought all three

130 egg products within the past year (n=44), however, there were no significant differences in how they rated each product characteristic for the different egg types (results not shown). Results of Friedman’s ANOVA also indicated that within each egg category, there were significant differences between the mean ratings for the characteristics: Salted duck egg buyers 2 = 521.650 (7), p < .001; preserved duck egg buyers 2 = 498.394 (7), p < .001; and fresh quail egg buyers 2 = 172.634 (8), p < .001. These results suggest that certain product characteristics are more important to buyers than other characteristics, however respondents were not asked to rank the characteristics in order of importance, which would be required for a more accurate understanding.

5.3.1.5 Consumer Attitudes and Beliefs Buyers were asked to rate their level of agreement with different statements to indicate their attitudes and beliefs about the particular egg types that they had purchased, with 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. Prior to analysis, negatively worded statements were reversed coded. Overall results are presented in Table 5.4. Comparing mean responses across the different egg types, unlike results for the importance of product characteristics, significant differences in attitudes and beliefs towards each egg type were found for respondents who purchased all three egg products (n = 44) in the past year (results not shown). “[______] eggs are part of a healthy diet” was rated significantly different ( 2 = 33.237 (2), p < .001) across egg types: Buyers were significantly higher in agreement with the statement that “fresh quail eggs are part of a healthy diet” in comparison to salted (z = - 3.979, p < .001) or preserved duck eggs (z = - 4.330, p < .001). Quality was also rated significantly different ( 2 = 10.234 (2), p < .010) across egg types, with fresh quail eggs rated significantly higher (z = - 2.541, p < .016; Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests with Bonferroni correction) than salted duck eggs in quality satisfaction. Perceived nutritional value of the egg types was significantly different ( 2 = 38.020 (2), p < .001), with buyers in significantly higher agreement that fresh quail eggs are nutritious compared to salted duck eggs (z = - 4.062 p < .001) and compared to preserved duck eggs ( z = -4.300, p < .001). Furthermore, buyers were significantly different ( 2 = 15.440 (2), p < .001) in rating their agreement with not limiting purchases due to a lack of knowledge of how to use an egg type in traditional Chinese dishes: With significantly higher agreement for salted duck eggs (agree – strongly agree) than for preserved duck eggs (neutral – agree; z = -2.985, p < .010), or for fresh quail eggs (z = -3.161, p < .010). Buyers were significantly different ( 2 = 7.321 (2), p < .05) in their ratings of agreement between egg types for not limiting purchases due to a lack of household members who will eat them: With buyers significantly higher (z = -2.493, p < .017) in

131 agreement that they do not limit purchases for this reason for salted duck eggs compared to preserved duck eggs. Comparing results for respondents who purchased only salted and preserved duck eggs and not any fresh quail eggs in the past year (n = 169), significant differences in level of agreement were found between salted and preserved duck egg buyers. Buyers’ level of agreement that the egg types are part of a healthy diet was significantly (z = -2.258, p < .05) higher for preserved duck eggs than for salted duck eggs. Buyers also were significantly (z = -2.118, p < .05) higher in agreement that they were satisfied with the quality of preserved duck eggs that they had purchased compared to the quality of salted duck eggs. With respect to not limiting purchases due to not knowing how to use an egg type in traditional Chinese dishes, buyers were higher (z = -3.701, p < .001) in agreement for this statement for salted duck eggs than for preserved duck eggs. Buyers also were higher (z = -2.013, p < .05) in agreement that they do not avoid purchasing salted duck eggs from China compared to preserved duck eggs from China. With respect to not limiting purchases due to sodium chloride (table salt) concerns, buyers were higher (z = -6.265, p < .001) in agreement that they would not limit purchases due to sodium concerns for preserved duck eggs compared to salted duck eggs. Finally, with respect to not limiting purchases due to concern about lead content, buyers were higher (z = -2.416, p < .05) in agreement that they would not limit purchases due to lead contamination concerns for salted duck eggs compared to preserved duck eggs. Within each egg category there were significant differences between the mean ratings of agreement for each statement: Salted duck egg buyers 2 = 696.062 (12), p < .001); preserved duck egg buyers 2 = 598.774 (12), p < .001); and fresh quail egg buyers 2 = 61.409 (9), p < .001) (results not shown). Specifically, in Table 5.5, results are presented for the reasons why buyers might limit or not limit purchases of salted duck eggs (n=241 2 = 273.871 (5), p < .001); preserved duck eggs (n = 230; 2 = 196.556 (5), p < .001); fresh quail eggs (n = 57; 2 = 13.784 (4), p < .01). Again, because respondents were not asked to rank each statement in order of the magnitude of their agreement or disagreement compared to the other statements, these results can only serve as an indication that some reasons may or may not motivate buyers to limit their purchases compared to other reasons tested.

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Table 5.4 Overall mean levels of agreement with attitude/belief statements by buyers of salted duck eggs (n=233), preserved duck eggs (n=224) and fresh quail eggs (n=56) for at home consumption, where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.

Salted duck egg Preserved duck egg Fresh quail egg buyers buyers buyers Statement Means ± S.D. Means ± S.D. Means ± S.D.

[____] eggs are a specialty item 3.98 ± 1.04 4.05 ± 0.98 3.86 ± 0.90

[____] eggs are convenient to use 3.91 ± 1.01 3.96 ± 0.91 3.52 ± 1.16 I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because we do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes 3.84 ± 1.27 3.60 ± 1.23 3.36 ± 1.23

I/we are satisfied with the quality of the [____] eggs we purchase 3.42 ± 0.85 3.57 ± 0.87 3.88 ± 0.92 I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because there are not many recipes that they can be used in 3.33 ± 1.33 3.29 ± 1.29 3.20 ± 1.23 I/we trust that [____] eggs imported from Asia meet Canadian food safety standards 3.31 ± 1.07 3.33 ± 1.08 n.a. I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because not many people in my household will eat them 3.23 ± 1.29 3.10 ± 1.32 3.09 ± 1.32 I/we do not avoid purchasing [____] eggs if they are imported from China 3.02 ± 1.49 2.90 ± 1.47 n.a. I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because of cholesterol concerns 2.63 ± 1.37 2.75 ± 1.36 2.70 ± 1.28 I/we do not limit purchases of [____] because of lead contamination concerns 2.58 ± 1.27 2.38 ± 1.27 n.a.

[____] eggs are nutritious 2.54 ± 1.07 2.56 ± 1.03 3.79 ± 1.09 I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because of sodium concerns 2.39 ± 1.29 2.98 ± 1.31 n.a.

[____] eggs are part of a healthy diet 2.21 ± 0.99 2.42 ± 1.03 3.41± 1.30 I/we do not limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because there are too many in a package n.a. n.a. 3.16 ± 1.50

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Table 5.5 Mean levels of agreement with selected attitude and belief statements within each egg type, by buyers of salted duck eggs (n=233), preserved duck eggs (n=224), and fresh quail eggs (n=56), where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree

Statement Salted duck Preserved duck Fresh quail egg buyers egg buyers egg buyers Means ± S.D.1 Means ± S.D.1 Means ± S.D.1 I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because we do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes 3.83 ± 1.279a 3.61 ± 1.223a 3.39 ± 1.236a

I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because there are not many recipes that they can be used in 3.31 ± 1.329b 3.29 ± 1.294b 3.23 ± 1.239a

I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because not many people in my household will eat them 3.21 ± 1.295b 3.10 ± 1.319bc 3.12 ± 1.337ab

I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because of cholesterol concerns 2.61 ± 1.362c 2.74 ± 1.355d 2.70 ± 1.267b

I/we do not limit purchases of [____] because of lead contamination concerns 2.57 ± 1.260cd 2.37 ± 1.274e n.a.

I/we do not limit purchases of [____] eggs because of sodium concerns 2.38 ± 1.273d 2.97 ± 1.298c n.a.

I/we do not limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because there are too many in a package n.a. n.a. 3.14 ± 1.493ab

1 Letters indicate significantly different mean scores within each egg type (Friedman’s ANOVA with post hoc Wilcoxon signed ranks tests using Bonferroni correction)

5.3.2 Two-step Cluster Analysis Using buyers’ component scores from a preliminary principal component analysis (5.3.2.1), the consumer markets for each egg type were segmented using a two-step cluster analysis procedure. First, Ward’s hierarchical agglomerative method was used to ascertain the number of clusters or market segments (5.3.2.2). This was followed by the K-means method to iterate and classify each case into a final cluster membership (5.3.2.3). The full cluster analysis data sets can be found in Appendix D.

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5.3.2.1 Preliminary Analysis: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) As a preliminary step, PCA was conducted on the product characteristic variables and on the attitude and beliefs variables for each of the egg types in order to reduce the number of variables for input into the subsequent buyer cluster/market segmentation analyses. PCA was chosen instead of factor analysis because PCA does not require a pre-determined number of factors for extraction (number was unknown). In addition, it is considered the more appropriate technique for data reduction purposes: Unlike factor analysis, which only considers common variance, PCA considers the total variance in the data and therefore can help determine a minimum number of components that will account for maximum variance in the data (Mazzocchi, 2008). Components were extracted using covariance analysis with oblique rotation. Oblique rotation was selected instead of orthogonal rotation because oblique rotation takes into account that the underlying components are not necessarily or theoretically independent. For example, price is not necessarily independent of country of origin. Component scores for each respondent were calculated based on the Anderson-Rubin method and saved for later input into the cluster analysis. Full statistical details and explanations can be found in Appendix C. The PCA of the importance of product characteristics resulted in the extraction of four components each for salted and preserved duck eggs. The four component loadings were similar for each egg type and loadings suggest that the four components may represent ‘wholesomeness’, ‘provenance’, ‘freshness’, and ‘price’. Three components were extracted for fresh quail eggs and component loadings suggest they represent ‘nutritional origins’, ‘price’, and ‘basic quality’. The PCA of buyers’ attitudes and beliefs resulted in the extraction of six similar components each for salted and preserved duck eggs. Component loadings suggest that the components represent ‘health concerns’, ‘cooking considerations’, ‘healthy product’, ‘China bias’, ‘specialty convenience’ and ‘quality assurance’. Four components were extracted for the fresh quail eggs, and loadings suggest that they may represent ‘cooking considerations’, ‘healthy product’, ‘special quality’, and ‘health concerns’.

5.3.2.2 Selection of number of clusters (market segments) Ward’s hierarchical method was used to select the appropriate number of clusters for each of the egg types. Dendrograms, agglomerations schedules, and scree plots were all examined to determine at which clustering level the distances between clusters started to rise at a sharper rate. Greater distances between clusters indicate an erosion of both between-cluster heterogeneity and within-cluster

135 homogeneity. The number of clusters for each egg type was based on this evidence and the practical consideration of the number of cases per cluster (see Table 5.6). Examination of the dendrogram, agglomeration schedule (see Appendix D.1), and the scree plot (Figure 5.1) for salted duck egg buyers, indicated that distances between clusters started to rise more sharply at the level of four clusters and then again at the two cluster level. Four clusters were selected as most appropriate for the K-means procedure due to an acceptable number of cases per cluster and the need to create clusters that are differentiated as much as possible. In contrast, preserved duck egg buyer clusters rose sharply at the seven cluster level and again at the three cluster level (Figure 5.1). A cluster solution of five or higher was impractical for further analysis, given the size of the sample. With a 3 cluster solution, there was a risk of too much erosion of between-cluster heterogeneity and within-cluster homogeneity. Therefore, a cluster solution of four, with an acceptable number of cases per cluster, was also selected for the K-means procedure for preserved duck egg buyers (see Appendix D.2 for detailed clustering results). Examination of the dendrogram, the agglomeration schedule (see Appendix D.3), and the scree plot (Figure 5.2) for fresh quail egg buyers indicated that distances between clusters started to rise sharply at eight clusters and again at three clusters. However due to the small number of fresh quail egg buyers available for analysis (Table 5.6), no more than two clusters could be selected for the K-means procedure in this study, even though a higher number of clusters is suggested by the data.

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300

250

200

150

D i s t a n c e n t a s i D 100

0 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Number of clusters

Salted duck egg buyers Preserved duck egg buyers

Figure 5.1 Scree plot of number of clusters against squared euclidean distance between clusters, salted and preserved duck egg buyers (n=205, each)

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30 D i s t a n c e n t a s i D 20

0 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Number of clusters

Figure 5.2 Scree plot of number of clusters against squared Euclidean distance between clusters, fresh quail egg buyers (n=52)

Table 5.6 Number of cases per cluster, Ward's hierarchical method

Salted duck egg Preserved duck Fresh quail egg

buyers egg buyers buyers Cluster 1 49 43 24 2 29 47 28 3 71 57 - 4 56 58 - Total 205 205 52

5.3.2.3 Final Cluster Membership The K-means method was used to segment respondents into final cluster memberships. The initial cluster centres for each egg type were selected by SPSS (using the component score values of the first cases with no missing values). The final cluster centres from the first K-means clustering procedures were then saved and used as initial cluster centres in second K-means procedures, which remained stable with no change in the final cluster centres for all egg types.

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5.3.2.3.1 Salted Duck Egg Buyer Clusters As shown in Figure 5.3, four salted duck egg buyer segments (clusters) were identified and have been named to reflect their respective characteristics based on their attitudes, their ratings of the importance of various product characteristics and their possible potential within the consumer market.

15.6 29.3 Potentialists Enthusiasts Health Skeptics 33.2 Pragmatists 21.9

Figure 5.3 Percentage distribution of salted duck egg buyer segments

The four buyer segments are described below, using the cluster mean values of individual variables and any significant differences (Table 5.7). Kruskal Wallis tests and post hoc Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction found significant differences (p < .008) between the buyer clusters’ attitudes towards salted duck eggs as well as the importance placed on various product characteristics, with the exception of the “satisfied with quality” variable, 2 = 1.436 (3), p = .697, which all clusters rated in the range of neutral – agree (from 3.37 to 3.53). The Potentialists: Examining the results, Cluster 1 appears to be defined by a relatively positive attitude towards salted duck egg products, with mean scores in the “neutral-agree” range for all attitude variables except for a “disagree-neutral” rating for the “healthy product” variable. These buyers appear not to limit purchases due to health concerns, to know how to use salted duck eggs in traditional Chinese dishes, and to not be biased against Chinese imports. Results also indicate that overall, Cluster 1 buyers rated product characteristics low in importance when buying, rating the nutrition label, “provenance” variables, and “freshness” variables significantly less important compared to all other clusters. I have called Cluster 1 the “Potentialists” buyer segment due to their generally positive attitude to salted duck eggs.

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The Enthusiasts: Cluster 2 is similar to the “Potentialists”, with positive attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs. Cluster 2 buyers are significantly higher than all other clusters in their “healthy product” rating of salted duck eggs. Results indicate that they do not avoid Chinese imports and do not limit purchases due to cooking considerations or health concerns. Compared to the “Potentialists”, the importance of product characteristics when buying were rated significantly higher, with the exception of “local product” and “organic product” which, similar to “Potentialists”, were rated not important – neutral. Due to their overall comparatively strong positive attitude towards salted duck eggs and their apparent greater engagement in the buying process compared to the Potentialists, I have called Cluster 2 the “Enthusiasts” buyer segment. The Health Skeptics: Cluster 3 buyers appear to be notable for their significantly lower “healthy product” rating (“strongly disagree – disagree”) and “price” importance rating (“not at all important – not important”) compared to all other clusters. Compared to “Potentialists” and “Enthusiasts”, results indicate that Cluster 3 buyers are significantly different: they appear to limit purchases due to health concerns, avoid Chinese imports, and are lower in their trust of the safety of imports. They also rated local product and country of origin significantly higher in importance (“neutral – agree” and “agree – strongly agree” respectively). Due to their comparatively negative attitude towards salted duck eggs and their distrust of imports, I have named Cluster 3 the “Health Skeptics” buyer segment. The Pragmatists: Finally, Cluster 4 buyers appear to be similar in attitudes to the “Health Skeptics” but are defined by their significantly lower ratings of “cooking considerations” compared to all other clusters: They possibly limit purchases due to “cooking considerations”. Cluster 4 buyers placed the highest ratings of importance on product characteristics compared to other clusters, significantly higher compared to “Potentialists” in all characteristic categories, to “Enthusiasts” in “wholesomeness”, and to “Health Skeptics” in price. Due to their apparent higher engagement in the buying process and the positive importance they place on product attributes, I have named Cluster 4 the “Pragmatists” buyer segment.

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Table 5.7 Cluster means per variable, salted duck egg buyers (n=205)

Component Variable Cluster 31 Cluster 11 Cluster 21 Cluster 41 (n = 45) (n = 32) (n = 68) (n = 60) Health Potentialists Enthusiasts Pragmatists Skeptics No health Cholesterol 3.34*a 3.16a 2.60a 1.90*b concern Sodium 2.97a 3.03a 2.04b 1.75b limitations2 Lead 3.44a 3.25a 2.18b 1.90b No cooking Traditional knowledge 4.13a 4.41a 4.00a 2.98b consideration Number of recipes 3.50ab 4.03a 3.29b 2.58c limitations2 Family will eat 3.81ab 3.87a 3.16b 2.37c Part of a healthy diet 2.09b 2.84a 1.47c 2.12b Healthy product2 Nutritious 2.38b 3.15a 1.76c 2.55b No China No Chinese 3.97a 3.96a 2.00b 2.30b bias2 product avoidance Specialty Specialty product 3.91ab 4.29a 3.91ab 3.82b convenience2 Convenient product 3.75ab 4.28a 3.56b 3.82b Quality Import food safety 3.59ab 3.74a 2.71c 3.10bc assurance2 Satisfied with quality 3.34a 3.38a 3.53a 3.37a Nutrition label 1.31c 3.01b 2.58b 3.98a Wholesomeness3 Local product 2.25b 2.65b 3.36a 3.48a Organic product 2.00b 2.29b 2.69ab 3.43a Brand name 2.00b 3.66a 3.44a 4.00a Provenance3 Country of origin 2.94c 3.91b 4.40a 4.38ab Price3 Price 2.97b 3.38ab 1.91c 3.90a Best before date 3.31b 4.91a 4.93a 4.95a Freshness3 Packaged on date 2.78b 4.62a 4.82a 4.65a

1 Different letters denote significantly different mean scores between clusters using Mann-Whitney tests, p < .008 (Bonferroni correction) 2 Scale ratings for attitudes and beliefs: 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree 3 Scale ratings for importance of product characteristics: 1 = not at all important and 5 = very important * Red denotes highest component mean scores and blue denotes lowest component mean scores, from K-means procedure

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5.3.2.3.2 Preserved Duck Egg Buyer Clusters As shown in Figure 5.4, four preserved duck egg buyer segments (clusters) were identified and named based on their attitudes, their ratings of the importance of product characteristics, and their possible potential within the consumer market.

17.6 30.7 Potentialists Enthusiasts Neutralists 28.3 Pragmatists 23.4

Figure 5.4 Percentage distribution of preserved duck egg buyer segments

The four buyer segments are described below, using the cluster mean values of individual variables and any significant differences (Table 5.8). Kruskal Wallis tests and post hoc Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction found significant differences (p < .008) between the buyer clusters’ attitudes towards preserved duck eggs as well as the importance placed on various product characteristics. The Pragmatists: Three of the preserved duck egg buyer clusters appear to be similar to the salted duck egg buyer clusters. Cluster 1 appears to be very similar to the salted duck egg Pragmatists segment and I have also called this preserved duck egg buyer segment “Pragmatists”. Results suggest that preserved duck egg buyer Pragmatists are significantly different than other preserved buyer segments in their low ratings of the Health Concern and Cooking Consideration limitation components and their relatively higher rating of the importance of the product’s “wholesomeness” when buying. Pragmatists appear to have a negative view of the healthiness of preserved duck eggs, to limit purchases, and to avoid imports from China. When they do buy, results suggest that they put a high emphasis on the importance of product characteristics, with all characteristic variables rated between neutral to very important. This suggests that they may be considered as engaged buyers.

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The Enthusiasts: Cluster 2 I have called the “Enthusiasts”, as again they appear to be similar to the salted duck egg Enthusiasts segment. The preserved duck egg Enthusiasts segment is significantly different from all other preserved duck egg buyer segments in their relatively high (agree – strongly agree) rating that they do not avoid imports from China. Enthusiasts appear not to limit purchases due to overall health concerns or cooking considerations, to rate the eggs highest in terms of “healthy product” (approximately neutral), and to rate all product characteristics significantly lower in importance than the Pragmatists, with the exception of price which Enthusiasts rated as approximately important, indicating that they may be price sensitive. The Neutralists: Cluster 3 is significantly different from all other clusters in only one variable: “No Chinese product avoidance”. Results suggest that unlike the other segments of buyers, Cluster 3 buyers are neutral in attitude towards imported Chinese products. Similar to the Enthusiasts and Cluster 4 buyers, Cluster 3 buyers do not appear to limit purchases due to overall health concerns or cooking considerations, although they are significantly lower in their agreement compared to Cluster 4 buyers, that they do not limit purchases due to a lack of traditional Chinese cooking knowledge or family members that will eat preserved duck eggs. However, unlike the Enthusiasts, Cluster 3 buyers rated the Healthy Product component of the eggs negatively, which is similar to the Pragmatists’ and Cluster 4 buyers’ ratings, but significantly lower in their nutrition rating compared to the Cluster 4 buyers. Compared to the other three segments, Cluster 3 buyers rated the Specialty-Convenience and Quality- Assurance components the lowest, significantly lower than the Enthusiasts and Cluster 4 buyers. Finally, except for the country of origin variable and Freshness component, product characteristics do not appear to be important to Cluster 3 buyers when they are purchasing preserved duck eggs. With the lowest rating for the importance of price (approximately not important), significantly lower in importance compared to the Pragmatists and Enthusiasts, results suggest that Cluster 3 buyers may not be price sensitive. Although Cluster 3 buyers seem to share some similarities with the salted duck egg Health Skeptics segment, particularly their negative attitude towards the healthfulness of the eggs, preserved duck egg Cluster 3 buyers do not appear to limit their purchases due to health concerns and they are neutral towards Chinese imports compared to the Health Skeptics. Rather than “Health Skeptics” I have called Cluster 3 buyers “Neutralists”. The Potentialists: I have called Cluster 4 the “Potentialists”. Like the salted duck egg Potentialists, they appear to have a similar, relatively positive attitude, except that unlike the salted duck egg Potentialists, they appear to avoid purchasing products from China. In addition, they also rate some product characteristics higher in importance. Preserved duck egg Potentialists appear to be similar to the

143 preserved duck egg Enthusiasts segment, with no overall Health Concern or Cooking Consideration limitations and a similar Healthy Product attitude (disagree – neutral, but not significantly different than the Enthusiasts’ neutral attitude). However, significantly different from the Enthusiasts, they appear to avoid imports from China. Results also suggest that they may be significantly less price sensitive than the Enthusiasts since they rated price as neutral – not important compared to Enthusiasts’ approximate important rating. In addition, the Provenance component appears to be significantly more important to them than to the Enthusiasts.

Table 5.8 Mean values of variables per preserved duck egg buyer clusters (n=205)

Component Variable Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4 means1 means1 means1 means1 (n=63) (n=58) (n=48) (n=36) Pragmatists Enthusiasts Neutralists Potentialists No health Cholesterol 1.67b* 3.12a 3.38a 3.50a* concern Sodium 1.92b 3.55a 3.63a 3.47a limitations2 Lead 1.44b 2.83a 2.90a 2.81a Traditional No cooking knowledge 2.70c 3.97ab 3.75b 4.31a consideration Number of recipes 2.46b 3.59a 3.50a 3.97a limitations2 Family will eat 2.21c 3.52ab 3.10b 4.03a Part of a healthy diet 2.19b 3.07a 2.02b 2.47ab Healthy product2 Nutritious 2.25bc 3.12a 2.17c 2.83ab No China No Chinese 1.87c 4.28a 3.15b 1.97c bias2 product avoidance Specialty Specialty product 3.95ab 4.40a 3.58b 4.25a convenience2 Convenient product 3.83bc 4.40a 3.33c 4.25ab Quality Import food safety 3.05bc 3.90a 2.71c 3.64ab assurance2 Satisfied with quality 3.32b 3.95a 3.10b 4.06a Nutrition label 3.78a 2.55bc 2.38c 3.19ab Wholesomeness3 Local product 3.86a 2.29b 2.88b 2.83b Organic product 3.48a 2.21b 2.60b 2.39b Price3 Price 3.40ab 3.98a 2.27c 2.64bc Brand name 4.17a 3.21b 2.60b 4.61a Provenance3 Country of origin 4.59a 3.14b 3.75b 4.75a Best before date 4.95a 4.43bc 4.19c 4.83ab Freshness3 Packaged on date 4.76a 4.26b 3.83b 4.53ab

1 Different letters denote significantly different mean scores between clusters using Mann-Whitney tests, p < .008 (Bonferroni correction) 2 Scale ratings for attitudes and beliefs: 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree 3 Scale ratings for importance of product characteristics: 1 = not at all important and 5 = very important * Blue denotes lowest component mean scores and red denotes highest component mean scores, from K-means procedure

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5.3.2.3.3 Fresh Quail Egg Buyer Clusters As shown in Figure 5.5, two fresh quail egg buyer segments (clusters) were identified and named based on what their attitudes and ratings of the importance of product characteristics suggested.

42.3 Pragmatists (cluster 2) 57.7 Enthusiasts (cluster 1)

Figure 5.5 Percentage distribution of fresh quail egg buyer segments

The two buyer segments are described below, using the cluster mean values of individual variables and any significant differences (Table 5.9). The Mann-Whitney U test was used to test for significant differences in means, p < .05 (two-tailed tests). For Cluster 1 buyers, the mean ratings of all the attitude components and their variables ranged from above ‘neutral’ to just over ‘agree’, suggesting a leaning to a positive attitude and disposition towards fresh quail eggs. The mean ratings of all the attitude components were higher (more positive) by Cluster 1 buyers than Cluster 2 buyers, but only the “No Health Concern Limitations” component was significantly higher. Results suggest that Cluster 1 buyers do not limit purchases due to health concerns; Cluster 2 buyers indicated disagreement, particularly due to concerns over cholesterol. All other attitude mean ratings by Cluster 2 were above neutral, except for in the “Cooking Considerations” component: Mean ratings to the negative side of neutral (disagree) were found for the “family will eat” and “number of recipes” variables, yet these ratings were not found to be significantly different than for Cluster 1. For Cluster 2 buyers, the mean ratings of the importance of the product characteristic component variables ranged from above ‘neutral’ to just below ‘very important’, suggesting involved, pragmatic buyers. The mean ratings of all the product characteristic components were higher (more important) for Cluster 2 buyers than for Cluster 1 buyers, and were significantly higher, except for the “Price” component and the ‘brand name” variable in the “Nutritional provenance” component. The mean importance of price for both clusters was close to neutral. Results suggest that while both groups 145 consider “Basic quality” between ‘important’ and ‘very important’, Cluster 2 buyers place significantly higher importance on this component, indicating a high standard for quality. Differences in the importance placed on product characteristics are also illustrated by the significantly lower mean ratings by Cluster 1 buyers on the Nutritional Provenance component variables (excluding brand name): Except for the country of origin variable, mean ratings for all variables ranged from below ‘neutral’ to ‘unimportant’ for Cluster 1 buyers. For Cluster 2 buyers, the opposite, from above ‘neutral’ to above ‘important’. Due to the generally positive attitudes Cluster 1 buyers appear to have of fresh quail eggs, I have called this segment of buyers the “Enthusiasts”. Due to Cluster 2 buyers appearing to have put more importance on product characteristics compared to the Enthusiasts, I have called Cluster 2 the “Pragmatists”. Results suggest that Pragmatists may be more engaged in the buying process than the Enthusiasts and are more likely to limit purchases due to health concerns.

Table 5.9 Cluster means per variable, fresh quail egg buyers (n=52)

Component Variable Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Means1 Means1 (n = 22) (n = 30) Enthusiasts Pragmatists No cooking Traditional knowledge 3.68a* 3.13a consideration Number of recipes 3.59a 2.93a limitations2 Family will eat 3.50a 2.77a Part of a healthy diet 3.77a 3.20a Healthy Nutritious 4.14a 3.47a convenience2 Convenient product 3.68a 3.57a 3.82a No health concern Cholesterol 1.90b 2 limitations Too many in package 3.95a 2.60b Specialty, quality Specialty product 3.82a 3.87a product2 Satisfied with quality 4.09a 3.70a Nutrition label 2.68b 3.50a Local product 2.73b 3.87a Nutritional Organic product 2.00b 3.80a provenance3 Brand name 2.59a 3.27a Country of origin 3.09b 4.30a Price3 Price 3.09a 3.30a Best before date 4.55b 4.97a Basic quality3 Packaged on date 4.14b 4.80a Cracks or thin shells 4.27b 4.97a 1Different letters denote significantly different means between clusters, Mann-Whitney U tests, p < .05 2 Scale ratings for attitudes and beliefs: 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree 3 Scale ratings for importance of product characteristics: 1 = not at all important and 5 = very important * Red denotes highest component mean scores, K-means procedure

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5.3.2.4 Market Segment Descriptions: Demographics and Buyer Behaviours

5.3.2.4.1 Salted Duck Egg Buyer Segments The salted duck egg buyer segments were further analyzed in terms of demographic characteristics and selected buyer behaviours (See Tables 5.10 and 5.11). Kruskal-Wallis tests found significant differences between segments’ mean acculturation scores, mean total number of salted duck eggs purchased annually, mean purchase frequency, and mean year over year purchasing trend. Post hoc Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction (p < .008) indicated that several significant differences were indicated between Enthusiasts and Pragmatists: The Enthusiasts’ mean purchase frequency was higher than the Pragmatists (U = 1385.000, p < .008); the Enthusiasts’ approximate ‘no change’ in year over year purchasing trend is more positive than the Pragmatists’ approximate ‘decreasing a little’ trend (U = 1450.500, p < .008); and, the Enthusiasts’ mean total number of salted duck eggs purchased annually was higher at 32 eggs compared to the Pragmatists’ 19 eggs (U = 1148.000, p < .001). Two significant differences were also indicated between the Enthusiasts and the Health Skeptics: Enthusiasts purchased a higher mean total number of salted duck eggs annually (32) compared to Health Skeptics’ 24 eggs (U = 1007.500, p < .008); and finally, Enthusiasts mean acculturation score of .28 was lower (less acculturated) than Health Skeptics’ .36 (U = 825.000, p < .001). Chi-square analysis of categorical data indicated that there were no significant differences between the segments in terms of the sex, age, or education of the respondents, the presence of children or seniors in households, or household location in Metro Vancouver. There was a significant, but weak, difference between segments’ total annual household income: 2 = 9.474 (3), p < .05, Cramer’s V = 0.224. Standardized residuals (not shown) indicated that the “Health Skeptics” segment was found to have a higher than expected number of respondents reporting total annual household incomes > $60,000 compared to other segments. Since income is known to be correlated to education a further education by segment by household income cross tabulation analysis was done and no significant differences were found between segments’ total annual household incomes (incomes > $60,000: 2 = .309, p > .05; incomes < $60,000: 2 = .1.915, p > .05). Yet this result may not be reliable: Income was measured at the household level and education at the respondents’ level, which may confound the test. Thus, the significance of the “Health Skeptics” higher income difference is not entirely clear.

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Table 5.10 Kruskal-Wallis tests of selected variable means, grouped by salted duck egg buyer segments

Mean Mean Asymp. Variable Buyer Segment N H (df) ± S.E. Rank1 Sig. Household size: number of 1 Potentialists 30 3.6 ± .28 105.63a persons (n=192) 2 Enthusiasts 65 3.3 ± .19 92.29a 3 Health Skeptics 40 3.4 ± .21 99.29a 4 Pragmatists 57 3.4 ± .24 94.70a 1.422 (3) .698

Acculturation score of 1 Potentialists 32 0.35 ± .04 105.70ab respondent: 2 Enthusiasts 68 0.28 ± .01 84.40b 0 = least to 1 = most (n=205) 3 Health Skeptics 45 0.36 ± .02 129.99a 4 Pragmatists 60 0.30 ± .01 102.39ab 16.096 (3) .001

Total number of salted duck 1 Potentialists 29 33.24 ± 5.31 108.71ab eggs purchased annually 2 Enthusiasts 66 31.70 ± 3.50 115.94a (n=195) 3 Health Skeptics 44 24.09 ± 4.53 84.45bc 4 Pragmatists 56 19.11 ± 2.30 81.96bc 15.121 (3) .002

Purchase frequency: 1 = 1-2 1 Potentialists 31 2.16 ± .23 104.74ac times/yr to 5 = every 1-2 wks 2 Enthusiasts 68 2.40 ± .15 118.21a (n=202) 3 Health Skeptics 44 1.89 ± .18 91.91ac 4 Pragmatists 59 1.75 ± .13 87.69bc 11.363 (3) .010

Year over year purchasing 1 Potentialists 32 2.59 ± .14 99.03ac trend:1=decreasing a lot to 2 Enthusiasts 68 2.85 ± .08 115.85a 5 = increasing a lot (n=202) 3 Health Skeptics 45 2.67 ± .11 104.58ac 4 Pragmatists 59 2.39 ± .11 87.41bc 10.150 (3) .017 1 Different letters denote significantly different between-segment means: Post hoc Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction, p < .008.

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Table 5.11 Chi-square analysis of categorical variables, grouped by salted duck egg buyer segments

Health Potentialists Enthusiasts Pragmatists Skeptics Chi-square p-value Variable (n=32) (n=68) (n=60) (n=45) (df) (2-sided) % % % % Sex (n=202) Female 43.8 52.2 56.8 62.7 Male 56.3 47.8 43.2 37.3 3.318 (3) .345 Age in years (n=204) < 50 48.4 39.7 42.2 41.7 50 – 59 35.5 38.2 35.6 33.3 60+ 16.1 22.1 22.2 25.0 1.332 (6) .970 Education (n=202) College or CEGEP or less 51.6 50.0 45.5 57.6 University diploma or more 48.4 50.0 54.5 42.4 1.592 (3) .661 Household annual < $60,000 55.2 62.5 39.0 69.1 income ≥ $60,000 44.8 37.5 61.0 30.0 9.474 (3) .024* Children < 19 years No 59.4 66.2 67.4 59.3 in household Yes 40.6 33.8 32.6 40.7 1.174 (3) .759 Seniors in household No 58.1 64.2 63.6 59.3 Yes 41.9 35.8 36.4 40.7 0.559 (3) .906 Household location High density ethnic Chinese 80.0 80.9 84.1 86.7 Low density ethnic Chinese 20.0 19.1 15.9 13.3 1.020 (3) .796 * Association is significant at the p < .05 level

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5.3.2.4.2 Preserved Duck Egg Buyer Segments Using Kruskal-Wallis tests, preserved duck egg buyer segments were tested for differences in their mean household size, mean acculturation scores, mean total number of eggs purchased annually, mean purchase frequency, and mean year over year purchasing trend (Table 5.12). The segments were significantly different in all variables except mean household size, H (3) = 6.961, p > .05, which ranged from 3.10 to 3.81 persons. For the significantly different variables, post hoc Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni correction applied, p < .008, indicated that the mean acculturation score was significantly lower (less acculturated) in the Enthusiasts at .26 compared to the three other segments; the mean total number of eggs purchased annually was significantly lower by Neutralists compared to Potentialists (approximately 16 versus 25 preserved duck eggs respectively); and the mean purchase frequency was significantly lower in Neutralists compared to Potentialists (between 1 – 2 times/year and every 3 – 4 months versus between every 3 – 4 months and every 2nd month, respectively); and, the mean year over year purchasing trend was significantly higher in Potentialists at 2.97 (approximately no change) compared to Pragmatists at 2.34 (approximately decreasing a little). Results of cross-tabulation Chi-square analyses of categorical socio-demographic variables, grouped by buyer segment are provided in Table 5.13. A significant difference in segments based upon the sex of the respondent was found. An examination of standardized residuals (not shown), indicated that the Enthusiasts segment was found to have significantly more males than expected, at 66.1%, compared to the other segments, which ranged from 34.9% to 37.5% male, 2 = 14.879 (3), p < .01. Pragmatists reported a higher percentage of households with minor children than expected at 54.1% and Neutralists had a lower percentage of households with minor children than expected at 17.4%. Results also indicated that there was a significant difference in education levels between the segments: Pragmatists consisted of a lower than expected percentage of members, 30.6%, with university educations compared to the other segments. There were no significant differences in total annual household income between the segments, 2 = 6.375 (3), p= .095. A subsequent cross-tabulation, controlling for education, indicated a significant difference in lower household incomes (< $60,000), 2 = 9.438 (3), p= .024 between segments. An examination of the standardized residuals revealed that there were fewer than expected members of the Pragmatists with a university level education living in households with total annual incomes of < $60,000.

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Table 5.12 Kruskal-Wallis tests of selected variable means, grouped by preserved duck egg buyer segments

Buyer Mean Mean Asymp. N H (df) Variable segment ± S.E. Rank1 Sig. Household size: number of 1 Pragmatists 58 3.81 ± .18 110.52a persons (n = 191) 2 Enthusiasts 57 3.37 ± .25 90.15a 3 Neutralists 42 3.10 ± .20 83.76a 4 Potentialists 34 3.56 ± .35 96.16a 6.961 (3) .073

Acculturation score: 0 = least 1 Pragmatists 63 0.30 ± .01 103.94a to 1 = most (n=205) 2 Enthusiasts 58 0.26 ± .02 75.41b 3 Neutralists 48 0.37 ± .02 128.83a 4 Potentialists 36 0.31 ± .02 111.36a 22.417 (3) .000

Total number of preserved duck 1 Pragmatists 60 19.07 ± 2.39 88.34ab eggs purchased annually (n = 195) 2 Enthusiasts 53 28.64 ± 4.18 109.37ab 3 Neutralists 48 15.98 ± 1.76 84.39 b 4 Potentialists 34 25.06 ± 4.19 116.54 a 10.727 (3) .013

Purchase frequency: 1 = 1-2 1 Pragmatists 62 1.76 ± .13 93.35ab times/yr, to 5 = every 1-2 weeks 2 Enthusiasts 56 2.18 ± .17 112.39ab (n=202) 3 Neutralists 48 1.60 ± .14 85.98 b 4 Potentialists 36 2.19 ± .19 119.28 a 11.467 (3) .009

Year over year 1 Pragmatists 62 2.34 ± .11 84.52 a purchasing trend: 1 = decreasing 2 Enthusiasts 56 2.63 ± .09 102.15ab a lot to 5 = increasing a lot 3 Neutralists 48 2.67 ± .10 104.06ab (n=202) 4 Potentialists 36 2.97 ± .12 126.31 b 16.152 (3) .001

1Different letters denote significantly different between segment means: Post hoc Mann-Whitney tests, p < .008 (Bonferroni correction)

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Table 5.13 Categorical Chi-square analysis of selected variables, grouped by preserved duck egg buyer segments

Pragmatists Enthusiasts Neutralists Potentialists Chi square p-value Variable (n=63) (n=58) (n=48) (n=36) (df) (2-sided) % % % % Sex Female 65.1 33.9 62.5 63.9 Male 34.9 66.1 37.5 36.1 14.879(3) .002** Age in years ≤ 49 41.3 50.0 31.9 41.7 50 – 59 42.8 25.9 40.4 35.8 60+ 15.9 24.1 27.7 22.5 6.812(6) .339 Education College or CEGEP or lower 69.4 48.3 44.7 48.6 University diploma or higher 30.6 51.7 55.3 51.4 8.707(3) .033* Household annual < $60,000 67.2 67.3 45.5 58.8 income ≥ $60,000 32.8 32.7 54.4 41.2 6.375(3) .095 Children < 19 yrs in No 45.9 55.2 82.6 69.4 household Yes 54.1 44.8 17.4 30.6 16.808(3) .001** Seniors in No 66.1 58.6 60.0 57.1 household Yes 33.9 41.4 40.0 42.9 1.061(3) .786 Household location High density of ethnic Chinese 87.3 86.2 73.9 85.7 Low density of ethnic Chinese 12.7 13.8 26.1 14.3 4.192(3) .241 * Association is significant at the p < .05 level; ** Association is significant at the p < .01 level

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5.3.2.4.3 Fresh Quail Egg Buyer Segments The fresh quail egg buyer segments were mostly undifferentiated in their demographics and buyer behaviour, possibly due to the small sample size limiting the number of clusters to two. Mann-Whitney tests (Table 5.14) and Chi-square analyses (Table 5.15) revealed only three significant differences. Fresh quail egg Enthusiasts reported that on average, compared to last year there were no changes in their year over year purchasing trend of fresh quail eggs, whereas the mean trend for the Pragmatists’ segment was a year over year decline in purchases, U = 194.00 p < .01. The Pragmatists had a higher than expected number of females, 2 = 5.85 (1), p < .05, and the Enthusiasts were associated with a higher than expected number of buyers with a university education, 2 = 3.970 (1), p < .05.

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Table 5.14 Mann-Whitney tests of differences between selected variable means, grouped by fresh quail egg buyer segments

Asymp. Buyer Mean Mean Variable N U Sig. segment ± S.E. Rank1 (2 tailed)

Household size: number of persons (n = 47) 1 Enthusiasts 22 4.23 ± .35 25.32a 2 Pragmatists 25 3.84 ± .27 22.84a 246.00 .526

Acculturation score: 0 = least 1 Enthusiasts 22 .32 ± .03 25.77a to 1 = most (n = 52) 2 Pragmatists 30 .30 ± .02 22.84a 314.00 .767

Total number of fresh quail eggs purchased 1 Enthusiasts 20 50.50 ± 9.25 24.63a annually (n = 48) 2 Pragmatists 28 52.00 ± 10.30 24.41a 277.50 .958

Purchase frequency: 1 = 1-2 times/yr, to 5 = 1 Enthusiasts 22 1.73 ± .23 27.41a every 1-2 weeks (n = 52) 2 Pragmatists 30 1.57 ± .16 25.83a 310.00 .670

Year over year purchase trend: 1 Enthusiasts 22 3.05 ± .18 32.68a 1 = decreasing a lot to 5 = increasing a lot (n = 52) 2 Pragmatists 30 2.33 ± .18 21.97b 194.00 .006 1 Different letters denote significantly different means between segments: Post hoc Mann-Whitney tests, p < .05.

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Table 5.15 Chi-square analysis of selected categorical variables, grouped by fresh quail egg buyer segments

Asymp. Enthusiasts Pragmatists Chi square Variable Sig. (df) (2-sided) % N % N Sex (n=50) Female 50.0 11 82.1 23 Male 50.0 11 17.9 5 5.85 (1) .016* Age in years (n=52) < 50 yrs 54.5 12 60.0 18 50+ yrs 45.5 10 40.0 12 .155 (1) .614 Education (n=51) College or CEGEP or lower 27.3 6 55.2 16 University diploma or higher 72.7 16 44.8 13 3.970 (1) .046* Household annual income < $60,000 40.0 8 67.9 19 (n=48) ≥ $60,000 60.0 12 32.1 9 3.690 (1) .055 Children < 19 yrs in No 31.8 7 53.6 15 household (n=50) Yes 68.2 15 46.4 13 2.366 (1) .124 Seniors in household No 59.1 13 71.4 20 (n=50) Yes 40.9 9 28.6 8 .836 (1) .361 Household location (n=50) High density Chinese 85.7 18 86.2 25 Low density Chinese 14.3 3 13.8 4 .002 (1)+ .960 + 50% of cells have expected counts less than 5 * Association is significant at the p < .05 level

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5.3.3 Market Opportunities Grocery shoppers who had reported purchases of any duck or quail egg products for consumption at home or had reported that at least one household member had consumed any of the egg types away from home in the past year, or both, were eligible to complete Section E of the survey, which was designed to test proposed market opportunities. An error in the branching instructions of the paper version of the survey misdirected some respondents (who had purchased any of the egg types for household consumption, but then reported that no household member had consumed the eggs away from home within the past year) to skip Section E despite being eligible. Some of these respondents filled out Section E regardless, but 59 salted duck egg buyers, 51 preserved duck egg buyers, and 12 fresh quail egg buyers did not and are missing from this analysis of opportunities. In Part E, respondents were first probed for opportunities to either improve their satisfaction with or increase their willingness to try each egg type using a 5-point Likert-type scale, from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely, to rate suggested features. These features included BC produced eggs, packaging, label, and promotional opportunities. They were then asked how many eggs per package would be the best size for their household and finally, for salted and preserved duck eggs, how much more they would be willing to pay (WTP) for BC produced eggs if all other product characteristics are equal and if local products are more expensive. Fresh quail eggs were not included in the WTP question because quail eggs for sale at the retail level in Metro Vancouver are currently from local producers only. The WTP question provided response categories from “not willing to pay more” to 50% more, in 10% increments, as well as an option, “not willing to buy at all”. Respondents who selected “not willing to buy at all” for a BC egg type, I’ve called “Entrenched Non-buyers”. The Entrenched Non-buyers of BC salted (n = 13) and BC preserved duck eggs (n = 27), had previously rated all suggested opportunities to either increase their satisfaction with or their willingness to try the duck egg products very negatively, suggesting that they would not buy the eggs at all, regardless of provenance. In addition, many skipped the best package size question. Therefore, results from salted and preserved Entrenched Non-buyers have been excluded from further analysis in this section in order to give a more accurate portrait of potential market opportunities that may appeal to Chinese Canadians who are open to or interested in buying or trying the products. Interested readers can find the market opportunity section results for the Entrenched Non-buyers in Appendix E. Mean overall responses for the likelihood that suggested features would increase satisfaction with or willingness to try an egg type, are shown inTable 5.16. Within each egg type, cases with missing values for any of the proposed features were excluded from analysis. 156

Table 5.16 Mean likelihood suggested features will increase satisfaction with or willingness to try an egg type, with 1 = very unlikely and 5 = very likely

Salted duck Preserved Fresh quail eggs duck eggs eggs (n = 218) (n = 200) (n = 216) Feature Mean1 ± S.E. Mean1 ± S.E. Mean1 ± S.E.

Produced in BC, not mainland China2 3.69 ± .09a 3.69 ± .10a - Produced in BC not Asian country/area other than mainland China3 3.45 ± .09b 3.46 ± .10b -

Free new recipes 3.17 ± .10bc 3.24 ± .10bc 2.83 ± .10b*

Fully bilingual labels in Chinese & English 3.06 ± .10c 3.16± .10c 2.63 ± .10b*

In-store taste trials 3.04 ± .10c 3.13 ± .10c 2.77 ± .10b Packaging that allows for inspection of eggs 3.11 ± .10bc 3.06 ± .10c 2.69 ± .10b*

Package size options - - 2.92 ± .11a

1 Different letters denote significantly different means within each egg category, Wilcoxon signed ranks tests with Bonferonni correction (p < .003 for salted and preserved duck eggs; p < .005 for fresh quail eggs) 2 Mainland China excludes the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and the Special Administrative Region of Macau (Macau) 3 Includes Hong Kong, Macau, and all other Asian countries including Taiwan and the Philippines *Denotes significantly different means for fresh quail eggs compared to either salted or preserved duck eggs, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests with Bonferonni correction (p < .017)

For both duck egg products, the mean likelihoods of the suggested features increasing satisfaction or willingness to try were all rated in the neutral to positive range (likely), however for fresh quail eggs the selected features were all rated in the negative (unlikely) to neutral range. There were no significant differences between overall mean responses for salted and preserved duck eggs (n = 191). However, comparing across all three egg types (n = 172), there were significant 2 2 differences in mean responses for fully bilingual labels ( = 14.73 (2), p < .010), free new recipes =

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2 20.65 (2), p < .001), and packaging that allows for inspection of the eggs = 16.13 (2), p < .001). All three features were significantly less likely to increase respondents’ satisfaction with, or willingness to try, fresh quail eggs compared to for either salted or preserved duck eggs (results not shown). In-store taste trials were not rated significantly different across the three egg types. Although the respondents were not asked to rank the suggested features in order of likelihood to increase satisfaction within each egg type, they rated the tested features significantly differently. The significance level within the salted duck egg group was 2 = 47.26 (5), p < .001; within the preserved duck egg group, 2 = 59.53 (5), p < .001; and within the fresh quail egg group, 2 = 17.393 (4), p < .01. For both salted (z = - 4.32, p < .001) and preserved duck eggs (z = - 3.92, p < .001), respondents were significantly more likely to increase their satisfaction with, or increase their willingness to try, the eggs if the eggs are produced in “BC, not mainland China” compared to eggs produced in “BC, not Asian country/area other than mainland China”. In addition, “Produced in BC, not mainland China” was rated significantly higher in likelihood of increasing satisfaction/willingness to try compared to all other respective features for both salted and preserved duck eggs, respectively. Within the fresh quail egg category, package size options were rated significantly higher in likelihood (approximately neutral) to increase satisfaction with or willingness to try the eggs compared to all the other features tested (unlikely – neutral). Within each egg category, there were no significant differences between the ratings of free new recipes, fully bilingual labels, in-store taste trials, or packaging that allows for inspection of the eggs. Overall results for mean best package sizes and willingness to pay for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs are presented in Table 5.17. The mean best package size for respondents’ households for both salted and preserved duck eggs was approximately 5 eggs per package (median was 6 eggs per package for both egg types). There was no significant difference in mean best package size between salted and preserved duck eggs. For fresh quail eggs, the mean best package size was approximately 9 eggs per package and the median size was 6 eggs per package. For both salted and preserved duck eggs, results indicate that, on average, respondents would be willing to pay just over 10% more for BC produced eggs. The median response was also 10% more. There was no significant difference between willingness to pay more for local salted duck eggs versus local preserved duck eggs, Wilcoxon signed rank test z = -1.94, p > .05.

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Table 5.17 Overall results for best package size and willingness to pay more for BC produced eggs, by egg type

Best package size Willingness to pay for their household more for BC product Mean1 ± S.E. N Mean2 ± S.E. N Salted duck eggs 4.98 ± .14 207 2.29 ± .08 228 Preserved duck eggs 4.85 ± .14 207 2.33 ± .09 228 Fresh quail eggs 9.05 ± .42 152 - - 1 Based upon number of eggs per package 2 Based upon a range from 1 to 6, in 10% increments where 1 = 0% more to 6 = 50% more

5.3.3.1 Opportunities: Buyers versus Non-buyers for at Home Consumption In this section I will compare the results of the market opportunity questions from two groups: From grocery shoppers who bought a particular egg type for at home consumption in the past year to grocery shoppers who did not buy the egg type for at home consumption in the past year (but there was household consumption away from home). This is to test if there are any differences between these two groups that might impact marketing decisions.

5.3.3.1.1 Suggested Features The results of the scale questions testing the likelihood of select product features or promotions to either increase satisfaction with an egg type or increase willingness to try an egg type are shown inTable 5.18, Table 5.19, and Table 5.20 for salted duck eggs, preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs respectively. For each egg type, cases with missing values for any of the proposed features were excluded from analysis. Note that in this section, the tables include Entrenched Non-buyers in the non- buyer data for salted and preserved duck eggs. Any significant differences in results when Entrenched Non-buyers are excluded from the two duck egg analyses are explained below. Although grocery shoppers who bought salted duck eggs for at home consumption rated all suggested features higher in likelihood to increase their satisfaction with the eggs (all in the neutral – likely range) compared to shoppers who did not buy the eggs, only three variables were rated significantly higher: Fully bilingual labels in English and Chinese, free new recipes, and in-store taste trials (Table 5.18). Non-buyers rated these features in the unlikely – neutral range. Both groups rated the two “produced in BC” features in the neutral – likely range.

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When Entrenched Non-buyers are excluded, there are no significant changes to the results comparing buyers and non-buyers, although the revised non-buyers (n=53) rated, on average = 3.72 ± .19 (s.e.), the “produced in BC, not mainland China” feature higher in likelihood than buyers to increase their satisfaction with or willingness to try salted duck eggs. In addition, the average rating for packaging that allows for inspection of the eggs increased from a negative unlikely – neutral rating of = 2.91 ± .19 (s.e.) to a positive neutral – likely rating of = 3.17 ± .19 (s.e.) for the revised non-buyer group.

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Table 5.18 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean likelihood of suggested features to increase product satisfaction with or willingness to try salted duck eggs, grouped by buyers versus non-buyers for at-home consumption

Mean1 ± Feature Salted duck egg group membership N S.E. Mean rank U Sig.

Produced in BC, not Bought for at home consumption 165 3.68 ± .10 118.28 mainland China Did not buy for at home consumption 65 3.42 ± .19 108.45 4904.00 .295

Produced in BC, not Asian Bought for at-home consumption 165 3.47 ± .10 120.08 country/area other than mainland China Did not buy for at home consumption 65 3.12 ± .18 103.88 4607.50 .088 Fully bilingual labels in Bought for at-home consumption 165 3.19 ± .11 124.81 Chinese & English Did not buy for at home consumption 65 2.45 ± .17 91.87 3826.50 .001*

Free new recipes Bought for at-home consumption 165 3.32 ± .11 125.12

Did not buy for at home consumption 65 2.52 ± .19 91.08 3775.50 .000**

In-store taste trials Bought for at-home consumption 165 3.16 ± .12 123.87

Did not buy for at home consumption 65 2.48 ± .18 94.25 3981.00 .002*

Packaging that allows you to Bought for at-home consumption 165 3.10 ± .12 117.88 inspect the eggs Did not buy for at home consumption 65 2.91 ± .18 109.47 4970.50 .377

1 Measurement scale was from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely * Significant at the p < .01 level; ** Significant at the p < .001 level

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For preserved duck eggs, grocery shoppers who bought the eggs for at home consumption rated all suggested features significantly higher in likelihood to increase their satisfaction with the eggs (means all in the neutral – likely range) compared to the shoppers who did not buy the eggs (Table 5.19). The shoppers who did not buy preserved duck eggs in the past year rated most features in the unlikely – neutral range in their likelihood to increase their satisfaction with, or willingness to try, the eggs. Only the “produced in BC, not mainland China” feature received a mean rating just on the positive side of neutral. When Entrenched Non-buyers are excluded, however, there are significant changes to the results: Only free recipes and in-store tasting trials are rated significantly more likely to increase satisfaction/willingness to try for buyers compared to revised non-buyers (n=46), U = 2643.00, p < .01 and U = 2471.50, p <.01, respectively. In addition, there were some notable changes to the mean ratings for non-buyers of preserved duck eggs, just as there was for salted duck eggs: The mean likelihood ratings of increased satisfaction/willingness to try “BC produced, not mainland China” eggs for revised non-buyers, = 3.72 ± .19 (s.e.), became higher than for buyers, = 3.68 ± .10 (s.e.). Furthermore, two mean likelihood ratings, for the “produced in BC, not Asian country/area other than mainland China” and the “packaging that allows for egg inspection” features, switched from the unlikely – neutral range = 2.79 ± .18 (s.e.) and = 2.56 ± .18 (s.e.), respectively] to the neutral – likely range [ = 3.33 ± .18 (s.e.) and = 3.04 ± .21 (s.e.), respectively].

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Preserved duck egg group Mean1 ± Feature membership N S.E. Mean rank U Asymp.Sig.

Produced in BC, not Bought for at-home consumption 154 3.68 ± .11 120.08 mainland China Did not buy for at home consumption 70 3.04 ± .19 95.81 4222.00 .007**

Produced in BC, not Asian Bought for at-home consumption 154 3.50 ± .11 121.82 country/area other than mainland China Did not buy for at home consumption 70 2.79 ± .18 91.99 3954.50 .001** Fully bilingual labels in Bought for at-home consumption 154 3.27 ± .12 125.23 Chinese & English Did not buy for at home consumption 70 2.30 ± .17 84.49 3429.00 .000***

Free new recipes Bought for at-home consumption 154 3.39 ± .11 126.45

Did not buy for at home consumption 70 2.31 ± .18 81.81 3241.50 .000***

In-store taste trials Bought for at-home consumption 154 3.31 ± .12 126.65

Did not buy for at home consumption 70 2.21 ± .17 81.36 3210.50 .000***

Packaging that allows you to Bought for at-home consumption 154 3.06 ± .12 119.12 inspect the eggs Did not buy for at home consumption 70 2.56 ± .18 97.93 4370.00 .020*

1 Measurement scale was from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely * Significant at the p < .05 level; ** Significant at the p < .01 level; *** Significant at the p < .001 level

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Finally, as shown inTable 5.20, buyers of fresh quail eggs for at home consumption rated the majority of the proposed features significantly higher than the grocery shoppers who did not buy the eggs. Only the suggested in-store taste trial feature was not rated significantly different by the two groups. Excluding the in-store taste trials [ = 2.98 ± .21 (s.e.)], buyers were positive in their mean likelihood ratings of increased satisfaction from the proposed features, ranging from = 3.30 ± .21 (s.e.) to = 4.00 ± .18 (s.e.) for fully bilingual labels and package sized options, respectively. Non-buyers were negative in their likelihood ratings, ranging from = 2.46 ± .11 (s.e.) for fully bilingual labels, to = 2.72 ± .12 (s.e.) for in-store taste trials. It is unknown if there are entrenched non-buyers for BC produced fresh quail eggs. It cannot be assumed that the previously identified Entrenched Non-buyers of BC duck egg products would also be entrenched non-buyers of BC fresh quail eggs, as evidenced by the fact that some members of the Entrenched Non-buyers of duck egg products did report buying fresh BC quail eggs. If they did not, because the WTP question was not asked of fresh quail egg buyers, it is unknown if they would not be willing to buy the fresh quail eggs at all.

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Table 5.20 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean likelihood of suggested features to increase product satisfaction with or willingness to try fresh quail eggs, grouped by buyers versus non-buyers for at-home consumption

Mean1 ± Feature Fresh quail egg group membership N S.E. Mean rank U Sig.

Package size options Bought for at-home consumption 43 4.00 ± .18 150.52

Did not buy for at home consumption 173 2.65 ± .12 98.05 1912.50 .000**

Fully bilingual labels in Bought for at-home consumption 43 3.30 ± .21 136.77 Chinese & English Did not buy for at home consumption 173 2.46 ± .11 101.47 2504.00 .001*

Free new recipes Bought for at-home consumption 43 3.37 ± .20 130.19

Did not buy for at home consumption 173 2.70 ± .12 103.11 2787.00 .009*

In-store taste trials Bought for at-home consumption 43 2.98 ± .21 116.90

Did not buy for at home consumption 173 2.72 ± .12 106.41 3358.50 .312

Packaging that allows you to Bought for at-home consumption 43 3.33 ± .24 132.74 inspect the eggs Did not buy for at home consumption 173 2.53 ± .11 102.47 2677.00 .003*

1 Measurement scale was from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely * Significant at the p < .01 level; ** Significant at the p < .001 level

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To see if there are any differences in how buyers who buy both salted and preserved duck eggs perceive the suggested features, an analysis of data for grocery shoppers that purchased both salted and preserved duck eggs for at home consumption (n=135) was conducted. It revealed that there were only two significant differences in their ratings of suggested features between the two egg types (not shown on Tables). Free new recipes were rated significantly higher in likelihood to increase satisfaction with preserved duck eggs, = 3.37 ± .12 (s.e.), compared to salted duck eggs, = 3.25 ± .12 (s.e.), Wilcoxon signed ranks tests z = – 2.442, p < .05. In-store taste trials were also rated, on average, higher in likelihood to increase satisfaction with preserved than salted duck eggs [ = 3.26 ± .12 (s.e.) and = 3.15 ± .13 (s.e.), respectively], Wilcoxon signed ranks test z = -2.030, p < .05. For grocery shoppers who had purchased all three types of eggs in the past year (n=32), there were no significant differences between how they rated each egg type for the likelihood that bilingual labels, free recipes, in-store taste trials, or packaging that allows for inspection of the eggs, would increase their satisfaction with the eggs (not shown). For non-buyers who did not purchase either salted or preserved duck eggs in the past year (n = 48), there was only one significant difference in how they rated each suggested feature for each duck egg type: Packaging that allows for inspection of the eggs was rated significantly higher in likelihood to increase satisfaction with salted duck eggs, = 2.83 ± .20 (s.e.) in comparison to preserved duck eggs, = 2.48 ± .21 (s.e.), Wilcoxon signed ranks test, z = - 2.104, p< .05. When entrenched non-buyers of salted or preserved duck eggs were removed from the analysis of non-buyers, there were no significant differences between the mean likelihood ratings for each feature, based on duck egg type (n = 33). (Not shown.) Finally, for the buyer group, it is useful to test the correlation of their likelihood ratings of increased satisfaction from the proposed features against their original ratings of the importance of product characteristics when buying and of their agreement to attitude/belief statements. Results of the most relevant correlation tests, examining the ‘produced in BC’ features, are presented in Table 5.21. Cases with any missing values were excluded from analysis.

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Table 5.21 Correlation analysis of buyer ratings of likelihood of BC produced eggs to increase their satisfaction to their ratings of product characteristics and attitudes, salted duck eggs (n = 161) and preserved duck egg buyers (n = 144)

Salted duck eggs Preserved duck eggs produced in BC not produced in BC not Salted duck eggs Asian country/area Preserved duck eggs Asian country/area produced in BC not other than mainland produced in BC not other than mainland mainland China China mainland China China

Importance of product characteristic or Sig. Sig. Sig. Sig.

agreement with attitude rs (1-tailed) rs (1-tailed) rs (1-tailed) rs (1-tailed)

Local product .436 .000*** .381 .000*** .378 .000*** .293 .000***

Country of origin .328 .000*** .210 .004** .294 .000*** .206 .007**

Do not avoid Chinese imports -.487 .000*** -.366 .000*** -.524 .000*** -.335 .000***

Trust Asian imports meet Cdn. safety standards -.067 .199 .049 .267 -.143 .044* -.036 .333

*Significant at the p < .05 level; **significant at the p < .01 level; ***significant at the p < .001 level

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For salted duck eggs, significant correlations were found. The strongest significant correlation, rs = - .487 (a medium-large effect size), was found between buyers who were not biased against salted duck eggs imported from China and the salted duck eggs produced in BC, not mainland China feature. The higher in agreement buyers were that they did not avoid Chinese imports, the lower the likelihood that their satisfaction with salted duck eggs would be increased by eggs produced in BC, not mainland

China. A similar, but weaker significant correlation, rs = - . 366 (a medium effect size) was found with eggs produced in BC, not Asian country/area other than mainland China. A medium-large significant positive correlation was found between the importance of a local product and the likelihood of eggs produced in BC, not mainland China, rs = .436, to increase buyer satisfaction with salted duck eggs. A medium-sized positive correlation, rs = .381, was found with eggs produced in BC, not Asian country/area other than mainland China. Perhaps surprisingly, there was no significant correlation between buyer’s attitudes of trust that Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards and the likelihood that BC produced eggs will increase their product satisfaction. For preserved duck eggs, almost the same significant correlations were found, although some differed in strength. The strongest correlation was found between the eggs produced in BC, not mainland

China feature and the ‘do not avoid Chinese imports’ attitude, rs = - .524. Unlike the results for salted duck egg buyers, there was a significant, though weak, negative correlation between the ‘BC produced eggs, not mainland China’ feature and the ‘Trust Asian imports meet Canadian safety standards’ attitude, rs = - .143, p < .05.

5.3.3.1.2 Best Package Size: Buyers versus Non-buyers As shown inTable 5.22, results indicate that for all three egg types, the mean best package size reported by grocery shoppers who had purchased an egg type for at home consumption in the past year was significantly higher than for non-buyers. The median best package size for buyers was 6 for both salted and preserved duck eggs and 12 for fresh quail eggs (not shown). For non-buyers, the median best package size was 4 for salted duck eggs, 3 for preserved duck eggs and 6 for fresh quail eggs (not shown). For shoppers who had purchased both salted and preserved duck eggs for at home consumption, there was no significant difference in their mean best package size for the two egg types (n = 152), Wilcoxon signed rank test z = -1.56, p > .05. For shoppers who had not bought either of the duck egg products for household consumption (n=34), their mean best package size was reported as exactly the same for both egg types, Wilcoxon signed rank test z = 0, p > .05.

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Table 5.22 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean best package size, grouped by egg type and buyers versus non-buyers for at home consumption

Egg type group Mean1 Mean Asymp. Egg type membership N ± S.E. Rank U Sig.

Salted Bought for at-home duck eggs consumption 179 5.19 ± .14 123.14 Did not buy for at home consumption 50 3.92 ± .34 85.85 3017.50 .000*

Preserved Bought for at-home duck eggs consumption 167 5.05 ± .14 121.94 Did not buy for at home consumption 57 3.89 ± .37 84.85 3183.50 .000*

Fresh Bought for at-home quail eggs consumption 41 11.34 ± .88 96.44 Did not buy for at home consumption 111 8.21 ± .44 69.14 1458.00 .000* 1Refers to mean number of eggs per package * Significant at the p < .001 level

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5.3.3.1.3 Willingness to Pay More for BC Products: Buyers versus Non-buyers Grocery shoppers were asked if they were willing to pay more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, all other aspects equal and if BC eggs are more expensive. Results provided in Table 5.23 exclude Entrenched Non-buyers. Results indicated that non-buyers were willing to pay significantly more for locally (BC) produced salted or preserved duck eggs compared to buyers. For both egg types, buyers were willing to pay a mean premium of just over 10% for a local product, while non-buyers were willing to pay a mean of approximately 20% more. Median willingness to pay more for local salted duck eggs was 10% for buyers and 20% for non-buyers; median willingness to pay more for local preserved duck eggs was 10% for both buyers and non-buyers. For grocery shoppers who had purchased both salted and preserved duck eggs for at home consumption, there was no significant difference in how much more they would be willing to pay for BC produced eggs, comparing between the two egg types (results not shown).

Table 5.23 Mann-Whitney tests for differences in mean willingness to pay more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, grouped by egg type and buyers versus non-buyers for at home consumption

Egg type group Meana Mean Asymp. Egg type membership N ± S.E. Rank U Sig.

Salted Bought for at-home duck eggs consumption 198 2.12 ± .08 118.16 (n=152) Did not buy for at home consumption 54 2.89 ± .20 157.07 3695.00 .000**

Preserved Bought for at-home duck eggs consumption 184 2.21 ± .09 113.08 (n=235) Did not buy for at home consumption 51 2.76 ± .22 135.75 3786.50 .028*

1 Refers to mean willingness to pay more for BC produced eggs, if all other product characteristics are equal and if local products are more expensive, on a scale from 1 = 0% mo to 6 = 50% more, in 10% increments. * Significant at the p < .05 level; ** Significant at the p < .001 level

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5.3.3.2 Opportunities by Buyer Market Segments

5.3.3.2.1 Opportunities from Suggested Features As shown in Table 5.24, Table 5.25, andTable 5.26, which compare the buyer segments within each egg type, results suggest that there are few significant differences between the mean likelihood ratings that each suggested feature will increase buyers’ satisfaction. Salted duck egg buyer segments were mostly undifferentiated in their responses, with only the Potentialists rating the “produced in BC, not mainland China” feature significantly less likely to increase satisfaction (neutral – likely) compared to the Health Skeptics, U = 215.00, p < .008 and Pragmatists, U = 312.00, p < .008 (likely – very likely for both). There were no significant differences between the segments for all of the other suggested features and the majority of their mean likelihood ratings fell in the neutral – likely range. The preserved duck egg buyer segments appear to be more differentiated. The Pragmatists and the Potentialists rated the “produced in BC, not mainland China” feature significantly more likely to increase satisfaction (likely – very likely) compared to the Enthusiasts (neutral), U = 615.000 p < .001 and U = 248.500, p < .001, respectively. With respect to the “produced in BC, not Asian country/area other than mainland China” feature, results were similar, indicating that Enthusiasts again rated this feature neutral and significantly less likely to increase satisfaction compared to the Pragmatists, U = 725.00, p < .008 (neutral – likely) and the Potentialists, U = 271.00, p < .001 (likely – very likely). The Neutralists also rated this feature significantly lower (neutral – likely) than the Potentialists, U = 246.000, p < .008. Finally, Neutralists rated in-store taste trials as significantly less likely (unlikely – neutral) to increase their satisfaction with preserved duck eggs, compared to the Potentialists, U = 190.00, p < .008 (neutral – likely). Fresh quail egg buyer segments were not significantly different in their ratings of the likelihood of suggested features to increase their satisfaction, with the exception of one feature: Package size options. The fresh quail egg Pragmatists segment rated package size options significantly higher (likely – very likely) than the Enthusiasts (neutral – likely) to increase satisfaction, U = 114.00, p < .05. The majority of mean likelihood ratings for fresh quail egg suggested features fell in the neutral – likely range.

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Table 5.24 Kruskal-Wallis tests for differences between mean likelihood scores for increased satisfaction from suggested features, grouped by salted duck egg buyer segment

Mean1 Mean Asymp. Feature Buyer segment N H (df) ± S.E. Rank2 Sig. Produced in BC, 1 Potentialists 23 3.22 ± .28 59.91b not mainland 2 Enthusiasts 58 3.52 ± .19 71.45ba China (n = 158) 3 Health Skeptics 32 4.16 ± .21 93.19a 4 Pragmatists 45 4.13 ± .15 90.16a 12.404 (3) .006

Produced in BC 1 Potentialists 23 3.30 ± .29 70.54a not Asian (n = 154) 2 Enthusiasts 58 3.38 ± .18 73.35a 3 Health Skeptics 32 3.78 ± .26 88.22a 4 Pragmatists 41 3.63 ± .17 78.90a 3.137 (3) .371

Fully bilingual 1 Potentialists 22 3.00 ± .36 69.05a labels (n = 148) 2 Enthusiasts 56 3.11 ± .19 71.02a 3 Health Skeptics 30 2.90 ± .29 65.82a 4 Pragmatists 40 3.75 ± .17 88.89a 6.807 (3) .078

Free new recipes 1 Potentialists 23 3.00 ± .33 67.46a (n=152) 2 Enthusiasts 56 3.45 ± .18 80.08a 3 Health Skeptics 31 3.00 ± .28 67.45a 4 Pragmatists 42 3.57 ± .19 83.36a 3.858 (3) .277

In-store taste trials 1 Potentialists 23 3.17 ± .34 76.41a (n = 151) 2 Enthusiasts 56 3.29 ± .18 78.62a 3 Health Skeptics 31 2.55 ± .29 58.68a 4 Pragmatists 41 3.51 ± .21 85.29a 7.259 (3) .064

Packaging that 1 Potentialists 22 3.09 ± .31 74.20a allows for 2 Enthusiasts 55 2.93 ± .21 70.21a inspection of the 3 Health Skeptics 32 3.09 ± .31 75.81a eggs (n = 149) 4 Pragmatists 40 3.38 ± .19 81.38a 1.652 (3) .648

1 Measurement scale ranged from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely 2 Different letters denote significantly different mean scores between buyer segments, post hoc Mann-Whitney tests, p < .008 (Bonferroni correction)

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Table 5.25 Kruskal-Wallis tests for differences between mean likelihood scores for increased satisfaction from suggested features, grouped by preserved duck egg buyer segment

Mean1 Mean Asymp. Feature Buyer segment N H (df) ± S.E. Rank2 Sig. Produced in BC, 1 Pragmatists 48 4.23 ± .15 92.58a not mainland 2 Enthusiasts 49 3.02 ± .21 55.84b China (n = 156) 3 Neutralists 36 3.69 ± .22 75.43ab 4 Potentialists 23 4.43 ± .22 102.20a 25.914 (3) .000

Produced in BC 1 Pragmatists 45 3.84 ± .16 84.41ab not Asia (n = 152) 2 Enthusiasts 48 3.00 ± .21 60.06c 3 Neutralists 36 3.44 ± .22 72.40bc 4 Potentialists 23 4.30 ± .22 101.74a 17.133 (3) .001

Fully bilingual 1 Pragmatists 46 3.61 ± .18 83.07a labels (n = 146) 2 Enthusiasts 46 2.91 ± .22 63.22a 3 Neutralists 33 3.06 ± .25 66.85a 4 Potentialists 21 3.71 ± .28 85.52a 8.111 (3) .044

Free new recipes 1 Pragmatists 45 3.58 ± .18 77.68a (n= 148) 2 Enthusiasts 47 3.53 ± .20 78.03a 3 Neutralists 34 2.88 ± .24 57.32a 4 Potentialists 22 3.86 ± .25 87.00a 8.376 (3) .039

In-store taste trials 1 Pragmatists 43 3.42 ± .21 77.02ab (n = 147) 2 Enthusiasts 47 3.40 ± .22 77.68ab 3 Neutralists 35 2.63 ± .24 54.80b 4 Potentialists 22 3.91 ± .24 90.77a 11.678 (3) .009

Packaging that 1 Pragmatists 44 3.32 ± .22 80.83a allows for 2 Enthusiasts 47 2.83 ± .23 67.52a inspection of the 3 Neutralists 34 2.85 ± .25 67.88a eggs (n = 148) 4 Potentialists 23 3.52 ± .29 86.43a 5.068 (3) .167

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Table 5.26 Mann-Whitney tests for differences between mean likelihood scores for increased satisfaction from suggested features, grouped by fresh quail egg buyer segment

Mean1 Mean Asymp. Feature Buyer segment N U ± S.E. Rank2 Sig.

Package size options 1 Enthusiasts 18 3.56 ± .25 15.83b 2 Pragmatists 22 4.27 ± .26 24.32a 114.00 .015

Fully bilingual labels 1 Enthusiasts 18 3.11 ± .23 18.31a 2 Pragmatists 22 3.41 ± .33 22.30a 158.50 .268

Free new recipes 1 Enthusiasts 18 3.22 ± .29 18.53a 2 Pragmatists 22 3.59 ± .28 22.11a 162.50 .319

In-store taste trials 1 Enthusiasts 18 3.22 ± .34 21.97a 2 Pragmatists 22 2.86 ± .30 19.30a 171.50 .456

Packaging that 1 Enthusiasts 18 3.28 ± .32 19.36a allows for inspection 2 Pragmatists 22 3.41 ± .36 21.43a 177.50 .565 of the eggs

1 Measurement scale ranged from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely 2 Different letters denote significantly different mean scores between buyer segments, post hoc Mann-Whitney tests, p < .05

5.3.3.2.2 Best Package Size by Buyer Segments Respondents were asked how many eggs per package would be the best size for their respective households. Results grouped by buyer segment for each egg type are shown inTable 5.27. There were no significant differences in mean best package size between the salted duck egg buyer segments, although the Health Skeptics segment reported the smallest mean best package size and the Enthusiasts the largest mean best package size. For all salted duck egg buyer segments, median best package size was 6 (not shown). For preserved duck egg buyers, results indicate that the average best package size for the Pragmatists segment was significantly smaller than for the Enthusiasts’, U = 653.50, p < .008 (approximately 1 egg per package smaller). The median best package size for all preserved duck egg buyer segments was 6 (not shown). Fresh quail egg segments were not significantly different in reported mean best package size, U = 140.00, p > .05. Median best package size for both segments was 12 eggs (not shown).

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Table 5.27 Mean best package size by egg type and buyer segment

Kruskal- Mean1 Mean Wallis Asymp. Egg type Buyer segment N ± S.E. Rank2 H (df) Sig.

Salted duck eggs 1 Potentialists 23 5.13 ± .28 72.89a 2 Enthusiasts 55 5.42 ± .24 80.64a 3 Health Skeptics 27 4.44 ± .37 60.96a 4 Pragmatists 39 4.77 ± .30 68.78a 6.107 (3) .107

Preserved duck 1 Pragmatists 44 4.45 ± .30 62.07b eggs 2 Enthusiasts 42 5.52 ± .18 83.08a 3 Neutralists 33 4.94 ± .30 70.94ab 4 Potentialists 22 4.73 ± .37 65.89ab 8.638 (3) .035

Mann- Whitney U

Fresh quail eggs 1 Enthusiasts 17 11.94 ± 1.43 20.76a 2 Pragmatists 20 10.40 ± 1.26 17.50a 140.00 .325

1 Refers to mean number of eggs per package 2 Different letters denote significantly different means between buyer segments, Mann-Whitney tests, p < .008 with Bonferroni correction for salted and preserved duck eggs, p < .05 fresh quail eggs

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5.3.3.2.3 Willingness to Pay More for BC Products by Buyer Segments Buyers were asked if all other product characteristics are equal and if local products are more expensive, how much more would they be willing to pay for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs. Buyers could choose from 0% more to 50% more in increments of 10%. Note that fresh quail eggs were not included in this question because all fresh quail eggs for retail sale in Metro Vancouver are currently locally produced. Results are shown inTable 5.28. Although Kruskal-Wallis tests for both egg types indicated significant differences between their segments’ mean willingness to pay more, when the Bonferroni correction was applied in post hoc Mann-Whitney tests, only one significant difference was found within the preserved duck egg buyer segments. Results suggest that only the Neutralists were willing to pay significantly more for BC produced preserved duck eggs (approximately 10.5% more) compared to the Enthusiasts (just below 10% more), U = 575.00, p < .05. The majority of segments for both egg types indicated that they would pay, on average, from 10% to under 20% more for BC produced eggs.

Table 5.28 Kruskal-Wallis test for mean willingness to pay more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, grouped by egg type and buyer segment membership

Mean1 Mean Asymp. Egg type Buyer segment N H (df) ± S.E. Rank2 Sig.

Salted duck eggs 1 Potentialists 25 1.92 ± .24 64.80a 2 Enthusiasts 57 2.05 ± .14 74.01a 3 Health Skeptics 31 2.61 ± .23 95.73a 4 Pragmatists 43 2.21 ± .17 80.00a 8.258 (3) .041

Preserved duck 1 Pragmatists 48 2.46 ± .20 82.66ab eggs 2 Enthusiasts 47 1.89 ± .15 63.61b 3 Neutralists 37 2.54 ± .19 89.99a 4 Potentialists 22 2.23 ± .27 74.93ab 8.940 (3) .030

1 Measurement scale ranged from 1= 0% more to 6 = 50% more in 10% increments 2 Different letters denote significantly different between segment means, post hoc Mann-Whitney tests, p < .008 (Bonferroni correction)

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5.4 Discussion and Conclusions

5.4.1 Discussion

5.4.1.1 The Overall Market and Buyers versus Non-buyers The survey results indicated that respondents evaluate salted and preserved duck egg product characteristics in a similar manner, with the exception of brand name which is of significantly more importance to buyers of preserved duck eggs. This was an unexpected result, and the reason(s) for this difference are unknown. It could be due to a more “commodity” nature being assigned to salted duck eggs (they are easy to make) compared to a perceived more nuanced preparation for preserved duck eggs, which can be prized for not just their flavour and differing yolk consistencies, but also for “frost like” patterns on the tea coloured, gelatinous, egg whites. Certain brands may have a reputation for producing superior preserved duck eggs, although this aspect did not arise during preliminary focus group discussions. Some readers may be surprised that local products were not rated high in importance by buyers when results of subsequent questions indicated that BC produced eggs were likely to increase buyer satisfaction and that respondents were willing to pay a premium for BC produced eggs. However, the neutral ratings for the importance of a local product when buying is not surprising given that there is currently no large commercial producer of salted or preserved duck eggs in BC and only one Canadian salted duck egg brand, Treat™, from Alberta. In many retail outlets, such as Superstore, only imported products are sold. The neutral rating may likely be a reflection of the more theoretical nature of “local” for some buyers. It is also clear that respondents viewed salted and preserved duck eggs as less healthy and less nutritious than fresh quail eggs. In general, the duck egg products received negative health and nutrition ratings and a sizable number of buyers limit purchases due to perceived health concerns. This should be of concern to retailers, processors, and producers as these perceptions act as barriers to market growth. Efforts could be made, for example, to educate consumers about the eggs’ nutritive values (some are much higher, per gram, than in chicken eggs), to clarify the role of egg cholesterol in raising blood cholesterol levels, and for salted duck eggs, to position them in a manner that would encourage purchase yet minimize fears of ill health due to excess sodium consumption. (There has been a lot of media coverage in Canada over the past year about the health consequences of consuming too much sodium.)

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It is also notable that there were no ringing endorsements with respect to buyers’ beliefs about the quality of salted and preserved duck eggs. This indicates that there is room for improvement and an opportunity may exist here for a local producer/processor. Focus group discussions had previously highlighted concerns about quality, with participants most familiar with the products commenting, for example, that salted duck egg yolks were often too dry in texture and did not exhibit the desired “oilyness” and grittiness. Or, that preserved or salted duck eggs were “too old” despite being within the stated best before date. Freshness was still viewed as very important for these processed products, thus the desire for a “packaged-on” date to be provided in addition to the best before date (which is less a marker of freshness than it is of food spoilage). It is not surprising, therefore, that these freshness attributes were rated highest in importance by buyers. From the opportunities analysis, respondents appeared receptive (neutral to positive in likelihood ratings) to the suggested features for the duck egg products, but not for the fresh quail eggs. This may be due to an omission of a relevant fresh quail egg feature(s) from the survey or due to the possibility that the market for fresh quail eggs is indeed very small and non-buyers are unlikely to be persuaded to start buying the eggs. Evidence for this interpretation may be found in the stated preferences for package sizes: All respondents clearly indicated a preference for smaller package sizes for fresh quail eggs (current standard size is 24 eggs). The opportunities analysis also indicated that the suggested features of fully bilingual Chinese and English labels, free new recipes, in-store taste trials, and packaging that would allow for inspection of the eggs were not rated at an enthusiastic level by non-buyers (negative – neutral). This suggests that other types of promotions should be examined to entice non-buyers to purchase, such as discount coupons, for example. However, non-buyers/non consumers of any of the egg products indicated that health concerns are preventing purchase. Until these concerns are addressed, non-buyers may not be willing to purchase regardless of promotions offered. In contrast, a very encouraging result for local and potential local producers or processors is that the feature of BC produced eggs was rated highest in likelihood to increase satisfaction or willingness to try for both buyers and non-buyers, particularly for “produced in BC not mainland China” eggs, suggesting that not only would this feature potentially take market share from non-BC brands, but could draw non-buyers into the market, increasing the overall market size. Furthermore, all buyer segments, with the exception of preserved duck egg Enthusiasts (with a neutral rating), rated the feature of BC produced eggs in the ranges between neutral to very likely.

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These results indicate that there are opportunities for BC produced salted and preserved duck eggs in the Chinese Canadian market, including a potential to charge up to a 10% premium, but that addressing health concerns, improving quality, and finding more effective promotional methods should be sought out to stimulate purchase.

5.4.1.2 Market Segments Given the significant differences between segments, results of this study support the premise that salted and preserved duck egg buyers can be segmented based on attitudes, beliefs, and importance placed on product characteristics. Although the fresh quail egg buyer sample was too small to segment beyond two groups, the results also suggest that meaningful market segmentation can be based upon attitudes, beliefs, and importance placed on product characteristics for these eggs too, but further research is needed. Significantly different segments imply that different marketing strategies may be required for each buyer segment. The Health Skeptics segment, for example, could require education or persuasion about the nutritive aspects of the salted duck eggs before they will buy more frequently. Preserved duck egg Pragmatists, as involved buyers, likely need to be provided evidence that product characteristics meet their requirements, and this could require reassurance that the eggs are free of lead if they are going to reverse their trend of decreasing purchases year over year. Salted duck egg Potentialists are significantly less likely to increase their satisfaction with the product if it is produced in BC not mainland China, compared to the other segments, implying that particular effort may be needed to persuade them to buy a local product. Results suggest that the Enthusiasts for both duck egg types live up to their name, which raises the question of where marketing funds could be best deployed. With limited funds, increasing sales may be more effectively and efficiently achieved by targeting other segments that may respond incrementally more than the Enthusiasts (a “do not preach to the converted” strategy). Enthusiasts account for only 33% and 28% of salted duck egg and preserved duck egg buyers respectively. This study suggests that they can be considered a stable, core market and therefore there may be minimal risk in a marketing strategy that is focused on one or more of the other segments. This strategy may be required not only to increase the size of the market, but to prevent a shrinking market. There are implications for local products too: Salted duck egg Health Skeptics and Pragmatists are significantly more likely to increase their satisfaction with the product if they are produced in BC and not mainland China; compared to Potentialists. Preserved duck egg Pragmatists and Potentialists are significantly more likely to increase

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their satisfaction with the product if they are produced in BC and not mainland China, compared to Enthusiasts. Another of the important implications of the cluster analysis for the duck egg products is that despite sharing many similarities, salted and preserved duck eggs market segments show some differences. Beyond the results indicating a different fourth segment for each egg type – Health Skeptics for salted duck egg buyers and Neutralists for preserved duck egg buyers – there are suggestions of other subtle differences between the segments for each type. In the salted duck egg segmentation, for example, Potentialists share agreement with Enthusiasts that they do not avoid imports from China, but are significantly different from other segments in this attitude. However, in the preserved duck egg segmentation, the Potentialists share disagreement that they avoid imports from China with the Pragmatists, but are significantly different in their attitude compared to other segments. Salted duck egg Potentialists are significantly lower than all other segments in the importance they place on the provenance of the product; preserved duck egg Potentialists place higher importance on provenance, significantly higher than Enthusiasts and Neutralists. The implication is that there is potential in each egg type’s Potentialists segment, but that potential differs between each type. Significant differences were also found when comparing the salted and preserved duck egg segments to each other in their demographic and buying behaviours. Enthusiasts, for example, were found to have the lowest acculturation scores in both duck egg types; in the preserved duck egg segmentation Enthusiasts had a significantly lower acculturation score compared to all other segments, but in the salted duck egg segmentation, Enthusiasts had a significantly lower acculturation score only in comparison to the Health Skeptics. Sex was a significantly different variable in the preserved duck egg segmentation (Enthusiasts are significantly more likely to be male), but was not in the salted duck egg segmentation. Total annual household income was a significantly different variable in the salted duck egg segmentation (Health Skeptics were significantly more likely than Enthusiasts and Pragmatists to have household incomes greater than or equal to $60,000), but was not in the preserved duck egg segmentation. Education level of the grocery shopper and minor children in the household were significantly different between the preserved duck egg segments, but not the salted duck egg segments. These and other subtle differences between each duck egg type suggest that using a homogenous marketing strategy to cover both types may not be effective. However, the extent to which a different strategy would be needed requires further investigation. This also applies to the differences between segments within a duck egg type.

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5.4.2 Limitations of this Study and Future Research Considerations When considering the results of this study, readers should bear in mind three key points. To begin with, cluster analysis is not a statistical test of the heterogeneity of market segments. Clusters are formed based upon algorithms and thus should not be interpreted as definitive. Furthermore, consumer market segments are often not polarized in nature, but rather tend to be continuous in the nature of their distributions with one segment bleeding into the next and changing over time. Results of my cluster analysis illustrate this tendency, but nevertheless provide a useful snapshot of the current Chinese Canadian market in Metro Vancouver. Secondly, my study relied on respondent’s recall and stated preferences rather than revealed behaviour and preferences. Sometimes, not always, there are differences between what people say they do versus what they actually do (or will do), for various reasons including for example, poor recall or a desire to look good in the eyes of the researchers, which results in response error (Hair, Wolfinbarger, Ortinau, & Bush, 2008). Revealed behaviour and preference data are not available for specialty duck and quail eggs. Readers need to bear in mind that there is a potential for response error, but this is limited to only some of the study results, such as total annual number of eggs bought, frequency of purchase or year over year purchasing trend, and willingness to pay more for BC produced products. With the absence of revealed preference data, a future conjoint analysis (Green & Srinivasan, 1978) study could build upon my results. For example, a conjoint analysis experiment could be used to further test how much Chinese Canadians are willing to pay for BC produced duck eggs, by simulating buying options requiring respondents to make a series of buying decisions and thus, theoretically, more closely model actual preferences and buying behaviour. The third methodology issue to consider is my choice of attitude and belief statements, which were informed by a limited number of focus group discussions, and are specific to this study. A set or sets of previously validated attitude and belief statements were not chosen for my study due to some unique issues specific to the duck and quail egg products, such as concerns about lead contamination or the impact of the potential loss of traditional Chinese cuisine cooking knowledge. Further research is needed to develop these attitude and belief statements to be reliable and valid for use in future studies. With reference to the overall results, it should be noted that the overall market for specialty duck and quail eggs and egg products is larger than the Metro Vancouver Chinese Canadian market. Salted and preserved duck eggs are also enjoyed by people from other Asian ethnic backgrounds, such as Filipino, Thai, and Vietnamese. Quail eggs are even more widely consumed, not only by other Asians, but also by Europeans and South Americans too, for example. Differences may exist within and between

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these ethnic markets compared to my results for ethnic Chinese Canadians. Future research would be required to understand these other ethnic markets or the overall consumer markets. Furthermore, due to the low number of respondents who reported purchasing fresh quail egg products in the past year, future research is recommended if producers are committed to expanding the consumer market. My study provides a useful initial exploration of potential Chinese Canadian consumer issues and opportunities. Readers should also bear in mind the absence of data from buyers who missed completing Section E due to the branching instruction error: Further investigation could clarify the results of this section. However, preliminary focus group results do back up the opportunities for BC produced duck egg products (versus imports) as well as the willingness to pay at least 10% more for a BC produced product. It is acknowledged that some sample demographic characteristics differ from the population. However the lower proportion of younger respondents may not have a material impact considering that many people in their twenties choose to continue to live at home while they are in post secondary education and afterward, in order to afford to attend college or university, to pay down student debt, and to save money before moving out on their own. A lower proportion of recent immigrants responded to the survey than in the population. This could be due to not establishing a landline telephone service or due to a lack of familiarity with surveys and market research in general, resulting in a lack of trust. However, my research has indicated that less acculturated Chinese Canadians make up important segments of the markets for the duck and quail egg products, suggesting that new immigrants play, and will continue to play, an important role. Second generation Chinese Canadians also responded to the survey in a lower proportion compared to the proportion in the population. Therefore, to bridge this gap, I recommend that future consumer research prioritize new ethnic Chinese immigrants first, followed by younger Chinese Canadians (who may be more susceptible than their elders to adoption of a more westernized diet), and then thirdly, to second generation or greater Chinese Canadians. My research suggests that people born in Canada from an ethnic Chinese background make up a smaller proportion of the market compared to immigrants. Further research is needed to discover if this part of the market is worth actively pursuing to either 1) enlarge its market share, or 2) prevent it from eroding from its current size. Alternative research methods should be considered in order to increase the likelihood of successfully reaching these groups of Chinese Canadians. Future research into the specific concerns of respondents and how to address them is also needed. A study on the nutritional benefits of duck and quail eggs would assist in maintaining or possibly

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expanding the market. Greater consumer knowledge of recent studies that question the link between cholesterol in eggs and blood cholesterol levels may help reduce the number of buyers currently limiting purchases due to health concerns. Market research into how to position the egg products in the market in such a manner as to calm health and food safety concerns, and stimulate purchase would be of great use. Overall, this study was based upon a random sample survey, but readers should bear in mind the limitations mentioned in the previous paragraphs before generalizing study results beyond the sample’s characteristics. Nevertheless, despite these limitations, my research results are still good for the sample population studied and the limitations have not affected the significance of my findings.

5.4.3 Conclusion This study concerns the potential market segments and marketing opportunities for salted duck eggs, preserved duck eggs, and fresh quail eggs within Chinese Canadians residing in Metro Vancouver, BC. In this paper I have demonstrated the benefits of grouping respondents into clusters, rather than treating them as a homogenous whole; the results of my research can help current and potential producers, processors, and retailers better understand the Chinese Canadian market for these products and make more informed production and marketing decisions. In particular, results suggest: Long term planning should take into account the rates of new ethnic Chinese immigrants settling in the Metropolitan Vancouver area; Chinese Canadians are willing to pay at least a 10% premium for BC produced salted and preserved duck eggs (all other aspects being equal); a potential market opportunity for BC producers and processors may exist in current non-buyers of preserved duck eggs; and, promotional efforts are necessary to defend and grow the market for duck and quail egg products in the long run. Furthermore, my results indicate that market segments for salted and preserved duck eggs, although similar in a number of aspects, do exhibit differences. Similarities will not require completely different marketing strategies, thus potentially reducing overall marketing costs. However, differences should be investigated further to better understand the extent to which different strategies are needed for each egg type and between segments within each egg type. This study also suggests that with limited marketing funds, it may be feasible to “ignore” the stable, core Enthusiasts segments in both salted and preserved duck egg markets in order to focus on the other segments that make up the majority of buyers. Finally, although my research indicates that preserved duck egg Enthusiasts and Neutralists and salted duck egg Enthusiasts and Potentialists are not biased against Chinese imports, a result which can be perceived as a disadvantage for local producers and processors, it is encouraging for local producers

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who could face comparative cost disadvantages, to note that the majority of respondents indicated that they are willing to pay a premium for BC produced eggs, all things being equal. With the increasing numbers of immigrants coming to Canada and the United States, new, exciting food and agricultural opportunities may arise for North American farmers, food processors, and retailers. It is my hope that this study, the result of my desire to shine a light on one such opportunity, will contribute to an increasing body of work to further illuminate these often overlooked niche markets.

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6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

6.1 Rationale for Utilization of Mixed Methods Through the initial exploratory qualitative research phase, I gained insight into how immigrants and born in Canada Chinese Canadians purchase, use, and think of specialty duck and quail egg products. This was a great help in formulating the survey questionnaire. This section will re-visit findings from the qualitative stage and compare them to the survey results. Several suggested findings from the focus groups were supported by the survey research results, providing evidence that such results may be reflective of the Chinese Canadian population in Metro Vancouver. Both phases of research indicated that the purchase and consumption of salted and preserved duck egg products were usually infrequent and that of fresh quail eggs was usually never or once or twice a year. Both phases indicated a strong preference for purchasing the products at T&T Supermarket and for buying them for usual meal planning. The focus groups voiced concerns about the healthfulness of the products and the mean responses from survey participants suggested that they do limit purchases due to concerns about sodium, cholesterol, and lead content. One particular immigrant focus group member indicated she had stopped buying any of the eggs due to health concerns; survey results indicated that the most frequent reason given for non-purchase and non-consumption of any of the egg types was due to health concerns. Focus groups also indicated distrust in the safety of salted and preserved duck eggs imported from China, although a few defended products from China; cluster analysis of survey data also indicated some avoidance of Chinese products by some market segments. The importance of price in the buying decision was mixed for focus group participants and this was born out in the survey results. Overall, the importance of price was rated just to the positive side of neutral for all egg types, but when the survey respondents were divided into buyer market segments there were significant differences in the importance of price between the segments for salted and preserved duck eggs. For salted duck eggs, for example, price was rated unimportant by the Health Skeptics and important by the Pragmatists. The differences between the immigrant and born in Canada focus groups suggested that acculturation may play a role in product purchase. In the survey analysis, a significant negative association between acculturation and product purchase was found: As Chinese Canadians become more acculturated to living in Metro Vancouver, they are less likely to purchase specialty duck or quail egg products. Logistic regression analysis confirmed this, indicating that the level of acculturation is a significant (negative) predictor for purchase. 185

Reviewing opportunities, it is notable that the focus groups indicated that they would be willing to pay at least 10% more and up to 20% for a BC produced salted or preserved duck egg product, all other characteristics equal to the imported products. This willingness to pay at least a 10% premium was also reflected in survey results, with current non-buyers of a particular duck egg type willing to pay significantly more than buyers. Other survey results indicated that the most likely features to increase satisfaction with salted and preserved duck eggs, or increasing willingness to try the eggs, were if the products were produced in BC rather than China, and to a lesser extent, rather than other Asian countries. These results suggest there may be a competitive advantage for BC producers and processors of salted or preserved duck eggs. Not all focus group results were indicative of survey results. Some of the product characteristics that appeared to be unimportant for some focus group participants, such as brand name, were rated more important than expected (neutral to important) in the survey results. Some focus group participants voiced disappointment in the quality of salted duck eggs, but not the other egg types. Survey results did not show that buyers, overall, were dissatisfied with the quality of salted duck eggs, but the mean rating was only 3.42 ± .85 s.d. (just to the positive side of neutral). Similar to the focus groups, the mean ratings of quality satisfaction were lowest for the salted duck eggs compared to the other egg types. For all three egg types, out of all of their market segment’s mean quality satisfaction ratings, only the preserved duck egg Potentialists rated quality satisfaction at 4 (agreed that they are satisfied), the rest rated between neutral to below agree. This implies that although the survey results did not show outright dissatisfaction with quality, there is an apparent need to raise the level of quality for all egg types. Also in contrast with survey results, focus group discussions indicated a frustration with packaging materials. In survey results, the likelihood to increase satisfaction with the products, or willingness to try, via the proposed ‘packaging that allows for inspection of the eggs’ feature, was rated close to neutral. It was also unexpected to find that non-buyers of fresh quail eggs did not rate ‘package size options’ for fresh quail eggs as likely to increase willingness to try the eggs (mean rating was 2.65, unlikely - neutral). This result was contradicted by non-buyers stating approximately eight eggs as the mean best package size for fresh quail eggs, when the current package size available on the market is 24 eggs. This discrepancy could be explained by a lack of knowledge of package sizes by the non-buyers, or that a smaller package size would not be enough to entice them to buy fresh quail eggs. In contrast, fresh quail egg buyers, similar to focus group participants who had bought fresh quail eggs, rated ‘package size options’ as likely to increase satisfaction.

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There was one area in which the focus groups and the survey produced some confounding results. Focus group participants indicated that because some family members would not eat the duck or quail egg products, they tended to buy them less frequently. An IM group member, for example, indicated that she rarely bought the eggs because her children would not eat them. A BIC group member indicated that because her children and husband would not eat the eggs, she bought infrequently. In the survey results, overall, buyers for each egg type responded that they do not limit purchases because household members will not eat them (mean rating was in the neutral to agree range that they do not limit purchases, for all egg types). However, after segmentation, the Pragmatists segments in all three egg types were found to disagree and they indicated that they do limit purchases (ratings were between disagree and neutral for all three egg types), but this difference was significant for only the salted and preserved duck egg Pragmatists. On the contrary, there is other evidence to support that buyers do not limit purchases because household members will not eat the eggs. The logistic regression analysis results indicated that household size is a positive, significant predictor for purchase of any egg type. Furthermore in preliminary Chi-square analyses for the logistic regression model, no significant association was found between the presence or not of minor children in the household and purchase or non-purchase of any of the egg types. The balance of evidence suggests that purchases are not limited due to some household members who will not eat the eggs, yet further research is needed to clarify this, given the focus groups’ and Pragmatists’ evidence to the contrary. An explanation could be that because the eggs are purchased infrequently to begin with (they are a peripheral food in their diet), grocery shoppers do not perceive that non-eaters in the household are a factor in any decision to limit purchases or not. Overall the mixed methods approach for this research project proved to be a very beneficial and useful design and the benefits have justified the extra time and costs involved. The focus groups provided me with a lot of information and knowledge from an insider’s point of view and allowed me to create relevant questions for the survey, especially for the importance of product characteristics questions and the attitude and belief questions. Overall results also reinforce the usefulness of two complementary approaches when investigating a niche market located outside of its traditional, cultural context (for example, these egg products in China). Some results generated new research questions and some of these research questions may best be answered by additional qualitative research. For example, additional focus group research may shed more light on the confounding results concerning the influence of household members who do not eat the duck or quail egg products. Or, given the implication from this study that there is a market opportunity for BC produced salted and preserved duck eggs, focus group research could be used to explore how best to position BC produced salted and

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preserved duck eggs in the market. This could be complemented by a quantitative choice experiment using conjoint analysis to test willingness to pay at least 10% more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, compared to imports from China or other Asian countries. Focus groups may also be the best method to reach and research parts of the population that were under represented in my survey, such as recent immigrants. This is one of the benefits of mixed methods that has been argued by Creswell and Plano Clark (2007). The use of an additional mode offered as a follow up option in the quantitative stage also proved beneficial in this study, with 6% of responses generated by the Internet version of the survey. Research continues into the effectiveness of, and the need for, using more than one mode of delivery in quantitative research (for example, Blyth, 2008; Converse et al., 2008) and it is likely that in addition to mixed methods, a mixed mode approach will also be increasingly necessary to help remedy sample coverage issues. Surveying a representative sample of a population is becoming more and more challenging for researchers. Given the challenges and the evidence and experience gained from this study, it is my recommendation that mixed method, qualitative – quantitative designs, including, when appropriate, more than one mode of execution, are the most appropriate methodology for researching niche food markets, particularly when there is a strong cultural aspect to the subject area.

6.2 Quantitative Methods of Analysis and Objectives revisited The quantitative phase of this study utilized inferential methods of analysis. In Chapter Four I examined the overall Chinese Canadian retail market for the duck and quail egg products in Metro Vancouver, BC using descriptive statistical analyses and logistic regression analysis. In Chapter Five, I looked at the market in greater detail, and investigated attitudes and beliefs towards the products using descriptive statistical analyses and subsequently used those attitudes and beliefs to segment the markets for the egg products. Market segmentation was achieved by cluster analysis, a method based on algorithms, after initially reducing the number of input variables via principal component analysis (a statistical technique). Opportunities were then explored, including in the context of the market segments. As outlined in the literature review in Chapter One, these techniques have been previously used in various ethnic food market studies [logistic regression by Govindasamy (2009) and cluster analysis by Batres-Marquez (2003), for example]. I chose a ‘macro to micro’ approach to analyze the market based upon two factors. One, the absence of information about the consumer market in North American for duck and quail egg products (including an absence of information in the academic literature and industry

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or government data or publications), and two, the results of focus group research which revealed some areas of concern that would require additional research. In the absence of scanner data and specific import data, initial parts of the survey were designed to gain an understanding of which products were bought by Chinese Canadians, how frequently, how much, and if their behaviour had changed in the past year. From this information, census data, and approximate import volumes (duck egg products) and fresh quail egg production volumes in BC, estimated market sizes were calculated. Additional important information resulting from the study included why consumers purchased (occasion for purchase) and where the egg products were typically purchased. The descriptive statistics resulting from the survey provide a significant first estimation of Chinese Canadian buyer behaviour and market size for the duck and quail egg products, and fulfils Objective One of this study. This information is beneficial to current and potential producers, processors, and retailers in Metro Vancouver and is of interest to other such stakeholders in North America. The vital need for an understanding of the role acculturation plays in the long-term demand for the duck and quail egg products was made apparent to me during the focus group sessions. Based on consideration for the time and effort required by survey participants, I chose to use traditional demographic and external domain (behavioural) variables to create a measurement of acculturation rather than rely on a full, previously validated acculturation scale. As previously stated in Chapter Four, other studies have used various truncated or proxy measures of acculturation rather than the validated full scales. This study’s results, via correlation analysis and logistic regression analysis, support the hypothesis stated in Objective Two that with acculturation, purchases of the duck and quail egg products are less likely to occur. I acknowledge that the acculturation scale I created did not include any measurements of values or orientation towards Chinese and/or Canadian self-identity (internal domains of acculturation), but it nevertheless offers a useful estimation of acculturation in Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver and fulfils Objective Two of this study. To avoid ineffective and wasteful marketing decisions and to focus on buyers more accurately, producers, processors, and retailers require an understanding of who buys or does not buy the duck and quail egg products. Given the lack of even basic information about Chinese Canadian consumers of the products, I decided to use respondents’ personal and household demographic characteristics and their acculturation scores as input variables in order to build a ‘foundational’ logistic regression model. The resulting model met all assumptions; correctly predicted 76.9% of observed behaviour; and, further tests confirmed that the model was a good fit to the observed data. This fulfils Objective Three of the study

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and is a step towards examining the more detailed or ‘micro’ elements of the market for duck and quail egg products. Readers should bear in mind that other non-demographic variables may be significant predictors for the probability of product purchase (such as attitudes or beliefs), and that some demographic variables were excluded from the logistic regression analysis due to the smaller size of the sample being unable to support a large number of variables in the analysis. These variables remain as fodder for further investigation. The focus groups had revealed some potential issues in the market for duck and quail egg products. To better understand these issues and their possible impact on the Chinese Canadian market for the products, even more detailed information was required beyond demographics and acculturation. A series of attitude and belief statements was created to measure, by Likert-type scales, the issues raised in the focus groups as well as other potential issues or opportunities identified through preliminary research. In addition, industry players require information on what buyers consider when they make their purchase decisions so that they can adjust their respective marketing mixes accordingly. Therefore, the importance of various product characteristics was also measured using Likert-type scale questions. The resulting descriptive statistics now provide the first quantifiable insights into how Chinese Canadians may view duck and quail egg products and what product characteristics they likely consider important when buying. To provide even greater insight into the duck and quail egg product market, respondents’ attitude, belief, and product characteristic ratings were then used to segment the market for each egg type and the segments were further described using buyer behaviour and demographic variables. This process produced a more detailed portrait of the market; revealed relevant and important information with significant market implications (such as the potential need to address the health concerns of some segments in order to help maintain and grow the market); and fulfilled Objective Four of this study. However, the series of attitude and belief statements that were created specifically for this study will benefit from further development and validation. Bias against imports from China, for example, was measured by one question that may not have fully captured attitudes regarding these imports. Readers are also reminded that due to the very small number of fresh quail egg buyers, the cluster analysis was limited to two clusters, despite Ward’s hierarchical analysis suggesting a higher number of clusters. Therefore only a grosser level of segments for the fresh quail egg market has been described. The final objective of this study was to explore potential market opportunities for locally produced duck and quail egg products. In Section E of the questionnaire, a series of Likert-type scale questions were posed to test various suggested features, including BC produced products, for their likelihood to

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increase buyer satisfaction or willingness to try the products. In addition, given the competitive advantage of lower labour costs that Asia enjoys compared to BC, respondents were tested to see if they were willing to pay more for BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs, and if so, how much more, all other aspects equal. The resulting descriptive statistics provide the local duck and quail industry with the first quantified evidence of Chinese Canadian support in Metro Vancouver for locally produced salted and preserved duck eggs as well as evidence that they may be prepared to pay up to 10% more for local products. Furthermore, these opportunities were then examined in the context of the previously defined market segments. One important insight gained was that results suggest that the strongest apparent support for locally produced salted or preserved duck eggs is not in the Enthusiasts segments, but in the other market segments, which represent the majority of buyers. One weakness of the opportunities analysis in this study was the inadvertent exclusion of some eligible respondents from the opportunities section of the questionnaire due to a branching error noted in Chapter Five. Objective Five of the study has still been fulfilled, however, due to its exploratory, rather than definitive, mandate, readers should nevertheless exercise caution in their interpretation of the results. The mandates of this study have been fulfilled, producing a ground-breaking, significant contribution to the literature on the duck and quail industries, which has historically focused on primary production and attendant subjects. The ‘macro’ to ‘micro’ approach I used in this study and explained in more detail in Chapters Four and Five, demonstrates the benefits of understanding a consumer market beyond the basics of demographics and purchase information, and illustrates the old saying that you can not always judge a book by its cover.

6.3 Suggestions for Future Research Research findings and the limitations of the research suggest the following opportunities for future research: The low number of respondents who reported purchasing fresh quail eggs in the past year affected the quality of market segmentation analysis and results for these eggs. Further research into consumer market opportunities are highly recommended if producers are committed to expanding the consumer market. With the absence of revealed preference data and the absence of opportunity results data from some eligible, but inadvertently excluded respondents, a future conjoint analysis study could build upon this study’s results. A conjoint analysis ‘experiment’ could be used to further test how much more Chinese Canadians are willing to pay for BC produced duck egg products, or their preference for BC

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produced duck egg products over imports from China or other Asian countries, by simulating buying options requiring respondents to make a series of buying decisions and thus, theoretically, more closely model actual preferences and buying behaviour. To gain further depth of understanding of the Chinese Canadian consumer market and to remedy the potential influence of the different characteristics of this study’s sample compared to the population, research specifically targeting Mandarin speaking immigrants, very recent immigrants, younger Chinese Canadians (< 40 years) or born in Canada ethnic Chinese, is recommended and alternative methods or modes may need to be considered in order to reach these population groups. Given many respondent’s health concerns about the duck and quail egg products, it is highly recommended that additional research investigate this issue further and find potential solutions in order to maintain and grow the markets for these products. The internal domain of acculturation (values and self-identity) was not measured in this study. A future study could measure these domains of acculturation to provide a more comprehensive understanding of Chinese Canadian acculturation to mainstream society in Metro Vancouver. The internal domains of acculturation may be relevant variables for the selection of effective promotional methods. Finally, other population groups also consume duck and quail egg products. Filipino, Thais, and Vietnamese, for example, consume salted and preserved duck eggs and quail eggs. Fresh quail eggs are also consumed by Europeans, the British, and South Americans. These groups may behave differently in their purchasing habits and in their attitudes and beliefs, compared to Chinese Canadians. To fully understand the consumer market for salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs, study of these populations groups is recommended.

6.4 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations This study has examined the niche market for specialty duck and quail egg products in the Chinese Canadian population of Metro Vancouver, BC. Through the use and analysis of focus groups and a randomized mail – Internet survey of Chinese Canadian households, evidence has been gathered on the main grocery shopper’s behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs towards salted and preserved duck eggs and fresh quail eggs, as well as their demographic characteristics and acculturation to Canadian society. The main study results have indicated 1) that Chinese Canadians purchase the egg products infrequently, especially fresh quail eggs, and 2) that the market for salted and preserved duck eggs is characterized by relatively more frequent, stable, core buyers and less frequent, unstable buyers who are

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at risk of dropping out of the market. Sampled Chinese Canadians in Metro Vancouver scored low on the acculturation scale created for this study, which focused on external domain measurements of acculturation. Logistic regression analysis of respondents’ acculturation score, demographic, and household characteristics as predictors for the probability of purchase of any of the individual egg types yielded a model that correctly predicted 76.9% of observed behaviour. Acculturation and household size were significant negative and positive predictors of the probability of purchase, respectively. Therefore, the market for these eggs will depend, in the long term, on a steady supply of new immigrants. Age, education, and total annual household income also contributed to the accuracy of the model, but were not significant predictors. Cluster analysis and segmentation of the egg buyers based on their attitudes and beliefs, yielded four differentiated market segments each for the duck egg products, three of which indicated similarities across the two egg types, but overall results imply that buyers do not view the two products as completely homogenous in nature. The sample size for fresh quail egg buyers was very small and only two segments could be analyzed on an exploratory basis; cluster analysis had suggested a higher number of segments. While looking for commonalities, the creation of a marketing strategy for the duck or quail egg products must acknowledge the differences between each egg types’ segments in order to be effective. An analysis of market opportunities overall suggested that BC produced salted and preserved duck eggs would act as a positive stimulant to increase satisfaction with, or willingness to try, a particular egg type, especially compared to imports from China. However, upon more detailed analysis, results indicated that non-buyers of preserved duck eggs are neutral to somewhat negative in the likelihood that BC produced preserved duck eggs would increase their willingness to try the eggs. This differed significantly from the positive increase in satisfaction that current preserved duck egg buyers reported as likely. Breaking down the opportunities further by buyer market segments, for salted duck eggs the Health Skeptics and Pragmatists segments reported a significantly higher likelihood of an increase in satisfaction compared to the Potentialists, if the eggs are produced in BC rather than China. For preserved duck egg buyers, the greater opportunity for locally produced preserved duck eggs lies in the Pragmatists and Potentialists segments, both of which indicated a significantly higher (likely – very likely) likelihood of an increase in satisfaction compared to the Enthusiasts, if the eggs are produced in BC rather than China (the same result holds for produced in BC versus other Asian countries, except the reported likely increase in satisfaction was not at as high a level). Overall, respondents also reported a willingness to pay at least 10% more for BC produced salted and preserved duck eggs, all other aspects

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equal. This increased to almost 20% more for non-buyers of a particular duck egg type. For fresh quail eggs, results suggest that opportunity lies in providing package size options, which was reported as likely to increase satisfaction or willingness to try the product. However, upon further detailed analysis results indicated that this opportunity rests with current buyers rather than non-buyers, and with the Pragmatists segment rather than the Enthusiasts segment. Based upon the balance of evidence produced from this study, it is my conclusion that an opportunity exists for BC produced salted and preserved duck eggs to substitute for imported products and that consumers may be willing to pay at least a 10% premium for BC products. Import data indicates that the value of the overall market, wholesale and retail, is small and therefore would provide an opportunity suitable for smaller producers. (A larger market may be found if inter-provincial and trans- border exports to the United States are eventually pursued). Results of my study indicate that the Chinese Canadian retail consumer market accounts for 41% of total import volumes, an significant portion of the overall market. However, the overall smaller size of the retail and wholesale market also suggests that a local producer and/or processor first to enter the Metro Vancouver market may gain a competitive advantage against subsequent potential local entrants. Due to the recent presence of Alberta produced Treat™ brand salted duck eggs (and baluts) in the BC market, it is therefore highly recommended that potential BC entrants to the market conduct further research on this threat and research the willingness of distributors and retailers to take on BC produced duck egg products. This study did not test if buyers would distinguish or have a preference between BC produced duck egg products and duck egg products imported from other Provinces or the United States of America. This is a subject for future research. Results of this study also indicate that salted and preserved duck egg products are peripheral foods and as such are more vulnerable to elimination from Chinese Canadian diets. In addition, the analysis of attitudes and beliefs indicates the existence of health concerns about consuming the duck and quail egg products. Therefore, long term market stability and/or growth likely will require an investment in product promotion by producers, processors, and retailers as well as an effort to provide assurance to consumers about the health and safety of the products. Based upon cluster analysis results, it is recommended that if funds are limited, marketing efforts should not focus on maintaining and growing the Enthusiasts segments (preaching to the converted), but should focus on the other segments which account for the majority of buyers. Although there is a risk to this strategy, it may yield potentially higher market gains. With respect to the market for fresh quail eggs, based on study results the Chinese Canadian retail market for the eggs is very small, an estimated

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28% of total fresh quail egg production in BC, and it is my recommendation that the industry should concentrate resources on maintaining and growing the larger restaurant and hotel segment (see Kermode, 1997).

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Statistics Canada (2010f). Profile of census subdivisions cumulative profiles: Ethnic origins and visible minorities/Chinese [computer file]. 2006 Census. Statistics Canada [producer]. Canadian Census Analyser [database]. CHASS [distributor]. Retrieved November 28, 2012, from http://dc.chass.utoronto.ca.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca/census/ (restricted access)

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APPENDICES

Appendix A Focus Group Documents

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Appendix A.1 Recruitment Poster

FOCUS GROUP VOLUNTEERS NEEDED! For a study about “Metro Vancouver Chinese Consumers’ Attitudes, Preferences, and Buying Behaviour toward Duck and Quail Eggs and Egg Products”

Purpose: UBC Researchers are conducting this study to explore the market for, and Metro Vancouver Chinese consumer behaviour with respect to, duck and quail eggs and egg products.

Procedure: Volunteers will participate in a guided focus group discussion about duck and quail egg products in which your honest opinions, thoughts, and feelings will be sought. No taste testing required. Minimal/no risk involved.

Commitment: Participants are asked to commit to attend one focus group session only of approximately 2 ½ hours in duration.

Who Can Volunteer? Adults 19 yrs and older, of Chinese ethnicity or ancestry (immigrants to Canada or born in Canada), who are familiar with duck and/or quail egg products.

Participants will receive a $30 gift card for their time commitment If you, or a family member or friend, are interested in contributing to this study, please call Jennifer at xxx-xxx-xxxx or email [email protected] for more information and to sign up. (Version 1, July 2009; Page 1 of 1)

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UBC Study Call Jen Call Study UBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @ StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @xxxxx StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @ StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @ StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @ StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @ StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @ StudyUBC xxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx @

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Appendix A.2 Focus Group Screening Form Duck and quail egg focus group screening form

Date: ______Researcher: Jennifer Arthur Name: ______phone #: ______Or email address: ______

Thank you for agreeing to be screened for the Duck and Quail Egg Study. I will ask you a few questions to find out if you are eligible to participate. Please be assured that the information you provide will be kept confidential. Only the study coordinator, Dr. Kim Cheng, and I will have access to it. If you are not included in the study, this information sheet will be shredded. If you participate, this information sheet will be kept in a locked filing cabinet. You are not required to answer any of the questions if you are not comfortable with them.

Could you please describe to me how familiar you are with duck and quail eggs and products? ______Do you live in Metro Vancouver? Yes ____ No ___ (if no end screening and destroy this page) Are you a male ___ or female ___, of Chinese ethnicity or ancestry? Yes ____ No ____ no answer ____ Not Chinese ethnicity or ancestry? _____ (end screening and destroy this page) Were you born in Canada? Yes ___ No ___ no answer ___ If not, in what year did you immigrate to Canada? ______no answer _____ How old were you when you immigrated to Canada? ______(age or description), no answer __ To ensure we get representation from different age groups, could you please indicate which of the following age groups you belong to now:

19 to 24 years _____ 40 to 49 _____ 70 + _____ 25 to 29 _____ 50 to 59 _____ No answer _____ 30 to 39 _____ 60 to 69 _____

Page 1

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Duck and quail egg focus group screening form

Highest level of education you have completed?

___ Less than high school ___ High school completion ___ Some post-secondary ___ University degree or College diploma or Apprenticeship/trade papers ___ Graduate degree ___ No answer

What time is best for attending a focus group?

Weekday evening _____ Preferred day ______Weekend: Sat. ____ Sun. ____ a.m. ____ p.m. ____ or Don’t Know ______

Preferred location? Oakridge _____ Kensington ______Richmond ______Don’t Know ___

 We may or may not need your participation, since we are trying to include a wide diversity of people of Chinese ethnicity or ancestry.  We will get back to you shortly to confirm your interest and schedule the focus group, or to let you know we already have enough participants.  Do you have any more questions about the study?

Notes: ______

Date: ______Person re-contacted to tell them they are ____ included ____not included in the study

Participant ID#: ______(If excluded, this sheet must be shredded)

Page 2

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Appendix A.3 Focus Group Consent Forms Consent Form

Focus Group Participant for the Study

“Metro Vancouver Chinese Consumers' Attitudes, Preferences, and Buying Behaviour toward Duck and Quail Eggs and Egg Products: An

Exploratory Study” Principal Investigator:

Dr. Kim Cheng, Faculty of Land and Food Systems (Animal Science), xxx-xxx-xxxx

Co-Investigators:

Jennifer Arthur, graduate student, Faculty of Land and Food Systems (Animal Science) xxx-xxx-xxxx Dr. Gwen Chapman, Faculty of Land and Food Systems (Food, Nutrition, and Health) xxx-xxx-xxxx Dr. James Vercammen, Faculty of Land and Food Systems (Food and Resource Economics Group) xxx-xxx-xxxx Ms. Kelleen Wiseman, Instructor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems xxx-xxx-xxxx

Other Study Team Members:

Dr. Brent Skura, Faculty of Land and Food Systems (Food, Nutrition, and Health) xxx-xxx-xxxx

This research study is being conducted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Science degree for Jennifer Arthur. Information collected will form part of a graduate thesis, which will become a public document. In addition to Jennifer Arthur, only the Principal Investigator and the other Co- investigators will have access to the records of this research. Your participation will provide important knowledge about the Chinese market for duck and quail eggs and egg products and may uncover opportunities to better serve the wants and needs of consumers for these food products.

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Sponsor:

Funding for this study has been provided in the form of a grant from the British Columbia Specialty Birds Research Committee. There is no conflict or potential conflict of interest on the part of the researchers or sponsors.

Purpose:

This study is for exploratory purposes. It will help the researchers learn and understand more about Chinese consumers’ perceptions, attitudes, and preferences for duck and quail eggs and egg products; how and why Chinese consumers buy and consume the products; and, how acculturation impacts traditional food habits. Information gathered will be used to help plan and design a future, separate, quantitative questionnaire survey study.

You are being invited to take part in this research study because you are familiar, through use or purchase, with duck and/or quail egg products; you are 19 years of age or older; and you are a Metro Vancouver resident of Chinese ethnicity or descent and either immigrated to Canada or were born in Canada.

Study Procedures:

This study will be conducted using focus group discussions. A focus group is a group of 7 to 10 people who are invited to informally discuss a topic in depth, guided by a moderator, Jennifer Arthur. The discussions will be in English, however for immigrants, an interpreter will be present to assist. Part of the discussion will include a brain-storming and product ranking exercise. The ranking exercise is very simple and will be done on paper.

If you choose to participate in this study, the discussion topic will be duck and quail eggs and egg products. Your own honest thoughts, feelings, and opinions about the topic are encouraged. There are no right or wrong answers; all points of view will be respected.

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You are requested to participate in one focus group discussion only. Light snacks and refreshments will be available at no charge. You may refuse to answer any question or you may withdraw from the discussion and study at any time without explanation and without any consequence to yourself.

The group discussion will be audio-recorded and transcribed, and the files will remain confidential, stored on a secure, password protected computer at UBC, with no identifying information such as your full name or contact information revealed. In the transcripts, group participants will be code named to protect your privacy. Please note, however, that conversation from the focus group discussion may be anonymously quoted in the final Thesis report or any other reports published about the study.

Risks Involved:

There is minimal risk to taking part in this study. You will not be asked to taste or eat any of the products. The focus group moderator will ensure that the conversation stays on-topic and that all thoughts and opinions will be respected. Your name, any contact details, and any other identifying characteristics will not be published and will remain confidential.

Benefits Involved:

By taking part in this study, you may benefit by having your voice heard regarding traditional food products used in Chinese cuisine. Chinese consumers may benefit as a whole from this study as it may identify opportunities to provide you with better products or means of delivering those products that will meet your wants and needs. In addition, this study will contribute to a better understanding of how people of Chinese ethnicity or descent change or maintain traditional Chinese cultural food habits. You may also feel a sense of satisfaction from your participation.

If you would like an electronic copy, or notification of how to access a paper copy of the completed Thesis, please enter your email or mailing address at the bottom of the consent form. Please note that by supplying your email or mailing address, your identity and contact information will no longer remain anonymous to the researchers. Information supplied, however, will not be shared with any other party, will not be published, and will remain in a secure locked filing cabinet at the University of British Columbia.

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Confidentiality:

Only first names will be used during the focus group discussion and all participants will be identified in the transcripts by a code name only. The electronic audio and transcript files will be stored on a secure, password protected computer and paper copies of the transcript and ranking exercise will be kept in a locked filing cabinet at the University of British Columbia. Subjects will not be identified by name in any reports of the completed study.

However, please note that only limited confidentiality can be offered in focus groups, as we cannot control what other participants do with the information discussed. We encourage all participants to refrain from disclosing the contents of the discussion outside of the focus group; however, we cannot control what other participants do with the information discussed.

Honorarium:

In order to defray the costs of inconvenience, transportation, and your time for participating in the study, you will receive an honorarium in the amount of a $30 gift certificate from your choice of T &T Supermarket or Superstore.

Questions:

If you have any questions or would like further information with respect to this study, you may contact Jennifer Arthur at the Avian Research Centre, UBC at xxx-xxx-xxxx or the Principal Investigator, Dr. Kim Cheng at xxx-xxx-xxxx.

If you have any concerns about your treatment or rights as a research subject, you may contact the Research Subject Information Line in the UBC Office of Research Services at 604-822-8598 or if long distance e-mail to [email protected].

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Consent:

Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary and you may refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time without jeopardy.

Your signature below indicates that you have received a copy of this consent form for your own records.

Your signature indicates that you consent to participate in this study.

______Subject Signature Date

______Printed Name of the Subject

Yes, I would like to receive an electronic copy of the completed study. Please email to ______or please notify me by mail when and where I may access a paper copy of the Thesis once it is published: ______

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卑詩大學農學院禽類研究中心

同意書

專題研究小組參與者

溫哥華華裔消費者對鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋及蛋類產品的看法、偏好以及購買習慣：一份探討性的調查

總調查員：

Dr. Kim Cheng (鄭明德博士), 卑詩大學農學院禽類研究中心教授 xxx-xxx-xxxx

助理調查員：

Jennifer Arthur, 卑詩大學農學院禽類研究中心碩士研究生 xxx-xxx-xxxx Dr. Gwen Chapman, 卑詩大學農學院食物營養系教授 xxx-xxx-xxxx Dr. James Vercammen, 卑詩大學農學院農業經濟系教授 xxx-xxx-xxxx Kelleen Wiseman, 卑詩大學農學院講師 xxx-xxx-xxxx

其他研究成員 :

Dr. Brent Skura, 卑詩大學農學院食物營養系教授 xxx-xxx-xxxx

此項調查研究是 Jennifer Arthur 修讀碩士學位的部分課程要求。所收集的資料將納入畢業論文並成為公開報告。除了 Jennifer Arthur 以外，只有總研究員及助理研究員才有權閱覽調查記錄。閣下的參與將有助于我們了解華人市場對鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋以及蛋類產品的寶貴意見；並可能進一步開發這類產品的商機以滿足消費者的需求。

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贊助者：

這次調查的經費是由卑詩省另類禽种研究委員會以撥款的型式提供。研究員與贊助者之間不存在現有或未來的任何利益沖突。

目的：

這份研究屬于探討性質。研究員可以藉此探討及了解華人消費者對鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋及蛋類產品的認識、態度及偏好；華人消費者為何及如何購買、使用此類產品；外來飲食文化給現存飲食所帶來的沖擊。所收集的資料將用來計劃和設計未來一項更大型調查研究的問卷。

邀請你參與此次調查的理由，是因為你在購買和使用鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋方面有經驗，你的年齡超過 19 歲；居住在溫哥華，而擁有華裔血統的新移民或在本地出身的人士。

調查程序：

調查會以專題小組討論的方式進行。7 至 10 名參與者會被邀請加入專題小組，在輕鬆的氣氛下由主持人 Jennifer.Arthur 帶領進行深入的討論。英語將作為討論語言，新移民會有傳譯員從旁協助。部分的討論會以群策群力和產品評級的型式進行。以書面方式進行的產品評級將會非常簡單。

假如你選擇參與這項研究的話，討論主題會是鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋及蛋類產品。我們鼓勵大家就這個主題知無不言、直抒己見。意見是沒有對或錯的，所有的觀點都會得到尊重。您只需要參加一個專題小組。屆時會有飲料和點心供應。在討論期間，您可以隨時選擇終止討論或拒絕回答問題，無需解釋理由亦不用承擔任何后果。

討論過程會全部會被錄音並記錄在案，檔案會以保密及需用密碼才能開啟的型式存儲在卑詩大學的電腦裏，閣下的姓名及聯絡資料都不會公開。記錄裏，參與者都會以代碼代替，以保障您的私隱。但是，討論中交談的內容可能會以匿名的方式在總結論文或其它公開的報告裏出現。

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風險：

參與此項調查所面對的風險極低至無。我們不會要求你嘗試或進食任何產品。專題小組的主持人會確保討論不離題，而所有的觀點與意見都會得到尊重。閣下的姓名、聯絡資料以及任何可供識別的特徵都會保密而不會公開。

存在利益：

您對中國烹飪所採用傳統食物的意見會通過這次調查獲得聆聽，這對您是有利的。此項研究對全體華裔消費者也會有好處，因為他們可能因此而獲得更優良或者更迎合自己要求的產品。此外，此項研究可以幫助外界了解華裔人士及其后代到底保存了多少傳統飲食習慣。參與此項研究也可能給您帶來滿足感。

如果您想獲取完成后的論文的電子副本，或者想要一份書面副本的話，請在同意書下方填上您的電郵地址或通訊地址。一旦填上您的名字、地址的話，調查人員便會知道您的資料。不過，這些資料是絕不會透露給任何其他人，也不會對外公布，只會鎖在卑詩大學的保密文件柜中。

保密：

在專題小組討論期間，我們稱呼參與者時不會提及姓氏，在書面記錄中，各參與者都會以代號代替。錄音記錄及檔案會以保密及需用密碼才能開啟的型式存儲在卑詩大學的電腦裏，而書面文件及評級記錄也會存儲在卑詩大學裏上鎖的文件柜中。研究完成后，當事人的姓名都不會在任何報告中出現。

然而，在專題小組中我們不能保證百分之百保密，因為參與者如何處理討論的內容是不受我們控制的。我們鼓勵所有參與者不要把討論內容向專題小組以外透露，但是我們控制不了個別參與者如何處理討論內容。

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報酬：

為了彌補閣下因參與研究而引起的不便以及付出的時間和交通費，我們會贈送大統華或 SUPERSTORE 超級市場價值 30 元的購物劵，兩者任選其一。

疑問：

閣下如對此項研究有任何疑問，請致電卑詩大學禽類研究中心的 Jennifer Arthur（xxx-xxxxxxx）或總研究員 Dr. Kim Cheng (鄭明德博士)（xxx-xxx-xxxx）。

假如您對作為研究當事人的權利或所受待遇有疑問，請致電 604-822-8598 聯絡卑詩大學研究服務辦公室屬下的研究當事人咨詢熱線，境外人士可電郵至

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同意書：

閣下的參與是完全自愿的，您可以拒絕參加或者隨時中途退出。

下列的簽名表示您已收到此同意書的副本作為記錄。

您的簽署也表示同意參與此項研究。

當事人簽署日期

當事人全名

口我希望在研究結束后獲取一份電子副本。請電郵至 ______或以郵遞方式通知我如何在論文完成時取得書面副本。

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Appendix A.4 Focus Group Topic Guide * Caveat: based upon the content and context of participants’ discussion, additional probes may arise that are not listed below. Exact wordings of the planned questions and probe may also change slightly if participants require clarification or elaboration. The intent will not change.

Welcome and Introduction Welcome, introductions (first name only), and explanation of how the discussion will be conducted and the need for honesty, respect, and confidentiality. Reassure that anyone may choose to refuse to participate in any part of the focus group or may choose to leave or withdraw from the study at any time if they wish without explanation or consequence.

Introduce the topic for discussion and the purpose of the study: Duck and quail eggs and egg products; to explore Chinese consumers’ attitudes, perceptions, preferences, consumption, and buying behavior towards duck and quail eggs and egg products.

Discussion about the Products To start, let’s just talk about duck and quail eggs and eggs in general. Can you tell me about how you use eggs within your home? [Probe for common themes/differences; individual preferences within a family.]

Product attribute (characteristic) brain storming exercise and individual rankings: Let’s brainstorm a bit about duck eggs, including preserved and salted. What are some characteristics of the ______egg that come to mind? [Discuss duck preserved and salted eggs, and repeat for fresh quail eggs. See page 2 for details].

Now I would to discuss in a bit more detail some of your perceptions and attitudes towards duck and quail egg products. [Probe based on brainstorming results and include probes about healthy/unhealthy, nutritious/or not, convenient or not, safe to eat, old fashioned or not, tasty or not, country or origin preferences vs. local, etc. Repeat for quail eggs and products. Probe for comparisons to chicken eggs and products.]

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Why do you buy and/or consume duck and/or quail egg products, or not? [Probe for reasons, how frequently, and for changes over time and why, for example changes due to acculturation; family attitudes, especially children, towards traditional Chinese cuisine. Probe for substitution with chicken egg versions.

Discussion about Place (Where bought or consumed) Where do you typically find these products? [Probe for specifics of where they like to buy or consume them and why or why not. Probe for places they would like to buy or consume them but currently cannot.]

Discussion about Price What about price? What do you think about the price of the products? [Probe for perceptions of expensive versus good value for money and any willingness to pay more or less and why.]

Discussion about Promotion What about brand names, can you recall any brand names? [Probe for importance of brand names, country or province of origin.]

Can you find or are you aware of these products being on sale or other promotions, such as discount coupons, available for them? [Probe for importance and role promotion may play in stimulating purchase.]

Wrap Up and Request for Suggestions Under what circumstances would you increase your consumption of these products? [Probe for market opportunities.]

Is there anything else you that we have not covered in our discussion that you would like to contribute? [Probe for ideas to improve/grow the market for duck and quail egg products.]

Thank participants for their time and contributions. Answer any questions. Distribute gift certificates. Adjourn the meeting.

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Product Attribute Brainstorming and Ranking Exercise Details Flip charts and/or a white board will be used to write down all the product attributes/characteristics that participants brainstorm. If necessary a couple of examples will be given, such as freshness or price, to get participants started. Next, each participant will be given a blank form and will be asked to rank, in order of importance for each egg type, the top three most important product attributes and the lowest three, least important product attributes when evaluating the products for purchase. This part is an individual, private ranking, which will not be shared with the group. The ranked lists will be analyzed later.

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Appendix A.5 Results of Focus Group Ranking Exercises

Preserved duck eggs - IM group

1 Ranked 1st Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd 0 Ranked 3rd

Product characteristics

Figure A.1 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying preserved duck eggs, immigrant group

Preserved duck eggs - BIC group 4

2 Ranked 1st Ranked 2nd

Number of votes Number 1 Ranked 3rd

0 Nutrition Price COO Freshness Package size Packaging info material Product characteristics

Figure A.2 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying preserved duck eggs, born in Canada group

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Preserved duck eggs - IM group

1 Ranked last Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd last 0 Ranked 3rd last

Product characteristics

Figure A.3 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying preserved duck eggs, immigrant group

Preserved duck eggs - BIC group

1 Ranked last Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd last 0 Ranked 3rd last

Product characteristics

Figure A.4 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying preserved duck eggs, born in Canada group

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Salted duck eggs - IM Group 6

3 Ranked 1st 2 Ranked 2nd

Number of votes Number 1 Ranked 3rd 0

Product characteristics

Figure A.5 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics when buying salted duck eggs, immigrant group

Salted duck eggs - BIC Group 4.5 4

3.5 3 2.5 2 Ranked 1st

1.5 Ranked 2nd Number of votes Number 1 Ranked 3rd 0.5 0 Nutrition Price Brand Freshness COO Package Packaging info size material Product characteristics

Figure A.6 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics when bying salted duck eggs, born in Canada group

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Salted duck eggs - IM group

1 Ranked last Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd last 0 Ranked 3rd last

Product characteristics

Figure A.7 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying salted duck eggs, immigrant group

Salted duck eggs - BIC group

1 Ranked last Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd last 0 Ranked 3rd last

Product characteristics

Figure A.8 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics when buying salted duck eggs, born in Canada group

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Fresh quail eggs - IM group

1 Ranked 1st Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd 0 Ranked 3rd

Product characteristics

Figure A.9 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying fresh quail eggs, immigrant group

Fresh quail eggs - BIC group

Ranked 1st

1 Ranked 2nd Number of votes Number Ranked 3rd

0 Freshness Nutrition Package Price COO Quality Visibility info size Product characteristics

Figure A.10 Rankings of the top three most important product characteristics considered when buying fresh quail eggs, born in Canada group

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Fresh quail eggs - IM group

Ranked last

1 Ranked 2nd last Number of votes Number Ranked 3rd last

0 Price Importer COO Organic Package Brand Freshness size Product characteristics

Figure A.11 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics considered when buying fresh quail eggs, immigrant group

Fresh quail eggs - BIC group

Ranked last Number of votes Number Ranked 2nd last 0 Ranked 3rd last

Product characteristics

Figure A.12 Rankings of the three least important product characteristics considered when purchasing fresh quail eggs, born in Canada group

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Appendix B Survey Documents

Appendix B.1 Invitation Prenotice – English and Chinese

Dear :

I am writing to ask for your help with an important study being conducted by the University of British Columbia Faculty of Land and Food Systems: “The Metro Vancouver Chinese Market for Specialty Duck and Quail Egg Products: A Survey of Household Purchases and Consumption, Attitudes and Preferences.”

The best way we have of learning about these traditional Chinese foods is by asking both immigrants and those born in Canada of Chinese ancestry to share their thoughts and opinions. This study aims to understand household use of these traditional foods, how acculturation and household characteristics affect consumption, and what opportunities may exist to improve duck and quail egg products. You will not have to be a buyer of these products to participate.

Your household is one of a small sample, randomly selected from local telephone directories. In the next few days you will receive a request to participate in this project by answering a questionnaire about duck and quail egg products. This is for academic purposes only and participation is voluntary and confidential.

We would like to do everything we can to make it easy and enjoyable for you to participate in the study. I am writing in advance because many people like to know ahead of time that they will be asked to fill out a questionnaire. If you do not wish to receive the questionnaire at all, please contact Jennifer Arthur at XXX- XXX-XXXX or xxxxxxxx@xxxxxxx.

This research can only be successful with the generous help of people like you. To say thanks, as a small token of our appreciation, you will have the option to enter a draw to win one of five $100 Visa gift cards. Most of all, I hope that you will enjoy the questionnaire and the opportunity to voice your thoughts and opinions about these traditional Chinese food products.

Best wishes,

Kim Cheng Professor

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敬啟者：

為了解大溫地區的華人家庭在購買及食用鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物時的態度及喜好，在此我誠邀閣下參與一項由卑詩大學農學院進行的重要研究。

收集擁有華裔血統的移民及土生土長的華裔人士的意見，成為我們深入了解這些傳統中國食物的最佳途徑。此項研究旨在讓我們更深入地了解大溫家庭食用這些傳統中國食物的情況，以及外來飲食文化及家庭結構給現存飲食所帶來的沖擊。與此同時，我們更可探討那些可改進鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物的商機。閣下無須一定有購買這些蛋類食物的習慣才能參與此項調查。

我們透過本地電話簿，以隨機抽樣方法，選出閣下的家庭成為這項小規模調查的對象之一。在未來數天，你將會收到一份邀請你參與此項有關鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋市場調查的問卷，我們十分希望能聽取你的寶貴意見。此乃一項學術性調查，你的參與純屬自願，而且絕對保密。

我謹在此預先通知閣下，你已獲邀參與我們的問卷調查。我們將竭盡所能，務求令閣下的參與成為一個愉快的經驗。假若閣下不欲收到我們的問卷，請致電 xxx-xxx-xxxx 與Jennifer Arthur聯絡, 或請以電郵與我們聯繫（xxxxxx@xxxxxxxxxx）。

這項研究成功與否，有賴一班像閣下一樣熱心的人士的全力支持。為感謝閣下的支持，你將有機會參加抽獎，成為五位得獎者其中一位，贏取$100元的現金禮券。當然，我更希望你能藉著這個機會對這些傳統中國食物知無不言、直抒己見，並能從參與中得到一些滿足感。

謹祝身體健康、生活愉快！

卑詩大學農學院教授

鄭明德謹啟 Dr. Kim Cheng

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Appendix B.2 Survey Cover Letter – English and Chinese

Dear :

I am writing to ask for your help with our study, “The Metro Vancouver Chinese Market for Specialty Duck and Quail Egg Products: A Survey of Household Purchases and Consumption, Attitudes and Preferences.” This ground-breaking study is the first of its kind in North America and as a small token of appreciation, at the end of the survey you will find an area to fill out if you wish to enter a draw for one of five $100 Visa gift card prizes.

The best way we have of learning about these traditional Chinese foods is by asking both immigrants and those born in Canada of Chinese ancestry to share their thoughts and opinions. Your address is one of a small random sample being asked to contribute your point of view. You do not have to be a buyer of these products to participate, however to qualify for this survey at least one adult of ethnic Chinese background or ancestry must live in your household. If your household does not have an adult member of Chinese ethnic ancestry, please disregard this request to participate in the survey.

This research is to better understand household use of these traditional Chinese food products, how acculturation and household characteristics affect consumption, and what opportunities may exist to improve duck and quail egg products. The data from this survey will be used as part of a Master’s thesis completed within the Faculty of Land and Food Systems at The University of British Columbia. A free electronic copy of the thesis will be available upon its completion, from http://circle.ubc.ca/.

Please note the following:

1. The adult, 19 years of age or older, who is most responsible for grocery shopping for your household should fill out the questionnaire 2. The questionnaire should take between 15 to 25 minutes to complete depending on which parts you need to answer 3. Your participation in this study is completely voluntary: completion of the survey indicates your consent to participate in this research. There are no foreseeable risks associated with this project, but if you feel uncomfortable you may refuse to participate in full, or in part by skipping questions that you are not comfortable with, without any consequence to yourself. If you do not wish to participate at all and do not wish to receive a reminder, please call Jennifer Arthur at 604-822-3959 4. Your survey responses will be confidential and data from this research will be reported only in the aggregate and for academic research purposes only. Your name, address, or individual responses will never be published or shared with anyone else. Only study team researchers will have access to survey data.

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5. Surveys are individually coded solely to prevent the analysis of any duplicate surveys we might receive. A key linking codes to addresses will be destroyed at the close of the survey period, prior to data analysis, thereby ensuring the confidentiality of your responses.

If you have any questions at any time about the survey or the procedures, you may contact us by email at: xxxxxxx@xxxxxxxx or telephone Jennifer Arthur at the UBC Avian Research Centre at xxx-xxxxxxx or Dr. Kim Cheng at xxx-xxx-xxxx.

This study has been reviewed and approved by the UBC Ethics Review Board. If you have any questions about your rights as a participant in this study, you may contact the UBC Office of Research Services at 604-822-8581.

Thank you again for considering this request – your opinions are important to us. I hope you enjoy completing the questionnaire and look forward to receiving your responses. Please return the questionnaire by .

Sincerely,

Kim Cheng Professor

Study Team Researchers: Ms. Jennifer Arthur, Graduate Student, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. Gwen Chapman, Associate Professor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. Kim Cheng, Professor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. Brent Skura, Associate Dean Academic, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. James Vercammen, Professor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Ms. Kelleen Wiseman, Instructor, Faculty of Land and Food System

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敬啟者：

為了解大溫地區的華人家庭在購買及食用鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物時的態度及喜好，在此我誠邀閣下參與我們的一項學術性研究。此研究乃北美首項有關鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋市場的研究，開創同類研究的先河。為感謝閣下的支持，你將有機會參加抽獎，成為五位得獎者其中一位，贏取$100元的現金禮券。假若閣下想參加抽獎，請在附上的問卷末段填上你的聯絡資料。

收集擁有華裔血統的移民及土生土長的華裔人士的意見，成為我們深入了解這些傳統中國食物的最佳途徑。我們透過本地電話簿，以隨機抽樣方法，選出閣下的家庭成為這項小規模調查的對象之一，我們十分希望能聽取你的寶貴意見。要符合參與此項調查的資格，你家中成員必須最少有一名成年人擁有華裔血統，但無須一定有購買這些蛋類食物的習慣。假若你家中沒有任何成年人擁有華裔血統，請無須理會這份調查邀請書。

此項研究可讓我們更深入地了解大溫家庭食用這些傳統中國食物的情況，以及外來飲食文化及家庭結構給現存飲食所帶來的沖擊。與此同時，我們更可探討那些可改進鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物的商機。調查的數據將成為卑詩大學農學院的碩士論文的一部份，待完成後閣下可於http://circle.ubc.ca/ 免費瀏覽該論文的電子版本。

參與此項調查，請注意下列事項： 問卷必須由家中年滿19 歲或以上、最常負責購買食物的成年人填寫。 看你需答那部份，你只需花大概15至25分鐘即可完成這份問卷。

參與此項研究純屬自願：填妥這份問卷即表示你同意參與。此項研究不存在可預見的風險，但假若你感到不自在，你可以完全不參與，或局部參與、選擇性地只對那些你感到自在的問題作答，而無須負上任何責任。假若你不想參與這項調查，亦不希望收到稍後的書面提醒，請致電xxx-xxx- xxxx與 Jennifer Arthur聯絡。 你提供的任何資料將會絕對保密；收集所得的資料只會以整體形式發表，作為學術研究之用。閣下的姓名、地址及個人意見永遠不會公開；所有資料亦只有相關的研究小組成員有權閱覽。

為免將重複收集到的問卷錯誤地納入分析範圍，我們將為每份問卷輸入一個代碼。這個與地址有關連的代碼將會在問卷調查階段完成，而數據分析尚未展開之前銷毀，以確保你提供的資料絕對保密。

閣下如對此項研究及其程序有任何疑問，請以電郵與我們聯繫（xxxxxxxx@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx），或致電卑詩大學禽類研究中心的 Jennifer Arthur（xxx-xxx-xxxx）或 Dr. Kim Cheng（鄭明德教授： xxx-xxx-xxxx）查詢。

此項研究已獲卑詩大學的道德審查委員會（UBC Ethics Review Board）審批。假若閣下對你作為此項研究的參與者的權利有任何疑問，歡迎致電 604-822-8581卑詩大學研究服務中心（UBC Office of Research Services）查詢。最後，我謹在此再次強調你的意見對我們非常重要，希望你能接受我們的邀請，愉快地參與我們的調查，並熱切期盼能早日收到你的回應。請在本年X月X曰前交回問卷。 237

卑詩大學農學院教授禽類研究中心主任

鄭明德謹啟 Dr. Kim Cheng

研究小組成員: Ms. Jennifer Arthur, Graduate Student, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. Gwen Chapman, Associate Professor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. Kim Cheng, Professor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. Brent Skura, Associate Dean Academics, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Dr. James Vercammen, Professor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems Ms. Kelleen Wiseman, Instructor, Faculty of Land and Food Systems

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Appendix B.3 Survey Questionnaire – English and Chinese

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“The Metro Vancouver Chinese Market for Specialty Duck and Quail Egg Products: A Survey of Household Purchases and Consumption, Attitudes and Preferences.”

Welcome to the first-ever academic study of duck and quail egg consumption in North America. You have a chance to win one of five $100 Visa gift card draw prizes!

This survey is to be completed by the person (19 years or older) most responsible for grocery shopping for your household. At least one adult member of your household must be of Chinese ethnic ancestry for your household to participate in the survey. Participation is voluntary and you may skip any questions you are not comfortable with. For more information, please see the enclosed letter. Please return the questionnaire by .

To easily and accurately complete our survey, please keep in mind and use the following definitions throughout:

Important! When we refer to the eggs, unless otherwise stated, we mean the eggs alone. We do not mean prepared foods or dishes that may contain duck or quail egg products (e.g. moon cakes or congee). When we want to know about prepared foods or dishes that contain duck or quail eggs we will describe them as such, or as “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs” or “duck or quail eggs in any form.”

Salted duck egg: a duck egg that has been cured in brine or a salted paste so that the whole egg absorbs the salt. Sold in the shell (raw or cooked) or in packages of yolks only.

Preserved duck egg: (“Century eggs”) a duck egg that has been covered in a special paste that “cooks” the egg, turning the white into a gelatinous and translucent brown tea colour and the yolk into a green-gray colour. Sold ready to use in the shell.

Fresh quail egg: very small speckled brown and white egg from the quail bird. Sold raw in the shell

Other quail egg: quail eggs that have been canned, smoked, pickled, etc. Sold ready to use.

Instructions:

1) Please complete one survey only, in the language of your choice, English or Chinese.

2) To answer questions, please print an “x” in the appropriate boxes unless otherwise instructed.

3) If you have any questions or comments about the survey or are having difficulty completing it, please contact Jennifer Arthur by email at [email protected] or xxx-xxx-xxxx.

Let’s begin! 1. Thinking back over the past 12 months, please indicate which of the following duck and quail eggs have been purchased for household use. Please select ALL that apply. Salted duck eggs Preserved duck eggs If at least one of these was purchased, please go to PART A, pg. 2 Fresh quail eggs Other quail eggs Foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs If these were the only purchase, please skip to PART B, pg. 8 I/we have not purchased ANY of the above for home use in the past year Please skip to PART C, pg. 9

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PART A In this section we are interested in understanding purchases of duck and quail eggs for home consumption.

1. Thinking back over the past twelve months, approximately how often were duck or quail eggs purchased for your household’s use? (Please select ONE answer for EACH egg type.)

I/we didn’t Every 1-2 Once a Every 2 Every 3-4 Once or

buy weeks month months months twice a year Salted duck Preserved duck Fresh quail Other quail

2. Compared to one year ago, would you say that your household purchases of duck or quail eggs are currently increasing, decreasing, or not changing? (Please select ONE answer for EACH egg type.)

I/we don’t Decreasing Decreasing Increasing Increasing No change buy a lot a little a little a lot Salted duck Preserved duck Fresh quail Other quail

3. What package size of duck or quail eggs is purchased most often for your household? (Please describe for each egg type. For example, package of 6 eggs, a 425g can, etc.)

I/we do not

buy Salted duck or, ______

Preserved duck or, ______

Fresh quail or, ______

Other quail or, ______

4. Please indicate, as best as you can remember, the total number of duck eggs or fresh quail eggs that were purchased over the past year for your household. For example if you bought seven cartons of six salted duck eggs, enter 42 in the salted duck egg box. (Please print the number in the space provided for EACH egg type.)

I/we didn’t buy

Salted duck (number of eggs)

Preserved duck (number of eggs)

Fresh quail (number of eggs) 241

5. Please indicate, as best as you can remember, the total number of packages of other quail eggs that were purchased over the past year for your household. (Please print the number of cans, jars, and other package types as appropriate.)

I/we Total number of packages: didn’t buy Other quail eggs – number of jars Other quail eggs – number of cans Other quail eggs – number of Please describe: ______

other package type(s) ______

6. Where does your household usually purchase duck or quail eggs? (Please select ALL that apply.)

Salted Duck Preserved Duck Fresh Quail Other Quail I/we don’t buy H-Mart Independent Asian Grocery store Superstore (Real Canadian Superstore) T&T Supermarket Osaka Farmer’s market/farm gate Other (please describe) ______

7. Please rank your household’s top two occasions for purchasing duck or quail eggs. (Please rank by entering the number 1 for your top choice and 2 for your second choice, in the appropriate boxes for EACH egg type.)

Salted Preserved Fresh Other

Duck Duck Quail Quail I/we don’t buy No particular occasion/reason, usual meal planning Special celebrations (e.g. birthdays, anniversaries, new job) Chinese festivals (e.g. Chinese New Year, Autumn Moon Festival) Other celebratory holidays (e.g. Canada Day, Christmas) Entertaining family or friends, other than as listed above Other, please describe: ______

8. What variety of salted duck eggs does your household usually purchase? (Please select ALL that apply.) I/we don’t buy salted duck eggs for home consumption Skip to question 11.

Fresh whole salted duck eggs (raw, uncooked) Whole salted duck eggs (cooked) Salted duck egg yolks

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9. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 the level of importance of each of the following product characteristics when purchasing salted duck eggs. (Please select ONE answer for EACH characteristic, with 1= Not at all important and 5=Very important.)

Not at all Very Important Important 1 2 3 4 5 Price Brand name ‘Packaged on’ date Best before date Country of origin Nutrition label Local product Organic product

10. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 your response to each of the following statements about salted duck eggs. (Please select only ONE answer for EACH statement, with 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree.)

Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 I/we trust that salted duck eggs imported from Asia meet

Canadian food safety standards Salted duck eggs are part of a healthy diet

Salted duck eggs are nutritious

Salted duck eggs are convenient to use

Salted duck eggs are a specialty item I/we are satisfied with the quality of the salted duck eggs we purchase I/we limit purchases of salted duck eggs because we do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes I/we limit purchases of salted duck eggs because there are not many recipes that they can be used in I/we limit purchases of salted duck eggs because not many people in my household will eat them I/we avoid purchasing salted duck eggs if they are imported from China I/we limit purchases of salted duck eggs because of cholesterol concerns I/we limit purchases of salted duck eggs because of sodium concerns I/we limit purchases of salted duck eggs because of lead contamination concerns

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11. What variety of preserved duck eggs does your household usually purchase? (Please select ALL that apply.) I/we don’t buy preserved duck eggs for home consumption Skip to question 14 Hard yolk variety Soft yolk variety

12. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 the level of importance of each of the following product characteristics when purchasing preserved duck eggs. (Please select ONE answer for EACH characteristic, with 1 = Not at all important and 5 = Very important.)

Not at all Very Important Important 1 2 3 4 5 Price Brand name ‘Packaged on’ date Best before date Country of origin Nutrition label Local product Organic product

13. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 your response to each of the following statements about preserved duck eggs. (Please select only ONE answer for EACH statement, with 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree.)

Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 I/we trust that preserved duck eggs imported from Asia meet

Canadian food safety standards Preserved duck eggs are part of a healthy diet

Preserved duck eggs are nutritious

Preserved duck eggs are convenient to use

Preserved duck eggs are a specialty item I/we are satisfied with the quality of the preserved duck eggs we purchase I/we limit purchases of preserved duck eggs because we do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes I/we limit purchases of preserved duck eggs because there are not many recipes that they can be used in I/we limit purchases of preserved duck eggs because not many people in my household will eat them I/we avoid purchasing preserved duck eggs if they are imported from China I/we limit purchases of preserved duck eggs because of cholesterol concerns I/we limit purchases of preserved duck eggs because of sodium concerns I/we limit purchases of preserved duck eggs because of lead contamination concerns 244

14. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 the level of importance of each of the following product characteristics when purchasing fresh quail eggs. (Please select ONE answer for EACH characteristic, with 1 = Not at all important and 5 = Very important.)

I/we don’t buy fresh quail eggs for home consumption Skip to question 16.

Not at all Very Important Important 1 2 3 4 5 Price Brand name ‘Packaged on’ date Best before date Country of origin Nutrition label Local product Organic product No cracks or thin shells

15. Please rate on a scale of 1 to 5 your response to each of the following statements about fresh quail eggs. (Please select only ONE answer for EACH statement, with 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree.)

Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Fresh quail eggs are part of a healthy diet

Fresh quail eggs are nutritious

Fresh quail eggs are convenient to use

Fresh quail eggs are a specialty item I/we are satisfied with the quality of the fresh quail eggs we purchase I/we limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because we do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes I/we limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because there are not many recipes that they can be used in I/we limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because not many people in my household will eat them I/we limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because of cholesterol concerns I/we limit purchases of fresh quail eggs because there are too many in a package

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16. What variety of other quail eggs does your household usually purchase? (Please select ALL that apply.) I/we don’t buy other quail eggs for home consumption Skip to Part B

Canned quail eggs Pickled quail eggs Smoked quail eggs Other (please describe): ______

17. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 the level of importance of each of the following product characteristics when purchasing other quail eggs. (Please select ONE answer for EACH characteristic, with 1 = Not at all important and 5 = Very important.) Not at all Very Important Important 1 2 3 4 5 Price Brand name ‘Packaged on’ date Best before date Country of origin Nutrition label Local product Organic product

18. Please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 your response to each of the following statements about other quail eggs. (Please select only ONE answer for EACH statement, with 1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree.)

Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 1 2 3 4 5 I/we trust that other quail eggs imported from Asia meet

Canadian food safety standards Other quail eggs are part of a healthy diet

Other quail eggs are nutritious

Other quail eggs are convenient to use

Other quail eggs are a specialty item I/we are satisfied with the quality of the other quail eggs we purchase I/we limit purchases of other quail eggs because I/we do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes I/we limit purchases of other quail eggs because there are not many recipes that they can be used in I/we limit purchases of other quail eggs because not many people in my household will eat them I/we avoid purchasing other quail eggs if they are imported from China I/we limit purchases of other quail eggs because of cholesterol concerns I/we limit purchases of other quail eggs because of sodium concerns 246

PART B In this section we are interested in learning about at home consumption of duck and quail eggs and “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs.” (Please consider your household as a whole.)

1. Please indicate which household members consume at home the various duck eggs, quail eggs, and “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs” that you purchase. Please select ALL that apply. (Note: if NOBODY consumes a particular egg type at home, please select “not consumed at home.”)

Salted Preserve Fresh Other “Foods Duck d Duck Quail Quail that contain” Not consumed at

home Myself Spouse or partner Children < 19 yrs Children 19+ yrs Mother(s) Father(s) Grandmother(s) Grandfather(s) Other

2. How are duck or quail eggs typically consumed in your household? Please select ALL that apply for EACH egg type. (Note: If NOBODY consumes a particular egg type at home, select “not consumed at home.”)

Salte Pres Fres Othe d Duck erved Duck h r Quai Quai l l Not consumed at home On their own with seasoning In cold dishes made at home In hot dish dishes made at home In pastries/cakes made at home In “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs”

brought home

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3. What are the reasons that best describe why household members do NOT consume a particular type of duck or quail egg at home? Please choose up to a maximum of three reasons for EACH egg type. (Note: if EVERYONE consumes a particular egg type at home, select “we consume”.)

Othe Salte Prese Fresh r d Duck rved Duck Quail Quail We consume Don’t like taste/smell/texture Health concerns (e.g. cholesterol, sodium) Concerns about contamination Do not eat traditional Chinese foods Afraid to try these eggs Not familiar with them Allergic Unsatisfactory quality Too expensive Prefer fresh rather than processed eggs Not enough English or Chinese on label Not for sale where I/we usually shop Package size too large Prefer to eat in a restaurant/away from home Inconvenient to use Don’t know recipes or how to use

PART C In this section we are interested in learning about consumption outside of your home of duck and quail eggs and “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs.” (Please consider your household as a whole.)

1. Has anyone in your household consumed duck eggs, quail eggs, or “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs” outside of your home in the past year?

Yes No  Skip to Part D Not sure  Skip to Part D

2. Thinking back over the past year, approximately how often did your household consume duck eggs or quail eggs in any form, outside of your home? For example, on their own, in a dish, in a pastry. (Please select ONE answer for EACH egg type. Note: if NOBODY consumed a particular egg type outside of your home, please select “We did not consume.”)

We did Once or not Every 1-2 Once a Every 2 Every 3-4 twice a Other: please consume weeks month months months year describe Salted duck ______Preserved duck ______Fresh quail ______Other quail ______248

3. Compared to one year ago, would you say that consumption outside of your home of duck or quail eggs in any form is currently increasing, decreasing, or not changing for your household? Please select ONE answer for EACH egg type. (Note: if NOBODY consumes a particular egg type outside of your home, please select “We do not consume”.)

We do not Decreasing Decreasing Increasing Increasing

consume a lot a little No change a little a lot Not sure Salted duck Preserved duck Fresh quail Other quail

4. Based on the past year, please indicate where duck or quail eggs in any form were consumed outside of your home. Please select ALL that apply. (Note: if NOBODY consumed a particular egg type outside of your home, please select “We did not consume”.)

Salted Preserved Fresh Other

Duck Duck Quail Quail We did not consume Restaurant/bakery Relative’s home Friend’s home Work function Event or banquet Trip outside Canada Other, please describe ______

5. What are the reasons that best describe why household members do NOT consume a particular type of duck or quail egg in any form, outside of your home? Please choose up to a maximum of three reasons for each egg type. (Note if EVERYONE consumes a particular egg type outside of your home, please select “we consume”.)

Salted Preserved Fresh Other

Duck Duck Quail Quail We consume Do not like taste/smell/texture Health concerns (e.g. cholesterol, sodium) Concerns about contamination Do not eat traditional Chinese foods Afraid to try these eggs Not familiar with them Allergic Unsatisfactory quality Too expensive Prefer fresh rather than processed eggs Not on the menu where we eat out Not served by family or friends

 Please skip now to PART E 249

PART D In this section we are interested in learning about why NO ONE in your household purchased or consumed duck eggs or quail eggs or “foods that contain duck and/or quail eggs” anywhere within the past year.

1. What are the reasons that best describe why no one in your household purchased or consumed duck or quail eggs in any form within the past year? (Please choose up to a maximum of three reasons for each egg type.)

Salted Preserved Fresh Other

Duck Duck Quail Quail Do not like taste/smell/texture Health concerns (e.g. cholesterol, sodium) Concerns about contamination Do not eat traditional Chinese foods Afraid to try these eggs Not familiar with them Allergic Unsatisfactory quality Too expensive Prefer fresh rather than processed eggs Not enough English or Chinese on label Not available where I/we usually shop Package size too large Don’t know recipes/how to use Inconvenient to use Not on the menu where we eat out Not served by family or friends

2. At any point in the past 3 years, has anyone in your household bought or consumed duck or quail eggs in any form? For example, if someone used to eat fresh quail eggs two years ago, but hasn’t within the past twelve months, select “yes” under the fresh quail egg category. (Please select ONE answer for EACH egg type.)

Salted Duck Preserved Duck Fresh Quail Other Quail Yes No Don’t know

3. Is there anything that would make you want to buy these products? (Please describe in the area below.)

 Please skip now to PART F

250

PART E In this section we are interested in learning about potential opportunities to either improve your household’s satisfaction with duck or quail eggs or to increase your household’s willingness to try them if you currently do not buy or consume a particular egg type.

1. For salted duck eggs, please rate on the scale how likely or not the following features would be to either improve your household’s satisfaction with, or increase your household’s willingness to try them. (Please select ONE answer for EACH feature for salted duck eggs, with 1 = Very unlikely and 5 = Very likely.)

Very Very Unlikely Likely 1 2 3 4 5 Produced in BC, not mainland China Produced in BC, not Asian country/area

other than mainland China Fully bilingual labels in Chinese &

English Free new recipes In-store taste trials Packaging that allows you to inspect

the eggs

2. If your household has not been satisfied with the quality of salted duck eggs, what changes in their quality would you like to see? (Please describe in the space below.)

3. For preserved duck eggs, please rate on the scale how likely or not the following features would be to either improve your household’s satisfaction with, or increase your household’s willingness to try them. (Please select ONE answer for EACH feature for preserved duck eggs, with 1 = Very unlikely and 5 = Very likely.)

Very Very Unlikely Likely 1 2 3 4 5 Produced in BC, not mainland China Produced in BC, not Asian

country/area other than mainland China Fully bilingual labels in Chinese &

English Free new recipes In-store taste trials Packaging that allows you to inspect

the eggs 251

4. If your household has not been satisfied with the quality of preserved duck eggs, what changes in their quality would you like to see? (Please describe in the space below.)

5. For fresh quail eggs, please rate on the scale how likely or not the following features would be to either improve your household’s satisfaction with, or increase your household’s willingness to try them. (Please select ONE answer for EACH feature for fresh quail eggs, with 1 = Very unlikely and 5 = Very likely.)

Very Very Unlikely Likely 1 2 3 4 5 Package size options Fully bilingual labels in

Chinese & English Free new recipes In-store taste trials Packaging that allows

you to inspect the eggs

6. If your household has not been satisfied with the quality of fresh quail eggs, what changes in their quality would you like to see? (Please describe in the space below.)

7. For other quail eggs, please rate on the scale how likely or not the following features would be to either improve your household’s satisfaction with, or increase your household’s willingness to try them. (Please select ONE answer for EACH feature for other quail eggs, with 1 = Very unlikely and 5 = Very likely.)

Very Very Unlikely 1 2 3 4 Likely 5 Produced in BC, not mainland China Produced in BC, not Asian country/area

other than mainland China Fully bilingual labels in Chinese &

English Free new recipes In-store taste trials Packaging that allows you to inspect

the eggs 252

8. If your household has not been satisfied with the quality of other quail eggs, what changes in their quality would you like to see? (Please describe in the space below.)

9. How many eggs per package would be the BEST size for your household? (Please describe for EACH egg type, for example individual eggs, 6 eggs, etc.)

Salted duck ______

Preserved duck ______

Fresh quail ______

Other quail ______

10. All other product characteristics being equal, and if local products are more expensive, how much more would you be willing to pay for B.C. produced duck or quail egg products? (Please select ONE answer for EACH egg type.)*

Salted Preserved Other

Duck Duck Quail 10% more 20% more 30% more 40% more 50% more I/we are not willing to pay more Not willing to buy at all

* Note: Salted and preserved duck eggs range from about $1.99 to $2.77 for a package of six and a 425g can of other quail eggs ranges from $2.13 to $2.79.

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PART F It is important to have a clear picture of who is or isn’t buying or consuming duck or quail eggs. The following questions are being asked as a means to place you and your family into sub-groups. Only combined data will be reported. This makes it easier for us to understand your preferences and attitudes to duck and quail eggs.

1. My mother tongue (first language) is: 6. I am: English Cantonese 1st Generation Canadian = I was born in Asia Mandarin or country other than Canada Cantonese and English 2nd Generation Canadian = I was born in Mandarin and English Canada, one or both of my parents were born Other Chinese dialect in Asia or country other than Canada Other Chinese dialect and English 3rd Generation or more Canadian = I was Other:______born in Canada, both of my parents were born in Canada 2. I can: 7. Where were your grandparents born? Read only English Read English better than Chinese All born in Canada Read both English and Chinese equally well Some born in Canada, some outside Canada Read Chinese better than English All born outside Canada Read only Chinese Not sure

3. I was born in: 8. I am:

CanadaSkip to question 6 Female Mainland China Male Hong Kong Indonesia 9. I am: Macau Malaysia 19 to 29 years of age Philippines 30 to 39 years of age Singapore 40 to 49 years of age Taiwan 50 to 59 years of age Thailand 60 to 69 years of age Other:______70 + years of age

4. I have lived in Canada for: 10. Which of the following broad categories best < 2 years describes your annual total household income* in 2 – 5 years 2009? (Please select ONE answer.) 6 – 10 years 11 – 20 years Below $20,000 > 20 years $20,000 to $39,999 $40,000 to $59,999 5. My residential status in Canada is: $60,000 to $79,999 $80,000 to $99,999 Canadian citizen $100,000 or more Landed immigrant *The total annual earnings of all people in International student visa your household before taxes. Work permit Skip to #8 Other: ______254

11. What is the highest level of education that you 15. My household is located in: have attained? (Please select ONE answer.) Burnaby or New Westminster Elementary school Coquitlam High school certificate or equivalent Delta, White Rock, or Tsawwassen Apprenticeship/trades certificate or diploma Langley (City or Township) or Surrey College or CEGEP certificate or diploma Maple Ridge, Pitt Meadows, Port Coquitlam, University certificate or diploma below Port Moody, Anmore, or Belcarra bachelor level North Vancouver (City or District), West Bachelor’s degree Vancouver, Bowen Island, Lions Bay, or University certificate or diploma above Electoral Area A bachelor level Richmond Degree in medicine, dentistry, veterinary Vancouver medicine or optometry Master’s degree 16. Please rate on the following scale from 1 to 5, Earned doctorate your agreement or disagreement with the following statement: “In my household we 12. Including yourself, how many people in the balance yin/yang foods.” following age categories live in your household? (Please print the number in the space provided.) 1= Strongly disagree 2 ______4 yrs or younger 3 ______5 – 14 years 4 ______15 – 19 years 5= Strongly agree ______20 – 39 years ______40 – 59 years Don’t know ______60 + 17. My household’s food preference at home is: 13. The following people usually live in my household with me. Please select ALL that apply: Exclusively Chinese/Asian food Mostly Chinese/Asian food, some Me alone Canadian/Western My partner/spouse About equally Chinese/Asian and My/My partner’s children < 19 yrs Canadian/Western food My/My partner’s children 19 + yrs Mostly Canadian/Western food My/My partner’s Mother(s) Exclusively Canadian/Western food My/My partner’s Father(s) My/My partner’s Grandmother(s) 18. Has anyone in your household purchased fresh My/My partner’s Grandfather(s) raw duck eggs (unprocessed – not salted nor Other preserved) for home consumption within the past twelve months? 14. What best describes the ethnic background/ancestry of your household Yes members? No

All from a Chinese ethnic ancestry 19. Has anyone in your household purchased balut Some from Chinese ethnic ancestry and some duck eggs for home consumption within the past from another ancestry or a mix of ancestries. twelve months? (Baluts are fertilized duck eggs, incubated until the embryo is about 17 to 19 days old, then sold for consumption. Must be boiled before eating.)

Yes No 255

20. Please indicate the chicken egg type(s) that were purchased for household consumption within the last 30 days by printing in the box provided the number of each egg type purchased. For example, if you purchased 2 dozen white regular and 1 dozen organic eggs in the past 30 days, put 24 in the box next to “white regular” and 12 in the box next to “organic.”

I/we did not buy any chicken eggs in the last 30 days

White regular (number in past 30 days) Brown regular (number in past 30 days) Free run/cage free (number in past 30 days) Free range (number in past 30 days) Organic (number in past 30 days) Omega 3 enhanced (number in past 30 days) Vitamin enhanced (number in past 30 days) Vegetarian feed only (number in past 30 days) Other shell chicken eggs (number in past 30 days) Definitions:

White Regular (Classic) eggs: white eggs usually produced by white Leghorn chicken hens that are kept in cages.

Brown Regular (Classic) eggs: brown eggs produced by chicken hens that are kept in cages.

Free-run eggs: are produced by chicken hens that are allowed to roam freely in an enclosed facility (floor pens). These hens do not have access to outdoors spaces.

Free-range eggs: are produced by chicken hens that have access to nesting boxes, floor pens, perches and outdoor spaces.

Organic eggs: are produced by chicken hens that are fed a diet of certified organic grains and raised in accordance with guidelines issued by certifying agencies.

Omega-3 Enhanced eggs: are produced by chicken hens that are fed a diet that includes omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. As a result of this diet, the hens produce eggs that contain 0.3 grams or more of Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids per large egg. The chicken hens can be caged, free-run, or free-range.

Vitamin Enhanced eggs: are produced by chicken hens fed a nutritionally-enhanced diet containing higher levels of certain nutrients (e.g., vitamin E, folate, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12). As a result of this diet, the hens produce eggs with a higher level of these nutrients. The chicken hens can be caged, free-run, or free-range. Vegetarian Feed Only eggs: are produced by chicken hens that are fed a diet containing ingredients of plant origin only (no animal by products in feed). The chicken hens can be caged, free-run, or free-range.

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PART G MAILING INSTRUCTIONS

Thank you very much for your participation in our survey! Your help with this important survey is greatly appreciated.

Please put ONE completed survey (in either English or Chinese) into the postage paid return envelope we have supplied to you and post it as soon as possible. We would appreciate you returning the survey no later than .

THANK YOU VERY MUCH! If you have any other comments, please feel free to write in the space below:

______

PART H PRIZE DRAW

As a token of our appreciation, if you would like a chance to win a draw for one of five prizes for a $100 Visa gift card, please enter your name and e-mail address or telephone number below. Your contact information will be separated from the rest of this survey, will be kept confidential and will not be shared with anyone. It will be solely used for the purpose of the draw and shredded immediately after the draw. Only prize winners will be contacted.

Name and phone number or e-mail [please print clearly]______

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“一份關於大溫地區的華人家庭* 在購買及食用鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物時的態度及喜好的調查 ”

* 家庭的定義在此是指那些居住在同一住所的人；他們可以是親屬，也可以是朋友，甚至是獨居的人士。你只要符合下列的資格便可參與我們的調查。

歡迎參與北美首個有關食用鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋的學術性研究。你的參與讓你有機會參加抽獎，成為五位得獎者其中一位，贏取$100 的 Visa 現金禮券。

這份問卷必須由家中最常負責購買食物的成員填寫，該成員更必須年滿 19 歲或以上。有資格參與此項研究的家庭，家庭成員裡面必須最少有一名成年人擁有華裔血統。參與此項研究純屬自願，假使你對任何一條題目感到不自在，你可選擇不答。詳情請參閱附信。請在本年 X 月 X 曰前交回問卷。

為使你能輕易而又準確地填寫這份问卷，我們在此先列出一些定義，懇請你在填寫的過程中，緊記並沿用以下所列的這些定義：

重要提醒！除非另作說明，所有關於蛋的問題均只指蛋本身。那些包含鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋的食物或菜式（例如月餅或粥）並不包括在內。當我們需要知道那些包含鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋的食物或菜式，我們會詳加說明，例如用“含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的食物”，或 “經加工的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋”等字眼。

鹹鴨蛋（又稱鹽蛋，以下統稱鹹蛋）：鹹蛋概指那些用鹽水或鹽泥醃製，以至整個蛋可以將鹽份吸收的鴨蛋。它們一般連同蛋殼出售（生或熟），或是只將蛋黃以盒裝形式出售。

皮蛋（又稱松花蛋，以下統稱皮蛋）：皮蛋概指那些以特製的混合物將蛋包裹至“熟透”，蛋白凝結為半透明、茶色的膠凍狀，蛋黃則變為灰綠色。它們連同蛋殼出售，可以即時食用。

新鮮鵪鶉蛋：鵪鶉鳥所生的蛋，蛋身細小，表面白色而帶有棕褐色斑点。連同蛋殼以生蛋形式出售。

經加工的鵪鶉蛋：泛指其他形式的鵪鶉蛋，如罐頭、煙燻、醃製等。買后可以即時食用。

指示: 1）請只填寫一份問卷，你可隨意選擇中文或英文版本作答 2）除非另有說明，請在適當的空格內畫上“x”作答 3）假如你對此項調查有任何疑問或意見，或是在填寫這份問卷時遇到困難，請以電郵聯繫 Jennifer Arthur，電郵地址為：xxxx@xxxxxx。你亦可致電 xxx-xxx-xxxx 與 Jennifer Arthur 聯絡。讓我們開始吧！ 258

請在下列各項中指出你在過去 12 個月內曾經買過作為家中食用的鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋。你可以選擇所有適用的答案。

鹹蛋皮蛋如果曾經買過其中一項，請繼續到第一部份新鮮鵪鶉蛋經加工的鵪鶉蛋含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的食物如果只買過這項，請跳到第二部份(第 8 頁) 我/我們在過去一年沒有買過以上任何一項食品在家中食用請跳到第三部份(第 9 頁中)

第一部份（PART A）在這部份我們想了解購買鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋在家中食用的情況。

1. 回想過去 12 個月內，你購買鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋在家中食用有多頻密 ?（請為每種蛋選擇一個答案。）

我/我們每隔 1 至 2 每隔 3 至 4 沒有買個星期每個月 1 次每两個月個月一年一至兩次鹹蛋皮蛋新鮮鵪鶉蛋經加工的鵪鶉蛋

2. 相對於一年前，你覺得目前你為家人購買鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋是增加了, 減少了，或是保持不變呢？（請為每種蛋選擇一個答案。）

我/我們沒有買減少了很多減少了些保持不變增加了些增加了很多鹹蛋皮蛋新鮮鵪鶉蛋經加工的鵪鶉蛋

3. 你為家人最慣常買的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋的包裝內的數量是多少？ (請為每種蛋加以說明，例如：半打裝，或 425 克罐裝等。）

我/我們

不買

鹹蛋或, ______

皮蛋或, ______

新鮮鵪鶉蛋或, ______

經加工的鵪鶉蛋或, ______

259

4. 請儘量回想一下去年你為家人買過的鴨蛋或新鮮鵪鶉蛋的總數是多少？舉例來說，假如你買過 7 盒 6 隻裝的鹹蛋，請在鹹蛋那格裡面填上 42。（請在空格內填上每種蛋的數量。)

我/我們不買鹹蛋 (蛋的數量) 皮蛋 (蛋的數量) 新鮮鵪鶉蛋 (蛋的數量)

5. 請儘量回想一下去年你為家人買過的不同包裝的經加工的鵪鶉蛋的總數是多少？（請在適當的空格內填上每種包裝類型的數量，例如罐頭、瓶裝，或者是其他散裝的鵪鶉蛋。)

我/我們

不買經加工的鵪鶉蛋 (瓶裝的數量) 經加工的鵪鶉蛋 (罐頭的數量) 經加工的鵪鶉蛋 (其他包裝的數量；請說明包裝的形式: ______)

6. 你這家人通常在哪裡買鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋?（請選擇所有適用的答案。）經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋新鮮鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋我/我們沒有買 H-Mart 獨立經營的亞洲式蔬果店 Superstore (Real Canadian Superstore) T & T 大統華超市 Osaka（八百伴）農市場/農場其他（請說明） ______

7. 請依次排列出你這家人購買鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋的首兩個場合。（請在適當的空格內為每種蛋填上 1 或 2 來代表首兩個場合；1 代表首選，2 代表次選。）新鮮經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋我/我們沒有買日常進食，無須特別場合特別慶祝 (例如：生日、周年紀念日、新工作) 中式節日 (例如：農曆新年, 中秋節) 其他喜慶節日 (例如：加拿大國慶日, 聖誕節) 招呼家人或朋友, 以上的因素除外其他（請說明）______

260

8. 你這家人通常會買什麽類型的鹹蛋?（請選擇所有適用的答案。）我/我們沒有買鹹蛋在家中食用跳至第 11 題

原隻鹹蛋 (生蛋, 未經煮熟) 原隻鹹蛋 (已煮熟) 鹹蛋黃

9. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，當你購買鹹蛋時下列的每一個產品特徵重要與否： 1=毫不重要；5=十分重要。（請為每種特徵選擇一個答案。）

毫不重要十分重要 1 2 3 4 5 價格品牌包裝日期最佳食用期原產地營養標籤本地生產有機產品

10. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定你贊成或反對下列有關鹹蛋的說法： 1=極不同意；5=極之贊成。（每種說法只可選擇一個答案。）極不同意極之贊成

1 2 3 4 5 我/我們相信從亞洲進口的鹹蛋符合加拿大食物安全的標

準鹹蛋乃健康飲食的一部份

鹹蛋是有營養價值的

鹹蛋方便食用

鹹蛋乃一種配菜

我/我們對我們買到的鹹蛋品質滿意我/我們不多買鹹蛋因為我們不懂得怎樣用它來烹調傳統

中國菜式我/我們不多買鹹蛋因為沒有太多菜譜用它作為食材

我/我們不多買鹹蛋因為家中沒有太多人會吃鹹蛋

如果是中國進口的鹹蛋，我/我們會避免購買

基於對膽固醇的顧慮，我/我們不多買鹹蛋

基於對鹽份的顧慮，我/我們不多買鹹蛋

基於對鉛污染的顧慮，我/我們不多買鹹蛋 261

11. 你這家人通常會買什麽類型的皮蛋?（請選擇所有適用的答案）我/我們沒有買皮蛋在家中食用 跳至第 14 題

實心類軟心（“溏心”）類

12. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，當你購買皮蛋時下列的每一個產品特徵重要與否： 1=毫不重要；5=十分重要。（請為每種特徵選擇一個答案。）

毫不重要十分重要 1 2 3 4 5 價格品牌包裝日期最佳食用期原產地營養標籤本地生產有機產品

13. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定你贊成或反對下列有關皮蛋的說法：1=極不同意；5=極之贊成。（每種說法只可選擇一個答案。）

極不同意極之贊成 1 2 3 4 5 我/我們相信從亞洲進口的皮蛋符合加拿大食物安全的標準

皮蛋乃健康飲食的一部份

皮蛋是有營養價值的食品

皮蛋方便食用

皮蛋乃一種配菜

我/我們對我們買到的皮蛋品質滿意我/我們不多買皮蛋因為我們不懂得怎樣用它來烹調傳統中

國菜式我/我們不多買皮蛋因為沒有太多菜譜用它作為食材

我/我們不多買皮蛋因為家中沒有太多人會吃皮蛋

如果是中國進口的皮蛋，我/我們會避免購買

基於對膽固醇的顧慮，我/我們不多買皮蛋

基於對鹽份的顧慮，我/我們不多買皮蛋

基於對鉛污染的顧慮，我/我們不多買皮蛋 262

14. 當你購買新鮮鵪鶉蛋時下列的每一個產品特徵重要與否，請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定： 1=毫不重要；5=十分重要。（請為每種特徵選擇一個答案。)

我/我們沒有買新鮮鵪鶉蛋在家中食用 跳至第 16 題。

毫不重要十分重要

1 2 3 4 5 價格品牌包裝日期最佳食用期原產地營養標籤本地生產有機產品蛋殼沒有破裂

15. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定你贊成或反對下列有關新鮮鵪鶉蛋的說法：1=極不同意；5=極之贊成。（每種說法只可選擇一個答案。）

極不同意極之贊成

1 2 3 4 5 新鮮鵪鶉蛋乃健康飲食的一部份

新鮮鵪鶉蛋是有營養價值的食品

新鮮鵪鶉蛋方便食用

新鮮鵪鶉蛋乃一種配菜

我/我們對我們買到的新鮮鵪鶉蛋品質滿意我/我們不多買新鮮鵪鶉蛋因為我們不懂得怎樣用它來烹調

傳統中國菜式我/我們不多買新鮮鵪鶉蛋因為沒有太多菜譜用它作為食材我/我們不多買新鮮鵪鶉蛋因為家中沒有太多人會吃新鮮鵪

鶉蛋基於對膽固醇的顧慮，我/我們不多買新鮮鵪鶉蛋

我/我們不多買新鮮鵪鶉蛋因為每盒裡面數量太多

16. 你這家人通常會買什麽類型的經加工的鵪鶉蛋?（請選擇所有適用的答案）? 我/我們沒有買經加工的鵪鶉蛋在家中食用 跳至第二部份（ Part B）

罐頭裝鵪鶉蛋醃製鵪鶉蛋煙燻鵪鶉蛋其他 (請說明): ______263

17. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，當你購買經加工的鵪鶉蛋時下列的每一個產品特徵重要與否： 1=毫不重要；5=十分重要。（請為每種特徵選擇一個答案。）

毫不重要十分重要 1 2 3 4 5 價格品牌包裝日期最佳食用期原產地營養標籤本地生產有機產品

18. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定你贊成或反對下列有關經加工的鵪鶉蛋的說法： 1=極不同意；5=極之贊成。（每種說法只可選擇一個答案。）

極不同意極之贊成 1 2 3 4 5 我/我們相信從亞洲進口的經加工的鵪鶉蛋符合加拿大食物

安全的標準經加工的鵪鶉蛋乃健康飲食的一部份

經加工的鵪鶉蛋是有營養的食品

經加工的鵪鶉蛋方便食用

經加工的鵪鶉蛋乃一種配菜

我/我們對我們買到的經加工的鵪鶉蛋品質滿意我/我們不多買經加工的鵪鶉蛋因為我們不懂得用它來烹調

傳統中國菜式我/我們不多買經加工的鵪鶉蛋因為沒有太多菜譜用它作為

食材我/我們不多買經加工的鵪鶉蛋因為家中沒有太多人會吃

如果是中國生產的經加工的鵪鶉蛋，我/我們會避免購買

基於對膽固醇的顧慮，我/我們不多買經加工的鵪鶉蛋

基於對鹽份的顧慮，我/我們不多買經加工的鵪鶉蛋

264

第二部份（PART B）在這部份我們想了解鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋及含有鴨蛋和 /或鵪鶉蛋的食物在家中食用的情況。（答案請以全家人的角度作準。）

1. 請填上家中哪些成員會在家中食用你買的鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋及含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的食物。（請選擇所有適用的答案。請注意：假使所有家中成員在家中都不吃某一種蛋，請選擇“不會在家中食用” 便可。）

經加工的含有鴨蛋或鹹蛋皮蛋新鮮鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋的食物不會在家中食用我自己配偶或伴侶 19 歲以下的子女 19 歲以上的子女母親（母親們）父親（父親們）祖母（祖母們）祖父（祖父們）其他

2. 一般來說，在家中你們會怎樣食用鴨蛋和鵪鶉蛋？（請為每一種蛋選擇所有適用的答案。假使所有家中成員在家中都不吃某一種蛋，請選擇“不會在家中食用”便可。）

新鮮經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋不會在家中食用直接進食，或加上調味料進食作為家中烹調的冷盤材料作為家中烹調的熱菜材料家中自製糕點含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的外賣（外帶）食物

 請轉至下頁繼續

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3. 如果家中有些（或是所有）成員不會在家中食用某一種鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋，有下列哪原因能描述他們為何不吃這些蛋呢？（請為每一種蛋列出不要超過 3 個原因。假使所有家中成員在家中都會吃某一種蛋，請選擇“我們會吃”便可。）

新鮮經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋我們會吃不喜歡那個味道/氣味/口感健康理由 (例如：膽固醇, 鹽份) 關於污染的顧慮不會吃傳統的中國菜害怕嘗試這些疍我/我們對它們不太認識敏感 (过敏) 品質不滿意太貴比較喜歡新鮮蛋多過加工蛋標籤上的中或英文說明不足夠在我/我們買菜的地方買不到包裝内的數量太多寧願在餐廳/外面進食不方便食用不懂得菜譜或煮食方法

第三部份（PART C）在這部份我們想了解你們在外面食用鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋及含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的食物的情況。（答案請以全家人的角度作準。）

1. 在你知道之中，過去一年你家中有沒有任何人在外面吃過鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋，或是含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的食物？

有沒有  跳至第四部份（ Part D）不肯定 跳至第四部份（ Part D）

2. 回想過去一年，你家人在外面食用任何形式的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋有多頻密? 舉例來說，包括直接進食、作為菜肴的材料或是糕點的餡料。（請為每種蛋選擇一個答案。請注意：假使所有家中成員在外面都沒有吃過某一種蛋，請選擇“我/我們沒有食用”便可。）

我/我們每隔 1 至 2 每隔 3 至 4 一年一至兩沒有買個星期每個月 1 次每两個月個月次其他（請說明）鹹蛋 ______皮蛋 ______新鮮鵪鶉蛋 ______經加工的鵪鶉蛋 ______

266

3. 相對於一年前，你覺得目前你家人在外面食用任何形式的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋是增加了、減少了，或是保持不變呢？（請為每種蛋選擇一個答案。請注意：假使所有家中成員在外面都不吃某一種蛋，請選擇“我/我們沒有食用”便可。）

我/我們

沒有買減少了很多減少了些保持不變增加了些增加了很多不肯定鹹蛋皮蛋新鮮鵪鶉蛋經加工的鵪鶉蛋

4. 根據去年的經驗，請指出你在外面哪裡食用任何形式的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋？（請選擇所有適用的答案。請注意：假使所有家中成員在外面都沒有吃過某一種蛋，請選擇“我/我們沒有食用”便可。）

新鮮經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋我/我們沒有食用餐館/餅店親戚家朋友家工作場合活動或宴會在加國以外旅遊時其他 ______

5. 如果家中有些（或是所有）成員不會在外面食用某一種鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋，有下列哪原因能描述他們為何不吃這些蛋呢？（請為每一種蛋列出不要超過 3 個原因。假使所有家中成員在家中都會吃某一種蛋，請選擇“我們會吃”便可。）

新鮮經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋我們會吃不喜歡那個味道/氣味/口感健康理由 (例如：膽固醇, 鹽份) 關於污染的顧慮不會吃傳統的中國菜害怕嘗試這些疍對它們不太認識敏感 (过敏) 質量不佳太貴比較喜歡新鮮蛋多過加工蛋我們在外用餐的餐牌上沒有這種食物家人或朋友沒有提供這種食物

 請即跳至第五部份（ PART E ）

267

第四部份（PART D）在這部份我們想了解爲何你所有的家人無論在家中或是外面，過去一年都沒有買過或者吃過鴨蛋、鵪鶉蛋或含有鴨蛋和/或鵪鶉蛋的食物。

1. 下列哪原因能描述為何你所有的家人在去年都沒有買過或者吃過任何形式的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋呢？(請列出不要超過 3 個原因。）新鮮經加工的鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋鵪鶉蛋不喜歡那個味道/氣味/口感健康的顧慮 (例如：膽固醇, 鹽份) 關於污染的顧慮不會吃傳統的中國菜害怕嘗試這些疍我/我們對它們不太認識敏感 (过敏) 質量差太貴比較喜歡新鮮蛋多過加工蛋標籤上的中或英文說明不足夠在我/我們買菜的地方買不到包裝内的數量太多不懂得菜譜或煮食方法不方便食用我們在外用餐的餐牌上沒有這種食物家人或朋友沒有提供這種食物

2. 在過去三年内任何時候，你家中有沒有人買過或者吃過任何形式的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋？舉例來說，假使有人 2 年前曾經吃過新鮮的鵪鶉蛋，但過去 12 個月則沒有，都請在新鮮鵪鶉蛋那項裡面選擇 “有”。（請為每種蛋選擇一個答案。）

鹹蛋皮蛋新鮮鵪鶉蛋經加工的鵪鶉蛋有沒有不知道

3. 有什麽因素可以令你想買這些食品嗎？（請在下面詳述。）

 請即跳至第六部份（ PART F） 268

五部份（PART E）假使你目前不會買或者食用某一種蛋，我們想在這部份了解有哪些誘因可以提高你家人對鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋的满意程度，或是可以增加你家人去嘗試的興趣。

1. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，下列的因素是否能提高你家人對鹹蛋的满意程度，或是可以增加你家人去嘗試的興趣：1=極不可能；5=極有可能。（請為每種因素選擇一個答案。）

極不可能極有可能

1 2 3 4 5 在卑詩省生產而非中國大陸在卑詩省生產而非中國大陸

以外其他亞洲国家或地區全面寫上中英文的雙語標籤免費的新菜譜店內試食容許你打開檢查的包裝

2. 假使你家人對鹹蛋的質素一直都不滿意，你會想看到它們在質素上有哪些改變呢？（請在下面詳述。）

3. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，下列的因素是否能提高你家人對皮蛋的满意程度，或是可以增加你家人去嘗試的興趣：1=極不可能；5=極有可能。（請為每種因素選擇一個答案。）

極不可能極有可能

1 2 3 4 5 在卑詩省生產而非中國大陸在卑詩省生產而非中國大陸

以外其他亞洲国家或地區全面寫上中英文的雙語標籤免費的新菜譜店內試食容許你打開檢查的包裝

269

4. 假使你家人對皮蛋的質素一直都不滿意，你會想看到它們在質素上有哪些改變呢？（請在下面詳述。）

5. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，下列的因素是否能提高你家人對新鮮鵪鶉蛋的满意程度，或是可以增加你家人更願意去嘗試的興趣：1=極不可能；5=極有可能。（請為每種因素選擇一個答案。）

極不可能極有可能

1 2 3 4 5 有多些不同數量的

包裝供選擇全面寫上中英文的

雙語標籤免費的新菜譜店內試食容許你打開檢查的

包裝

6. 假使你家人對新鮮鵪鶉蛋的質素一直都不滿意，你會想看到它們在質素上有哪些改變呢？（請在下面詳述。）

7. 請用 1 至 5 的尺度來評定，下列的因素是否能提高你家人對經加工的鵪鶉蛋的满意程度，或是可以增加你家人更願意去嘗試的興趣：1=極不可能；5=極有可能。（請為每種因素選擇一個答案。）

極不可能極有可能

1 2 3 4 5 在卑詩省生產而非中國大陸在卑詩省生產而非中國大陸

以外其他亞洲国家或地區全面寫上中英文的雙語標籤免費的新菜譜店內試食容許你打開檢查的包裝

270

8. 假使你家人對經加工的鵪鶉蛋的質素一直都不滿意，你會想看到它們在質素上有哪些改變呢？ (請在下面詳述。）

9. 對你家人來說，哪種數量的包裝最合適？（請為每種蛋填上你覺得最合適的包裝數量。）

鹹蛋 ______

皮蛋 ______

新鮮鵪鶉蛋 ______

經加工的鵪鶉蛋 ______

10. 假使產品的所有特徵全都一樣，而本地的產品售價較高，你會願意多付多少錢去買卑詩省生產的鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋產品呢？（請為每種蛋選擇一個答案。）*

經加工的

鹹蛋皮蛋鵪鶉蛋願意多付 10%

願意多付 20% 願意多付 30%

願意多付 40% 願意多付 50%

我/我們不會願意多付完全不願意買

* 鹹蛋和皮蛋的價格由 $1.99 至 $2.77 不等。半打裝和 425 克罐裝鵪鶉蛋的價格由 $2.13 至 $2.79 不等。

請轉至下頁繼續

271

第六部份（Part F）對於哪些人會或者不會買或食用鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋，有一個清晰的理解對我們非常重要。下列的問題是爲了能將你及你家人劃分在適當的組別而設；我們只會將綜合的數據報導出來。這將有助於我們了解你對鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋的喜好及所抱的態度。

1. 我的母語(第一語言)是: 5. 我在加拿大的居留身份:

英語加国公民廣東話加国移民國語/普通话學生護照廣東話及英語公作許可證 跳至第8題國語/普通话及英語其他: ______其他中國方言其他中國方言及英語 6. 我是: 其他: ______第一代 = 我在亞洲或 2. 我的閱讀能力: 加拿大以外的國家出生第二代 = 我在加拿大出生, 父母或其中一人只懂閱讀英文在亞洲或加拿大以外的國家出生英文閱讀能力比中文好第三代或以上 = 我在加拿大出生, 父母亦同中英文閱讀能力俱佳樣在加拿大出生中文閱讀能力比英文好只懂閱讀中文 7. 你的祖父母在哪裡出生?

3. 我出生於: 全都在加拿大出生有些在加拿大出生，有些在加拿大以外出生加拿大跳至第6題全都在加拿大以外出生中國大陸不肯定香港印尼 8. 我是: 澳門馬來西亞女性菲律賓男性新加坡我是台灣 9. :

泰國 19-29 歲其他: ______歲 30-39 歲 4. 我已在加拿大居住: 40-49 50-59 歲少過2年 60-69 歲 2-5年 70 歲或以上 6-10年 11-20年

多過20年

272

10. 下列哪一個類別最恰當地描述你在 2009 年的家 15. 我居住在: 庭總收入*? (請只選一項) 本拿比或新西敏 $20,000 以下高貴林 $20,000–$39,999 三角洲, 白石鎮, 或 Tsawwassen $40,000–$59,999 蘭尼 (市或鎮) 或素里 $60,000–$79,999 楓樹嶺, Pitt Meadows, 高貴林港, 滿地寶, $80,000–$99,999 Anmore, 或 Belcarra $100,000 以上北溫哥華 (市或區), 西溫哥華, Bowen Island, *所有家中成員全年的稅前總收入 Lions Bay, 或 Electoral Area A

列治文 11. 你最高完成的教育程度是? (請只選一項) 溫哥華小學

中學證書或同等學歷 16. 請用下列 1 至 5 的尺度來評定你贊成或反對下列學徒/技術性行業證書或文憑這個說法: 專上學院或 CEGEP 證書或文憑 “我家人會注重食物的寒涼燥熱” 低於學士學位的大學證書或文憑

學士學位 1= 極不同意學士學位以上的大學證書或文憑 2 醫科、牙科、獸醫或眼科視光學位 3 碩士學位 4 考取的博士學位 5= 極之贊成

12. 包括你自己在內，家庭裡面有幾多位屬於下列年不知道齡段的人? (請將人數填在下面的空間。) 17. 家庭成員在家中的食物喜好是: ______4 歲或以下 ______5-14 歲只吃中國/亞洲食品大部份吃中國亞洲食品也吃一些加拿大西 ______15-19 歲 / , / 式食品 ______20-39 歲中國/亞洲食品及加拿大/西式食品差不多各佔歲 ______40-59 一半 ______60+ 大部份吃加拿大/西式食品只吃加拿大/西式食品 13. 下列的人通常與我住在一起。請選擇所有適用的答案: 18. 在過去 12 個月內，家庭成員有沒有人買過新鮮只有我自己的生鴨蛋 (不經加工 – 沒有加鹽或醃製)在家中食我的伴侶/配偶用? 我的/我伴侶的未成年（未滿 19 歲）子女有我的/我伴侶的成年（19 歲或以上）子女沒有我的/我伴侶的母親

我的/我伴侶的父親 19. 在過去 12 個月內，家中有沒有人買過鴨仔蛋在我的/我伴侶的祖母家中食用? (鴨仔蛋是指那些胚胎孵化至大約 17 我的/我伴侶的祖父至 19 日的鴨蛋。必須煮熟方可進食。) 其他

有 14. 下列哪一項概括你的家庭成員背景/血統最貼切? 沒有全部都有華裔背景/血統

有些有華裔背景/血統，有些是其他血統或是混血 273

20. 請在下列的空格內填上過去 30 天內曾經購買作為家中食用的雞蛋類別的數量。舉例來說：假使你在過去 30 天內買了 2 打一般白蛋及 1 打有機蛋，請在“一般白蛋”旁邊的空格內填上“ 24”，以及在“有機蛋”旁邊的空格內填上“12”。

我/我們在過去 30 天內沒有買過任何雞蛋

一般白蛋（過去 30 天數量）一般啡蛋（過去 30 天數量）戶內走地雞的蛋（過去 30 天數量）戶外走地雞的蛋（過去 30 天數量）有機蛋（過去 30 天數量）飼料加有 Omega 3（歐米茄 3）（過去 30 天數量）飼料加有維他命（過去 30 天數量）飼料不含動物元素（過去 30 天數量）其他連殼的雞蛋（過去 30 天數量）不同雞蛋類別的定義:

一般（典型）白蛋: 由毛身白色、在籠內飼養的母雞所生的白殼蛋。

一般（典型）啡蛋: 由在籠內飼養的母雞所生的啡殼蛋。

戶內走地雞的蛋 (Free-run eggs): 由可以在一個封閉式的設施自由走動的母雞（在圍起的禽舍內走動的雞）所生的蛋。這些雞並不可以在室外活動。

戶外走地雞的蛋 (Free-range eggs): 由可以隨意在巢箱、圍起的禽舍、棲息的棚架及戶外空間自由走動的母雞所生的蛋。

有機蛋：由餵以認可的有機穀類飼料、並按照相關的認可機構所發出的指引飼養的母雞所生的蛋。

飼料加有 Omega 3（歐米茄 3）的蛋：由餵以含有 Omega 3 多元不飽和脂肪酸的飼料的母雞所生的蛋。以此等飼料餵飼的母雞所生的蛋，每隻大號雞蛋含有 0.3 克或以上的 Omega 3 多元不飽和脂肪酸。這些母雞可以是在籠內飼養，也可以是戶內或戶外的走地雞。

飼料加有維他命的蛋：由餵以添加了較高含量的某些營養素（例如維他命E、葉酸、維他命B6及維他命 B12）的母雞所生的蛋。以此等飼料餵飼的母雞所生的蛋，含有此等營養素的含量亦較高。這些母雞可以是在籠內飼養，也可以是戶內或戶外的走地雞。

飼料不含動物元素的蛋：由餵以不含動物元素的飼料的母雞所生的蛋。這些母雞可以是在籠內飼養，也可以是戶內或戶外的走地雞。 274

第七部份（PART G）郵寄指示

我們衷心感謝你參與我們這項重要的調查！在此我們致以萬二分的感激！

請將一份填妥的問卷（英文或中文版本）放進我們提供的回郵信封內，盡快將它寄出。我們懇請你於 2010 年月日前寄回給我們。

我們萬分感激你的幫忙，更歡迎你在下面給我們提供任何寶貴的意見。

______

第八部份（PART H）幸運抽獎

爲了感激你對我們的支持，我們特備了 5 張 Visa 禮券作為抽獎的獎品；每張禮券價值$100 元。假使你想參加抽獎，請在下列填上你的姓名及電郵地址或電話號碼。你的聯絡資料將會與這份問卷分開，資料絕對保密，更不會向任何人透露。我們只會把它用作抽獎，抽獎完畢後會即時銷毀。抽獎後，我們只會與得獎者聯繫。

（請以正楷填寫）姓名：

電話或電郵地址：______

275

Appendix B.4 Survey Reminder Notice – English and Chinese

REMINDER!

“The Metro Vancouver Chinese Market for Specialty Duck and Quail Egg Products: A Survey of Household Purchases and Consumption, Attitudes and Preferences.”

Recently, a questionnaire was mailed to you because your household was randomly selected to help in a study about Chinese-Canadian purchases and consumption of specialty duck and quail eggs in the Metro Vancouver region.

If someone in your household has already completed and returned the questionnaire, please accept our sincere thanks! If not, please have the adult in your household most responsible for grocery shopping, do so right away.

Some people prefer to use the convenience of the Internet to answer questionnaires. So we are now offering the option for the questionnaire to be completed online instead of by post. The questionnaire may be completed online by going to the following secure and confidential Canadian- based website:

and entering the following access code:

Only one questionnaire may be completed by each household, do not complete both a paper and an Internet-based questionnaire. Please submit your questionnaire by .

It is important that households selected complete this questionnaire, whether you usually purchase or consume these eggs or not, as only a small number have been included in the sample. Therefore, we are especially grateful for your voluntary help with this unique and important study. And don’t forget, you can enter a draw to win one of five $100 Visa gift cards!

If you did not receive a questionnaire in the post, or if it was misplaced and you would prefer a paper questionnaire, please call Jennifer Arthur at 604-XXX-XXXX and we will get another one in the mail for you today.

Sincerely,

Kim Cheng Professor

276

友好提示

“一份關於大溫地區的華人家庭在購買及食用鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物時的態度及喜好的調查 ”

最近，我們寄出了一份有關大溫地區的加國華人在購買及食用鴨蛋及鵪鶉蛋類食物的情況的問卷給閣下。我們是透過隨機抽樣方法，選出了閣下的家庭成為我們這項調查的對象。

假若你家人已將這份問卷填妥並寄回，我在此致以萬二分的謝意。否則，我懇請你家中最常負責購買食物的成年人立即填妥並寄回這份問卷。

因應一些喜歡用互聯網填寫問卷的人士的需求，我們現在設立了網上填寫問卷的服務，再也無須郵遞。你只須到下列加國的安全保密網站。

，並輸入下列的登录密碼便可：

請緊記：每個家庭只須交回一份問卷；請勿重複作答。你只須在本年 X 月 X 曰前交回一份印刷版或一份網上版的問卷便可。

由於這是一項小規模的抽樣調查，無論你有沒有購買或食用鴨蛋或鵪鶉蛋的習慣，被選中的家庭完成這份問卷對我們來說至為重要。依時交回問卷，你大有中一百元現金禮券的機会。

假若你沒有收到這份問卷，又或是你把它遺失了而需要一份新的印刷版問卷，請致電 XXX-XXX-XXXX 與 Jennifer Arthur 聯繫。我們會於接到電話當天即時把一份問卷寄上。

多謝你的合作！

卑詩大學農學院教授

鄭明德謹啟 Dr. Kim Cheng

277

Appendix C Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Data The following introduction to principal component analysis (PCA) is paraphrased from Mazzocchi (2008): PCA is a technique that can be used to reduce a large set of data to a smaller one, that is then easier to analyze and interpret. It can also be used to measure a directly unobservable quantity (for example, product quality) through a set of measurable variables (such as stated satisfaction, adherence to a particular standard, perceived quality). It can be used on its own to summarize a large data set in order to identify key information, or it can be used as a preliminary tool to further analysis, such as market segmentation or perceptual mapping, for example. For my study, PCA serves to reduce the amount of data for input into subsequent cluster analysis (market segmentation) as well as to summarize respondents’ underlying attitudes and beliefs towards the duck and quail egg products. The technique exploits the correlations between original variables to produce a smaller set of new (latent) variables “that are uncorrelated between each other and explain a large proportion of the original variability” (p.220). The method aims to distinguish between the shared and the individual content (variability) of each original variable, and the shared content (variability) can be fully summarized by the common components. The higher the correlations between the original variables the lower the number of new variables required to acceptably describe the original data. The method estimates the latent (new) variables that are linear combinations of the original ones. The cost of this method is the introduction of additional error and the loss of some of the originl information. PCA is similar to factor analysis. However, one of the main differences is that factor analysis requires that the number of factors (new variables) be known in advance, whereas in principal component analysis, the number of components (new variables) is evaluated based upon the results of the PCA. In this study, the number of components was not known in advance, thus PCA was the selected method.

Appendix C.1 PCA of the Importance of Product Characteristics The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure confirmed that the sample size was ‘good’ (Field, 2009) for the analysis of the duck egg products, KMO = .713 (salted, n=215) and KMO = .710 (preserved, n=211). However, the fresh quail egg sample size (n=53), KMO=.622, is considered mediocre for PCA, but still acceptable (Field, 2009). Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant for all egg types, indicating that correlations between individual product characteristics were large enough for PCA: Salted duck eggs 2 = 496.626 (28), p < .001; preserved duck eggs 2 = 523.398 (28), p < .001; fresh quail eggs 2 = 158.561 (36), p < .001. 278

The number of components to extract was based upon initial eigenvalues [in general greater than 1 is acceptable, per Kaiser (as cited in Field, 2009)], the total percentage of variance explained by the number of extracted components, and an examination of inflection points on the scree plots. Full statistical details are provided in Table C.1 (salted duck eggs), Table C.2 (preserved duck eggs), and Table C.3 (fresh quail eggs). Inflection points on the scree plots were not definitive. As can been seen in Figure C.1, the scree plot for salted duck eggs suggested retaining 2, 3, or 4 components.

6

5

4

3

Eigenvalues 2

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of components

Figure C.1 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of salted duck egg product characteristic components

279

For preserved duck eggs, the scree plot shown in Figure C.2 suggested retaining either 2 or 4 components. However, taking into account initial eigenvalues (all > 1) and higher percentages of total variance explained, four components were selected for extraction for both salted and preserved duck eggs.

6

5

4

3

Eigenvalues 2

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of components

Figure C.2 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of preserved duck egg product characteristic components

For fresh quail eggs, the scree plot suggested 2, 3, or possibly as many as 5 components should be extracted, as shown in Figure C.3.

6

5

4

3

Eigenvalues 2

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number of components

Figure C.3 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of fresh quail egg product characteristic components

280

Extraction of two components would have accounted for only 55% of the total variance in the data; extraction of four or more components would have resulted in at least two components consisting of a single variable, defeating the purpose of data reduction. Therefore, three components were selected for extraction, accounting for over 67% of the total variance, with all initial eigenvalues greater than 1. After extraction and oblique rotation, results for salted and preserved duck eggs were similar. As shown in Table C.1 and Table C.2, the highest component score loadings suggest that Component 1, consisting of nutrition label, local product, and organic product variables, may represent perceived “wholesomeness” because some people believe that local and organic foods are better for them, either safer (pesticide free, for example) or more nutritious compared to conventionally grown food from non- local sources. Component 2 (salted duck eggs) and Component 3 (preserved duck eggs) appears to represent “provenance”, consisting of brand name and country of origin variables. Component 3 (salted duck eggs) and Component 2 (preserved duck eggs) represents “price”, and Component 4 indicates “freshness” as representative of the best before date and packaged on date variables.

281

Table C.1 PCA results for importance of salted duck egg product characteristics

Communalities (rescaled) Variable Initial Extraction Price 1.00 .938 Brand name 1.00 .917 Packaged on date 1.00 .800 Best before date 1.00 .680 Country of origin 1.00 .616 Nutrition label 1.00 .760 Local product 1.00 .770 Organic product 1.00 .803 Initial eigenvalues % of Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % 1 5.184 39.304 39.304 2 2.170 16.451 55.755 3 1.913 14.506 70.261 4 1.276 9.670 79.931 5 .904 6.855 86.786 6 .841 6.373 93.159 7 .656 5.189 98.349 8 .218 1.651 100.000 Extraction sums of squared loadings (rescaled) Rotated sums of % of squared Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % loadings 1 2.892 36.148 36.148 2.360 2 1.254 15.676 51.824 1.741 3 1.073 13.417 65.241 1.086 4 1.065 13.315 78.556 2.110 Component matrix (no rotation) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price .046 .498 .815 -.152 Brand name .506 .661 -.327 -.342 Packaged on date .473 .277 -.125 .696 Best before date .408 .411 -.183 .558 Country of origin .663 .097 -.380 -.152 Nutrition label .786 .081 .257 .265 Local product .782 -.373 .032 -.135 Organic product .758 -.409 .205 -.136

282

Table C.1 PCA results for importance of salted duck egg product characteristics, continued Rotated pattern matrix (rescaled) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price .002 .052 .970 -.055 Brand name -.093 .969 .125 .009 Packaged on date .017 -.065 -.056 .912 Best before date -.113 .119 -.022 .800 Country of origin .338 .549 -.218 .079 Nutrition label .574 .003 .260 .476 Local product .859 .070 -.093 -.042 Organic product .920 -.041 .036 -.073 Rotated structure matrix (rescaled) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price -.017 .015 .966 .008 Brand name .164 .945 .108 .319 Packaged on date .218 .247 -.013 .891 Best before date .110 .359 .016 .812 Country of origin .507 .670 -.233 .334 Nutrition label .683 .310 .270 .625 Local product .869 .286 -.114 .182 Organic product .891 .178 .015 .134 Component score coefficient matrix Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price -.010 -.008 .895 -.082 Brand name -.076 .814 .075 -.012 Packaged on date -.042 -.045 -.045 .580 Best before date -.041 .025 -.015 .277 Country of origin .121 .365 -.206 .037 Nutrition label .243 -.041 .244 .472 Local product .414 .041 -.106 -.119 Organic product .492 -.061 .027 -.174 Component loadings suggest the following underlying product characteristics: Wholesomeness Provenance Price Freshness

283

Table C.2 PCA results for importance of preserved duck egg product characteristics

Communalities (rescaled) Variable Initial Extraction Price 1.00 .958 Brand name 1.00 .856 Packaged on date 1.00 .886 Best before date 1.00 .800 Country of origin 1.00 .681 Nutrition label 1.00 .625 Local product 1.00 .793 Organic product 1.00 .810 Initial eigenvalues % of Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % 1 4.781 39.487 39.487 2 1.970 16.273 55.760 3 1.675 13.839 69.599 4 1.258 10.390 79.989 5 .876 7.236 87.225 6 .765 6.317 93.541 7 .561 4.630 98.171 8 .221 1.829 100.000 Extraction sums of squared loadings (rescaled) Rotated sums of % of squared Component Total Variance Cumulative % loadings 1 2.997 37.464 37.464 2.481 2 1.206 15.078 52.542 1.089 3 1.079 13.490 66.032 1.888 4 1.127 14.086 80.119 2.128 Component matrix (pre rotation) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price .016 .795 -.567 -.070 Brand name .521 .490 .431 -.398 Packaged on date .507 .309 .265 .681 Best before date .453 .270 .362 .625 Country of origin .653 -.053 .397 -.307 Nutrition label .772 .088 -.125 .072 Local product .823 -.246 -.231 .051 Organic product .751 -.308 -.379 -.087

284

Table C.2 PCA results for importance of preserved duck egg product characteristics, continued

Rotated pattern matrix (rescaled) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price .053 .982 .017 -.034 Brand name -.114 .150 .934 .030 Packaged on date .048 .027 -.042 .939 Best before date -.039 -.060 .027 .897 Country of origin .238 -.260 .672 -.020 Nutrition label .610 .148 .160 .225 Local product .864 -.045 -.008 .085 Organic product .940 .009 -.049 -.131 Rotated structure matrix (rescaled) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price -.016 .977 .034 .033 Brand name .206 .168 .905 .301 Packaged on date .277 .069 .270 .939 Best before date .209 -.013 .295 .892 Country of origin .482 -.270 .745 .241 Nutrition label .715 .120 .443 .443 Local product .886 -.099 .317 .307 Organic product .889 -.060 .235 .101 Component score coefficient matrix Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Price .008 .918 -.004 -.030 Brand name -.079 .122 .720 .006 Packaged on date -.008 .020 -.041 .597 Best before date -.023 -.022 -.002 .408 Country of origin .086 -.221 .457 -.045 Nutrition label .267 .123 .100 .195 Local product .413 -.058 -.030 .054 Organic product .478 -.009 -.063 -.175 Component loadings suggest the following underlying product characteristics: Wholesomeness Price Provenance Freshness

285

As shown in Table C.3, for fresh quail eggs the component loadings after rotation suggested that Component 1 represents “nutritional origins”, Component 2 represents “price”, and Component 3 represents “basic quality”.

Table C.3 PCA results for the importance of fresh quail egg product characteristics

Communalities (rescaled) Variable Initial Extraction Price 1.000 .840 Brand name 1.000 .791 Packaged on date 1.000 .444 Best before date 1.000 .530 Country of origin 1.000 .610 Nutrition label 1.000 .608 Local product 1.000 .677 Organic product 1.000 .672 Cracks/thin shells 1.000 .692 Initial eigenvalues % of Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % 1 4.974 38.769 38.769 2 2.207 17.200 55.969 3 1.470 11.458 67.427 4 1.279 9.966 77.393 5 1.016 7.918 85.311 6 .878 6.846 92.157 7 .587 4.574 96.731 8 .284 2.216 98.946 9 .135 1.054 100.000 Extraction sums of squared loadings (rescaled) Rotated sums of % of squared Component Total Variance Cumulative % loadings 1 3.073 34.146 34.146 2.923 2 1.424 15.820 49.966 1.287 3 1.367 15.189 65.156 1.973

286

Table C.3 PCA results for the importance of fresh quail egg product characteristics, continued Component matrix (pre rotation) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Price .046 .835 .375 Brand name .537 .622 -.341 Packaged on date .446 -.416 .268 Best before date .442 -.271 .511 Country of origin .763 -.074 .148 Nutrition label .650 -.233 -.361 Local product .813 -.053 .119 Organic product .819 .029 .008 Cracks or thin shells .227 -.175 .781 Rotated pattern matrix (rescaled) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Price -.010 .921 .105 Brand name .686 .462 -.441 Packaged on date .298 -.251 .459 Best before date .224 -.020 .647 Country of origin .673 .032 .285 Nutrition label .726 -.326 -.173 Local product .733 .042 .258 Organic product .784 .073 .126 Cracks or thin shells -.066 .166 .843 Rotated structure matrix (rescaled) Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Price -.002 .911 .007 Brand name .591 .498 -.352 Packaged on date .393 -.303 .545 Best before date .354 -.090 .694 Country of origin .730 -.007 .417 Nutrition label .696 -.319 .006 Local product .784 .005 .400 Organic product .808 .049 .275 Cracks or thin shells .100 .079 .813

Component loadings suggest the following underlying product characteristics: Nutritional origins Price Basic quality

287

Table C.3 PCA results for the importance of fresh quail egg product characteristics, continued Component score coefficient matrix Component 1 Component 2 Component 3 Price -.044 .748 .123 Brand name .259 .352 -.481 Packaged on date .052 -.110 .236 Best before date .015 -.004 .178 Country of origin .219 .004 .245 Nutrition label .307 -.320 -.228 Local product .248 .010 .224 Organic product .317 .035 .109 Cracks or thin shells -.034 .078 .438

288

Appendix C.2 PCA of Buyers’ Attitudes and Beliefs The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure confirmed that the sampling adequacy for analysis of the duck egg products, KMO = .720 (salted, n=233) and KMO = .724 (preserved, n=224), was good; however, the fresh quail egg sample size (n=56), KMO=.692, is considered mediocre for PCA, but still acceptable (Field, 2009). Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant for all egg types, indicating that correlations between individual product characteristics were large enough for PCA: Salted duck eggs approximate 2 = 951.134 (78), p < .001; preserved duck eggs approximate 2 = 1175.600 (78), p < .001; and, fresh quail eggs approximate 2 = 257.495 (45), p < .001. Extraction of attitude/belief components was based upon the same criteria used for the PCA of the product characteristics (Appendix C.1). Six components each were extracted from the salted duck egg (Table C.4 and Figure C.4) and preserved duck egg (Table C.5 and Figure C.5) attitude data, all with initial eigenvalues greater than 1 and total variance explained greater than 78%. Four components were extracted from the fresh quail egg attitude data (Table C.6 and Figure C.6), all with initial eigenvalues greater than 1 and total variance explained greater than 80%. For salted and preserved duck egg products, the component loadings after rotation suggests that: Component 1 represents beliefs about “health concerns” of product consumption; Component 2 represents attitudes about “cooking considerations”; Component 3 represents attitudes about an egg type being a “healthy product”; Component 4 represents attitudes of bias about imported Chinese products, “China bias”; Component 5 represents beliefs about the “specialty/convenience” of the eggs; and Component 6 represents attitudes towards the “quality assurance” of the products (consisting of the trusting imports meet Canadian food safety standards and quality satisfaction variables).

289

Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs

Communalities (rescaled)

Variable Initial Extraction Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards 1.00 .851

Part of a healthy diet 1.00 .779

Nutritious 1.00 .869

Convenient to use 1.00 .589

A specialty item 1.00 .787

Satisfied with quality 1.00 .326 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes 1.00 .787 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in 1.00 .856 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them 1.00 .613 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China 1.00 .994

Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns 1.00 .849

Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns 1.00 .833 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns 1.00 .697

290

Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs, continued

Initial eigenvalues % of Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % 1 6.060 32.821 32.821 2 2.509 13.590 46.412 3 2.052 11.115 57.526 4 1.533 8.300 65.827 5 1.241 6.721 72.547 6 1.104 5.978 78.525 7 .896 4.850 83.376 8 .719 3.893 87.269 9 .644 3.488 90.756 10 .585 3.171 93.927 11 .470 2.545 96.472 12 .336 1.818 98.290 13 .316 1.710 100.000 Extraction sums of squared loadings (rescaled) Rotated sums of % of squared Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % loadings 1 3.651 28.083 28.083 2.966 2 1.472 11.324 39.407 2.410 3 1.527 11.745 51.151 2.065 4 1.032 7.936 59.087 1.575 5 1.087 8.362 67.449 1.482 6 1.062 8.172 75.621 1.381

291

Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs, continued

Component matrix (pre rotation)

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards .266 -.185 .365 .139 .049 .769

Part of a healthy diet .440 -.151 .396 .482 -.412 -.068

Nutritious .394 -.114 .469 .550 -.316 -.280

Convenient to use .150 .013 .554 .180 .477 -.011

A specialty item .074 .073 .475 .137 .672 -.282

Satisfied with quality .116 -.074 .015 .130 .094 .530 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .544 .657 .042 -.177 .159 .007 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .544 .718 .010 -.015 -.210 -.007 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .696 .335 .011 .047 -.020 .113 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China .555 -.344 .434 -.593 -.146 -.074 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .768 -.271 -.400 .074 .134 -.052 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .789 -.273 -.324 .133 .088 -.076 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .770 -.255 -.167 .014 .101 .031

292

Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs, continued

Rotated pattern matrix (rescaled)

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards -.090 -.007 .097 -.147 .047 .884

Part of a healthy diet .033 .018 .853 -.036 -.058 .084

Nutritious .030 -.003 .915 .024 .124 -.101

Convenient to use -.058 .014 .100 -.038 .706 .161

A specialty item .038 -.005 -.031 .038 .898 -.123

Satisfied with quality .059 -.002 -.061 .091 -.016 .568 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .021 .858 -.183 -.049 .161 -.025 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in -.093 .934 .134 .036 -.136 -.054 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .244 .605 .098 -.021 .004 .134 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China .048 .001 -.007 -.988 -.017 -.031 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .943 -.009 -.034 .024 -.021 -.028 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .905 -.004 .076 .019 -.009 -.032 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .741 .039 .019 -.141 .024 .083

Component loadings suggest the following attitudes and beliefs about salted duck egg products: Quality assurance Healthy product Specialty convenience Cooking considerations China bias Health concerns

293

Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs, continued

Rotated structure matrix (rescaled)

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards .136 .061 .237 -.252 .154 .901

Part of a healthy diet .265 .163 .875 -.251 .079 .207

Nutritious .215 .146 .920 -.206 .245 .037

Convenient to use .002 .089 .223 -.167 .741 .226

A specialty item -.017 .067 .082 -.080 .877 -.053

Satisfied with quality .121 .027 .007 .022 .006 .558 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .262 .858 -.017 -.170 .215 .026 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .220 .903 .218 -.090 -.043 -.009 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .492 .710 .271 -.231 .082 .232 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China .345 .169 .230 -.995 .121 .093 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .919 .281 .172 -.249 -.045 .134 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .910 .292 .277 -.271 -.015 .141 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .816 .309 .246 -.393 .048 .242

294

Table C.4 PCA results for buyers’ attitudes and beliefs towards salted duck eggs, continued

Component score coefficient matrix

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards -.024 -.006 .029 -.045 .020 .809

Part of a healthy diet -.007 -.006 .465 -.015 -.054 .039

Nutritious -.009 -.014 .581 .005 .078 -.130

Convenient to use -.016 .002 .039 -.018 .477 .116

A specialty item .011 -.003 -.032 .010 .663 -.122

Satisfied with quality .016 -.001 -.039 .044 -.014 .337 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes -.003 .420 -.186 -.031 .181 -.032 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in -.061 .495 .122 .030 -.167 -.085 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .088 .293 .064 .005 -.003 .174 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China -.021 -.010 .000 -.984 -.013 -.125 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .444 -.022 -.064 .058 -.024 -.026 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .371 -.018 .046 .045 -.011 -.035 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .291 .005 -.009 -.072 .026 .108

295

7

6

5

4

3 E i g e n v a l u e s u l v n a g i e E

2

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of components

Figure C.4 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of salted duck egg buyers' attitude and belief components

296

Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs

Communalities (rescaled)

Variable Initial Extraction Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards 1.00 .867

Part of a healthy diet 1.00 .898

Nutritious 1.00 .917

Convenient to use 1.00 .601

A specialty item 1.00 .794

Satisfied with quality 1.00 .461 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use them in traditional Chinese dishes 1.00 .800 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in 1.00 .873 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them 1.00 .702 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China 1.00 .987

Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns 1.00 .843

Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns 1.00 .809 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns 1.00 .744

297

Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs, continued

Initial eigenvalues % of Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % 1 6.419 35.183 35.183 2 2.338 12.817 48.000 3 2.094 11.475 59.475 4 1.596 8.749 68.224 5 1.320 7.233 75.456 6 1.063 5.827 81.283 7 .802 4.395 85.678 8 .638 3.498 89.176 9 .544 2.984 92.160 10 .489 2.682 94.842 11 .456 2.501 97.343 12 .314 1.723 99.066 13 .170 .934 100.000 Extraction sums of squared loadings (rescaled) Rotated sums of % of squared Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % loadings 1 3.895 29.961 29.961 2.989 2 1.441 11.083 41.043 2.787 3 1.593 12.256 53.299 2.262 4 1.066 8.203 61.502 1.383 5 1.365 10.499 72.001 1.678 6 .936 7.199 79.200 1.534

298

Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs, continued

Component matrix (pre rotation)

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards .218 .215 .524 -.009 .117 .697

Part of a healthy diet .422 .248 .505 .466 -.429 -.035

Nutritious .452 .216 .445 .471 -.403 -.290

Convenient to use .194 -.040 .400 .259 .549 -.181

A specialty item .150 .041 .257 .214 .711 -.391

Satisfied with quality .227 .139 .312 .199 .394 .313 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .647 -.593 .055 -.154 .016 -.053 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .669 -.627 .049 -.064 -.158 .026 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .704 -.404 .077 .145 .097 .081 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China .546 .327 .385 -.640 -.024 -.158 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .762 .245 -.432 .093 .081 .042 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .760 .346 -.299 .088 .028 -.117 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .733 .262 -.326 .009 .013 .178

299

Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs, continued

Rotated pattern matrix (rescaled)

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards -.064 .000 .049 -.124 -.128 .923

Part of a healthy diet -.001 .003 .921 .010 -.072 .136

Nutritious .022 -.012 .952 -.028 .071 -.122

Convenient to use -.094 -.092 .081 .003 .716 .119

A specialty item .029 .048 -.044 -.050 .910 -.088

Satisfied with quality .102 .020 -.002 .059 .294 .538 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes -.025 -.888 -.080 -.106 .051 -.066 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in -.031 -.941 .053 -.004 -.114 -.035 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .172 -.708 .070 .110 .122 .120 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China .062 -.032 .018 -.952 .053 .067 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .920 -.047 -.036 .041 -.003 -.025 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .848 .044 .125 -.094 .072 -.119 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .822 -.054 -.034 -.037 -.124 .128

Component loadings suggest the following attitudes and beliefs about preserved duck egg products: Quality assurance Healthy product Specialty convenience Cooking considerations China bias Health concerns

300

Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs, continued

Rotated structure matrix (rescaled)

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards .072 -.071 .234 -.217 .073 .912

Part of a healthy diet .230 -.177 .937 -.170 .081 .313

Nutritious .260 -.208 .949 -.196 .178 .101

Convenient to use .039 -.163 .198 -.027 .754 .287

A specialty item .087 -.059 .068 -.042 .884 .103

Satisfied with quality .168 -.083 .162 -.025 .416 .604 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .305 -.883 .098 -.242 .124 .010 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .314 -.925 .206 -.174 -.012 .026 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .447 -.788 .272 -.091 .252 .227 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China .330 -.245 .233 -.984 .091 .197 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .915 -.368 .186 -.190 .076 .071 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .879 -.307 .326 -.310 .138 .026 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .846 -.352 .195 -.260 -.019 .196

301

Table C.5 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards preserved duck eggs, continued

Component score coefficient matrix

Component 1 2 3 4 5 6

Trust Asian imports meet Canadian food safety standards -.012 .005 .006 -.002 -.080 .784

Part of a healthy diet -.012 .009 .504 .022 -.059 .082

Nutritious -.010 .005 .531 -.011 .039 -.120

Convenient to use -.017 -.017 .027 .032 .421 .088

A specialty item .011 .019 -.029 .006 .624 -.038

Satisfied with quality .028 .009 -.013 .065 .178 .321 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes -.032 -.380 -.074 -.078 .037 -.089 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in -.039 -.443 .037 -.005 -.151 -.061 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .065 -.341 .045 .139 .160 .171 Do not avoid purchasing if they are imported from China -.016 -.001 -.007 -1.013 .001 -.038 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .435 -.001 -.057 .077 .006 -.008 Do not limit purchases because of sodium concerns .362 .045 .095 -.054 .081 -.147 Do not limit purchases because of lead contamination concerns .336 -.005 -.051 .010 -.132 .158

302

7

6

5

4

3 Eigenvalues

2

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Number of components

Figure C.5 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of preserved duck egg buyers' attitude and belief components

303

As indicated in Table C.6, for fresh quail eggs, the component loadings after rotation suggest that Component 1 represents attitudes about “cooking considerations”, Component 2 represents beliefs about the egg’s “healthy convenience”, Component 3 represents “health and quantity concerns”, and Component 4 represents attitudes about the eggs as a “quality, special” product.

Table C.6 PCA results for buyers' beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs

Communalities (rescaled)

Variable Initial Extraction

Part of a healthy diet 1.00 .867

Nutritious 1.00 .744

Convenient to use 1.00 .770

A specialty item 1.00 .731

Satisfied with quality 1.00 .739 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes 1.00 .866 Do not limit purchases because do not there are not many recipes to use them in 1.00 .840 Do not limit purchases because there are not many in my household that will eat them 1.00 .751

Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns 1.00 .840 Do not limit purchases because there are too many in a package 1.00 .784

304

Table C.6 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs, continued

Initial eigenvalues % of Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % 1 6.290 43.268 43.268 2 2.655 18.261 61.529 3 1.419 9.757 71.286 4 1.270 8.735 80.021 5 .901 6.198 86.219 6 .656 4.514 90.734 7 .520 3.577 94.310 8 .374 2.570 96.880 9 .268 1.846 98.727 10 .185 1.273 100.000

Extraction sums of squared loadings (rescaled) Rotated sums of % of squared Component Eigenvalue Variance Cumulative % loadings 1 3.749 37.487 37.487 3.012 2 1.807 18.072 55.559 2.667 3 1.057 10.565 66.124 1.894 4 1.320 13.199 79.323 1.527

305

Table C.6 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs, continued

Component matrix (pre rotation)

Component 1 2 3 4

Part of a healthy diet .532 .742 -.128 -.129

Nutritious .586 .600 .184 .085

Convenient to use .497 .558 -.408 .210

A specialty item -.089 .088 .285 .797

Satisfied with quality .185 .159 .456 .686 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .671 -.498 -.352 .208 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .753 -.498 -.149 .058 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .833 -.196 -.049 .132 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .623 -.133 .628 -.199 Do not limit purchases because there are too many in a package .857 .005 .087 -.206

306

Table C.6 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs, continued

Rotated pattern matrix (rescaled)

Component 1 2 3 4

Part of a healthy diet -.127 .940 .068 -.131

Nutritious -.079 .735 .285 .183

Convenient to use .199 .833 -.330 .057

A specialty item -.005 -.062 -.127 .853

Satisfied with quality .011 .071 .164 .823 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .973 -.069 -.143 .011 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .887 -.092 .133 -.045 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .717 .185 .196 .081 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .137 -.040 .873 .057 Do not limit purchases because there are too many in a package .438 .345 .459 -.163

Component loadings suggest the following attitudes and beliefs about fresh quail egg products: Cooking considerations Healthy convenience Special quality Health concerns

307

Table C.6 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs, continued

Rotated structure matrix (rescaled)

Component 1 2 3 4

Part of a healthy diet .106 .914 .231 -.042

Nutritious .166 .796 .432 .263

Convenient to use .293 .811 -.089 .112

A specialty item -.065 -.015 -.100 .841

Satisfied with quality .065 .183 .223 .837 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .916 .120 .118 -.013 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .904 .134 .362 -.056 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .813 .397 .443 .099 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns .374 .187 .906 .095 Do not limit purchases because there are too many in a package .648 .530 .651 -.114

308

Table C.6 PCA results for buyers’ beliefs and attitudes towards fresh quail eggs, continued

Component score coefficient matrix

Component 1 2 3 4

Part of a healthy diet -.090 .469 .004 -.146

Nutritious -.064 .249 .140 .180

Convenient to use .096 .351 -.301 .078

A specialty item .015 .001 -.048 .530

Satisfied with quality -.004 .022 .068 .528 Do not limit purchases because do not know how to use in traditional Chinese dishes .406 -.040 -.234 .024 Do not limit purchases because there are not many recipes that they can be used in .335 -.068 -.010 -.040 Do not limit purchases because not many people in my household will eat them .298 .067 .049 .126 Do not limit purchases because of cholesterol concerns -.066 -.087 .708 .076 Do not limit purchases because there are too many in a package .155 .164 .400 -.254

309

7

6

5

4

3 E i g e n v a l u s e u l v n a g e i E 2

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of components

Figure C.6 Scree plot, initial eigenvalues of fresh quail egg buyers' attitude and belief components

310

Appendix D Cluster Analysis Data

Appendix D.1 Salted Duck Egg Cluster Analysis

Table D.1 Agglomeration schedule, salted duck egg buyers, Ward's method

Cluster Combined Stage Cluster First Appears Stage Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Coefficientsa Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Next Stage 1 75 182 .368 0 0 95 2 30 290 .985 0 0 109 3 90 393 1.628 0 0 120 4 106 402 2.279 0 0 30 5 102 270 3.041 0 0 154 6 129 222 3.807 0 0 33 7 167 299 4.631 0 0 99 8 186 378 5.512 0 0 22 9 338 400 6.411 0 0 80 10 109 173 7.344 0 0 44 . . . 190 11 24 1076.415 169 132 197 191 47 100 1108.355 175 162 194 192 3 40 1141.635 181 156 196 193 10 49 1179.525 179 187 198 194 25 47 1217.653 188 191 197 195 58 74 1255.889 185 184 200 196 3 239 1296.171 192 170 203 197 11 25 1340.697 190 194 202 198 10 56 1396.516 193 180 201 199 2 12 1457.731 173 189 200 200 2 58 1529.314 199 195 203 201 10 19 1601.046 198 186 202 202 10 11 1686.338 201 197 204 203 2 3 1789.977 200 196 204 204 2 10 2041.536 203 202 0 aThe within-cluster sum of squares at that stage

311

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine 0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure D.1 Dendrogram of clustering of salted duck egg buyers, Ward's method

312

Table D.2 K-means cluster analysis results, salted duck egg buyers

Initial Cluster Centers Cluster

1 2 3 4 Health concerns 2.11850 1.99742 .40753 -1.37685 Cooking considerations 1.36400 1.27190 -.44604 -2.29566 Healthy product -1.34540 2.76108 -.85630 .96011 China bias -.58392 -1.37374 .67746 -1.33623 Specialty/convenience 1.04692 1.15001 -3.42799 1.29640 Quality assurance -.14065 .96023 1.81487 -3.36772 Wholesomeness -1.31724 .42275 .13111 .71480 Provenance -2.16024 1.08815 -1.70088 -1.34587 Price -1.02091 1.51549 -1.36812 1.49447 Freshness -3.33388 1.00153 .55340 .96656 Iteration historya Change in cluster centres Iteration 1 2 3 4 1 3.511 3.527 3.950 4.046 2 .523 .292 .428 .444 3 .278 .132 .255 .227 4 .068 .048 .212 .190 5 .000 .074 .222 .211 6 .000 .053 .105 .100 7 .000 .049 .000 .055 8 .000 .035 .000 .039 9 .000 .000 .000 .000 Convergence achieved due to no or small change in cluster centers. The maximum absolute coordinate change for any center is .000. The current iteration is 9. The minimum distance between initial centers is 7.030.

313

Table D.2 K-means cluster analysis results, salted duck egg buyers, continued Final Cluster Centers Cluster

1 2 3 4 Health concerns .60749 .48386 -.16070 -.58866 Cooking considerations .26838 .55906 .04806 -.73254 Healthy product -.15267 .64863 -.84725 -.00999 China bias -.63930 -.63771 .72529 .47133 Specialty/convenience -.11312 .37581 -.21028 -.16050 Quality assurance .21779 .24472 -.32327 -.18854 Wholesomeness -.62110 -.26492 .06824 .56048 Provenance -1.05185 .10511 .14017 .38165 Price -.12164 .24001 -.95979 .64535 Freshness -1.74859 .29626 .26621 .41889 Distances between Final Cluster Centers Cluster 1 2 3 4 1 2.600 3.153 3.548 2 2.600 2.644 2.428 3 3.153 2.644 2.116 4 3.548 2.428 2.116 ANOVA Cluster Error Mean Sq. df Mean Sq. df F* Sig. Health concerns 16.405 3 .750 201 21.864 .000 Cooking considerations 18.582 3 .713 201 26.078 .000 Healthy product 20.554 3 .732 201 28.061 .000 China bias 25.898 3 .661 201 39.201 .000 Specialty convenience 4.503 3 .956 201 4.712 .003 Quality assurance 4.134 3 .955 201 4.328 .006 Wholesomeness 12.056 3 .815 201 14.785 .000 Provenance 15.248 3 .781 201 19.512 .000 Price 23.508 3 .653 201 36.003 .000 Freshness 39.173 3 .453 201 86.491 .000 *The F tests: for descriptive purposes only (clusters have been chosen to maximize the differences among cases in different clusters and the observed significance levels are not corrected for this and thus cannot be interpreted as tests of the hypothesis that the cluster means are equal).

314

Table D.3 Number of cases per final cluster, K-means procedure, salted duck egg buyers

Number Percentage % Cluster 1 32 15.6 2 68 33.2 3 45 21.9 4 60 29.3 Total Valid 205 100.0

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Appendix D.2 Preserved Duck Egg Cluster Analysis

Table D.4 Agglomeration schedule, preserved duck egg buyers, Ward's method

Cluster Combined Stage Cluster First Appears Stage Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Coefficients Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Next Stage 1 106 402 .448 0 0 67 2 85 144 .964 0 0 69 3 30 160 1.603 0 0 43 4 186 331 2.274 0 0 9 5 86 207 3.000 0 0 39 6 39 291 3.745 0 0 69 7 10 327 4.548 0 0 45 8 323 380 5.359 0 0 85 9 186 197 6.253 4 0 107 10 309 314 7.191 0 0 83 . . . 190 4 17 990.973 146 185 199 191 6 31 1024.569 184 164 195 192 3 45 1059.104 175 180 201 193 2 14 1096.495 182 186 201 194 11 15 1134.796 176 173 198 195 6 7 1176.563 191 187 197 196 19 112 1221.113 183 188 200 197 6 25 1267.873 195 178 202 198 11 13 1318.480 194 171 200 199 4 10 1398.493 190 189 202 200 11 19 1482.447 198 196 203 201 2 3 1572.974 193 192 204 202 4 6 1673.064 199 197 203 203 4 11 1807.084 202 200 204 204 2 4 2052.824 201 203 0

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Rescale distance cluster combine 0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure D.2 Dendrogram of clustering of preserved duck egg buyers, Ward's method 317

Table D.5 K-means cluster analysis results, preserved duck egg buyers

Initial cluster centers Cluster

1 2 3 4 Health concerns -1.62912 -.35732 .56315 2.17925 Cooking considerations -.24505 2.26543 1.33133 -.02753 Healthy product -1.63128 2.63505 2.68197 -1.62330 China bias -1.93536 -1.47010 1.24400 1.61784 Specialty/convenience -2.66887 .81834 -1.29356 1.91041 Quality assurance .73503 1.49446 -2.00721 .61600 Wholesomeness 1.58659 -.77889 1.47684 -1.64642 Price -.93720 1.75857 -2.17164 -.30618 Provenance .00588 -1.41416 -1.19975 1.17088 Freshness .76325 .83688 -1.98474 -.77614 Iteration historya Change in cluster centres Iteration 1 2 3 4 1 3.711 3.487 3.817 3.390 2 .729 .452 .891 .342 3 .341 .238 .257 .264 4 .150 .116 .313 .295 5 .031 .036 .201 .178 6 .058 .063 .138 .161 7 .089 .117 .063 .199 8 .093 .043 .070 .065 9 .042 .044 .053 .071 10 .000 .000 .000 .000 Convergence achieved due to no or small change in cluster centers. The maximum absolute coordinate change for any center is .000. The current iteration is 10. The minimum distance between initial centers is 7.346.

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Table D.5 K-means cluster analysis results, preserved duck egg buyers, continued Final cluster centers Cluster

1 2 3 4 Health concerns -.86800 .37459 .49452 .50763 Cooking considerations .74750 -.28647 -.11648 -.67012 Healthy product -.26503 .61324 -.40550 .16577 China bias .62276 -.87278 -.23238 .77412 Specialty/convenience -.17232 .47938 -.67898 .40282 Quality assurance -.26099 .53264 -.67082 .43517 Wholesomeness .69491 -.51212 -.14807 -.14065 Price .12207 .66508 -.73773 -.39718 Provenance .52165 -.53871 -.66631 .86547 Freshness .42030 -.15385 -.54912 .25693 Distances between final cluster centers Cluster 1 2 3 4 1 3.143 2.753 2.457 2 3.143 2.560 2.549 3 2.753 2.560 2.674 4 2.457 2.549 2.674 ANOVA Cluster Error Mean Sq. df Mean Sq. df F Sig. Health concerns 25.407 3 .634 201 40.085 .000 Cooking considerations 18.925 3 .718 201 26.359 .000 Healthy product 11.659 3 .839 201 13.900 .000 China bias 30.881 3 .577 201 53.474 .000 Specialty/convenience 14.388 3 .817 201 17.605 .000 Quality assurance 16.381 3 .790 201 20.745 .000 Wholesomeness 15.793 3 .768 201 20.562 .000 Provenance 19.446 3 .735 201 26.450 .000 Price 27.416 3 .607 201 45.185 .000 Freshness 9.784 3 .891 201 10.980 .000 The F tests should be used only for descriptive purposes because the clusters have been chosen to maximize the differences among cases in different clusters. The observed significance levels are not corrected for this and thus cannot be interpreted as tests of the hypothesis that the cluster means are equal. 319

Table D.6 Number of cases per final cluster of preserved duck egg buyers, K-means method

Number Percentage % Cluster 1 63 30.7 2 58 28.3 3 48 23.4 4 36 17.6 Valid total 205 100.0

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Appendix D.3 Fresh Quail Egg Cluster Analysis

Table D.7 Agglomeration schedule, fresh quail egg buyers, Ward's method

Cluster Combined Stage Cluster First Appears Stage Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Coefficients Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Next Stage 1 160 332 .397 0 0 9 2 84 338 .899 0 0 8 3 39 149 1.431 0 0 15 . . . 42 39 215 142.395 38 0 48 43 235 289 154.747 19 0 47 44 10 41 167.519 40 0 46 45 77 157 185.059 36 13 50 46 10 140 203.789 44 18 49 47 2 235 225.139 41 43 48 48 2 39 249.827 47 42 51 49 10 138 275.491 46 39 50 50 10 77 306.761 49 45 51 51 2 10 360.305 48 50 0

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Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine 0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure D.3 Dendrogram of clustering of fresh quail egg buyers, Ward's method 322

Table D.8 Number of cases per cluster, fresh quail egg buyers, Ward's method

Frequency Percentage %

Cluster 1 24 46.2 2 21 40.4 3 7 13.5 Valid Total 52 100.0

Table D.9 K-means cluster analysis results, fresh quail egg buyers

Initial cluster centers Cluster

1 2 Cooking considerations -.90955 -.19511 Healthy convenience .60502 -1.18394 Health concerns -.02725 -2.61547 Specialty quality product -.11689 1.39953 Nutritional origins -2.03414 .81434 Price .44734 2.11799 Basic quality -4.36612 .77666 Iteration historya Change in cluster centres Iteration 1 2 1 3.987 3.636 2 .396 .253 3 .230 .197 4 .000 .000 Convergence achieved due to no or small change in cluster centers. The maximum absolute coordinate change for any center is .000. The current iteration is 6. The minimum distance between initial centers is 5.390.

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Table D.9 K-means cluster analysis results, fresh quail egg buyers, continued Final Cluster Centers Cluster

1 2 Cooking considerations .29842 -.19730 Healthy convenience .26459 -.14011 Health concerns .80475 -.62553 Specialty quality product .09431 -.09960 Nutritional origins -.68644 .47845 Price -.06677 .07609 Basic quality -.48227 .32543 Distances between Final Cluster Centers Cluster 1 2 1 2.127 2 2.127

ANOVA Cluster Error Mean Sq. df Mean Sq. df F Sig. Cooking considerations 3.119 1 .988 50 3.156 .082 Healthy convenience 2.079 1 .946 50 2.198 .144 Health concerns 25.964 1 .508 50 51.120 .000 Specialty quality product .477 1 1.051 50 .454 .503 Nutritional origins 17.223 1 .684 50 25.176 .000 Price .259 1 1.021 50 .254 .617 Basic quality 8.280 1 .860 50 9.631 .003 The F tests should be used only for descriptive purposes because the clusters have been chosen to maximize the differences among cases in different clusters. The observed significance levels are not corrected for this and thus cannot be interpreted as tests of the hypothesis that the cluster means are equal.

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Table D.10 Number of cases per final cluster, fresh quail egg buyers, K-means method

Number Percentage %

Cluster 1 22 42.3

2 30 57.7 Valid total 52 100.0

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Appendix E Entrenched Non-buyers Respondents who had indicated that they were not willing to buy BC produced salted or preserved duck eggs at all (13 and 27 respondents, respectively) were excluded from the opportunities analyses in Chapter 5. I have called these respondents “Entrenched Non-buyers” due to their negative responses to the opportunity questions (for all egg types). Mean responses of the Entrenched Non-buyers to the opportunity questions are, instead, presented below in Table E.1.

Table E.1 Mean responses to opportunity questions, entrenched non-buyers, all egg types

Salted duck eggs Preserved duck Fresh quail eggs Variable (n = 13)1 eggs (n = 27)2 (n = 30)3 Mean4 ± S.E. N Mean4 ± S.E. N Mean4 ± S.E. N

Produced in BC, not mainland China 2.31 ± .44 13 1.76 ± .27 25 - - Produced in BC, not Asian country/area other than mainland China 2.00 ± .39 12 1.76 ± .27 25 - - Fully bilingual labels in Chinese and English 1.58 ± .26 12 1.33 ± .19 24 1.63 ± .21 27

Free new recipes 1.75 ± .30 12 1.56 ± .16 25 1.63 ± .24 27

In-store taste trials 1.75 ± .30 12 1.68 ± .22 25 1.89 ± .27 27 Packaging that allow you to inspect the eggs 1.75 ± .37 12 1.64 ± .25 25 1.67 ± .23 27

Package size options - - - - 1.81 ± .26 27

Best package size for your household, based on number of eggs per package 3.50 ± 2.50 2 4.55 ± 1.03 11 9.08 ± 1.85 12 1Respondents not willing to buy BC salted duck eggs at all 2 Respondents not willing to buy BC preserved duck eggs at all 3 Respondents not willing to buy BC salted duck eggs or preserved duck eggs at all 4 Measured on a scale from 1 = very unlikely to 5 = very likely, except for best package size

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