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Minority Versus Majority Cross-Ethnic Friendships Altering Discrimination

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Minority Versus Majority Cross-Ethnic Friendships Altering Discrimination Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 59 (2018) 26–35 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jappdp Help or hindrance? Minority versus majority cross-ethnic friendships ☆ T altering discrimination experiences ⁎ Alaina Brenicka, Maja K. Schachnerb,d, , Philipp Jugertc a University of Connecticut, Department of Human Development and Family Studies, 348 Mansfield Rd., U-1058, Storrs, CT 06269-1058, USA b University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476, Potsdam, Germany c University of Duisburg-Essen, Department of Psychology, Universitätsstr. 2, 45141 Essen, Germany d College of Interdisciplinary Educational Research, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung, Reichpietschufer 50, 10785 Berlin, Germany ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: We examined the interplay between perceived ethnic discrimination (PED) as a risk factor, and cross-ethnic Cross-ethnic friendships friendships as a protective factor in culturally diverse classrooms, and how they relate to the socioemotional Depressive symptoms adjustment of ethnic minority boys and girls. We conducted multi-level analyses of 327 Turkish-heritage ethnic Disruptive behavior minority early-adolescents in Germany (62 classrooms; Mage = 11.59 years, SDage = 0.76). Higher rates of PED Ethnic minority children were associated with more depressive symptoms and disruptive behaviors and lower general life sa- Perceived ethnic discrimination tisfaction—though these effects differed by gender. Unexpectedly, cross-ethnic friendships with ethnic majority Socioemotional adjustment peers exacerbated the negative effects of PED on socioemotional adjustment. This effect was decreased, though, when adolescents perceived the classroom climate to be supportive of intergroup contact toward majority- minority cross-ethnic friendships. Supportive classroom climate also buffered the effects of PED for youth with minority cross-ethnic friends. Results indicate the need to differentiate types of cross-ethnic relationships and account for the intergroup climate. Introduction investigated the interplay between perceived ethnic discrimination (PED) as a major risk factor and cross-ethnic friendships as a possible As societies grow increasingly multicultural, this diversity brings protective factor for the socioemotional adjustment of ethnic minority with it challenges and opportunities, which may act as risk and pro- youth in the context of culturally diverse classrooms. As part of the tective factors for the development of culturally diverse youth (Spencer, classroom context, we also considered the intergroup climate. Specifi- 2006). In terms of risk factors for healthy development, there is a cally, we assessed how much support there was for cross-ethnic heightened potential for ethnic discrimination in more ethnically di- friendships amongst students attending the same classroom. verse contexts (Putnam, 2007; Rodkin & Ryan, 2012)—the negative physical, psychological, and social consequences of which are wide- Risk and protective factors for ethnic minority youth - conceptual ranging and well-established (Priest et al., 2013; Schmitt, Branscombe, framework Postmes, & Garcia, 2014). At the same time, contact between members of different ethnic groups may promote positive interethnic attitudes PED is a common occurrence amongst ethnic minority youth (US: and allow for the formation of cross-ethnic friendships (Pettigrew & Greene, Way, & Pahl, 2006; Seaton, Caldwell, Sellers, & Jackson, Tropp, 2006). Such friendships, in turn, may help protect against some 2008)—especially those with immigrant backgrounds (Europe: Bayram of the negative effects of discrimination (e.g., Bagci, Rutland, Özdemir & Stattin, 2014)—and has well-established negative implica- Kumashiro, Smith, & Blumberg, 2014; Page-Gould, 2012). Yet, cross- tions for youth's socioemotional adjustment and well-being (see Priest ethnic friendships may also require a supportive intergroup climate in et al., 2013; Schmitt et al., 2014). Several theoretical frameworks order to develop (Schachner, Brenick, Heizmann, Van de Vijver, & highlight the central role of PED for ethnic minority youth's socio- Noack, 2015) and manifest positive effects. In the current study, we emotional development (e.g., Garcia Coll et al., 1996; Spencer, 2006). ☆ This study was funded by the federal program “ProExzellenz” of the Free State of Thuringia, which also provided a scholarship to Maja K. Schachner at the Graduate School of Human Behavior in Social and Economic Change at Friedrich Schiller University Jena. ⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Potsdam, Inclusive Education, Karl-Liebknecht-Str.24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Brenick), [email protected] (M.K. Schachner), [email protected] (P. Jugert). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.04.006 Received 27 March 2018; Received in revised form 19 April 2018; Accepted 19 April 2018 Available online 17 October 2018 0193-3973/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier Inc. A. Brenick et al. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 59 (2018) 26–35 Spencer's (2006) Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems often associated with psychological outcomes (e.g., depressive symp- Theory (PVEST) asserts that, in ethnic minority youth development, toms; US: Benner & Graham, 2013). However, youth who reported PED coping strategies and outcomes—adaptive and maladaptive—must be from adult sources (US: Niwa et al., 2014), or specifically teachers (US: examined in relation to each individual's balance of risks and protective Benner & Wang, 2017; Belgium: D'hondt, Eccles, Van Houtte, & Stevens, factors within a larger ecological context. Similarly, Garcia Coll et al. 2017), reported greater maladjustment related to schooling (e.g., lower (1996) suggest that how ethnic minority youth cope with discrimina- behavioral school engagement). As we are broadly interested in dis- tion experiences depends on promoting and inhibiting factors in dif- crimination experiences and effects in the school context, we included ferent contexts, such as school. As a result, in addition to assessing measures of both sources of discrimination (teachers and peers) as well PED's myriad negative consequences, scholars have tried to identify as relevant outcomes of both sources of PED. protective factors and mechanisms through which the negative effects of PED might be attenuated (see Schmitt et al., 2014; Priest et al., 2013 Protective factors against the negative effects of PED for reviews). A handful of recent studies, have explored the role of cross-ethnic friendships as a source of intergroup support that might Cross-ethnic friendships also serve as a protective factor against PED's deleterious effects (Europe: Bagci et al., 2014; US: Benner & Wang, 2017; Kawabata & Recently, cross-ethnic relationships have been identified as a po- Crick, 2015). Yet, these studies did not distinguish between different tential protective factor. Previous studies suggest that cross-ethnic types of cross-ethnic friendships (with majority or other minority peers) friendships can serve as a buffer against the harmful effects of multiple and have not looked at the broader social context (such as perceived forms of intergroup-based victimization (Page-Gould, 2012; Paolini support for intergroup contact) as another moderating factor. et al., 2014). Much of this work has been conducted on a broader array We extended the previous literature by investigating majority and of intergroup-based victimization beyond PED, however, the results minority cross-ethnic friendships as a moderator of PED effects on so- provide additional support for the consideration of cross-ethnic cioemotional adjustment amongst early-adolescents of Turkish im- friendships as a protective factor against PED. For example, having migrant background—one of the most stigmatized ethnic minority cultural majority cross-ethnic friendships mitigated the impact of var- groups living in Germany. To get a broader picture of these associations ious negative intergroup experiences (e.g., ethnic, national, religious, in the context of culturally diverse classrooms, we looked at dis- and immigrant background minority youth in the US and two European crimination from multiple sources (i.e., teachers & peers), and studied Countries; Paolini et al., 2014). At the same time, these friendships these effects on multiple outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms, dis- increased positive academic trajectories (Muslim minority youth across ruptive behavior, and general life satisfaction). Finally, we tested four European countries; Baysu & de Valk, 2012), feelings of increased whether the moderating effects of cross-ethnic friendships were altered school belongingness and safety (US; Munniksma & Juvonen, 2012), by the perceived intergroup climate in the classroom. rates of social acceptance and help from friends (Kawabata & Crick, 2011, 2015), and rejection of intergroup discrimination (Brenick & Negative effects of perceived ethnic discrimination (PED) Killen, 2014). To date, however, only a handful of studies have examined the In a recent meta-analysis of PED's negative effects on child health, potential of intergroup social relationships as a protective factor spe- increased depressive symptoms and decreased life satisfaction emerged cifically against PED for ethnic minority youth. These few studies show as the “strongest and most consistent” relations across the literature
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