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Home , Philosophy of war

Zuzanna Szpakowska Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna w Warszawie

War and in ancient

Abstract Periods of peace and armed conflicts have been present since the very beginning of the human history. For some, they are a natural consequence of culture clash, for others they are the moving force of civilization progress, while others perceive them as unjustified aggression and disrespect for human life. Regardless the chosen vision and individual point of view, , peace and the need for security are an inseparable part of our life and . For this reason, they have become a very important subject of philosophical, political and sociological considerations, the impact of which we observe in virtually all epochs, regardless the cultural circle, political system or social situation. Due to the ampleness of the topic discussed, this article focuses on the chosen period - antiquity and one of the most important (and closest to us) cultural circle - Greek, Roman and Hellenic. The author tries to answer the research question - does the output of ancient thought influence the formation of contemporary understanding and interpretation of war, peace and security? The considerations are accompanied by the author’s thesis that the way we currently perceive and interpret the phenomena that surround us, in particular , is strongly determined by the concepts developed by the protoplasts of .

Keywords: war, peace, security, ancient phylosophy

Introduction

It is assumed that the ancient period abounded in political, cultural and events. This had a strong influence on the political thought of that period, which was reflected in the numerous works of writers and philosophers of Greek, Roman and Hellenic culture. Among the many distinguished artists, one should mention Heraclitus of Ephesus, known from the concept of constant change, and his “Dialogues”, , “rhetoric” by , Epicurus and others. Analyzing the literature of the subject, one can often find claims that the above-mentioned Studia Administracji i Bezpieczeństwa nr 6/2019

Hellenic thought, and later Hellenistic thought, have become precursors to their secondary Roman art. It is easy to see differences regarding not only creativity, but also a universal view of the world. Greeks are mainly identified with love of art, while Romans are characterized as practitioners and exquisite warriors1. It is hard to deny this generalization, considering even the most important styles of contemporary art. To this day, we remember the names of many eminent Greek philosophers and Roman speakers, trained in political disputes. However, all similar stereotypes should be assessed primarily from the perspective of systemic practice, history of the region, , and other factors2. This article briefly outlines the most important concepts of ancient thought regarding three important themes - war, peace and security. The main goal of the article is to reach for sources. Finding the foundations of currently accepted, universal ideas shaping our image of the world around us, which allow us to refer to the thesis formulated before.

1. Ancient writers about war

One of the most outstanding Greek authors of the antiquity was Homer, known for his many outstanding works, hymns, poems, especially Iliad and Odyssey. This writer is considered the father of the genre - epic poetry. He is also the oldest known European poet. His work rooted so deeply in Greek culture at that time that temples and statues in his honor began to appear in many places, for example in Olympia and Delphi. This individual had been also depicted in numerous legends regarding his divine origin. Unfortunately, the ancients did not know much about Homer’s life, which means that most of the preserved information is a mixture of facts, theories and legends3. Analyzing these literary works, we do not find a clear picture of security known today. Particularly with reference to war and armed conflicts, the author does not even try to mitigate the picture. A clear example of this is the interpretation of the Iliad quotation “Did they not leave their homelands or exchange peace to laurel of war?”4. According to Józef Borgosz, the quoted passage testifies to Homer’s strong that war deeds and the conflict itself are much more glorious than a peaceful life. Thus, it can be said that for him the war appears as both useful and necessary. War is both an instrument and a goal.

1 J. Świniarski, W. Chojnacki, Filozofia bezpieczeństwa, ZUMS BN, Warsaw 2004, p. 6-19. 2 Ibidem. 3 Homer, Encyklopedia popularna PWN, PWN, Warsaw 2017, record: Homer. 4 Homer, Iliada, hymn III, : Franciszek Dmochowski.

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Therefore, Homer himself does not condemn the war, although he does not diminish its tragedy and presents it in a factual way5. However, Homer should not be seen as a person who glorifies warfare, but rather a kind of confrontationist of strength and courage, naturally attributed to men - soldiers. were not depicted by this author as an integral part of reality, but rather a way to perceive and affirm the - heroism, strength, courage, physical fitness and honor. One of the most important of them is bravery and related fame, which are the dream of heroes and other Homeric heroes. War is not only a political tool for Homer, but also a circumstance in which one can prove his virtues. Appreciation of fame and honor is therefore the driving force and main motive of Homer’s work. Otherwise, war, fame and honor create a feeling of well-. That is why death on the battlefield is also a reason for glory. The author repeatedly evokes a fragment of the chorus in his work, which reads: “he fell as a brave man as he was”6. In the Iliad, the connection between war and heroism comes to the fore in terms of individual actions, not fighting in the name of a community, tribe or country. Thus, the ethos of an soldier, unsurpassed in his courage and agility, is being created, trying to match the . On the basis of this, an unwritten archetype of a soldier was formed, following the principles of heroism and honor, a and strongman, an ingenious tactician and strategist. This archetype suppressed and took on the parenthesis and overlooked the cruelty and barbarity of war struggles, their deadliness, degradation of humanity, and plundering character. The idealized homer archetype of a brave and courageous warrior is often referred to by the creators of subsequent epochs, not only antiquity. It is worth noting that despite the creation of the archetype of war for fame, history is unlikely to know a single conflict, the cause of which would be only the desire to obtain glory and recognition. Behind each of them were other, more important reasons. In conclusion, Homer’s works should be considered the first attempts to glorify the valiant deeds of individuals, not the war itself as a collective activity. Thus, indirectly, through the actions of heroes, the Homer’s war is ethically accepted, mainly because it creates the conditions for the manifestation of the ethos of heroic struggle. In the manifestation of this ethos, there is no grievance against and death, robberies and rapes, degradation of humanity and the horrors of wars that have been wicked for centuries and are associated with the Lucifer effect7. Homer focuses mainly on the glorious deeds of war and heroes who seem to be averted idealization of real deeds accomplished during war.

5 J. Borgosz, Drogi i bezdroża filozofii pokoju. Od Homera do Jana Pawła II, MON, Warsaw 1989, p. 11. 6 Ibidem, p. 12. 7 Ph. G. Zimbardo, Efekt Lucyfera. Dlaczego dobrzy ludzie czynią zło?, PWN, Warsaw 2008.

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The ideas declared by Homer should also be compared to other concepts of the Hellenic culture. One of them was the theory of the poet Stasinus of Cyprus who created in the spirit of Greek poetry. Today, we do not know much about his life, which is why he is considered a partially legendary figure. His work, strongly inspired by Hesiod, often covered the subject of war and peace as well as armed conflicts related to the migration of peoples and overpopulation. Stasinus rejected all interpretations different from the concept of interference of guardian deities, who supervise individual tribes. According to this philosophy, each region or area were inseparably assigned to the deity guarding them. Moreover, the author excluded completely hostile political or interpersonal relations assuming that the fate of human groups is subordinated to the will of supernatural . Stasinus’ thinking could be compared to the ’s beliefs, because he stated that man is not naturally an aggressive being because, assuming the natural hostility of the people, war would be permanent. Therefore, the poet ruled out such factors of influence as the will of the gods, greed, and innate hostility. According to him the source of conflicts must have been something else. For this reason, the cause of wars was perceived as depletion of natural resources of the inhabited areas along with natural population growth, which in the long term only aggravate living conditions. At that time tribes moved by the desire to find new sources in order to satisfy their basic needs abandoned the existing areas in search for others, more wealthy regions. Any tribes encountered in this path constituted natural opponents on the way to the chosen goal. In that way Stasinus explained the majority of conflicts known to him (including the Trojan War), and this idea was acknowledged and further developed in the work of Plato8. Another outstanding representative of ancient philosophy was Heraclitus from Ephesus. Born around 540 BC, he is often considered a philosopher of , just like Homer, originating from the Asia Minor region. The main part of preserved works of the philosopher concerned , and theology. The most known concepts of Heraclitus are the idea of constant change, known under the slogan “pantarhei” indicating that everything flows9. To this day, there is a popular saying in Polish language inspired by the Heraclitus’ philosophy: “it is impossible to go twice to the same river”. Although the meaning of both expressions has changed slightly, it is impossible to deny their obvious similarity. The philosopher has undeniably influenced the works of other authors, including Plato (verbalism), (, ), stoics (logos) and other contemporary thinkers.

8 T. Sinko, Literatura grecka, t. 1, Ossolineum, Cracow 1931, p. 167. 9 Heraklit, [in:] W. Tatarkiewicz: Historia filozofii, Vol. XXII: Filozofia starożytna i średniowieczna, PWN, Warsaw 2007, p. 32.

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However, one of the most important treatises of Heraclitus is “On Nature”, consisting of three parts - about the universe, politics, and theology10. Heraclitus was a supporter of praxeological philosophy. This thinker became famous also for his other concepts, among others regarding war as “the father and the king of all things. ”This idea was presented in fragments of Heraclitus’ writings. We read there: ”War is the father and king of all: some he has made gods, and some men; some slaves and some free. On the contrary, it coincides and the most beautiful harmony is created from different things. Everything arises from a dispute”11. On the basis of the fragment above, it can be assumed that Heraclitus gives expression to his philosophical convictions based on the concept of constant struggle and characterization of the world as the unity of opposing powers. For such unity a security can be recognized that arises from the struggle of such opposites as war and peace. In this fight, the war strengthens security and the peace weakens it. In this particular case, a combination of war and peace follows, and the result of this clash are struggle, political and even cultural changes12. As the last but not least in this category, one should mention Plato, the Greek philosopher, the creator of the philosophical system called . It is worth mentioning that he was a student of Socrates, thanks to whom had a considerable influence on his concepts. Plato, as one of the most eminent Greek philosophers, became famous on the pages of history thanks to his works - “Republic”, “Rights”, “Gorgias”, “Phaedo” and others. In most of them he propagated the idea of the soul consisting of three parts - reason, temperament, and lust. The first ingredient was a feature of the philosophers who exercised power. The temperament was reserved for , while the lust Plato attributed to farmers and artisans. The philosopher assumed that the last two components should necessarily be subordinate to the intellect, because only in this way one can lead a happy and reasonable life. We find this confirmation in the “Republic”, where Plato wrote:”Intellect shall rule because it is wise and he should think in advance about the whole soul, and temperament should be subject to it and be with it in the covenant. A man should harmonize his three internal components, as three strings well matched, lowest, supreme and middle”13. The conclusion of the above reflections is that the vision of war extended by individual thinkers was strongly diversified, perceived in a subjective

10 J. Legowicz, Filozofia starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu, PWN, Warsaw 1970, p. 76. 11 H. Diels, Die fragmente der Vorsokratiker, t. 1, Berlin 1934, p. 162. 12 J. Świniarski, W. Chojnacki, Filozofia bezpieczeństwa, ZUMS BN, Warsaw 2004, p. 6. 13 Plato, Państwo, Vol. 1, Publisher: M. Derewiecki, p. 224-228.

227 Studia Administracji i Bezpieczeństwa nr 6/2019 way, often divergent with the views of its predecessors. War was described as a necessary, even glorious phenomenon caused by the natural abrasion of tribes or the result of competition for resources. On the other hand, there were plenty of philosophical comparisons seeking a source of conflict in the ongoing war of and . Each of the presented concepts has been reflected in subsequent epochs, for example in the form of political or philosophical discourse.

2. Ancient writers about peace

Among the many eminent authors of antiques who wrote about peace, it is worth to mention the name of Hesiod, a Greek epic, born at the turn of the eighth and ninth century BC14. His name can be translated as “the one that carries a song”, which is why he is often considered to be members of the Aoidos - nomadic singers. In contrary to rulers, Hesiod spent long time working on the farm, what undoubtedly influenced his views. As he wrote about himself, his first poetic revelation took place on the slopes of Helicon while grazing the herd. Its effect was known to this day the song “Theogony” more widely known under the title “The Birth of Gods”.Further affairs, especially conflict with his brother regarding the division of property, gave Hesiod the inspiration to write another important work “Works and Days”15. Among the Greeks, Hesiod was considered one of the greatest writers, often compared with Homer. He owed his popularity above all to the authenticity of the message and peasant origin, which in no way lessened his creativity. On the contrary, full realism and lack of detachment from the everyday hardships of life made the ideas of Hesiod go directly to the hearts of recipients. Moreover, thanks to the fairly well-preserved information contained in Hesiod’s treatises, he became a real figure, not an anonymous source of . The aforementioned creator may be contrasted with the fight ethos created by Homer. Hesiod, because he was the eulogist of the idea of peace, manifested by the motive of working on the land16. The main works on this subject are “Works and days” and “Theogony”. This author develops the concept of successive periods of peace and strength. Interpreting these claims, one can notice a reference to the era of tribal communities and their disintegration, which in turn resulted in the era of changes and conflicts. Hesiod created a nostalgic vision of the passing

14 A. Świerkówna, Słownik pisarzy antycznych, Wiedza Powszechna, Warsaw 1982, p. 19-23. 15 J. Łanowski, Hezjod – chłopski filozof, Internet link: http://www.wiw.pl/kulturaantyczna/eseje/hezjod_ 01.asp [access: 13.12.2018]. 16 J. Borgosz, Drogi i bezdroża…, op. cit., p. 14.

228 Zuzanna Szpakowska, War and peace in ancient philosophy times of prosperity and stability, where fighting was a last resort, caused by the gradual depletion of supplies and the “life-giving power” of the inhabited areas. At that time, in search of a new shelter abounding with food and other vital resources, the tribes went on a trek to combat the resistance of indigenous settlers. It should be noted, however, that conflicts were only a means to maintain biological , and not, as in the case of Homer, a source of glory and military success. Thus, war has no universal character in Hesiod’s works, it is not ethically glorified, and it is embedded in an incidentally occurring necessity to preserve life. What’s more, the author does not approve these activities, clearly emphasizing that greed was alien to invaders who wanted to ensure their survival and their families. Only later periods of war and rape gave room for the development of these destructive instincts, as can be seen in the “Works and Days”.In his creation, Hesiod contrasted the with arduous but useful agricultural work to maintain the “life- giving power” of the earth17. The work on the land that has been mentioned many times by Hesiod is a remedy for all conflicts, and enslavement. The work is also associated with many high values related to care for the land, care for crops and the future. Hesiod claimed that such commitment had also a salutary effect on man, because he disposes him peacefully, takes his thoughts and gives rhythm to his life. Such strong relationship of man and nature allows him to understand and thereby respect the world in which he lives. It teaches him gratitude and gentleness towards other people and animals. To best adapt the of that time, Hesiod recommends stopping training of young man in , which only brings losses, and suffering. Conducting wars entail a waste of resources, death and destruction, what is the root of grievance and retaliate. War is not a building force, it only destroys and annihilates. On the other hand, people should be more attached to the work on the land in order to achieve peace. Peace combined with work, however, is a building and creative force that ensures internal harmony and multiplication of , both those of material and spiritual nature. Hesiod, therefore, can be considered a precursor of the idea of making peace through farming18. For him, the basic instrument of improving safety, prosperity and well- being is farming. Only in crisis situations, Hesiod allows war as the mean of last resort, which replaces the crucial role of farming, safety, and peace. The next ancient philosopher known for his works on peace is Hippias of Elis. This author belonged to the school of sophists, especially strongly adhered to the naturalistic trend, opposing the laws set up by man. This character deserves

17 Hezjod, Prace i dnie, Wydawnictwo Ossolińskich, Wroclaw 1982, p. 4-5. 18 G. Seidler, Myśl polityczna starożytności, Wydawnictwo Literackie, Crocow 1956, p. 40.

229 Studia Administracji i Bezpieczeństwa nr 6/2019 a special place on the pages of history due to its innovative approach to the transfer of knowledge. Unlike most of the creators of his era, he rejected rhetoric, anti- logy, or synonymy. In return, he proposed his own method called “polymath”, which mainly consisted of a mnemotechnics that allowed remembering more data.In addition to his dissertations on peace, Hippias was also famous for the developed concepts of law, where was derived from nature common to all beings, while law-based law often opposed the natural order, thus the “tyrant of people”. He opposed natural law to the law of culture, created as a kind of convention. These concepts have become the foundations of the political thought of the time, and this achievement is also present in the of law19. He can be boldly opposed to Heraclitus of Ephesus, as a thinker presenting a completely different position on the sources of wars. Hippias did not seek the causes of conflicts in the clash of ideas, forces of , or rather the natural tendency of a man to fight and as one of the most effective political tools20. He confirmed, in this way, the statements of representatives of the Sophist school, who assumed that the basis of the armed clashes was the “war of all against all”, which was even stronger in the times preceding the formation of states and countries as we know them today. For him, it is a natural law to constantly fight for biological survival and ensure own existence. This law seemed to be a natural course of things in the world where only the fittest could survive. Thus, the state as a conventional institution (culture) appeared in his views as an institution serving the weaker. According to him, the weaker seeking a solution to the problem of social relations with the stronger, which prefers natural law, sought to create social institutions capable of protecting them from danger. Therefore, the state, while protecting the weaker, fulfills the task of ensuring security. J. Borgosz identifies these aspirations with the formation of institutions that are precursors of the currently understood social creation which is the state21. At that time, for the price of a part of their freedom, the weak received the protection of the stronger, and increasingly institutionalized socio-political organizations with designated borders – countries - began to emerge. It is worth noting that the primary antagonism between the weak and the strong was translated on a larger scale. In this case, individuals were no longer compared in favor of comparing states and countries. As J. Borgosz pointed out, since that moment we can speak about the concept of war as a social phenomenon. It was also noticed by the

19 G. Reale, Historia filozofii starożytnej, t. 1. Publisher KUL, Lublin 2008, p. 281. 20 J. Borgosz, Drogi i bezdroża…, op. cit., p. 24-26. 21 Ibidem.

230 Zuzanna Szpakowska, War and peace in ancient philosophy sophists who combined the existence of wars as a natural effect of the functioning, organized groups of people - and states. Hippias, being one of the most prominent thinkers of his era, proposed a completely new way of treating human communities, not on the basis of their ethnic origin, but rather as an imprecisely defined community of people and creating one social organism. Though nowadays this idea seems completely obvious, finding confirmation in many currently functioning countries like the USA, France or Great Britain, in the age of antiquity this was a modern thought. Hippias also claimed that raising youth in the spirit of mitigating armed conflicts and reducing their numbers failed. In place of national pride in belonging to a particular family or , the idea of belonging to a broad, global human community began to be promoted. Thus, Hippias was the first precursor of the concept of a “citizen of the world”22. According to this philosopher, after the introduction of this type of thinking, all wars and conflicts would disappear, because the previous divisions would not take place. The proposal of universal citizenship, irrespective of ethnic or regional origin, can therefore be identified as propagation of the idea of a particular form of federalism and cosmopolitan . Such an innovative approach did not go unnoticed, because these teachings were willingly adopted by cynics, including of Sinope. This philosopher assumed that man should live in harmony with nature, without dependence on material goods or wealth. Only then one can reach the heights of existence and the greatest - . Following this line, the reasoning of the cynics rejected all state institutions as a mean of conventional control. They also believed that people are equal by nature, regardless their origin. That concept allowed the existence of the postulate of the“citizen of the world”, rejection of or gender inequality. Cynics also advocated the abolition of state borders and granting equal rights and privileges to all people. Since the root of wars are the states and the ownership of material resources associated with it, it is necessary to put an end to existence of formal states, material greed and body needs in order to focus mainly on spiritual sphere - virtue. The last but no least mentioned in this subsection is Epicurus. The Greek philosopher of the third century BC. A representative of the so-called second phase of Greek classical philosophy. His works focused on the and . Epicurus is known primarily for his thoughts about the concept of internal peace and connection of happiness with pleasure and absence of suffering. This meant that all evil or good result primarily from the feeling of pleasure or pain. Thus, everything that was good for a man was pleasant and on the contrary,

22 Ibidem.

231 Studia Administracji i Bezpieczeństwa nr 6/2019 all negative feelings were associated with evil. The whole ethics of acting according to Epicurus were based on the cult of life and joy, the universal and natural tendency of people to preserve life and its implementation, both pleasant and coping with suffering. The future and happiness depended only on the human being, and in him was the fulfillment of individual needs. However, this postulate should not be confused with the promotion of somatic . The philosopher believed that the source of happiness lies in achieving inner peace, which was above all a combination of reason and virtue23. In order to better illustrate the postulates, Epicurus created his own theory of moderate hedonism and a calculus of pleasure. It was a general division of pleasures, the most valuable of which were those achieved by taking pure joy of life. The philosopher distinguished two types of pleasures - passive pleasures, such as admiration and empathy, as well as active pleasures. These, in turn, were divided into spiritual and physical. Their implementation usually required facing the negative consequences of achieving them. Considering the above list, it should be assumed that passive enjoyment should be derived in the maximum way, while the active ones should always be considered and obtained while maintaining a balance of suffering and pleasure. Epicurus divided his discipline of knowledge into three basic parts24: − Physics describing natural theories, − Ethics focused on discovering the essence of happiness, − A canon covering broadly understood cognition. Many researchers claim that much of Epicurus’ teachings were strongly inspired by Democritus’ views. However, the philosopher denied this thesis accusing the Democritian concept of . Unfortunately, only a small number of works have survived to this day, and the most-known of them are “Rules” and “On Nature”25. Nevertheless, the indirect source of knowledge about Epicurus’ views is the preserved work of Lucretia, entitled On the nature of all things and a summary of his views by Diogenes Laertiosin Lives of eminent philosophers. We learn from these works that he recommended living the life in present tense (carpe diem - grab the day - as Lucretius says) and through “a quiet life among friends and away from the common people (in some from the rabble)”. As in the case of ancient thinkers’ views , also in the case of peace, it is easy to notice numerous discrepancies resulting from the subjective opinions of individual authors. Once again, armed conflicts presented as the opposite of security were depicted as a natural necessity to maintain people’s biological

23 W. Tatarkiewicz, Historia Filozofii, t 1, PWN, Warsaw 1981, p. 138-145. 24 A. A. Long, : Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics, Bristol Classical 1986, p. 15. 25 R. H. Popkin, A. Stroll, Filozofia, Zysk i Sk-a, Poznań 1994, p. 19-26.

232 Zuzanna Szpakowska, War and peace in ancient philosophy existence. This state is contrasted with a life in harmony with nature, care for the earth and the future. The pursuit of peace is the need and purpose of every human being, both individually and collectively - for example, to ensure the safety and well-being of the family. Many ideas once considered modern have found their realization in the contemporary world, for example, the founding of federalist or cosmopolitan pacifism.

3. Ancient writers on security

The term security appears in the Polish translations of Epicurus’ texts in the context of happiness, serenity, ataraxia, friendship and peace. In that context, it means both the lack of threats, the absence of fear of enemies, plundering, the enslavement of others or power over others, as well as everyday happiness, and peace. The context of linking security with happiness had earlier appeared in the texts of Aristotle, who lists “safety and prosperity” among the conditions of happiness. But for him, happiness is not only a “quiet life among friends” - peace, and rest. It is a common goal of people to have three types of goods, namely spiritual, somatic and material. However, as this pursuit is not “given to everyone,” although it is the goal of a state that wages war and peace, strives for wealth and border protection, trades with other states, and establishes a legal system. It seems that interesting connection of security and happiness found in concepts of the ancient philosophers was also shown by an outstanding thinker and writer Dante Alighieri in the Renaissance book Monarchy. Following the arguments of Aristotle’s dispute about the social and political nature of a man from Politics, he states that: (1) the goal of every human being is to achieve happiness, (2) “the goal of the home” (family) “to provide all its members with well-being” (3) the goal of the rural community is “the coexistence of people and things”, (4) and finally, the goal of state is “providing the inhabitants with safety and prosperous life”26. For him, the state “the best guarantor of security” is the monarchical system (the kingdom). If this system prevails in the entire world, it will aim at the universal peace, which “will ensure good order in the world”27. This reference to the connection between happiness, security, and peace is associated with expressing happiness with the level or degree of socialization:

26 A. Dante, Monarchia, tłum. W. Seńko, HACHETTE, Warsaw 2010, p. 55-71. 27 Ibidem, p. 58.

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1) The individual goal is HAPPINESS; 2) The purpose of the family (supraindividual) is WELL BEING; 3) The local goal (municipality) is “COEXISTENCE AND CO-OPERATION”; 4) The goal of the state is SAFETY; 5) The goal of universally the best global system (in the nomenclature of A. Dante - Monarchy or Empire) is PEACE28. The above-quoted systematization of Dante creates a continuum that begins with the individual goal of each person’s happiness and ends with the ultimate aim of the human collective - peace. Thus, the security of the state or community appears as a socialized or condensed happiness. This socialization obtains its fullness and perfection in the universal peace of the worldwide monarchy, which is some kind of “world government”. The philosophy of security refers to this continuum, which has its origin in the works of ancient philosophers and attempts to overcome polemology and irenology, or the philosophy of war and peace connected with them29. For this contemporary philosophy, the subject of research is security, identified with the value, where happiness is the basis for each and every individual’s life goals. Everyone wants to live in peace and prosperity. It can be reduced to the basic need of life or survival, development and improvement, which according to Sigmund’s Freud’s statement is the safety expressed as the substitute of happiness30. War and peace are treated as means for the philosophy of security, the causative reasons for a state described as safe and secure. The modern concept of security should be combined with its ancient prototype. For the classic European philosophical thought, security was a basic good, one of the fundamental needs of a human being, often unwillingly involved in periods of war and peace. Among the analyzed sources of antiquity, we note both militaristic and pacifist tendencies, depending on the views of individual authors. In order to fully describe the position of ancient writers regarding security, it is worth mentioning the systematics of knowledge propagated by Aristotle. He is one of the most famous Greek philosophers, along with Socrates and Plato, also considered as the most versatile. His concepts even allowed for the creation of a different philosophical system called realism, strongly shaping the current European culture. This system is often contrasted with a system called idealism

28 J. Świniarski, W. Chojnacki, Filozofia bezpieczeństwa, ZUMS BN, Warsaw 2004, p. 6. 29 Ibidem. 30 Ibidem.

234 Zuzanna Szpakowska, War and peace in ancient philosophy or . The legacy of both realism and Platonism is observed in the works of many different authors over the centuries31. Focusing on the security, it is impossible to ignore the achievements of Christian thought, which made corrections both in Aristotle’s realism and Plato’s idealism. One of the most important representatives was Aurelius Augustine, also called , known primarily for his work “On the State of ”32. The author described the dichotomy of two kingdoms - earthly and divine. The world as we know was a result of a clash between the two kingdoms (spheres). In other words the content of human history is a result of this clash33. This fight between good and evil is a very common theme, regardless of culture or epoch. For Augustine, these clashes were inextricably linked with danger and wars. According to this philosopher, it was a manifestation of divine plans on earth. As Augustine wrote - “Only one true God, the creator and the giver of everything is the one who gives away the kingdom”34. And “the will and power of the true God are outlined in the days of kings and kingdoms35. Thus, the concept promoted by Augustine assumed that the entire history of mankind consists mainly of the miracles and divine will, with the total lack of influence of the human factor. It can even be said that people are only puppets, subjects in the hands of Providence36. Augustine of Hippo also had his own theories about wars. In his opinion, they had a important, even instrumental significance for the fate of humanity. These theories in some interpretations proclaim that Augustine claimed that Providence uses wars as a way of for people for their sins. What’s more, in this way it reminds us of the necessity to lead a pious life and to perform morally good deeds. However, this theory has been criticized. It was argued, if God is almighty and good, why he is resorting to such drastic measures. Augustine replied: “If now all sin was immediately punishable, it would seem that nothing was left for the Final Judgment, and if God did not clearly punish any sin again, it would be thought that there is no Divine Providence”37. This theory also perfectly matches the next claim according to which the result of conflicts depended only on the will of Providence, which favors those who are good and live virtuously.

31 M. Plezia, Od Arystotelesa do złotej legendy, PAX, Warsaw 1958, p. 13-19. 32 G. Bonner, St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies, Westminster Press, Norwich 1986, p. 38. 33 J. Borgosz, Drogi i bezdroża…, op. cit., p. 63-68. 34 Ibidem. 35 Ibidem. 36 Borgosz, Drogi i bezdroża…, op. cit., p. 64. 37 A. Augustin, On the State of God, Vol. 1, ust 8. also: http://rcin.org.pl/ifis/publication/14204 [access: 04.02.2019].

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Thus, the Roman army was successful because the legions ensured the spread of . It was a divine reward for piety and it was the exaltation of Rome among other nations. It is known, however, war is not just a band of victories, but Augustin also had his own theory. According to the philosopher, God allowed sometimes “devils” to win because as mentioned earlier, the time of kingdoms and rulers was also counted. In connection with the above, Augustine wrote: “Even those who want wars seek the victory, and therefore they want to reach peace with war. For what is victory, but not the subjugation of the opponent? When this happens, there will also be peace. So (war) goes on with the pursuit of peace”38. Augustine’s teachings were later developed by medieval thinkers, who expanded a concept of holy wars, that is, fully accepted morally, sometimes even described with admiration and recognition. This was especially true of the cross-era wars, which, called saints, were sacred39. Returning to the Augustine’s concept of fair and unjust wars, it is impossible to omit the philosophy of . Although he is not a representative of the age of antiquity, his attitude is a perfect complement to Augustine’s claims. Thomas claimed that wars are fair in three cases40: − When the rightful rulers lead them, − When there are just causes of conflict, − When the intention of the war leader is correct. Like Augustine, the rightness of war was linked to the interest of the Church and its influence. Thus, wars against dissenters were justified, and the head of the Church was necessary for their conduct. Thomas paid little attention to the problem of war, focusing more on metaphysical issues. Undoubtedly, however, the achievements of the two thinkers mentioned in this case served as an important source of knowledge for the followers of these ideas. Looking at the ways of interpreting the role of war, peace and security in the social life of antiquity, there is a noticeable strong of views of most authors of this era. The conditions of the existence of human centers at that time were inextricably linked to the gradual use of resources and overpopulation. Conflicts were therefore considered as unavoidable effect of the above causes. For Plato in a well-organized state that implements and free life in accordance with the diverse of individual people, philosophers should take care of appropriate legislation, which should be followed by soldiers (guards) caring for border protection, war and peace; farmers and craftsmen should deal

38 Ibidem. 39 J. Borgosz, Drogi i bezdroża…, op. cit., p. 66-68. 40 Ibidem.

236 Zuzanna Szpakowska, War and peace in ancient philosophy with the production of goods, ensuring prosperity. On the other hand, for Aristotle, security means maintenance of moderation and balance between war (necessary) and peace (desirable). It should be noted that both these phenomena, although quite extreme, are complementary to each other. Wars are carried out to gain ownership, similar to work. Peace, on the other hand, as a useful thing, is to rely on the use of what was obtained through war and work. He referred undoubtedly for the acquisition of material goods. These goods are one of the three types that constitute the happiness. However, it should be remembered that material goods are not the only determinant of happiness, which, as indicated, can be defined in a highly diversified manner.

Conclusions

The Mediterranean region and the ancient Hellenistic culture are often called the cradle of modern Europe. Concepts created centuries ago have survived, exerting an undeniable influence on the works of subsequent epochs. This is no different in the case of contemporary interpretations of wars and periods of peace. To this day, many authors refer to the ancient heritage and not only in matters of philosophical concepts. A living proof for that was Hippias’ concept of conflict between natural law, and constituted law, which can also be found in contemporary legal science. The views of sophists on the necessity of coexistence of people of different nations in one state were considered extremely modern many years ago. Currently, they find practical confirmation in countries such as France, the and Great Britain. The concept of cynics on the abolition of national borders, as well as equity before the law can be combined with the of the functioning of the European Union and the Schengen area. The influence of ancient thought regarding the relationship between security and happiness is also evident in the works of the creators of subsequent epochs, for example Dante Alighieri, who in promoted the concept of world monarchy, which can be compared to the contemporary idea of world government. Regardless of the details and ideas invoked it should be clearly stated that the historical achievements were reflected not only in the numerous literary works of successive eras, but also influenced the contemporary perception of war, peace, and security, because many existing concepts directly follow or negate ancient patterns.

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Bibliography 1. Augustin A., On the State of God, Vol. 1, ust 8. also: http://rcin.org.pl/ifis/publica- tion/14204 [access: 04.02.2019]. 2. Bonner G., St. Augustine of Hippo. Life and Controversies, Westminster Press, Nor- wich 1986. 3. Borgosz J., Drogi i bezdroża filozofii pokoju. Od Homera do Jana Pawła II, MON, Warsaw 1989. 4. Dante A., Monarchia, tłum. W. Seńko, HACHETTE, Warsaw 2010. 5. Diels H., Die fragmente der Vorsokratiker, t. 1, Berlin, 1934, 6. Heraklit [in:] Tatarkiewicz W.: Historia filozofii, Vol. XXII: Filozofia starożytna i średniowieczna, PWN, Warsaw 2007. 7. Hezjod, Prace i dnie, Wydawnictwo Ossolińskich, Wroclaw 1982. 8. ‘ Homer’, Encyklopedia popularna PWN, Warsaw 2017, 9. Homer, Iliada, hymn III, translation: Franciszek Dmochowski. 10. Legowicz J., Filozofia starożytnej Grecji i Rzymu, PWN, Warsaw 1970. 11. Long A. A., Hellenistic philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics, Bristol Classical 1986. 12. Łanowski J., Hezjod – chłopski filozof, Internet link: http://www.wiw.pl/kulturaan- tyczna/eseje/hezjod_01.asp. 13. M. Plezia, Od Arystotelesa do złotej legendy, PAX, Warsaw 1958. 14. G. Zimbardo, Efekt Lucyfera. Dlaczego dobrzy ludzie czynią zło?, PWN, Warsaw 2008. 15. Reale G., Historia filozofii starożytnej, t. 1., Publisher KUL, Lublin 2008. 16. Seidler G., Myśl polityczna starożytności, Wydawnictwo Literackie, Crocow 1956. 17. Sinko T., Literatura grecka, t. 1, Ossolineum, Cracow 1931. 18. Świerkówna A., Słownik pisarzy antycznych, Wiedza powszechna, Warsaw 1982. 19. Świniarski J., Chojnacki W., Filozofia bezpieczeństwa, ZUMS BN, Warsaw 2004. 20. Tatarkiewicz W., Historia Filozofii, t. 1, PWN, Warsaw 1981.

Wojna i pokój w starożytnej filozofii

Streszczenie Okresy pokoju oraz konfliktów zbrojnych przeplatają się od samego początku historii ludzkości. Dla jednych stanowią naturalne następstwo ścierania się kultur, dla innych są motorem postępu cywilizacyjnego, jeszcze inni dopatrują się w nich motywów romantycznych lub nieuzasadnionej agresji i braku poszanowania dla życia ludzkiego. Niezależnie od obranej wizji i prezentowanego poglądu, wojna, pokój i potrzeba bezpie- czeństwa są nierozerwalnymi częściami naszego życia i rzeczywistości. Z tego powodu stały się one bardzo istotnym tematem rozważań filozoficznych, politologicznych,

238 Zuzanna Szpakowska, War and peace in ancient philosophy socjologicznych, których wpływ obserwujemy właściwie we wszystkich epokach, nie- zależnie od kręgu kulturowego, ustroju czy sytuacji społecznej. Ze względu na obszerność poruszanego tematu, niniejsza praca skupiać się będzie na wybranym okresie – antyku – oraz na jednych z najważniejszych (i najbliższych nam) ówczesnych kultur – greckiej, rzymskiej oraz helleńskiej. Autorka stara się odpowiedzieć na pytanie badawcze – czy dorobek myśli antycznej wpływa na kształtowanie się współczesnego rozumienia i inter- pretacji wojny, pokoju oraz bezpieczeństwa? Rozważaniom towarzyszy teza autorki, iż sposób, w jaki obecnie postrzegamy i interpretujemy otaczające nas zjawiska, w szcze- gólności wojnę i pokój, jest silnie determinowany koncepcjami wypracowanymi przez protoplastów filozofii.

Słowa kluczowe: wojna, pokój, bezpieczeństwo, antyk, filozofia

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