Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 2 11

CHAPTER Race and Ethnic Group 8 Stratification Beyond “We” and “They”

As we travel around our social world, the people we encounter gradually change appearance. As human beings, we are all part of “we,” but there is a tendency to define those who look different as “they.”

©SAGE Publications Global Community

Society

nal Organizati atio ons N d Ethni , s, an c Su on bc ti ul itu tu t re s rganiz s In al O atio oc ns L ommu d C nit an y

Me (and My Minority Friends) M ; i s c p ro u e : ro x g rs c L e l oc ce b us al referen io em n m M of p t e ethnic grou a s th o: s in P on e te oli ati at n cie niz in tio s in large orga m na cri lly o dis r unintentionally M t acr tha o: La lings s ws or court ru et tion polic ina y related to discrim M ac ting ro: sul Raci es re al and ethnic hostiliti in w ing ars, eans genocide, or ethnic cl

©SAGE Publications 210 Inequality

Think About It

Micro: Me (and My Ethnically Diverse Do you look different from those around you? If not, why do you think you are surrounded by Friends) people who look like you? What relevance do these differences have for your life?

Micro: Local Community Why do people in the local community categorize “others” into racial or ethnic groups?

Meso: National Institutions; Complex How are advantages and disadvantages embedded in institutions so that they operate Organizations; Ethnic Groups independently of personal bias or prejudice?

Macro: National Society Why are minority group members in most countries economically poorer than dominant group members?

Macro: Global Community In what ways might ethnicity or race shape international negotiations and global problem solving? What can you do to make the world a better place for all people?

including the United States and Canada (Free the Slaves 2013). The United Nations estimates that 2.4 mil- What’s coming in this chapter? lion people around the world were victims of human What Characterizes Racial and Ethnic Groups? trafficking in 2012 alone; that’s 1.8 people per 1,000 Prejudice: Micro-Level Analysis inhabitants in the world, and 3 per 1,000 in Asia and the Pacific (“Human Trafficking” 2012). Eighty per- Discrimination: Meso-Level Analysis cent of these were in sexual services, and most were Dominant and Minority Group Contact: Macro-Level women and girls. Human trafficking is lucrative—a Analysis $32 billion market (Lederer 2012). The global market The Effects of Prejudice, Racism, and for child trafficking involves more than 1.2 million child Discrimination Micro-Level Coping Strategies Meso- and Macro-Level Efforts to Bring Change: Nonviolent Resistance Policies Governing Minority and Dominant Group Relations

The unnamed adult female was brought to the UK by an organized gang with the intention of removing her organs and selling them to those desperate for a transplant. It is unclear whether the plot was uncovered before the organ removal took place, but campaigners said it was the first such case they had seen in Britain. The case is now the subject of a police investigation, but represents a sinister development in the already disturbing trade in human trafficking [and sale of organs] . . .

According to the World Health Organization as many as 7,000 kidneys are illegally obtained by traffickers each year around the world. While there is a market for organs In Calcutta’s red-light district, more than 7,000 women such as hearts, lungs and livers, kidneys are the most sought and girls work as prostitutes. Only one group has a after organs because one can be removed from a patient lower standing: their children. Zana Briski first began under proper medical conditions without any ill effects. photographing prostitutes in Calcutta in 1998. Living in the brothels for months at a time, she quickly developed (M. Evans 2012) a relationship with many of the kids who, often terrorized and abused, were drawn to the rare human companionship It may surprise you to know that slaves—individu- she offered. Because the children were fascinated by als or families bound in servitude as the property of a her camera, Zana taught photography to the children of prostitutes. Learn more about her organization, Kids With person or household, bought and sold, and forced to Destiny, at www.kidswithdestiny.org. work—continue to be exploited around the world,

Slavery ©SAGE Publications Chapter 8. Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 2 11

victims (Stop Child Trafficking Now 2012). New mar- kets in human body parts may be the largest growth area (Evans 2012). Can you imagine being so desperate for income—in part because of your ethnic background—that you had to sell your body parts—or even your daughter? Around the stadiums of international events such as the Olympics, major soccer matches, and Super Bowls, cheap hotels and brothels buy and sell child prostitutes (Elam 2011). Young foreign girls are brought in from other countries—chosen for sex slaves because they are exotic, are free of AIDS, and cannot escape due to insufficient money and knowledge of the language or the country to which they are exported. Sometimes, poor families sell their daughters for the promise of high wages and perhaps money sent home. As a result, girls as young as 6 are held captive as prostitutes or as domestic workers. Child labor, a problem in many parts of the world, requires poor young children to do heavy labor for long hours in agriculture as Much of the work on cacao plantations is done by child slaves from well as brick-making, match-making, and carpet factories. poor countries who were smuggled, bought, or coerced with promises Although they earn little, sometimes their income helps of a better life. The photo at the right shows children working at a families pay debts. Much of the cacao (used to make choco- coffee plantation in Panama. The children have no childhood and often late) and coffee (except for Fair Trade Certified products) no schooling. This plantation does not have fair trade practices. that we buy also supports slavery. Young girls and boys work up to 80 hours a week in cacao plantations, but are not paid (Nall 2012). They are given a choice of unpaid hard labor (with beatings for any disobedience) or death by starvation or shooting (Bales 2000, 2012). Very little chocolate is produced without slave labor. Debt bondage is another form of modern-day slavery. Extremely poor families—often people with differences in appearance from those with power—work in exchange for housing and meager food. Severe debt, passing from gen- eration to generation, may also result when farmers borrow money because they face drought or need cash to keep their families from starving. The only collateral they have on the loan is themselves—put up for bondage until they can pay off the loan. No one but the wealthy landowner keeps accounting records, which results in there being no accountability. In the slavery of the 19th century, slaves were expensive, and there was at least some economic incentive to care about their health and survival so that they could be productive workers. In the new slavery, humans are cheap and replaceable. There is little concern about working them to death, especially if they are located in remote sugar, cacao, or coffee plantations. By current dollars, a slave in the southern United States prior to the Civil War would have cost as much as $40,000, but contemporary slaves are cheap. They can be procured from poor countries for an average of $90 (Bales 2012). The cost is $40 in Mali for a young male and $1,000 in Thailand for an HIV-free female (Free the Slaves 2013). The Fair Trade Certified symbol signifies that products such as coffee, Just as the issue of slavery mobilized people to start tea, and chocolate (made from cacao) meet sustainable development abolition movements in the first half of the 19th century, it goals, help support family farmers at fair prices, and are not produced by slave labor. Much cacao plantation labor is done by child slaves is a cause for action by some public sociologists. The sociol- smuggled in from poor countries. Fair trade requires respect for the ogist most at the forefront of the current movement to abol- dignity and autonomy of the workers. ish slavery is featured in the next “Sociologists in Action.” ©SAGE Publications 212 Inequality

Sociologists in Action— Stopping Slavery in the 21st Century by Kevin Bales

In the following excerpt from “Confronting Slavery With the Tools of Sociology” Kevin Bales describes how he has used his sociological training to draw attention to and work to combat modern slavery, living the life of a public sociologist. * * * * * * * Becoming an abolitionist sociologist crept up on me. The first tiny prodding was a leaflet I picked up at an outdoor event in London. The front of the leaflet read “There are Millions of Slaves in the World Today.” I was a university pro- fessor, and I confess to an unpleasant mixture of pride and hubris in my reaction to the bold title of the leaflet. Having been involved in human rights for many years, I thought, “How could this be true if I don’t know about it already?” Something began to itch in my mind . . . what if? What if there were millions of people in slavery? What if almost all of us, governments, human rights groups, the media, the public, were simply unaware? Millions of hidden slaves seemed unlikely, but my nagging thought was that if there were millions of people in slavery, then finding them was the job of a social researcher. If there weren’t millions of slaves, this type of literature needed debunking. I pulled in students to help dig and sift through information, and paid one researcher to look further afield. As a faint picture of global slavery began to emerge, I came to understand why this issue was invisible. Slavery was hidden under a thick blanket of ignorance, concealed by the common assumption that it was extinct. With slavery illegal in every country, criminal slaveholders kept their activities hidden. As I built up a picture of slavery, every new set of facts generated new questions. I began to realize that a large- scale research project was needed and I went in search of modern slavery, traveling to India, Pakistan, Thailand, Mauritania, and Brazil—often going undercover as I studied slave-based businesses in each country. The result was the book, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (1999, 2004, 2012). Some years later, I was able to build a database of slave prices over time that showed that slaves had been high- ticket capital purchase items in the past (even though occasional gluts caused prices to dip) and are normally low cost disposable inputs today. In 2000, I, with three others, helped found Free the Slaves, the American sister-organization of Anti-Slavery International, the world’s oldest (1787) and original human rights group. Free the Slaves works with local partners to liberate slaves around the world and change the systems that allow slavery to exist. In addition to addressing the crime of enslavement, this work often involves confronting gender inequality, racism, ethnic and religious discrimination, and the negative outcomes of global economic growth. We have learned that freedom and empowerment are viral, and that freed slaves will stop at nothing to stay free and help others to liberty. Not every part of liberation and reintegration requires sociological training, but it would be very hard to be suc- cessful without it. Without carefully constructed longitudinal surveys of villages in slavery we could never have demon- strated the “freedom dividend,” the powerful and positive economic change that comes to whole communities when slavery is abolished. Without training in the empathetic understanding of a social researcher we could never have developed the “slavery lens,” a way of seeing this hidden crime, that the U.S. government now requires of all its foreign aid program workers. Without learning about the complex interplay of culture, society, economics, politics, and social vulnerability, we would never be able to build the unique methodologies of liberation tailored to specific and culturally rooted forms of slavery. And there is nothing like the ugly reality of a crime like slavery to push young sociologists to do their best work—using solid social science to change the world. * * * * * * * Kevin Bales is a sociologist and professor of contemporary slavery at the Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation (WISE), University of Hull, and cofounder of Free the Slaves, Washington. This excerpt is taken from Sociologists in Action: Sociology, Social Change, and Social Justice (Korgen, White, and White 2013).

What is the significance of slavery for our discussion of race and ethnic group stratification? What all of these Thinking Sociologically human bondage situations have in common is that poor minority groups are victimized. Because many slaves are Poor people around the world often lose control over their members of ethnic, racial, religious, tribal, gender, age, lives. What situations can lead to this condition, and what caste, or other minority groups with little cultural capi- are the consequences for these people? tal, are generally very poor, and have obvious physical or cultural distinctions from the people who exploit them, ©SAGE Publications Chapter 8. Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 213

they are at a distinct disadvantage in the stratification sys- 4. are stereotyped, ridiculed, condemned, or other- tem. Historical conditions and conflicts rooted in religious, wise defamed, allowing dominant group members social, political, and historical events set the stage for domi- to justify and not feel guilty about unequal and poor nant or minority status, and people are socialized into their treatment; and dominant or subservient group. 5. develop collective identities among members to Minority or dominant group status affects most aspects insulate themselves from the unaccepting world. of people’s experiences and stratification position in the This in turn perpetuates their group identity by social world. These include status in the community, social- creating ethnic or racial enclaves, intragroup mar- ization experience, residence, opportunities for success in riages, and segregated group institutions such as education and occupation, the religious group to which religious congregations. they belong, and the health care they receive. In fact, it is impossible to separate minority status from position in the stratification system (Aguirre and Turner 2011; Farley 2010; Rothenberg 2010). In this chapter, we explore characteristics of race and Thinking Sociologically ethnic groups that lead to differential placement in stratifi- Based on the preceding list of minority group character- cation systems, including problems at the micro, meso, and istics, how might some people be affected at the micro, macro levels—prejudice, racism, and discrimination. The meso, or macro levels of society, depending on their mem- next chapter considers ascribed status based on gender. bership in dominant or minority groups? The topics in this chapter and the next continue the dis- cussion of stratification: who is singled out for differential treatment, why they are singled out, results for both the individuals and the society, and some actions or policies Because minority status changes with time, power that deal with differential treatment. shifts, and ideology, the minority group may be the domi- nant group in a different time or society. Throughout England’s history, wars and assassinations changed the rul- What Characterizes Racial ing group from Catholic to Protestant and back several times. In Iraq, Shiite Muslims are dominant in numbers and and Ethnic Groups? now also in power, but they were a minority under Saddam Hussein’s Sunni rule. Dominant groups are not always a numerical majority. Migration, war and conquest, trade, and intermarriage have In the case of South Africa, advanced European weapons left virtually every geographical area of the world populated placed the native African Bantu population under the rule by groups of people with varying ethnicities. In this section, of a relatively small number of white British and Dutch we consider characteristics that set groups apart, especially descendants in a system called apartheid. Until recently, groups that fall at the lower end of the stratification system. each major group in South Africa—white, Asian, colored, and black—had its own living area, and members car- Minority Groups ried identification cards showing the “race” to which they belonged. In this case, racial classification and privilege Minority groups are groups in a population that differ from were defined by the laws of the dominant group. others in some characteristics and are therefore subject to less power, fewer privileges, and discrimination. Several fac- tors characterize minority groups and their relations with The Concept of Race dominant groups in society (Dworkin and Dworkin 1999). Minority groups A racial minority is one of the three types of minority groups that we will discuss and that are most common in the social 1. are distinguishable from dominant groups due to world. Race is a socially created concept that identifies a group factors that make them different from the group that as “different” based on certain biologically inherited physical char- holds power; acteristics. This allows them to be singled out for dissimilar treatment. Most attempts at racial classifications have been 2. are excluded or denied full participation at the meso based on combinations of appearance, such as skin color and level of society in economic, political, educational, shade, stature, facial features, hair color and texture, head religious, health, and recreational institutions; form, nose shape, eye color and shape, height, and blood 3. have less access to power and resources within the or gene type. Our discussion of race focuses on three issues: nation and are evaluated less favorably based on (a) origins of the concept of race, (b) the social construction their characteristics as minority group members; of race, and (c) the significance of race versus class.

A Class Divided ©SAGE Publications 214 Inequality

Origins of the Concept of Race Thus, the way societies choose to define race has come about largely through what is culturally convenient for the In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists attempted to dominant group. divide humans into four major groupings—Mongoloid, In the 1970s, the United Nations, concerned about Caucasoid, Negroid, and Australoid—and then into more racial conflicts and discrimination based on scientifically than 30 racial subcategories. In reality, few individuals fit inaccurate beliefs, issued a “Statement on Race” prepared clearly into any of these types. by a group of eminent scientists from around the world. From the earliest origins thought to be in Ethiopia, This and similar statements by scientific groups point out Africa, about 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens slowly the harmful effects of racist arguments, doctrines, and poli- spread around the globe, south through Africa, north cies. The conclusion of this document upheld that (a) all to Europe, and across Asia. Original migration patterns people are born free and equal both in dignity and in rights, of early humans over thousands of years are shown in (b) racism stultifies personal development, (c) conflicts Map 8.1. As the map shows, many scholars believe humans (based on race) cost nations money and resources, and crossed Asia and the Bering Strait to North America (d) prejudice foments international conflict. Racist doc- around 20,000 BCE and continued to populate North trines lack any scientific basis, as all people belong to the and South America (J. Diamond 1999). Physical adapta- same species and have descended from the same origin. In tions of isolated groups to their environments originally summary, problems arising from race relations are social, resulted in some differences in physical appearance—skin not biological, in origin; differential treatments of groups color, stature, hair type—but mixing of peoples over the based on “race” falsely claim a scientific basis for classifying centuries has left few if any genetically isolated people. humans. Biologically speaking, a “race” exists in any life

by 2,000 BCE

by 20,000 BCE by 12,000 BCE

by 500,000 BCE by 11,000 BCE 1,000, 000 BCE

CE 500

Origins: 7 million 1200 BCE BCE

33,000 BCE

by 40,000 BCE

CE 1000

by 10,000 BCE

Map 8.1 The Spread of Humans Around the World Source: J. Diamond (1999:37). This map shows the historical spread of humans around the globe and the approximate periods of the movements.

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form when the two groups cannot interbreed and where, if in the 1990s due to international pressure and under the they do, the offspring are infertile or sterile. This is not true leadership of the first black president (Nelson Mandela, of any group of human beings. So what is the problem? elected in 1994), vestiges of these notions of “reality” will take generations to change. By contrast, in Brazil an individual’s race is based on Social Construction of Race: physical features—skin tone, hair texture, facial features, Symbolic Interaction Analysis eye color, and so forth—rather than on the “one drop of blood” rule that existed in South Africa. Brothers and sisters Why are sociologists concerned about a concept that has who have the same parents and ancestors may be classified little scientific accuracy and is ill defined? The answer is as belonging to different races. The idea of race is based on its social significance. The social reality is that people are starkly contrasting criteria in Brazil and South Africa, illus- defined or define themselves as belonging to a group based trating the arbitrary nature of racial classification attempts in part on physical appearance. As individuals try to make (Kottak 2010). meaning of the social world, they may learn from others Before civil rights laws were passed in the United States that some traits—eye or nose shape, hair texture, or skin in the 1960s, a number of states had laws that spelled out color—are distinguishing traits that make people different. differential treatment for racial groups. These were com- Jean Piaget, the famous cognitive psychologist, described monly referred to as Jim Crow laws. States in the South the human tendency to classify objects as one of our most passed laws defining who was African American or Native basic cognitive tools (Piaget and Inhelder [1955] 1999). American. In many cases, it was difficult to determine This inclination has often been linked to classifying “racial” to which category an individual belonged. For instance, groups. Once in place, racial categories provide individuals African Americans in Georgia were defined as people with with an identity based on ancestry—“my kind of people any ascertainable trace of “Negro” blood in their veins. have these traits.” In Louisiana, 1/32 “Negro” blood defined one as black. Symbolic interaction theory contends that if people Differential treatment was spelled out in other states as well. believe something is real, it may become real in its con- In Texas, for example, the father’s race determined the race sequences. It does not matter whether scientists say that of the child. In West Virginia, a newborn was classified as attempts to classify people into races are inaccurate and “black” if either parent was considered black. Until recently, that the word is biologically meaningless. People on the several U.S. states still attempted to classify the race of new- streets of your hometown think they know what the word borns by the percentage of black blood or parentage (Lopez race means. That people think there are differences based on 1996). Federal law now prohibits discrimination on the appearance has consequences. As a social concept, race has not only referred to physical features and inherited genes but also carried over to presumed psychological and moral characteristics, thus justifying discriminatory treatment. The following examples illustrate the complex problems in trying to classify people into “races.” With the enactment of apartheid laws in 1948, the white government in South Africa institutionalized differen- tial laws based on its definitions of racial groups and speci- fied the privileges and restrictions allotted to each group (Marger 2012). Bantu populations (the native Africans) and coloreds (those of mixed blood) were restricted to separate living areas and types of work. Asians (mostly descen- dants of immigrants from India) received higher salaries than the Bantu groups but less than whites, while whites of European descent, primarily Dutch and English, had the highest living standard and best residential locations. Under the apartheid system, race was determined by trac- ing ancestry back for 14 generations. A single ancestor who was not Dutch or English might have caused an individual to be considered “colored” rather than white—the “one drop of blood” rule made people a minority if they had any ancestry from another group. Physical features mattered This house in the Chicago slums is not atypical of the quality of homes little. Individuals carried a card indicating their race based in segregated America in the 1940s. on genealogy. Although this system began to break down

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basis of “racial” classifications, and most state laws that are factor as unskilled jobs go abroad to cheaper labor explicitly racial have been challenged and dropped. (Friedman 2008; Massey 2007). Without addressing these structural causes of poverty, we cannot expect to reduce The Significance of Race Versus Class the number of people in the underclass—regardless of race or ethnicity. From the time of slavery in the Americas until the 21st The situation for black Americans—including the century, race has been the determining factor regarding black middle class—deteriorated since the economic crisis opportunities for people of African descent. Whether this that began in 2007. White median household net worth in is changing in the 21st century is a question that has occu- 2010 was $110,729, while net worth of blacks was $4,995, pied sociologists, politicians, educators, and other scientists and of Hispanics, $7,424. In other words, white wealth was in recent years. Some scholars argue that race is a primary 22 times the wealth of blacks and 15 times that of Hispanics cause of different placement in the stratification system, in 2010 compared to 12 times for blacks and 8 times for whereas others insist that race and social class are both Hispanics prior to the recession. Median household net at work, with socioeconomic factors (social class) more worth fell during the recession by about 60% for all except important than race. whites; the wealth of whites slipped by 23% (Luhby 2012). Influential sociologist William Julius Wilson writes By 2009, the black unemployment rate was 16.2%, and that the racial oppression that characterized the African only 56% of black men over 20 were working. Many people American experience throughout the 19th century was lost their homes, but that involved 4.5% of whites and 8% caused first by slavery and then by a lingering caste struc- of blacks (Washington 2011). ture that severely restricted upward mobility. However, the With these dismal figures in mind, a big debate among breakdown of the plantation economy and the rise of indus- scholars surrounds the following question: Has race trialism created more opportunities for African Americans declined in significance and class become more important to participate in the economy (W. J. Wilson 1978, 1993a, in determining placement in the stratification system? Tests 1993b). of Wilson’s thesis present us with mixed results (Jencks Wilson argues that after World War II, an African 1992). Thirty-three percent of whites are college graduates, American class structure developed with characteristics compared to 19.8% of blacks (U.S. Census Bureau 2012b). similar to those of the white class structure. Occupation More important, African Americans earn less than whites and income took on ever greater significance in social in the same occupational categories. As Table 8.1 makes position, especially for the African American middle class. clear, income levels for African Americans and whites are However, as black middle-class professionals moved up in not even close to being equal. So economics alone does the stratification structure, lower-class African American not seem a complete answer to who is in the underclass. ghetto residents became more isolated and less mobile. Although racial bias has decreased at the micro (inter- Limited unskilled job opportunities for the lower class personal) level, it is still a significant determinant in the have resulted in poverty and stagnation so severe that some lives of African Americans, especially those in the lower families are almost outside of the functioning economic class. The data are complex, but we can conclude that for system. Wilson calls this group the underclass (W. J. Wilson upwardly mobile African Americans, class may be more 1978, 1984, 1993a). important than race. Some researchers assert that the United States cannot escape poverty because well-paid, unskilled jobs are disap- Table 8.1 Income by Educational Level and Race/Ethnicity pearing from the economy and because the poor are con- centrated in segregated urban areas (Massey 2007; Massey and Denton 1998). Poorly educated African American teen- Education White Black Hispanic agers and young adults see their job prospects limited to Not a high school $20,457 $18,936 $19,816 the low-wage sector (e.g., fast-food work paying minimum graduate wage), and they experience record levels of unemploy- ment. Movement out of poverty becomes almost impossible High school graduate 31,429 26,970 25,998 (Farley 2010; E. O. Wilson 1987). Some college, no 33,119 29,129 29,836 When Wilson did his research in the 1980s and degree 1990s, his point was illustrated by the fact that more than 2 in 5 African Americans were middle-class, compared to College graduate 57,762 47,799 49,017 1 in 20 in 1940. On the other hand, many adults in inner- Master’s degree 73,771 60,067 71,322 city ghetto neighborhoods are not employed in a typical week. Thus, children in these neighborhoods may grow Professional degree 127,942 102,328 79,228 up without ever seeing someone go to work (W. J. Wilson 1996). The new global economic system is a contributing Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2012f).

Race Relations ©SAGE Publications Chapter 8. Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 217

Thinking Sociologically

Considering the data and discussion above about whether race or class has a greater impact on one’s ability to succeed in U.S. society today, what is your opinion, and why?

Ethnic Groups

The next major type of minority group—the ethnic group—is based on cultural factors: language, religion, dress, foods, customs, beliefs, values, norms, a shared group identity or feeling, and sometimes loyalty to a homeland, monarch, or religious leader. Members are grouped together because they share a common cultural heritage, often connected with a national or geographical identity. Some social scientists Ethnic enclaves have a strong sense of local community, holding prefer to call racial groups “ethnic groups” because the term festivals from the old country and developing networks in the new ethnic encompasses most minorities, avoiding problems country. Such areas, called “ghettos,” are not necessarily impoverished. with the term race. It is also true that the ideas often go This photo depicts a street in San Francisco’s Chinatown. together (Aguirre and Turner 2011). Visits to ethnic enclaves in large cities around the world give a picture of ethnicity. Little Italy, Chinatown, Greek Town, and Polish neighborhoods may have non-English Biracial and Multiracial Populations: street signs and newspapers, ethnic restaurants, culture- Immigration, Intermarriage, and specific houses of worship, and clothing styles that reflect Personal Identification the ethnic subculture. Occasionally, ethnic groups share power in pluralistic societies, but most often such groups Our racial and ethnic identities are becoming more com- hold a minority status with little power. plex as migration around the world brings to distant shores How is ethnicity constructed or defined? Many very new immigrants in search of safety and a new start. Keep in different ethnic groups have been combined in government mind that our racial and ethnic identities come largely from categories, such as censuses conducted by countries, yet external labels placed on us by governments and our associ- they speak different languages and often have very differ- ates but reinforced by our own self-identification. ent religions. For example, in North America, native ethnic Many European countries are now host to immi- group members often do not view themselves as “Indian” or grants from their former colonies, making them multi- “Native American.” Instead, they use 600 independent tribal racial. France hosts many North and West Africans, and nation names to define themselves, including the Ojibwa Great Britain hosts large populations from Africa, India, and (Chippewa), the Dineh (Navajo), the Lakota (Sioux), and Pakistan. The resulting mix of peoples has blurred racial many others. Likewise, in the U.S. census, Koreans, Filipinos, lines and created many multiracial individuals. The patterns Chinese, Japanese, and Malaysians come from very different shown in Map 8.1 on page 214 illustrate that “push” factors cultures but are identified as Asian Americans. People from drive people from some countries and “pull” them to other Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba are grouped together in a category countries. The most common push-pull factors today are called Hispanics or Latinos. When federal funds for social ser- job opportunities, desire for security, individual liberties, vices were made available to Asian Americans or American and availability of medical and educational opportunities. Indians, these diverse people began to think of themselves The target countries of migrants are most often in North as part of a larger grouping for political purposes (Esperitu America, Australia, or Western Europe, and the highest 1992). The federal government essentially created an ethnic emigration rates (leaving a country) are from Africa, Eastern group by naming and providing funding to that group. If Europe, Central Asia, and South and Central America. people wanted services (health care, legal rights, etc.), they The United States was once considered a biracial coun- had to become a part of a particular group—such as “Asian try, black and white (which, of course, disregarded the Americans.” This process of merging many ethnic groups Native American population). However, the nation cur- into one broader category—called panethnicity—emphasizes rently accepts more new immigrants than any other coun- that ethnic identity is itself socially shaped and created. try (700,000 per year) and has the second-highest rate of

Race in America ©SAGE Publications 218 Inequality

immigration (behind Canada) in terms of immigrants per up roughly 65.1%, Puerto Ricans 9.3%, Cubans 3.6%, 1,000 residents (Farley 2010). Immigration from every Central Americans 8.4%, and South Americans 5.7% (U.S. continent has led to a more diverse population, with 12% Census Bureau 2012b). Blacks follow Latinos with 12.6% of the U.S. population (36.7 million residents) born else- (38.9 million) of the U.S. population. Non-Hispanic whites where and another 11% (33 million) having at least one make up 63.7% (196.8 million), whites (including Hispanic foreign-born parent (UPI.com 2010). With new immigra- whites) 72.4%, Asians 4.8%, and Native Americans/Native tion, increasing rates of intermarriage, and many more Alaskans 0.9% of the total U.S. population (Day 2011; individuals claiming multiracial identification, the picture Humes, Jones, and Ramirez 2011). Figure 8.1 illustrates the is much more complex today, and the color lines have been ethnic group distribution and projections for the future for redrawn (DaCosta 2007; Lee and Bean 2004, 2007). One the United States. in forty individuals claims multiracial status today, and esti- Arbitrary socially constructed classifications of people mates are that one in five will do so by 2050 (Lee and Bean into groups are frequently used as justification for treating 2004). For the first time in 2008, the United States elected individuals differently, despite the lack of scientific basis for a biracial president, although the application of the “one such distinctions (G. Williams 1996). The legacy of “race” drop of blood” rule in the United States has caused many remains even in countries where discrimination based on people to refer to President Obama as “black.” race is illegal. The question remains: Why is a multiracial Census data are used in countries to determine many baby with any African, Native American, or other minority characteristics of populations. In the United States, ques- heritage classified by the minority status, not as a member tions about race and ethnic classification have changed with of the majority? each 10-year study. The important point is that government- determined categories thereafter define the racial and ethnic composition of a country. In the 2000 census, citizens were for the first time given the option of picking more than one Thinking Sociologically racial category. By 2010, 9 million people reported mixed race background, a 32% growth since 2000 (Basu 2012). Identify one dominant and one minority group in your com- Latinos, sometimes called Hispanics, made up 16.3% (50.5 munity or on campus. Where do that group’s members fit million) of the total U.S. population (308.7 million) in 2010 into the stratification or prestige system of your community (Perez 2011). Hispanics accounted for 56% of the nation’s or campus? How are the life chances of individuals in these growth since the 2000 census, up from 35.3% in 2000 (Pew groups influenced by factors beyond their control? Hispanic Center 2011). Among Latinos, Mexicans made 75.7 71.6 62.0 52.5 22.5 16.8 15.7 .3 14.2 12.8 12.3 5 11 10.3 9.0 7. 1 4.4 0 3.0 1. 0.9 0.8 1. Hispanic White, Asian and Pacific American Indian, Black origin not Hispanic Islander Eskimo, and Aleut (of any race)

1990 2000 2025 2050

Figure 8.1 Percent of the United States Population, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990, 2000, 2025, and 2050 Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2012).

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for the group. This commitment is often based on stressing Prejudice: Micro-Level distinctions from other groups and deep preference for one’s Analysis own group. However, these loyalties may be dysfunctional for out-group members and the victims of prejudice. One reason people hold prejudices is that it is easier Have you ever found yourself in a situation in which you to pigeonhole the vast amount of information and stimuli were viewed as different, strange, undesirable, or “less than coming at us in today’s complex societies and to sort infor- human”? Perhaps you have felt the sting of rejection, based mation into neat, unquestioned categories than to evaluate not on judgment of you as a person but solely on the ethnic each piece of information separately for its accuracy. When group into which you were born. Then again, you may have prejudiced individuals use distorted, oversimplified, or exag- been insulated from this type of rejection if you grew up in gerated ideas to categorize a group of people and attribute a homogeneous community; you may have even learned personal qualities to them based on their dress, language, some negative attitudes about those different from yourself. skin color, or other identifying features, it is called stereotyp- It is sobering to think that where and when in history we ing. Stereotypes are not just generalizations; they are by defi- were born determines how we are treated, our life chances, nition misleading overgeneralizations that result in prejudice and many of our experiences and attitudes. and cause harm. When minority groups are present within a society, In wartime, the adversary may be the victim of racial prejudice influences dominant-minority group relations. slurs, or members of the opponent society may be depicted Prejudice refers to attitudes that prejudge a group, usually in films or other media as villains. During World War negatively and not based on facts. Prejudiced individuals lump II, American films often showed negative stereotypes of together people with certain characteristics as an undiffer- Japanese and German people. These depictions likely rein- entiated group without considering individual differences. forced the decision to intern more than 110,000 Japanese Although prejudice can refer to positive attitudes and exag- Americans, the majority of whom were U.S. citizens, in gerations (as when patriots are prejudiced in thinking their detention camps following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. society is superior), in this chapter we refer to the negative Similar issues and stereotypes have arisen for American citi- aspects of prejudice. We also focus on the adverse effects zens with Middle Eastern ancestry since the attacks on the brought on minority group members by prejudice. While New York World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. prejudice can be stimulated by events such as conflicts at Note that there has been an increase in attacks on U.S. the institutional level and war at the societal level, attitudes Muslims and an uproar over the plans to build a mosque for are held by individuals and can be best understood as a micro-level phenomenon. If prejudiced attitudes become actions, they are referred to as discrimination, differential treatment of and harmful actions against minorities. These actions at the micro level might include refusal to sell someone a house because of the religion, race, or ethnicity of the buyer or employment practices that treat some candidates less well based on their minority status (Feagin and Feagin 2010). However, dis- crimination operates largely at the meso or macro level, discussed later in the chapter. For now, note that individual animosity toward those of another racial category is not the same thing as racism.

The Nature of Prejudice

Prejudice is an understandable response of humans to their social environment. To survive, every social group or unit— On December 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in a sorority, a sports team, a civic club, or a nation—needs Hawaii, prompting President Franklin D. Roosevelt to sign to mobilize the loyalty of its members. Each organization an executive order designating the West Coast as a military needs to convince people to voluntarily commit energy, zone from which “any or all persons may be excluded.” skills, time, and resources so the organization can meet Although not specified in the order, Japanese Americans its needs. Furthermore, as people commit themselves to were singled out for evacuation, and more than 110,000 were removed from many western states and sent to 10 a group, they invest a portion of themselves in the group. relocation camps. Barber G. S. Hante points proudly to his Individual commitment to a group influences one’s bigoted sign against people of Japanese origin. perception and loyalties, creating preference or even bias

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Sociology in Our Social World

Anti-Muslim Sentiments in the United States

By Saher Selod

n September 11, 2001, the United States expe- created an environment where innocent people are rienced the largest terrorist attack on U.S. soil. treated as if they are guilty due to their shared religious OFour airplanes were hijacked by terrorists. Two identity with the perpetrators of the terrorist attacks. of the airplanes were flown into the World Trade Center, Since 9/11, over a thousand Muslims (mostly nonciti- causing the two buildings to collapse. Another airplane zens) have been detained even though no connection crashed into the Pentagon, and the fourth plane crashed to terrorism was determined. Furthermore, these poli- due to a revolt by the passengers on board. The attacks cies have encouraged the distrust of Muslims by their claimed the lives of close to 3,000 Americans. The ter- fellow citizens. rorists were Muslims from Saudi Arabia, United Arab Muslims living in the United States have reported Emirates, and Egypt. These horrific events changed the a rise in prejudice and discrimination. Lori Peek’s lives of all Americans, including Muslim Americans and study, Behind the Backlash: Muslim Americans After immigrants. 9/11, highlights the backlash experienced by Mus- A few sociologists studied the impact 9/11 had lims living in New York City and Colorado in the few on Muslims living in the United States (Bakalian and weeks after 9/11. Although it has been over 10 years Bozorgmehr 2009; Cainkar 2009; Peek 2011). Some of since the terrorist attacks, anti-Muslim sentiments the findings reveal Muslims have become targets for remain strong today. According to a Gallup report antiterrorist laws and policies, which were a part of a published in 2010, 43% of Americans admitted to government-led campaign known as the “War on Ter- feeling some prejudice toward Muslims, and 31% ror” (Cainkar 2009). For example, a little over a month of Americans view Islam unfavorably (Gallup Center after the attacks, the USA PATRIOT Act (Uniting and for Muslim Studies 2010). These rising anti-Muslim Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools sentiments have had a direct impact on the everyday Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act) was life of the Muslim population. Statistics compiled by signed into law. This 300-page document restricted the FBI reveal hate crimes against Muslims increased the civil liberties of Muslims and any other Americans by almost 50% from 2009 to 2010 (Southern Poverty who could be connected to terrorism. The document Law Center 2012). In August 2012, a mosque in Joplin, loosely defined terrorism, justifying the surveillance of Missouri, was burned to the ground by an arsonist. Muslims due to an inaccurate association of Islam with As a consequence of government policies targeting terrorism. As a result, mass deportations of Muslim Muslims and the perpetuation of stereotypes that immigrants for minor infractions of their visas were Muslims are a threat to national security and Ameri- hidden from the public by the Patriot Act. There was can cultural values, Muslims are living with a new also an increase in visitations of Muslims by the Federal racialized identity. Fortunately, organizations such as Bureau of Investigation. the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) and Another policy passed after 9/11 was the National the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) are herald- Security Entry-Exit Registration System, initiated in ing the fight against bigotry and discrimination against September 2002 by the Immigration and Naturalization Muslims living in the United States. Service. This law required noncitizen men over the age * * * * * * * of 16 from 25 countries (of which 24 were Muslim) to register with the government. Muslim men were Saher Selod is an assistant professor of sociology forced to submit fingerprints and had their photos taken at Simmons College. Her areas of research are race as if they were potential criminals. One of the conse- and ethnicity and sociology of religion—especially the quences of these laws and policies is that they have Muslim experience in the United States.

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peace near the 9/11 site. Sociologist Saher Selod examines Four white men and a black woman were dead (Greensboro factors that have contributed to intensified bigotry toward Justice Fund 2005). According to frustration-aggression Muslims in the previous “Sociology in Our Social World.” theory, many of the perpetrators of this and other hei- nous acts feel angry and frustrated because they cannot Explanations of Prejudice achieve their work or other goals. They blame any vul- nerable minority group—religious, ethnic, sexual orien- We have all met people who express hostility toward oth- tation—and members of that group become targets of ers. They tell jokes about minorities, curse them, and even their anger. Frustration-aggression theory focuses largely threaten action against them. Why do these individuals do on poorly adjusted people who express their frustration this? The following theories have attempted to explain the though aggressive attacks on others. Hate groups evolve prejudiced individual. from like-minded individuals, often because of prejudice and frustration (see Map 8.2). Frustration-aggression theory. In Greensboro, North Carolina, in 1978, a group of civil rights activists and Scapegoating. When it is impossible to vent frustration African American adults and children listened as a gui- toward the real target—one’s boss, one’s teachers, the eco- tarist sang freedom songs. A nine-car cavalcade of white nomic system—frustration can take the form of aggressive Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and American Nazi Party members action against people who are vulnerable—scapegoats. The arrived. The intruders unloaded weapons from the backs word scapegoat comes from the Bible, Leviticus 16:5–22. of their cars, approached the rally, and opened fire for Once a year, a goat (which was obviously innocent) was laden 88 seconds. Then they left as calmly as they had arrived. with parchments on which people had written their sins.

WA 16 MT ME ND MN 3 12 4 12 VT OR 2 NH 9 ID WI 6 MA 8 17 SD NY 11 MI 38 WY 6 25 RI4 2 IA PA NE 35 CT7 NV 5 IN OH UT 4 IL 36 NJ 51 10 27 20 CA 4 CO WV DE 4 15 KS 11 VA 82 MO KY 30 DC 14 4 21 10 MD17 NC OK 28 AZ TN 33 NM 20 AR SC 28 5 23 21 MS AL 36 GA 30 53 TX 62 LA 21 FL 59

Map 8.2 Active Hate Groups in 2012 Source: Reprinted by permission of the Southern Poverty Law Center (2012).

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The goat was then sent out to the desert to die. This was part Racial Bigotry and Its Forms of a ritual of purification, and the creature took the blame for others. A bigot is someone who blindly insists that certain other Scapegoating occurs when a minority group is blamed people are so different that they are inferior—even less for the failures of others. It is difficult to look at oneself human. Hate groups in the United States, Europe, and to seek reasons for failure but easy to transfer the cause many other countries justify themselves on the basis of for one’s failure to others. Individuals who feel they are such bigotry. failures in their jobs or other aspects of their lives may Another pattern of racial and ethnic bigotry at the blame minority groups. From within such a prejudiced micro level is more subtle—“color blind” prejudice. In mind-set, even violence toward the out-group becomes this case, individuals insist that they are not prejudiced acceptable. or racist—that they are color-blind and committed to Today, jobs and promotions are harder for young equality. At the same time, they oppose any social poli- adults to obtain than they were for the baby boom gen- cies (such as scholarships specifically for minorities) that eration. The reason is largely demographic, but also a would reduce historically based disadvantage and make result of the changing economic system. The baby boom equality of opportunity possible (Farley 2010). People of the 1940s and 1950s resulted in a bulge in the popu- who display this pattern claim to reject the idea that race lation. There are many people in the workforce at the and racism are present but also fail to correct any prob- higher steps on the ladder, and it will be another few lems that are created because racism is still embedded in years before those baby boomers retire in large num- our social system. bers. Given the economic downturn, potential retirees Color-blind prejudice allows discrimination that is hid- may further put off retirement, resulting in a good deal den within the society’s institutions to remain in place. of frustration about the occupational stagnation. It is Symbolic bigots reject ideological bigotry as blatant, crude, easier—and safer—to blame others, including minorities and ignorant, but fail to recognize that their own actions or affirmative action programs, than to vent frustration at may perpetuate inequalities at the institutional or meso the next-oldest segment of the population—one’s grand- level. (This will be discussed later.) Note that many people parents—for having a large family or for working beyond without social science training see racism as a micro-level age 65. Blacks, Hispanics, and other minorities become issue—one involving individual actions or attitudes— easy scapegoats. whereas most social scientists see the problem as occurring Although this theory helps explain some situations, it in meso-level organizations and macro-level policies or laws does not predict when frustration will lead to aggression, (Bonilla-Silva 2003). why only some people who experience frustration vent their At the micro level racial prejudice is found in either feelings on the vulnerable, and why some groups become form discussed above and has psychological and social targets (Marger 2012). costs. For example, there is a waste of talent and energy, both for minorities and for those who justify and carry out discriminatory actions. Since President Obama’s elec- tion in 2008, the number of hate groups has risen to more than 1,018. Many of these are “patriot” and militia movements with deep distrust of the federal government (Potok 2012). In 2009, there were 1,211 anti-Semitic incidents in the United States involving vandalism, assaults, or threats directed at Jewish citizens or Jewish establishments (Anti- Defamation League 2010). This number increased to 1,239 in 2010 (Horn 2011). Unfortunately, until there are better economic opportunities for more people, prejudice is the likely consequence of economic competition for jobs (Farley 2010). Although micro-level theories (frus- tration-aggression and scapegoating) shed light on the most extreme cases of individual or small-group preju- dice, there is much these theories do not explain. They Klansmen in traditional white robes demonstrate in front of a courthouse in New York City in 1999. They carried a flag say little about the everyday hostility and reinforcement sewn together from parts of American and Confederate of prejudice that most of us experience or engage in, and flags, a symbol of their blended loyalties. they fail to deal with discrimination that is embedded in institutions.

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physical violence against minorities as seen in hate crime Discrimination: Meso-Level attacks on immigrant Americans perceived to be taking jobs Analysis from white Americans. Racism is any meso-level institutional arrangement that favors one racial group over another; this favoritism may result DeBrun was a well-liked African American college student, in intentional or unintentional consequences for minority groups actively involved in extracurricular activities. Like many (Farley 2010). Racism is mostly embedded in institutions college students, he enjoyed both alcohol consumption on of society and often is supported by people who are not weekends and the outrageous things that happened when aware of the social consequence of their actions, as in the people were inebriated. However, DeBrun’s anger, normally case of color-blind prejudice discussed above. So racism has kept in check, tended to surface when he was drunk. One nothing to do with being a nasty or mean-spirited person; weekend, some racial slurs were thrown around at a party, it usually operates independently of prejudice (Bonilla-Silva and when one of the perpetrators pushed DeBrun too far— 2003; Rothenberg 2011). including a sucker punch—DeBrun exploded in a fury of Racism, as sociologists use the concept, involves dis- violence. No one died, but there were some serious inju- crimination as a normal or routine part of the way an orga- ries—the worst inflicted by the muscular DeBrun—and at nization operates that systemically disadvantages members one point a weapon was pulled. DeBrun was expelled from of one group. It can include intentional actions, such as the university, and felony charges were leveled against him. laws restricting minorities, as well as unintentional actions Because there had been a weapon—one that did not belong that have consequences restricting minorities. This kind of to DeBrun but at one point ended up in his hand—the system discrimination is built into organizations and cul- university president would not consider readmission. The tural expectations in the social world. Even nonprejudiced local white prosecutor, who saw a powerfully built young people can participate in racism of this sort quite unin- black man who had tattoos and dreadlocks, assumed that tentionally. For example, many schools place students in this campus leader was a “thug” and insisted on the most academic tracks based on standardized test results. Minority severe felony charges and penalties. DeBrun, who had no children end up disproportionately in lower tracks because previous encounters with law enforcement, ended up with the tests have biases that favor middle-class whites. Thus, a felony record and two years in prison. Because of both a policy that is meant to give all children an equal chance state and federal laws, the felony charges meant that he no ends up legitimizing the channeling of many minority group longer qualified for any federal financial aid. As his family students into the lower-achieving classroom groupings. had very few resources, his hopes for a college degree were Jim Crow laws, passed in the late 1800s in the United crushed. As a convicted felon, he would not be able to vote States, and laws that barred Jews in Germany from working for the rest of his life in many states, his future employment in certain places are examples of intentional discrimination prospects were greatly diminished, and his family’s hopes embedded in organizations. By contrast, much discrimina- that he would be their first college graduate were crushed. tion is unintentional, resulting from policies that have the The president of the college was not a bigot, but the profes- unanticipated consequence of favoring one group and dis- sors who know DeBrun well were convinced that neither advantaging another. In this case there is discrimination “in his expulsion, nor his arrest, nor his conviction of a serious fact” even if not in intent—entirely separated from personal felony would have occurred had he been white. ill will. This type of discrimination can be more damaging This recent incident represents a way that black males than that imposed by individuals because it is often done can experience a different United States of America than by people who are not the least bit prejudiced and may not middle-class white males. The cause is not necessarily per- recognize the effects of their actions (Merton 1949). sonal bigotry by people in power. Discrimination, differen- Unintentional discrimination usually occurs through tial treatment and harmful actions against minorities, can one of two processes: side-effect discrimination or past-in- sometimes occur at individual and small-group levels, but present discrimination (Feagin and Feagin 1986; Rydgren is particularly problematic at the organizational and institu- 2004). Side-effect discrimination refers to practices in one tional levels—the meso level of analysis. institutional area that have a negative impact because they Discrimination is based on race, ethnicity, age, sex, are linked to practices in another institutional area; because sexual orientation, nationality, social class, religion, or institutions are interdependent, discrimination in one results in whatever other category members of a society choose to unintentional discrimination in others. Figure 8.2 on page 224 make significant (Feagin and Feagin 2010). Discrimination illustrates this idea. Each institution uses information from involves actions taken against a person or group by another, the other institutions to make decisions. Thus, discrimina- often because of minority group membership. It can take tion in the criminal justice system, which has in fact been many forms, from avoiding contact by excluding indi- well documented, may influence discrimination in educa- viduals from one’s club, neighborhood, or even country to tion or health care systems.

Discrimination ©SAGE Publications 224 Inequality

Children play on the porch of their rustic home with no plumbing in the rural Alaskan village of Akhiok, among the Aleutian Islands. Finding jobs through the Internet is not an option from this location.

Figure 8.2 Side-Effect Discrimination women are unemployed (AAANativeArts 2013; U.S. Census Bureau 2009a, 2011a). Consider that the state of Each circle represents a different institution—family, Alaska uses the Internet as its primary means of advertising education, religion, health, political-legal system, and accepting applications for state jobs (State of Alaska and economics. These meso-level systems are 2006). However, Internet access is unavailable in 164 pre- interdependent, using information or resources from dominantly Native villages in Alaska—a state so large and the others. If discrimination occurs in one institution, spread out that it is 2.2 times the size of Texas and has 229 the second institution may unintentionally borrow Native groups (Denali Commission 2001, 2011). Other information that results in discrimination. In this options for application include requesting applications way, discrimination occurs at the meso level without by mail, but a person must first know about the open- awareness by individuals at the micro level. ing. The usefulness of this process is limited, however, by the reliability and speed of mail service to remote vil- lages and the often short application periods for state jobs. Consider the following examples of side-effect discrim- State officials may not intentionally use the mechanism ination. The first is in the criminal justice and employment to prevent Aleuts, Inupiats, Athabaskans, or other Alaska systems. In an interview conducted by one of the authors, Natives from gaining access to state jobs, but the effect can a probation officer in a moderate-size city in Ohio said that be institutionalized discrimination. Here, Internet access he had never seen an African American in his county get a plays a role in participation of minorities in the job market not-guilty verdict and that he was not sure it was possible. (Nakamura 2004). He had known of cases in which minorities had pleaded The point is that whites, especially affluent whites, ben- guilty to a lesser charge even though they were innocent efit from privileges not available to low-income minorities. because they did not think they could receive a fair verdict The privileged members may not purposely disadvantage in that city. When people apply for jobs, however, they are others and may not be prejudiced, but the playing field is required to report the conviction on the application form. not level, even though discrimination may be completely By using information about someone’s criminal record, unintentional (Rothenberg 2011). Consider the following employers who clearly do not intend to discriminate end privileges that most of us who are part of the dominant up doing so whether or not the individual was guilty. The group take for granted (McIntosh 2002:97–101): side-effect discrimination is unintentional discrimination; the criminal justice system has reached an unjust verdict, •• I can avoid spending time with people who mistrust and the potential employer is swayed unfairly. people of my color. A second example of side-effect discrimination shows •• I can protect my children most of the time from that the Internet also plays a role in institutionalized dis- people who might not like them. crimination and privilege. For example, in Alaska, 20% •• I can criticize our government and talk about how I of the population is Native, but Natives hold only 5% of fear its policies and behavior without being seen as state jobs, and 27.3% of Native men and 16% of Native a cultural “outsider.”

©SAGE Publications Chapter 8. Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 225

•• I can easily buy posters, postcards, picture books, In Mississippi in the 1950s, state expenditures to edu- greeting cards, dolls, toys, and children’s magazines cate a white child averaged $147 per pupil, whereas the featuring people of my race. average was $34 per black pupil in segregated schools •• I can arrange my activities so that I will never have (Luhman and Gilman 1980). Such blatant segregation and to experience feelings of rejection owing to my race. inequality in use of tax dollars is no longer legal. This may seem like ancient history, yet some African Americans who Now imagine not being able to take these and many were in school in the 1950s and 1960s are receiving low other privileges for granted. What would your reaction be, Social Security checks because their earning power was and what could you do about it? diminished and they cannot help to pay for their grandchil- dren to go to college. To those who received a substandard education and did not have an opportunity for college, this is not ancient history; it affects their opportunities today. Remember that prejudice is an attitude, discrimination Thinking Sociologically an action. If neighbors do not wish to have minority group members move onto their block, that is prejudice. If they Imagine someone in your hometown who runs a business try to organize other neighbors against the newcomers or that is hiring people. In order to make a decision about make the situation unpleasant once the minority family has whom to hire, she uses information that has been provided moved in, that is discrimination. If minorities cannot afford by another institution or organization. How might some to live in the neighborhood because of discrimination in of that information be a source of unintended side-effect the marketplace, that is institutionalized discrimination. An discrimination for a minority group member? How might opportunity to clarify and to recognize interrelationships the employer discriminate in hiring against a minority group between some of these sociological terms can be explored person without realizing it? in the next “Engaging Sociology” feature. In the United States things seem to have changed since 2008 when a biracial president was elected. Conservative Past-in-present discrimination refers to practices from commentators and many journalists are fond of saying that the past that may no longer be allowed but that continue to have this means we have entered a postracial society—that race consequences for people in the present (Feagin and Feagin has become irrelevant. While it is true that President Obama 1986; Verbeek and Penninx 2009). is the nation’s first biracial president, it is also true that

Engaging Sociology

Using and Relating Key Concepts

A lot of terms in this chapter have related to issues of prejudice, discrimination, and racism and how they operate at micro and meso levels. Figure 8.3 indicates the levels at which each issue operates.

Micro Level Meso Level Conscious and Intended Prejudice: explicit bigotry Institutionalized discrimination (explicit) Unconscious and Unintended Color-blind prejudice Indirect institutionalized discrimination Side-effect discrimination Past-in-present discrimination

Figure 8.3 Understanding Key Concepts

Engaging With Sociology

1. Define and give an example of each term.

2. Identify which two cells represent racism as sociologists use the term. 3. Identify ways that each of these elements of intergroup conflict might foster the others.

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only two senators (out of 100) are black in 2013—and Germany faced genocide while First Nations in Latin America one of them was appointed rather than elected. We have in the past century have faced forced relocation to new also seen in Table 8.1 on page 216 that college-educated geographical areas. The form that policies toward minority blacks earn $10,000 a year less than white college graduates. groups take depends on Whites with a professional degree earn about $128,000 per year while Hispanics with the same degree earn $79,000. 1. which group has more power; In a poor economy, blacks and other minorities continue 2. the needs of the dominant group for labor or other to have higher unemployment than whites. Note also that resources (e.g., land) that could be provided by the on a typical Sunday morning, whites and blacks worship minority group; separately, with multiracial churches being rare (Emerson 2006; Emerson and Smith 2000; Marti 2009). As long as 3. the cultural norms of each group, including level of differences divide the United States, it is hard to support the tolerance of out-groups; notion that it is a “postracial” society. 4. the social histories of groups, including their reli- gious, political, racial, and ethnic differences; Thinking Sociologically 5. the physical and cultural identifiers that distinguish the groups; and Think of some events in history that have an effect on par- 6. the times and circumstances (wars, economic ticular groups today. Why might the events cause intergroup strains, recessions). hostility or cooperation? How does discrimination, as dis- cussed above, help us understand world conflicts, such as Where power between groups in society is unequal, the the intense hostility between Palestinians and Jews in Israel? potential for differential treatment is always present. Yet, some groups live in harmony whether their power is equal or unequal. Whether totally accepting or prone to conflict, dominant-minority relations depend on time, place, and Dominant and Minority circumstances. Figure 8.3 indicates the range of dominant- Group Contact: Macro-Level minority relationships and policies (Kitano, Aqbayani, and de Anda 2005). Analysis Genocide is the systematic effort of one group, usually the dominant group, to destroy a minority group. Christians were thrown to the lions in ancient Rome. Hitler sent Jews and Economic hard times hit Germany in the 1930s, following other non-Aryan groups into concentration camps to be that nation’s loss in World War I. To distract citizens from the nation’s problems, a scapegoat was found—the Jewish population. The German states began restricting Jewish activities and investments. Gradually, hate rhetoric inten- sified, but even then, most Jews had little idea about the fate that awaited them. Millions perished in gas chambers because the ruling Nazi party defined them as an undesir- able race (although being Jewish is actually a religious or ethnic identification, not a biological category). Mexico, Guatemala, and other Central American gov- ernments face protests by their Indian populations, descen- dants of Aztecs, Mayans, and Inca, who have distinguishing features and are today generally relegated to servant posi- tions. These native groups have been protesting against gov- ernment policies and their poor conditions—usurping of their land, inability to own land, absentee landownership, poor pay, and discrimination by the government (DePalma 1995). One result of discrimination against Central and South American native groups is that their numbers are One of the most horrific racial or ethnic policies was the diminishing and some groups, such as those in Tierra del Holocaust, the murder of 11 million people, including 6 million Jews, by the Nazi government in Germany under Fuego, Chile, have died out. Adolf Hitler. This photo is horrible to view, but this is the These examples illustrate two of the patterns of contact consequence of bigotry that leads to genocide. between governments and minority groups. The Jews in

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Most Hostile to Most Accepting of “Others” “Others” Genocide Subjugation Population Transfer Assimilation Pluralism Extermination of Oppression, slavery Removal to new Cultural blending of Groups share in minorities location groups legitimacy and power

Figure 8.4 Types of Dominant-Minority Group Relations

gassed. Iraqis used deadly chemical weapons against the Kurdish people within their own country. Members of the Serbian army massacred Bosnian civilians to rid towns of Bosnian Muslims, an action referred to as “ethnic cleans- ing” that has been used more recently in Darfur, Africa (Cushman and Mestrovic 1996; T. Evans 2010). In Rwanda, people of the Tutsi and Hutu tribes carried out mass killings against each other in the late 1990s. In 2011, some politi- cians argued for intervention in Libya because of the threat of genocide against civilians. More recently, the Syrian dic- tator Bashar al-Assad and his military have killed many who defied his rule by demonstrating; most were Sunni Muslims, different from Assad’s ruling group, the Alawites. Members of the international community intervened, but did so amid controversy. Genocide has existed at many points in history, and as illustrated, it still exists today. These examples show the lethal consequences of racism, one group at the meso level systematically killing off another, often a minority, to gain control and power. These children in Sudan play outside their “home”—a tent at Andalus Subjugation refers to the subordination of one group refugee camp. Some people have survived in refugee camps with to another that holds power and authority. Haiti and the almost no food and little water, but the alternative was to be killed in their homeland. Dominican Republic are two countries sharing the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean. Because many Haitians are poor, they are lured by promises of jobs in the sugarcane fields of the Dominican Republic. However, they are forced schools, and neighborhoods (Alexander 2010; Feagin and to work long hours for little pay and are not allowed to Feagin 2010; Massey and Denton 1998). Population trans- leave until they have paid for housing and food, which may fer refers to the removal, often forced, of a minority group from be impossible to do on their low wages. a region or country. Generally, the dominant group wants Slavery is one form of subjugation that has existed land or resources. Due to the ongoing conflicts discussed throughout history. When the Roman Empire defeated above, an ongoing example of population transfer has been other lands, captives became slaves. This included ancient taking place in Darfur and South Sudan in Africa. Members Greeks, who also kept slaves at various times in their his- of the population there must move from their villages or be tory. African tribes enslaved members of neighboring tribes, burned out of their homes or get caught in the cross fire. sometimes selling them to slave traders, and slavery has Even in refugee camps women and children are subject to existed in Middle Eastern countries such as Saudi Arabia. rape and other atrocities when they seek water or wood for As mentioned in the opening story for this chapter, slavery fires outside of the camps. The Sudanese military forces and is flourishing in many parts of the world today (Bales 2000, their subsidiaries have been forcing residents of the non- 2007, 2012). Arab parts of Sudan to leave their land; they have no place Segregation, a specific type of subjugation, separates to go but refugee camps. minorities from the dominant group and deprives them of Other examples of population transfers are numer- access to the dominant institutions. Jim Crow laws, insti- ous: Native Americans in the United States were removed tuted in the southern United States after the Civil War, to reservations. The Cherokee people were forced to walk legislated separation between groups—separate facilities, from Georgia and North Carolina to new lands west of the

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Mississippi—a “Trail of Tears” along which 40% of the Pluralism occurs when each ethnic or racial group in a people perished. As noted above, during World War II, country maintains its own culture and separate set of institu- Japanese Americans were forcibly moved to “relocation tions but has recognized equity in the society. For example, centers” and had their land and property confiscated. Many Switzerland has four dominant cultural language groups: Afghani people fled to Pakistan to escape oppression by the French, German, Italian, and Rommansh (or Rumantsch). ruling Taliban and again in 2001 to escape U.S. bombing. Four official languages are spoken in the government and Today, civilians along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border still taught in the schools. Laws are written in four languages. suffer war and displacement, and civilians from Syria are Each group respects the rights of the other groups to main- escaping the violent fighting and destruction by going to tain a distinctive language and way of life. In Malaysia, refugee camps in neighboring Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan. three groups share power—Malays, Chinese, and Indians. Assimilation refers to the structural and cultural merg- Although the balance is not completely stable because ing of minority and majority groups, a process by which minority Chinese and Indians have higher levels of education and members may lose their original identity but contribute to their hold more political and economic power than the native new society (Kitano, Aqbayani, and de Anda 2005; Marger Malays, there is a desire to maintain a pluralistic society. 2012). Forced assimilation occurs when a minority group is While tensions do exist, both Switzerland and Malaysia forced to suppress its identity. This happened in Spain around represent examples of pluralist societies. Legal protection the time of World War II, when the Basque people were of smaller or less powerful groups is often necessary to forbidden by the central government to speak or study the have pluralism. In the United States, pluralism as a policy Basque language. For several centuries—ending only a few was first embraced by the nation’s first president, George decades ago—the British government tried to stamp out the Washington, as explained in the next “Sociology in Our Welsh language from Wales. However, assimilation is often a Social World.” voluntary process in which a minority chooses to adopt the Many individuals in the world face disruptions during values, norms, and institutions of the dominant group. their lifetimes that change their position in the society. The Assimilation is more likely to occur when the minor- dominant-minority continuum illustrates the range of rela- ity group is culturally similar to the dominant group. For tions with dominant groups that can affect people’s lives as instance, in the United States, the closer a group is to being transitions take place. white, English speaking, and Protestant, or “WASP” (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant), the faster its members will be assimilated into the society, adopting the culture and blend- ing in biologically through intermarriage. Thinking Sociologically The notion that we should be a “color-blind” nation is really a call for assimilation, for the only way we can Think of examples from current news stories of positive and ignore real differences between people is to obliterate the harmful intercultural contact. Where do your examples fit on differences. This means that people of color would have the continuum from genocide to pluralism? What policies to give up their cultures and become like the dominant might address issues raised in your examples? Euro-American culture (Dalton 2012; Dyer 2012). It is for this reason that some minorities see assimilation policy as oppressive and an effort to destroy them. Theoretical Explanations of Dominant-Minority Group Relations

Are humans innately cruel, inhumane, greedy, aggres- sive, territorial, or warlike? Some people think so, but the evidence is not very substantial. To understand prejudice in individuals or small groups, psychological and social- psychological theories are most relevant. To understand discrimination that is embedded in institutions, studying meso-level organizations is helpful, and to understand the pervasive nature of prejudice and stereotypes over time in various societies, cultural explanations are use- ful. Although aspects of macro-level theories relate to The United States is becoming increasingly diverse and micro- and meso-level analysis, their major emphasis is pluralistic. This billboard ad for McDonald’s first appeared in August 2012 in St. Paul, Minnesota—in the Hmong language. on understanding the national and global systems of group relations.

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Sociology in Our Social World

Pluralism: A Long-Standing History in the United States

or religious affiliation. In this letter, George Washington affirmed a policy of pluralism from the very beginning of the country’s existence as a nation. Passages from that letter follow. * * * * * * *

The Citizens of the United States of America have a right to applaud themselves for having given to mankind examples of an enlarged and liberal policy: a policy worthy of imitation. . . . It is now no more that toleration is spoken of, as if it was by the indulgence of one class of people, that another enjoyed the exercise of their inher- This Jewish synagogue, the oldest in the United States, proudly displays a letter from George ent natural rights. For happily the Government Washington enshrining pluralism in the new nation’s of the United States, which gives to bigotry no policies. sanction, to persecution no assistance, requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens. t is no mistake that the oldest Jewish synagogue in the United States is in Rhode Island, for separation . . . May the children of the Stock of Abraham, of church and state and tolerance of other religious I who dwell in this land, continue to merit and traditions was a founding principle of Rhode Island. enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; After George Washington was elected president of the while every one shall sit in safety under his new nation, he received a letter from that early Jewish own vine and figtree, and there shall be none to congregation in Newport, Rhode Island, asking about make him afraid. May the father of all mercies his policies of pluralism or multiculturalism (though scatter light and not darkness in our paths, and those words had not been coined yet). In response in make us all in our several vocations useful here, 1790, Touro Synagogue received a handwritten letter and in his own due time and way everlastingly signed by President Washington (and now proudly on happy. display by the synagogue) embracing an open and “lib- eral” policy to all American citizens, regardless of origin G. Washington

Structural-Functional Theory Not only does this cheap pool of labor function to pro- vide a ready labor force for dirty work or the menial unskilled From the structural-functional perspective, maintaining a jobs; these individuals also serve other functions for society. cheap pool of laborers who are in and out of work serves They make possible occupations that service the poor, such several purposes for society. Low-paying and undesirable as social work, public health, criminology, and the justice and jobs for which no special training is needed—busboys, legal systems. They buy goods others do not want—day-old janitors, nurse’s aides, street sweepers, and fast-food service bread, old fruits and vegetables, secondhand clothes. They workers—are often filled by minority group members of set examples for others of what not to be, and they allow oth- societies, including immigrant populations. ers to feel good about giving to charity (Gans 1971, 1994).

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Thomas Sowell contends that circumstances of the the Chinatowns we know today (Kitano, Aqbayani, and de historical period and the situation into which one is born Anda 2005). Non-Chinese Asian groups suffered discrimi- create the major differences in the social status of minority nation as well because the prejudiced generalizations were groups. He believes that minority individuals must work applied to all Asians (Son 1992; Winders 2004). hard to make up for their disadvantages. His contentions Why does discrimination occur? Conflict theorists are controversial in part because of the implication that argue that creating a “lesser” group protects the dominant meso-level discrimination embedded in institutions can be group’s advantages. Because privileges and resources are overcome by hard work (Sowell 1994). Conflict theorists usually limited, those who have them want to keep them. counter his argument by saying that discrimination that One strategy used by privileged people, according to con- reduces opportunities is built into institutions and organiza- flict theory, is to perpetrate prejudice and discrimination tions and must be dealt with through meso- and macro-level against minority group members. A case in point is the structural change. They argue that hard work is necessary, Gastarbeiter (guest workers) in Germany and other Western but not sufficient, for minorities to succeed. Prejudice, European countries, who immigrate from Eastern Europe, discrimination, and institutionalized racism are dysfunc- the Middle East, and Africa to fill positions in European tional for society, resulting in loss of human resources, costs economies. They are easily recognized because of cultural to societies due to poverty and crime, hostilities between and physical differences and are therefore ready targets for groups, and disrespect for those in power (Schaefer 2012). prejudice and discrimination, especially in times of eco- nomic competition and slowing economies. This helps keep Conflict Theory many of them in low-level positions. Today some European countries are considering laws to limit immigration, in part In the 1840s, as the United States set out to build a rail- because of their weak economies. road, large numbers of laborers emigrated from China to do Karl Marx argued that exploitation of the lower classes the hard manual work. When the railroad was completed is built into capitalism because it benefits the ruling class. and competition for jobs became tight, the once-welcomed Unemployment creates a ready pool of labor to fill the Chinese became targets of bitter prejudice, discrimina- marginal jobs, with the pool often made up of identifiable tion, and sometimes violence. Between 1850 and 1890, minority groups. This pool protects those in higher-level whites in California protested against Chinese, Japanese, positions from others moving up in the stratification system and Chicano workers. Members of these minority groups and threatening their jobs. banded together in towns or cities for protection, founding Several theories stemming from conflict theory help explain minority relations. One is discussed below, “the development of hostilities between groups.” Three critical factors contribute to hostility between groups, according to one conflict theorist (Noel 1968): First, if two groups of people can each be identified by their appearance, clothing, or language, then we-versus- they thinking and ethnocentrism may develop. However, this by itself does not mean there will be long-term hostil- ity between the groups. Second, if the two groups con- flict over scarce resources that both want, hostilities are very likely to arise. The resources might be the best land, the highest-paying jobs, access to the best schools for one’s children, energy resources such as oil, or positions of prestige and power. If the third element is added to the mix—one group having much more power than the other—then intense dislike between the two groups and misrepresentation of each group by the other are almost certain to occur. What happens is that the group with more power uses that power to ensure that its members (and their offspring) get the most valued resources. However, because they do not want to see themselves as unfair and brutish people, they develop stereotypes and derogatory characterizations of “those other people,” so the lack of Chinese men were invited and encouraged to come to North America access provided to “them” seems reasonable and justi- to help build railroads. However, prejudice was extremely prevalent, especially once the railroads were completed and the immigrants fied. Discrimination (often at the macro level) comes first, began to settle into other jobs in the U.S. economy. and bigoted attitudes and beliefs (at the micro level) come later to justify the discrimination (Noel 1968). Thus, ©SAGE Publications Chapter 8. Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 231

macro- and meso-level conflicts can lead to micro-level attitudes. Stereotypes, then, are the consequence of hostil- ity between groups—not the cause. Conflict theory has taught us a great deal about racial and ethnic stratification. However, conflict theorists often focus on people with power quite intentionally oppressing others to protect their own self-interests. They depict the dominant group as made up of nasty, power-hungry people. As we have seen in the meso-level discussion of side-effect and past-in-present discrimination, privilege and discrimi- nation are often subtle and unconscious, which means they can continue without ill will among those in the dominant group. Their privilege has been institutionalized. Conflict theorists sometimes miss this important point.

Thinking Sociologically Sudanese children wait in line to receive food in the What are some micro-, meso-, and macro-level factors that Sudanese refugee camp of Narus. enhance the chances that minority persons can move up the social ladder to better jobs? striking: 11.6% of whites are without care, but the figure is 19.9% for African Americans and 41.5% for Hispanics (Newport and Mendes 2009). Second, government subsidies cost millions in the The Effects of Prejudice, form of welfare, food stamps, and imprisonment, but they are made necessary in part by the lack of opportunities for Racism, and Discrimination minority individuals. Representation of ethnic groups in the U.S. political system can provide a voice for concerns of groups. Table 8.2 shows the representation of ethnic Pictures of starving orphans from Sudan and Ethiopia and groups in Congress, but even this understates the lack of broken families from war-torn Bosnia remind us of the representation. In the entire history of the United States, human toll resulting from prejudice and discrimination. the number of senators from minority ethnic groups is This section discusses the results of prejudice, racism, and extremely small. discrimination for minority groups and for societies.

The Costs of Racism Thinking Sociologically Individual victims of racism suffer from the destruction of their lives, health, and property, especially in societies How might lack of access to health care and insurance where racism leads to poverty, enslavement, conflict, or affect other aspects of a person’s life (work, family life, war. Poor self-concept and low self-esteem stem from con- education)? stant reminders of a devalued status in society. Moreover, 7.6 million children of color died in 2010 from malnutri- tion, and 1 in 8 children in sub-Saharan Africa die before age 5 (World Hunger Education Service 2012b). Table 8.2 Representation in the U.S. Congress, 2013–2014 Prejudice and discrimination result in costs to orga- nizations and communities as well as to individuals. First, Native organizations and communities lose the talents of individ- American Asian Black Hispanic uals who could be productive and contributing members. Senate 0 2 (2%) 2 (2%) 3 (3%) Because of poor education, substandard housing, and House 1 (0.2%) 9 (2%) 44 (10%) 30 (6.7%) inferior medical care, these citizens cannot use their full % of 0.9% 4.8% 12.6% 16.3% potential to contribute to society. In 2010, 50.7 million Population or 16.7% of U.S. citizens did not have health insurance (Wolf 2010). The inequities in health care coverage are Source: Ethnic Majority (2012); U.S. Senate (2013). ©SAGE Publications 232 Inequality

Continued attempts to justify discrimination by ste- community—is one strategy used to enhance assimilation reotyping and labeling groups have cultural costs, too. and avoid the stigma of belonging to a minority group. There are many talented African American athletes who are It has also been a common response of gays and lesbians stars on college and professional sports teams, but very few who are afraid to come out. Homosexuals experience the of them have been able to break into the ranks of coaches costly impact on self-esteem and the constant fear that and managers (Sage and Eitzen 2012). That said, there they may be discovered. Likewise, assimilated Jews have has been more opportunity in basketball than in other changed their religion and their names to be accepted. sports where 14 of 30 National Basketball Association Despite the wrenching from their personal history, pass- head coaches are black in a sport with 80% black players ing has allowed some individuals to become absorbed into (Mahoney 2012). The number of African American and the mainstream. Acceptance is another common reaction to Mexican American actors and artists has increased, but the minority status. Some minority groups have learned to live number of black playwrights and screenwriters who can with their minority status with little overt challenge to the get their works produced or who have become directors system. They may or may not hold deep-seated hostility, remains limited. African American musicians have found but they ultimately conclude that change in the society is it much more difficult to earn royalties, and therefore most not very likely, and acceptance may be the rational means cannot compose full-time (V. Alexander 2003). Because to survive within the existing system. these artists must create and perform their art “as a side- There are many possible explanations for this seem- line,” they are less able to contribute their talents to society. ing indifference. For example, religious beliefs allow poor The rest of us are poorer for it. Hindus in India to believe that if they accept their lot in life, they will be reincarnated in a higher life-form. If they rebel, they can expect to be reincarnated into a lower life-form. Minority Reactions to Prejudice, Their religion is a form of social control. Discrimination, and Racism Unfortunately, many children are socialized to believe that they are inferior or superior because minority group How have minority groups dealt with their status? Five members are expected by the dominant group to behave in different reactions are common: assimilation, acceptance, certain ways and often live up to that expectation because avoidance, aggression, and change-oriented actions of the self-fulfilling prophecy (Farley 2010). Evidence to directed at the social structure. The first four are micro- support stereotypes is easily found in individual cases— level responses. They do not address the meso- and “inferior” kids live in shabby houses, dress less well, and macro-level issues. speak a different dialect. At school and on the job, minority position is reaffirmed by these characteristics. Micro-Level Coping Strategies Avoidance means shunning all contact with the domi- nant group. This can involve an active and organized Assimilation is an accommodation to prejudice and dis- attempt to leave the culture or live separately as some crimination. Some minority group members attempt to political exiles have done. In the United States, Marcus pass or assimilate as members of the dominant group so as Garvey organized a Back-to-Africa movement in the to avoid bigotry and discrimination. Although this option is 1920s, encouraging blacks to give up on any hope of not open to many because of their distinguishing physical justice in American society and to return to Africa. Native characteristics, this strategy usually involves abandoning Americans continually moved west in the 19th century— their own culture and turning their back on family roots trying to or being forced to get away from white Anglo and ties, a costly strategy in terms of self-esteem and sense settlers who brought alcohol and deadly diseases. In some of identity. People who select this coping strategy are forced cases, withdrawal may mean dropping out of the society as to deny who they are as defined by their roots and to live an individual—escaping by obliterating consciousness in their lives in constant anxiety, feeling as though they must drugs or alcohol. The escape from oppression and low self- hide something about themselves. concept is one reason why drug use is higher in minority In the 1960s, popular items advertised in African ghettos and alcohol abuse is rampant on Native American American magazines included “whitening creams” or reservations. “skin bleaches.” Some light-colored people with African Avoidance that is not so destructive—more withdrawal ancestry would bleach their skin to pass as white. Skin- and isolation—is also used by the Roma (sometimes called whitening creams are still popular in some Asian coun- Gypsies—of which there are about a million in the United tries. Dissatisfaction with one’s body has an impact on States) and by Native American groups that seek to preserve one’s self-concept. Passing—pretending to be a member of their cultures. Among some groups of isolated Apaches in the privileged group when one is not fully a part of that New Mexico and Arizona, nearly half of the older population

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speaks no English and has no need or desire to learn it. They live according to old cultural ways in rather isolated desert climates. They have simply withdrawn from contact with the larger society (Farrer 2011). Aggression resulting from anger and resentment over minority status and from subjugation may lead to retali- ation or violence. Because the dominant group holds sig- nificant power, a direct route such as voting against the dominant group or defeating oppressors in war is not always possible. Indeed, direct confrontation can be very costly to those lacking political or economic power. Suicide bombers from Palestine represent the many Palestinians who are frustrated and angry over their situation in relation to Israel but have few options to express their anger. Aggression usually takes one of two forms, indirect aggression or displaced aggression. Indirect aggression includes biting assertiveness in the arts—literature, art, racial and ethnic humor, and music—and in job-related actions such as inefficiency and slowdowns by workers. Displaced aggression, on the other hand, involves hos- tilities directed toward individuals or groups other than the dominant group, as happens when youth gangs attack other ethnic gangs in nearby neighborhoods. They sub- stitute aggression against the dominant group by acting against the other minority group to protest their frustrating circumstances. The four responses discussed thus far address the angst Mahatma Gandhi, leader of the Indian civil disobedience and humiliation that individual minorities feel. Each strat- revolt, marched to the shore to collect salt, a clear violation of the law that he felt was inhumane and unjust. On the egy allows an individual person to try to cope, but none right is a woman lieutenant in his nonviolent resistance addresses the structural causes of discrimination. The final movement. strategy is change-oriented action: Minority groups pursue social change in the meso- and macro-level structures of society, as discussed in the following. Association for the Advancement of Colored People sought Meso- and Macro-Level Efforts to to bring about legal changes through lawsuits that cre- Bring Change: Nonviolent Resistance ate new legal precedents supporting racial equality. Often, these lawsuits address side-effect discrimination—a meso- Another technique for bringing about change at the meso level problem. Many other associations for minorities— and macro levels is nonviolent resistance by minority including the Anti-Defamation League (founded by Jews) groups. The model for this technique comes from India and La Raza Unida (a Chicano organization)—also seek where, in the 1950s, Mahatma Gandhi led the struggle for to address problems both within organizations and insti- independence from Britain. Although Britain clearly had tutions (meso level) and in the nation as a whole (macro superior weapons and armies, boycotts, sit-ins, and other level). Like Dr. King, who had an undergraduate degree forms of resistance eventually led to British withdrawal as in sociology, many sociologists have used their training the ruling colonial power. This strategy has been used suc- to address the issues of discrimination and disprivilege cessfully by workers and students to bring about change in through empowerment and change. many parts of the world. The Occupy Wall Street movement (sometimes called In the United States, Martin Luther King Jr. followed in “We Are the 1%”) began on September 17, 2011, and has the nonviolent resistance tradition of India’s Gandhi, who spread from New York to many cities around the world. sought to change India’s laws so minorities could have equal Members of the 99% minority (called a minority since opportunities within the society. King’s strategy involved they have less power and fewer resources than the top 1%) nonviolent popular protests, economic boycotts, and chal- have protested against the lack of resource distribution in lenges to the current norms of the society. The National the United States, setting up encampments in city parks

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Thinking Sociologically

The preceding discussion presents five types of responses by minorities to the experience of discrimination and rejec- tion. Four of these are at the micro level, and only one is at the meso and macro levels. Why do you suppose most of the coping strategies of minorities are at the micro level?

Policies Governing Minority and Dominant The Occupy Wall Street movement is a very current example Group Relations of a nonviolent strategy for change. The members of this movement are protesting on behalf of the 99%, since two thirds of income gains since 2000 have gone to the wealthiest 1%. Occupy appears to have less centralized From our social world perspective, we know that no prob- organization than most such movements, with no clear lem can be solved by working at only one level of analysis. leader. A successful strategy must bring about change at every level of the social world—individual attitudes, organizational dis- crimination, cultural stereotypes, societal stratification sys- tems, and national and international structures. However, and marching against what they feel is inequity in the job most current strategies focus on only one level of analysis. and tax structure. They reject use of violence, but they The types of problems and their solutions at each level of want their voice to be heard. On the opposite side of the the social system are discussed below and illustrated in political spectrum is the Tea Party Patriots, which focuses Figure 8.5. largely on smaller government and decreases in taxes for all—including the rich—because (1) they feel that this will stimulate the economy more and result in growth, and Individual or Small-Group Solutions (2) they seek freedom for individuals to spend their resources however they please. So movements on both Programs to address prejudice and stereotypes through sides can use similar strategies to try to influence the human relations workshops, group encounters, and ther- direction of the society’s policies (Tea Party Patriots 2012). apy can achieve goals with small numbers of people. For Nonviolent resistance movements such as these illustrate instance, black and white children who are placed in inter- continuing efforts to bring about change. racial classrooms in schools are more likely to develop Sometimes the minority effort to bring change results close interracial friendships (Ellison and Powers 1994). in assimilation, but often, the goal is to create a pluralistic Beyond that, education gives a broader, more universal out- society in which cultures can be different yet have economic look; reduces misconceptions and prejudices; shows that opportunities open to all. many issues do not have clear answers; and encourages

Types of Problems at Each Level Types of Solutions or Programs Individual level: stereotypes and prejudice Therapy, tolerance-education programs Group level: negative group interaction Positive contact, awareness by majority members of their many privileges Societal level: institutionalized discrimination Education, media, legal-system revisions Global level: deprivation of human rights Human rights movements, international political pressures

Figure 8.5 Problems and Solutions

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Positive group contact experiences can be effective in improving relations in groups at a micro level by breaking down stereotypes, but negative or ineffective group contact may also affect “the many cognitive, affective, situational and institutional barriers to positive contact” (Pettigrew and Tropp 2000:93). To solidify the positive gains, we must also address institutionalized inequalities, discussed next.

Institutional and Societal Strategies to Improve Group Relations

Sociologists contend that group, institutional, and societal approaches to reduce discrimination get closer to the core This Louisianan waits at a shelter as Hurricane Isaac bears of the problems and affect larger numbers of people than down on the Louisiana coast in the summer of 2012. do micro-level strategies. For instance, voluntary advocacy Minorities are more often living in vulnerable areas and organizations pursue political change through lobbying, therefore more often victimized. The solution proposed by some nongovernmental organizations is to address problems watchdog monitoring, rallies, and boycotts (Minkoff 1995). and suffering with volunteer work and donations. Others The U.S. Civil Rights Commission and the Equal think the government should have a major role. Employment Opportunity Commission are government organizations that protect rights and work toward equality for all citizens. These agencies oversee practices and hear multicultural understanding. Two groups with strong mul- complaints relating to racial, sexual, age, and other forms ticultural education programs are the Anti-Defamation of discrimination. Legislation, too, can modify behaviors. League and the Southern Poverty Law Center’s Teaching Laws requiring equal treatment of minorities have resulted Tolerance program. Both groups provide schools and com- in increased tolerance of those who are “different” and have munity organizations with their literature, videos, and opened doors that previously were closed to minorities. other materials aimed at combating intolerance and dis- Affirmative action laws, first implemented during crimination toward others. Lyndon Johnson’s administration, have been used to fight However, these strategies do not address the social con- pervasive institutional racism, but they are controversial ditions underlying the problems because they reach only a (Crosby 2004; Farley 2010). few people achieving only limited results. They also do not begin to address dilemmas that are rooted in meso- and macro-level causes of problems. Affirmative Action One of the most contentious policies in the United States has Group Contact been affirmative action. The following discussion addresses the goals and forms of the policy. A societal policy for Some social scientists advocate organized group contact change, affirmative action actually involves three different between dominant and minority group members to improve policies. Its simplest and original form, which we call strict relations and break down stereotypes and fears. Although affirmative action, involves affirmative or positive steps to not all contact reduces prejudice, many studies have shown make sure that unintentional discrimination does not occur. the benefits of contact. Some essential conditions for suc- It requires, for example, that an employer who receives fed- cess are equal status of participants, noncompetitive and eral monies must advertise a position widely and not just nonthreatening contact, and projects or goals on which to through internal or friendship networks. If the job requires cooperate (Farley 2010). an employee with a college education, then by federal law, In a classic study of group contact, social psycholo- employers must recruit through minority and women’s col- gists Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif (1953) learned that leges as well as state and private colleges in the region. If the most effective strategy to reduce group prejudice is to employers are hiring in the suburbs, they are obliged to con- introduce a superordinate goal that can be achieved only if tact unemployment agencies in poor and minority commu- everyone cooperates. As groups work together, established nities as well as those in the affluent neighborhoods. After stereotypes begin to fade away. The key, then, is to find taking these required extra steps, employers are expected common interests that can only be satisfied if all parties are to hire the most qualified candidate who applies, regardless seen as partners in solving some larger problem, and the of race, ethnicity, sex, religion, or other external charac- outcome is win-win for all. teristics. The focus is on providing opportunities for the

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best-qualified people. For many people, this is the meaning Many colleges and universities admit students because of affirmative action, and it is inconceivable that this could they need an outstanding point guard on the basketball be characterized as reverse discrimination, for members of team, an extraordinary soprano for the college choir, or the dominant group will be hired if they are in fact the most a student from a distant state for geographic diversity. qualified. These policies do not overcome the problem that These students are shown preference by being admitted qualified people who have been marginalized may be com- with lower test scores than some other applicants because petent but do not have the traditional paper credentials that they are “differently qualified.” Many colleges also give document their qualifications (Gallagher 2004). preference to male students to achieve gender balance, A quota system, the second policy, is a requirement that even if more qualified females apply. The controversy about employers must hire a certain percentage of minorities. For whether minority students should be given preference fol- the most part, quotas are now unconstitutional. They apply lows this same reasoning. Consider the following example. only in cases in which a court has found a company to have A lawsuit filed in Detroit alleged that the University of a substantial and sustained history of discrimination against Michigan gave unlawful preference to minorities in under- minorities and in which the employment position does not graduate admissions and in law school admissions. In this have many requirements (if the job entails sweeping floors controversial case, the court ruled that undergraduate and cleaning toilets, there would not be an expectation of a admissions were discriminatory because they used num- specific academic degree or a particular grade point average). bers rather than individualized judgments to make the Preference policies are the third form and the one that admissions determination (Alger 2003). Consider the next has created the most controversy among opponents of affir- “Engaging Sociology” feature and decide whether you think mative action. Preference policies are based on the concept the policy was fair and whether only race and ethnicity of equity, the belief that sometimes people must be treated should have been deleted from the preferences allowed. differently in order to be treated fairly. This policy was Predictions were that 25 years after the Michigan cases enacted to level the playing field, which was not rewarding racial preferences would no longer be necessary to achieve highly competent people because of institutional racism. the affirmative action goals. In 2013 the Supreme Court The objectives of preference policies are to (1) eliminate ruled on another case involving affirmative action, this time qualifications that are not substantially related to the job but at the University of Texas (Fisher v. University of Texas). The that unwittingly favor members of the dominant group and court ruled that diversity in educational institutions is so (2) foster achievement of objectives of the organization that important that race may need to be considered as a basis are only possible through enhanced diversity. To overcome for preference in admissions. However, the court raised these inequalities and achieve certain objectives, employers the standard for such policies, insisting that universities and educational institutions take account of race or sex by must show that they have unsuccessfully tried other race- making special efforts to hire and retain workers or accept neutral policies to achieve the same end (Liptak 2013). For students from groups that have been underrepresented. In example, three fourths of the University of Texas first-year many cases, these individuals bring qualifications others do students are admitted because a state law requires that the not possess. Consider the following examples. top students—usually the top 10%—must be admitted. The A goal of the medical community is to provide access state of Texas is 38% Hispanic and 12% African American, to medical care for underserved populations. There is an and many of its schools are overwhelmingly of one race extreme shortage of physicians on the Navajo reserva- (Farley 2010; Lewin 2012). Unlike most states that have a tion. Thus, a Navajo applicant for medical school might be smaller minority population, this policy may be sufficient to accepted, even if her scores are slightly lower than those of create substantial diversity. So the Fisher case affirmed the another candidate, because she speaks Navajo and under- need for preference policies, but insisted that colleges must stands the culture. One could argue that she is more quali- demonstrate they have tried other options. fied to be a physician on the reservation than someone In California, doing away with preferences reduced the who knows nothing about Navajo society but has a slightly number of minority students, especially African Americans higher grade point average or test score. Some argue that and Latinos, in higher education (Liptak 2012; National tests should not be the only measure to determine success- Public Radio 2010). Thus far California has not discovered ful applicants. other options that will ensure similar levels of diversity in Likewise, a black police officer may have more credibil- the college classroom. ity in a minority neighborhood and may be able to defuse The question remains: Should preferences be given a delicate conflict more effectively than a white officer who to accomplish diversity? Some people feel that programs scored slightly higher on a paper-and-pencil placement test. involving any sort of preference are reverse discrimination. Sometimes, being a member of a particular ethnic group Others believe such programs have encouraged employers, can actually make one more qualified for a position. educational institutions, and government to look carefully

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Engaging Sociology

Preference Policies at the University of Michigan

To enhance diversity on the campus—a practice that many argue makes a university a better learning environment and enhances the academic reputation of the school—many colleges have preference policies in admissions. However, the University of Michigan was sued by applicants who felt they were not admitted because others replaced them on the roster due to their racial or ethnic background. The University of Michigan is a huge university where a numbering system is needed to handle the volume (tens of thousands) of applicants; admissions staff cannot make a decision based on personal knowledge of each candidate. Thus, they give points for each quality they deem desirable in the student body. A maximum of 150 points is possible, and a score of 100 would pretty much ensure admission. The university feels that any combination of points accumulated according to the following formula will result in a highly qualified and diverse student body. For academics, up to 110 points are possible:

• 80 points for grades (a particular grade point average in high school results in a set number of points; a 4.0 results in 80 points; a 2.8 results in 56 points) • 12 points for standardized test scores (ACT or SAT) • 10 points for the academic rigor of high school (so all students who go to tougher high schools earn points) • 8 points for the difficulty of the curriculum (e.g., points for honors curriculum vs. keyboarding courses)

For especially desired qualities, including diversity, up to 40 points are possible for any combination of the following (but no more than 40 in this “desired qualities” category):

• Geographical distribution (10 for Michigan resident; an additional 6 for underrepresented Michigan county) • Legacy—a relative has attended Michigan (4 points for a parent; 1 for a grandparent or sibling) • Quality of submitted essay (3 points) • Personal achievement—a special accomplishment that is noteworthy (up to 5 points) • Leadership and service (5 points each) • Miscellaneous (only one of these can be used): __Socioeconomic disadvantage (20 points) __Racial or ethnic minority (20 points; disallowed by the court ruling) __Men in nursing (5 points) __Scholarship athlete (20 points) __Provost’s discretion (20 points; usually the son or daughter of a large financial donor or of a politician)

In addition to ethnicity being given preference, athleticism, musical talent, having a relative who is an alum, or being the child of someone who is noteworthy to the university are also considered. Some schools also give points for being a military veteran. The legal challenge to this admissions system was based only on the racial and ethnic prefer- ence given to some candidates, not on the other items that are preferenced. * * * * * * * Engaging With Sociology

1. Does this process seem reasonable as a way to get a diverse and highly talented incoming class of students? Why or why not?

2. Does it significantly advantage or disadvantage some students? Explain.

3. How would you design a fair system of admissions, and what other factors would you consider?

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at hiring policies and minority candidates and that many from 90 countries were killed when two hijacked commercial more competent minority group members are working in jetliners flew into the towers. the public sector as a result of these policies. The rights granted to citizens of any nation used to be considered the business of each sovereign nation, but after the Nazi Holocaust, German officers were tried at Global Movements the Nuremberg trials, and the United Nations passed the for Human Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Since that time, many international organizations have been established, A unique coalition of world nations has emerged from the often under the auspices of the United Nations, to deal with terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. In this attack on health issues, world poverty and debt, trade, security, and the World Trade Center in New York City, a center housing many other issues affecting world citizens—World Health national and international businesses and workers, citizens Organization, World Bank, World Trade Organization, and numerous regional trade and security organizations. The United Nations, several national governments (Britain, France, and Canada), and privately funded advo- cacy groups speak up for international human rights as a principle that transcends national boundaries. The most widely recognized private group is Amnesty International, a watchdog group that does lobbying on behalf of human rights and supports political prisoners and ethnic group spokespersons. When Amnesty International was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997, the group’s visibility was dramatically increased. Some activist sociologists have formed Sociologists Without Borders, or SSF (Sociólogos sin Fronteras; www.sociologistswithoutborders.org), a trans- national organization committed to the idea that “all peo- ple have equal rights to political and legal protections, to socioeconomic security, to self-determination, and to their personality.” Everyone can make a positive difference in the world, and one place to start is in our own communities (see “Contributing to Our Social World”). We can counter prej- Some human rights movements have justice issues in countries udice, discrimination, and socially embedded racism in around the world as their focal point. Amnesty International is one such movement, which has strong support at many college our own groups by teaching children to see beyond “we” campuses. and “they” and by speaking out for fairness and against stereotypes and discrimination.

nequality is not limited to social classes, race or eth- everything from the home to the boardroom and from I nic groups, or religious communities. “We” and “they” the governance of nations to the decisions of global agen- thinking can invade some of the most intimate set- cies. We will explore this in the next chapter: “Gender tings. It can infect relations between men and women in Stratification.”

Holocaust ©SAGE Publications Chapter 8. Race and Ethnic Group Stratification: Beyond “We” and “They” 239

What Have We Learned?

Why are minority group members in most countries • At the meso level, institutionalized discrimination oper- poorer than dominant group members? This and other ates through two processes: side-effect and past-in-pres- chapter-opening questions can be answered in part by ent. These forms of discrimination are unintended and considering the fact that human beings have a tendency unconscious—operating quite separate from any preju- to create “we” and “they” categories and to treat those who dice of individuals in the society. (See pp. 223–226.) are different as somehow less human. The categories can • When very large ethnic groups or even nations collide, be based on physical appearance, cultural differences, reli- some people are typically displaced and find themselves gious differences, or anything the community or society in minority status. (See p. 219.) defines as important. Once people notice differences, they are more inclined to hurt “them” or to harbor advantages • The policies of the dominant group may include geno- for “us” if there is competition over resources that both cide, subjugation, population transfer, assimilation, or groups want. Even within a nation, where people are sup- pluralism. (See pp. 226–228.) posedly all “us,” there can be sharp differences and intense hostilities. • The costs of racism to the society are high, including loss of human talent and resources, and the costs make life more difficult for the minority group members. (See Key Points: pp. 231–232.) • Although the concept of race has no real meaning bio- • Coping devices used by minorities include five strat- logically, race is a social construction because people egies, only one of which addresses the meso and believe it is real. (See pp. 213–216.) macro-level causes. These strategies are assimilation, acceptance, avoidance, aggression, and organizing for • Minority group status—having less power and less societal change. (See pp. 232–234.) access to resources—may occur because of racial status or because of ethnic (cultural) factors. (See • Policies to address problems of prejudice and discrimi- pp. 217–218.) nation range from individual and small-group efforts at the micro level to institutional, societal, and even global • Prejudice operates at the micro level of society and social movements. (See pp. 234–235.) is closest to people’s own lives, but it has much less impact on minorities than discrimination. Color-blind • Affirmative action policies are one approach, but the prejudice has become more of a problem—the denial broad term affirmative action includes three different of overt prejudice but the rejection of any policies that sets of policies that are quite distinct and have different might correct inequities. (See pp. 219–222.) outcomes. (See pp. 235–238.)

Discussion Questions

1. Before you read this chapter, were you aware that slavery 4. Give two examples, respectively, of both side-effect still exists throughout the world? If yes, describe how discrimination and past-in-present discrimination. you learned about it and your reaction to this fact. If not, How have they impacted you and your life chances? think about how your social location led to your learning Why? about it for the first time in this course. 5. We know that efforts to reduce prejudice, racism, and 2. Have you ever experienced being stereotyped because discrimination must take place at all levels (micro, meso, of your race or ethnicity? Why or why not? How can and macro). Most organizations, though, must choose racial stereotypes harm societies, as well as groups and one level on which to focus their particular efforts. If you individuals? were going to start an organization to decrease racial or 3. What is the difference between blatant bigotry and color- ethnic prejudice, would you focus on the micro, meso, blind prejudice? Why is it so difficult to recognize and or macro level? Why? Explain what your organization address color-blind prejudice in the United States today? would do. (Continued) ©SAGE Publications 240 Inequality

(Continued) 6. Do you agree with the Supreme Court ruling that upheld of a large donor or a politician, but not for racial or ethnic preferences for college applicants at the University of Mich- minorities? Why or why not? How might each type of pref- igan who were scholarship athletes or the sons or daughters erence benefit (a) the university and (b) the larger society?

Contributing to Our Social World: What Can We Do?

At the Local Level summer internships, and opportunities in Israel and other locations are listed on their website. •• African American Student Associations, Arab American Student Associations, and Native American Student Asso- •• National Relief Charities strive “to help Native American ciations are all examples of student organizations dedi- people improve the quality of their lives by providing cated to fighting bigotry and promoting understanding opportunities for them to bring about positive changes and the rights of racial minorities. Identify one of these in their communities.” To do so, it partners with tribal groups on your campus and arrange to attend a meeting. and other groups on the ground in the tribal regions of If appropriate, volunteer to help with its work. the Plains and Midwest. You can find out how to sup- port their work and the work of their partner organiza- At the Organizational or Institutional Level tions by going to www.nrcprograms.org. •• Cultural Survival and the UN Permanent Forum on Indig- •• The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights is a enous Issues (www.cs.org and www.un.org/esa/socdev/ national coalition dedicated to combating racism and its unpfii) provide opportunities for combating racism effects. It maintains a website that includes a directory globally. Also, consider purchasing only Fair Trade of its membership of more than 200 organizations (www Certified (packages are clearly marked as such) coffee, .civilrights.org). On its website you can find a “take ac- and especially chocolate, and encouraging your school tion” link that will help you to explore ways in which to sell Fair Trade products. You can learn more about you can participate in its efforts. Fair Trade products and issues by reading the article at •• Teaching Tolerance (www.splcenter.org/center/tt/teach www.nytimes.com/2012/09/28/business/media/green- .jsp), a program of the Southern Poverty Law Center, has mountain-coffee-begins-fair-trade-campaign-advertis curriculum materials for teaching about diversity and a ing.html and looking at educational materials provided program for enhancing cross-ethnic cooperation and by the Fair Trade Resource Network online at www dialogue in schools. Check into internship opportuni- .fairtraderesource.org. ties in local primary and secondary schools, and explore •• Amnesty International campaigns for internationally rec- ways in which the Teaching for Tolerance approach can ognized human rights. It relies heavily on volunteers be incorporated into the curricula in your school district organized into chapters, many of them campus-based. with local teachers and administrators. You can join the organization and learn how to partici- pate in its action through its website at www.amnesty. At the National and Global Levels org. Consider joining or starting one on your campus. •• Anti-Defamation League (www.adl.org): The ADL acts to “stop the defamation of the Jewish people and to Visit www.sagepub.com/oswcondensed3e secure justice and fair treatment to all.” They develop and implement educational programs on interfaith/ for online activities, sample tests, and other intergroup understanding, scrutinize and call atten- helpful information. Select “Chapter 8: Race and tion to hate groups, monitor hate speech on the Inter- Ethnic Group Stratification” for chapter-specific net, and mobilize communities to stand up to bigotry activities. throughout the United States and abroad. Job listings,

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