Molluscan Mariculture in the Greater Caribbean: An Overview

DARRYL E. JORY and EDWIN S. IVERSEN

Introduction In many areas, however, seafood de­ with total seafood consumption rates mand exceeds both the current catch and (local residents and tourists), permitted This paper reviews the history and potentially available resources. A recent a comparison between island-shelf current status of both experimental and review ofeastern Caribbean fisheries by potential yield and demand for marine commercial molluscan mariculture in Olsen et al. (1984) incorporated land protein in the Caribbean which revealed the greater Caribbean area (Fig. 1). Sea­ area, human population, shelf area, that: food is and has been a staple for Carib­ number of tourists, and fish landings by bean people since pre-Columbian times. island/nation. These figures, together 1) Only a few ofthe eastern island na­ tions are currently supplying their own seafood demand, 2) The current demand for seafood in ABSIRACF-Marine mollusks suitable for for rock mussels, Perna perna, in f.-enezuela. the area is about 775,000 metric tons (t), mariculture in the Caribbean area have Extensive research has been carried out on which greatly exceeds both current received increased attention in recent years the mariculture potential ofthe queen conch, landings of about 87,000 t and the in an effort to produce more seafood for in­ Strombus gigas, with experimental hatch­ habitants ofthe area. However, molluscan eries in some countries (more are under con­ 200,000 t potential yield, and mariculture in the Caribbean is still, with struction or planned), and a commercial 3) The shelf area of many islands is a few exceptions, in its infancy when com­ hatchery is already operating in Turks and pared with these activities elsewhere. Pilot Caicos. The culture potential of several Darryl E. lory and E. S. Iversen are with the Divi­ and commercial culture operations for mollusks in the Caribbean, including native sion of Biology and Living Resources, Rosenstiel American oysters, Crassostrea virginica, and and exotic species, and several problems im­ School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, mangrove oysters, C. rhyzophorae, exist in peding increase in molluscan culture in the University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Cause­ Jamaica, Cuba, J.i'?nezuela, and Mexico, and Caribbean are discussed. way, Miami, FL 33149.

95'W 85'W I

ATLANTIC OCEAN

PrOVJ(Jenctales I +------,I-----22·N

12·N----f------+------'I.

PACIFIC OCEAN VENEZUELA

Figure I.-Map of greater Caribbean region.

47(4), 1985 1 Figure 2.-Mangrove oyster culture system in coastal region.

generally too small to support additional Caribbean nations, as well as provide increasing food production in the Carib­ fishing effort, and although there are needed employment. Finally, cultured bean is every bit as important as it is in some areas that can support additional mollusks, in particular cephalopods the Pacific, and perhaps even more so exploitation, increased seafood produc­ (Hanlon, In press) and the sea hare, considering the large human population tion must come from resources not Aplysia spp. (Fay, 1971), can and have and the relative lack of other food already exploited. been used extensively in neuroscience sources in many Caribbean island Although almost all island nations and behavioral research. nations. presently have this serious seafood pro­ However, despite these incentives, Present molluscan mariculture activ­ duction deficit, some nations are in molluscan culture in the greater Carib­ ities in the Caribbean can be divided in­ more trouble than others. For example, bean is, with few exceptions, in its in­ to three categories: Semi-intensive the Dominican Republic, which current­ fancy when compared with the status of culture, extensive culture, and research. ly lands about 6,435 t of finfish and these activities in such countries as Semi-intensive Culture shellfish, has a seafood demand of Japan, Australia, France, Spain, the 137,000 t and a potential yield from its Netherlands, and others. In addition, In the Caribbean, semi-intensive cul­ shelf of only 864 t. available information on the molluscan ture of mangrove oysters, Crassostrea Mollusk culture could increase sea­ culture in the Caribbean is limited. In rhizophorae, is presently practiced in food production in many Caribbean contrast, the journal Aquaculture Cuba and Jamaica, while American island nations and reduce the difference (Morse et al., 1984) devoted over 400 oysters, C. virginica, are raised in Mex­ between present production and de­ pages to "Recent innovations in cultiva­ ico and Venezuela, and the South Amer­ mand. Another reason for culturing tion of Pacific mollusks." Possibly ican rock mussel, Perna perna, is mollusks in the Caribbean is that as ex­ because of the vastness of the Pacific cultured only in Venezuela. port products (for food or the aquarium Ocean and variety of marine habitats Cuba or ornamental shell trade) they generate and molluscan species, the research ef­ hard currency to help alleviate serious fort is more extensive than in the Carib­ Over a 12-year period (1963-74), bio­ trade deficits that characterize many bean. Nonetheless, the importance of logical and ecological studies and breed-

2 Marine Fisheries Review ing experiments supervised by United Nations Development Program/Food and Agriculture Organization (UNDP/ FAO) experts, were conducted on man­ grove oysters in Cuba, and many loca­ tions were found suitable for culture. A mangrove oyster culture system was developed during the study period, based on known methods and the use of inexpensive and readily available local materials (Nikolic et al., 1976). Farming facilities, generally located in estuarine areas, consist of stockades of palm posts driven into muddy or sandy bottoms, arranged in line or in a quadrangle (Fig. 2). Posts extend about 1-1.5 m above the surface of the water and are placed 2.5 m apart, supporting 6 m long, wooden traverse beams. Red mangrove terminal branches, suspended from the traverse beams with tarred ropes or monofIlament nylon thread, are used as spat collectors. The collectors are checked at least once a month (Fig. 3) to make certain that the binding ropes are securely fastened, that collectors are favorably located in terms oftidal cycles, and to remove fouling organisms and predators. The oysters are harvested 5-6 months after placing the collectors. Sub­ sequent harvests take place each month thereafter, when the largest oysters are collected during monthly cleaning oper­ ations. (Nikolic et al., 1976). The first commercial oyster farm in Cuba, located on the northeastern shore, began operating in 1975. About 30 farms were initially planned by Cuban of­ ficials, with an estimated potential pro­ duction between 6,500 and 7,500 t. Figure 3.-Mangrove oyster culture system in Cuba. However, because of industrial pollution in the culture areas, only about 20 per­ cent of the area could be used. Presently there are 19 farms in operation, with an Jamaica feasibility in arresting the loss in natural estimated potential production between oyster populations to land reclamation, 900 and 1,100 t of unshucked oysters. In In July 1977, a joint mangrove oyster particularly in the Kingston Harbor the last 3 years, wide fluctuations in culture project was set up by the Inter­ area, and to ensure a constant or in­ seasonality and abundance of spat settle­ national Development Research Center creased supply ofoysters. After 4 years ment have adversely affected growout (IDRC) of Canada and the Government the culture system was considered viable schemes. To optimize oyster growout, ofJamaica (through the Fisheries Divi­ so in 1980 an "Oyster Culture Unit" was it is necessary to have an adequate, con­ sion of the Ministry of Agriculture and set up within the Ministry ofAgriculture sistent source of spat. A hatchery under the University of the West Indies' to operate pilot farms and provide exten­ construction and supervision of FAO ex­ Department of Zoology) to determine its sion services2• perts, combined with ongoing pilot scale research on controlled reproduction and 'Frias-Lepoureau, 1. A. Mariculture Section, 2MooYoung, R. R. Inland Fisheries Project, Min­ oyster larval maintenance, is expected Ministry of the Fishing Industry, Cuba. Personal istry of Agriculture, Jamaica. Personal comrnun., to produce sufficient spat consistently I. comrnun., I October 1984. 8 November 1984.

47(4), 1985 3 The system adapted known oyster raft­ scholarships. Finally, an experimental resulted in destruction of natural beds culture methods to Jamaican conditions oyster hatchery is being planned 3• (Conrad, 1985). (Wade et aI., 1981). Spat collectors are Mexico made of pieces of old car tires, cut into Venezuela 8 X 8 em squares and drilled in the In Mexico, commercial aquaculture Experimental culture of the American center. These are strung together with activities involving oysters (and seven oyster began in 1974 in the canals of monofilament line, (10-12 collectors per other groups of organisms which in­ Guariquen, in the Gulf of Paria. The string), aged in seawater for 2 weeks clude shrimp and lobsters) are reserved Center for Fisheries Research of Cu­ before use, and then hung from bamboo exclusively for aquaculture coopera­ mana, under the Ministry of Agricul­ and mangrove racks in the intertidal tives. Although the most successful ture and Livestock, beginning in 1974, zone to collect spat. When the preferred oyster farming cooperatives are located carried out several studies on the biol­ density of about 10 oysters per collec­ along Mexico's Pacific coast (culturing ogy and culture potential of the Ameri­ tor has settled, the collectors are re­ a local species, Crassostrea cortezien­ can oyster (unpubl.) which stimulated strung on long monofilament plastic sis), experimental oyster culture in Mex­ the creation of two commercial ventures lines, spaced with 10 em bamboo poles ico began in the lagoon of Tamiahua in in 1980. For spat collection and grow­ and tied to bamboo rafts. Flotation for 1957 (Conrad, 1985). American oysters out these operations used old tires cut the rafts is provided by 44-gallon oil are also raised, and its most important in strips and hung from floating wooden drums painted with antirust paint, and culture grounds are on Mexico's Gulf rafts. In November 1980, there were 120 anchored by nylon ropes tied to coast, in the lagoons of Pueblo Viejo, rafts: 100 rafts were 15 x 6 m with 420 80-pound concrete blocks. Market size Tamiahua, Tampamochoc, Machona­ strips each and 20 rafts were 15 X 14 of 7-8 em is reached in 6 months. Only Carmen, Macoacan and others in the m with 800 strips each. Commercial about 10 percent of production is States of Veracruz and Tabasco (Lizar­ size, 8-12 em, is reached in 1 year. suitable for marketing because ofpoach­ raga, 1974). The marketed production in 1980, ing, diseases, and fouling organisms, all Seed is commonly collected on col­ 1981, and 1982 was 170, 176 and 132 major problems. In addition, some lars of oyster shell cultch, although roof tons, respectively. The estimated pro­ potential growout sites located near ur­ tiles and wire-mesh or plastic bags are duction ofa single operation in 1980 was ban centers may give rise to health prob­ also used. Spat collectors are placed in about 1,000 t, most of which could not lems caused by pollution; therefore, the stockades, hung from traverse beams, be marketed because the marketing Jamaican government is considering and after 2-3 months (when the seed is channels were inadequate to handle pro­ depuration plants and strict marketing 2-3 em) they are moved for growout. duction. Studies of the economic feasi­ regulations (ADCP, 1983). Two basic systems are used. In one the bility of smoking and canning oyster Oyster spat is presently collected at collectors are placed on the bottom in meats, possibly for export, have been the pilot farm ofthe Oyster Culture Unit areas consolidated with old oyster made (Cervigon, 1983). However, in a in Bowden, Port Morant. Growout is shells, and in the other, a suspension recent visit to Venezuela, the senior only carried out at this time in Port An­ system is used with collectors strung on author was informed that marketing dif­ tonio, where local fishermen built and galvanized wire strings, separated by ficulties had apparently proved insur­ have maintained growout rafts since plastic tubing, and hung in stockades. mountable and that both commercial January 1982. Growout was attempted Growout time to commercial size (about ventures would cease operations. at Falmouth, but was discontinued due 8-10 em) is between 8 and 14 months, The mangrove oyster was also the to high coliform counts. Microbial and the reported yield from these areas subject ofexperimental and commercial studies to institute preventive measures averages 25 tons/ha (Haro et aI., 1983; culture in Venezuela. Experimental are under way in a joint project between Lizarraga, 1974). culture began in the early 1960's, and the University of the West Indies and the The potential for increased oyster pro­ there were two commercial attempts, University of South Florida. duction in the Gulf of Mexico is con­ both using wild spat and floating rafts: Belmont-Bluefields is a proposed siderable, with over 100,000 ha having One, in 1969, in the Gulf of Cariaco and growout site. There are plans to grow potential for utilizing intensive culture the other in 1971 in la Restinga lagoon, the oysters in baskets and trays, which techniques (Haro et aI., 1983). Current Margarita Island. Both faced problems produce single shells instead of clusters, production is about 40,000 t/year, but a of spat settling, competition, and shell and which have more appeal for tourists. decline is predicted due to pollution in brittleness, and both failed due to mar­ 4 There is a high demand for oysters from lagoons such as Tamiahua and others , keting difficulties (Mandelli and Acuna, hotels and restaurants, and all present where oil exploitation activities have 1975; Cervigon, 1983). production is readily sold in Kingston. Culture of rock mussels, Perna perna, No reliable production figures are avail­ began in 1960 in the Gulf of Cariaco in able but the quantities sold are reported 3Sessing,1. Jamaican aquaculturist, P.O. Box 642, northeastern Venezuela (Fig. 4) using to be small. Three Jamaican workers Kingston 8, Jamaica. Personal commun., April slightly modified Spanish raft-culture from the Project have recently com­ 1985. techniques (Iversen, 1966). Presently, 'Orbe, A. Centro de investigacion y Estudios pleted overseas training at Dalhousie Avanzados lPN, Unidad Merida, Merida, Yucatan, there are two private ventures with 20 University in Canada through IDRC Mexico. Personal commun., 6 November 1984. rafts and seven smaller ventures with a

4 Marine Fisheries Review Figure 4.-Rock mussel rafts in Venezuela. total of45 rafts operated by fishermen's IfJ73; Mandelli and Acuna, lfJ75; Cer­ Extensive Culture cooperatives. The latter have not pro­ vigon, 1983). Extensive research on the duced any mussels in the last few years rearing of mussel larvae has been re­ The queen conch, Strombus gigas, is because of red tide problems in the area cently carried out at the Instituto Ocean­ the only marine mollusk considered to which, in August IfJ77, killed nine peo­ ografico of Universidad de Oriente in be cultured extensively in the Carib­ ple who ate contaminated mussels. Cumana5. A project to set up a mussel bean. Increased demand for its meat, Annual market production since IfJ72 depuration plant is being planned, and especially in u.s. markets, has resulted has ranged from 42 to 650 t. In 1980, another project for a large-scale mussel in overfishing and the decline of stocks, production was estimated at 650 to 920 farming operation was recently and has threatened its critical role as one t, but only 30 t were marketed due to presented to the National Council for of the most important subsistence-level red tide. In 1983, production was esti­ Scientific Research of Venezuela fisheries of the area (Brownell and mated at 182 t. This decrease is attrib­ (CONICIT) and is presently being Stevely, 1981). 6 uted to the replacing of wooden spat col­ evaluated • Concern over the decline of stocks led lectors by tire strips to which mussel to extensive research on the mass-rear­ spat reportedly cannot attach securely. 'Cervigon, F. Fundacion Cientifica Los Rogues, ing ofjuveniles in hatcheries and using Besides red-tide-related problems, com­ Caracas, Venezuela. Personal commun., May these juveniles to reestablish or replen­ mercially successful mussel culture in 1985. ish depleted natural populations. Such 6Robaina, G. Universidad de Oriente, Boca de Rio, Venezuela faces marketing problems Isla de Margarita, Venezuela. Personal commun., research was carried on since about similar to that of oysters (Salaya et al. , December 1985. 1980 in Bonaire, Puerto Rico, Los Ro-

47(4), 1985 5 ques Archipelago in Venezuela, Quin­ leases to grow conch to commercial European oysters and the species may l2 tana Roo in Mexico, Turks and Caicos, size . be abandoned, but growout of American Miami, and the Berry Islands in the The release size for hatchery-reared oysters and hard clams continues. In Bahamas (Iversen and Jory, 1985). conch discussed, and recommended addition, the company recently obtained Preliminary results of many of these and/or used so far varies from 2 cm permission from Bahamian authorities research programs were presented in a (Siddall, 1983), to 5 cm (Creswell, to import Manila clams, Iapes japon­ Conch Mariculture Session at the 35th 1984) to 12-15 cm (lory and Iversen, icus, from the Philippines, for growout Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries 1983; Woon, 1983). The release size can trialsl4. Institute in Nassau, Bahamas, in Nov­ have important consequences on the rate Turks and Caicos ember 1982. What has happened since of survival to market size. There is good then? The projects at the University of scientific evidence that natural mortality The Smithsonian Institution's Marine Miami, Los Roques and the Berry is greater for smaller individuals, and Systems Laboratory has recently sought Islands have ended due to lack of finan­ hatchery-reared mollusks are no excep­ to determine the culture potential of the cial support. The project in Puerto Rico tion (Jory et al., 1984), including queen topshell or magpie shell, Cittarium might not receive further funding 7. conch (Appeldoorn and Ballantine, pica. Its life cycle has been closed (Hes­ However, there is also encouraging 1983; Jory and Iversen, 1983) as well linga and Hillmann, 1981), and prelim­ news. The Bonaire hatchery reported as other mollusks such as abalone13. Re­ inary results indicate that juveniles rearing and releasing 750,000 juveniles cent large-scale releases of small (2-5 placed in floating cages can reach off Bonaire in 1984 in deep waters cm) hatchery-reared conchs in Bonaire, market size in 12-18 months. Similar where they will not be easily accessible Mexico, Venezuela, and St. Croix research has also been carried out in the to fishermen8• This may be an example should provide an indication of the opti­ Dominican Republic, Antigua, and St. of technological success, but does not mum release size. Vincent 15. The Mariculture Team of the imply economic feasibility. A hatchery Marine Systems Laboratory visited the is being set up at the Hydrolab site at Pilot Projects and island of St. Lucia where they demon­ Salt River on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Research Activities strated topshell culture methods; these Islands, mainly to obtain animals for Bahamas appeared to be easily adapted to local further research9. And construction of conditions, and the feasibility of estab­ a hatchery is about to begin on the island Molluscan mariculture has been at­ lishing a pilot project was indicated 16. of Martinique, French West Indies1o• tempted at three locations in the Baha­ Topshells are widely consumed in the The senior author recently visited the mas. In the middle 1970's a private com­ Caribbean; the species has been over­ Puerto Morelos hatchery in Quintana pany conducted a pilot experiment with fished in many areas and several nations Roo, Mexico, and was informed that it imported American oysters. In a pond are contemplating plans to regulate its is preparing for its first field release of dredged out for a dock project in Rud­ fisheries. Mariculture may be a viable hatchery-reared juveniles. Finally, in der Cut Cay, Exuma, the water was fer­ option to increase production since top­ 1984 Trade Wind Industries, Inc.ll, con­ tilized and imported oyster spat was shells appear to fulfill many of the structed and started operating the first placed in rafts. The project was prompt­ criteria for commercial culture. commercial queen conch hatchery on ly abandoned due to very slow growth the island of Providenciales, Turks and rates. St. Lucia Caicos. During the 1984 spawning The second study, growing oysters In 1983 a joint "Experimental Oyster season, 20 larviculture tanks were in and clams in rafts by the Wallace Groves Project" was started on St. Lucia be­ operation, and the juvenile conchs pro­ Aquaculture Foundation of Freeport, tween a local yacht charter company and duced were stocked in protective cages produced discouraging results. The third the Fisheries Management Unit of the near the hatchery. The company re­ study is by Worldwide Protein Bahamas Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fish­ portedly has also acquired sea-bottom Ltd., using imported spat of American eries, and Cooperatives. Imported and European oysters and hard clams, Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas, spat Mercenaria mercenaria, grown in dis­ were placed in bamboo and plastic mesh charge canals from company shrimp rafts at two sites. Unfortunately, the rafts 'Appeldorn, R. Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico. Personal ponds on Long Island. Preliminary at one site were destroyed but there are commun., October 1984. results indicate that fouling by algae and "Hensen, R. Department of Agriculture and Fish­ particulate matter hinder production. eries, Bonaire. Personal commun., October 1984. ·Coulston, M. L. Hydrolab Project West Indies Water temperatures were too high for I4Higgs, C. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Laboratory, Fairleigh Dickinson University, SI. Local Government, Nassau, Bahamas. Personal Croix. Personal commun., 22 October 1984. commun., October 1984. 'OBazin, P. Association pour Ie Development de "Bernard, W. L. Marine Systems Laboratory, I'Aquaculture a la Martinique, Martinique. Per­ "Creswell, L. Center for Marine Biotechnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Per­ sonal commun., September 1984. Harbor Branch Institution, Inc., Florida. Personal sonal commun., October 1985. "Mention of trade names or commercial firms commun., November 1984. '6Walters, H. D. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, does not imply endorsement by the National I3Haaker, P. California Department of Fish and Fisheries, and Cooperatives, Castries, SI. Lucia. Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. Game. Personal commun. October 1983. Personal commun., 5 October 1984.

6 Marine Fisheries Review plans for a second attempt. In addition, could be found. In 1983 the project was ficial Upwelling Project on the north several local private concerns have con­ redesigned into a Conch Management shore of the island produced phyto­ tacted the Fisheries Management Unit Program with a "red algae, Graci/aria plankton by pumping nutrient-rich sea­ 2 for advice regarding oyster culturel6. spp., Research Project" as a subcom­ water from 870 m depth into 100 m 19 ponent, which continues • ponds. This was used to feed oysters, Panama clams, and scallops which grew ade­ Nicaragua Between January and December 1979, quately. A pilot-scale operation was two pilot studies were conducted to In 1976, an oyster culture pilot study carried out between October 1976 and determine culture potential of the man­ was carried out with assistance from October 1978 in which Manila clams grove oyster. Two experimental farms Japanese scientists, using strung scallop produced in the Project Hatchery were were located in the Archipelago de shells separated by PVC spacers and successfully grown to determine yields Bocas del Toro, using the Cuban culture hung from mangrove structures. Spat and production costs. Very encouraging system described earlier in this paper. was successfully collected and grown results were also obtained culturing Preliminary results were encouraging during the dry season (May-December) brine shrimp (Roels et al., 1979). The but the project was not scaled-up to a but failed during the rainy season due Project apparently developed into The commercial level 17. University of Pana­ to depressed salinities and high sedi­ Maritek Corporation in 1980 (Seafood ma and University of Delaware scien­ mentation in the estuarine site. Oysters Business Report, 1984), and is presently tists are jointly experimenting with com­ grew well up to 81 mm, but mortalities engaged in penaeid shrimp culture in the mercially important bivalves with were more than 80 percent. Because Bahamas22. encouraging results at the University of most ofthe Nicaraguan coastline where Panama's Centro de Ciencias del Mar oysters can be raised has similar estu­ Other Candidates y Limnologia laboratory on Panama's arine conditions, government officials Pacific coast18. are not inclined to conduct further oyster Caribbean Species culture experiments2o. Colombia Milk Conch Puerto Rico Studies on mangrove oyster biology, The milk conch, Strombus costatus, preparatory to culture, have been carried Experiments to determine the com­ although considerably smaller than the out at the Cienaga Grande de Santa mercial feasibility of mangrove oyster queen conch, is nevertheless of com­ Marta and in the Gulf of Uraba on the culture started in December 1972, with mercial value. Its biology has been Caribbean coast of Colombia. Research the joint support of the Puerto Rico studied and it has been reared for possi­ has concentrated on basic biological Department of Agriculture and the U.S. ble use in the marine aquarium trade aspects of the oysters and testing for the National Marine Fisheries Service. and for extensive mariculture. Hatchery best methods of spat collection and These experiments consisted of moni­ techniques, predation problems, and growout. Results are very encouraging; toring growth of collected spat in bags, outlook are very similar to those for the it may be possible to raise oysters in with frames made of concrete-coated queen conch (Appeldoorn and Ballan­ closed suspended baskets to commercial plywood and plastic sheeting suspended tine, 1983). size (6-8 cm) in about 7 months. Bot­ from 3 x 4 m rafts. Oysters reportedly tom culturing methods are not suitable reached market size in 2 months (Wat­ Great White Lucine in the Gulf of Uraba due to the heavy ters and Prinslow, 1975). No commer­ and Gaudy Asaphis sedimentation coming from the Rio cial oyster culture presently exists in In many Caribbean areas, low pri­ Atrato (Wedler, 1980; Aguilera, 1984). Puerto Rico. The Commonwealth Gov­ mary productivity generally precludes No plans for commercial scale-up were ernment encourages such nondestruc­ culturing suspension-feeding mollusks. mentioned. tive uses of its coastal lagoons which are Recent research has shown two clam coming under increasing development species, the great white lucine, Codakia St. Kitts and Nevis pressure21. orbicularis, and the gaudy asaphis, Asa­ In 1981 the Government of St. Kitts phis deflorata, to have possible chemo­ U.S. Virgin Islands and Nevis and the IDRC tried unsuc­ autotrophic capabilities through a sym­ cessfully to establish a pilot project to Since May 1972, the St. Croix Arti- biotic relationship with sulphur-fixing culture mussels. The project failed be­ bacteria within their gill tissues; hence, cause no suitable local species of mussel they have been suggested as viable mari­ "Wilkins, R. Department of Agriculture, St. Kitts culture candidates. Both species have and Nevis. Personal commun., 2S September been reared in the laboratory, and I7Arosemena, D. H. Departamento de Direccion 1984. de Recursos Marinos, Panama. Personal com­ 2°Martinez Casco, S. Centro de Investigaciones chemical analyses have shown that the mun., 28 September 1984. Pesqueras, Instituto Nicaraguense de la Pesca. Per­ I8D'Croz, L., and 1. R. Villalaz. Centro de Cien­ sonal commun., 4 October 1984. cias del Mar y Limnologia, Facultad de Ciencias 2ITorres, F. Corporation for the Development and 22Higgs, C. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Naturales y Farmacia, Universidad de Panama. Administration of the Marine Resources, Puerto Local Government, Nassau, Bahamas. Personal Personal commun., 29 October 1984. Rico. Personal commun., 7 November 1984. commun., July 1984.

47(4), 1985 7 great white lucine is relatively high in mercial culture of cephalopods is un­ tent (Martinez, 1971), and a research 27 protein, carbohydrates, and calories but predictable, because it is predominant­ proposal is currently being evaluated • low in cholesterol compared with other ly an economic consideration. When Pen Shells clam species (Berg and Alatalo, 1982). and if the capture fishery cannot meet It has also been speculated that in­ the market demand, culture will receive The culture potential of pen shells, dustrial sulfide wastes may be adapted emphasis" (Hanlon, In press). Finally, Pinna carnea and Atrina rigida, was to a mariculture system involving these cephalopods may have much potential also reviewed by Berg (1984), who con­ clams (Berg and Alatalo, 1984). No in the aquarium trade, because of the cluded that they seem to have poor pilot or commercial projects to rear spectacular color changes of many potential because of the possibly long these clams are planned 23. species and because they can be easily planktonic development which would maintained in aquariums (Hanlon, In make larval rearing difficult. He also Cephalopods press). mentioned that they may be suitable as Many cephalopod species are impor­ an additional species in a polyculture tant research subjects in neuroscience, Scallops system, since they seem to invest little environmental toxicology, learning be­ Scallops of the family Pectinidae are energy developing viscera and shell and havior, and other areas. The highly the basis of several important commer­ therefore might grow very fast. Pen developed giant axon of squids, for ex­ cial fisheries around the world. Com­ shells are very valuable in several Carib­ ample, is used in numerous models of mercial scallop farming in Japan has bean countries, and in Mexico, where visual experimentation (Hanlon and been very successful, and scientists else­ they command higher prices than Forsythe, In press). In addition, fish­ where are trying to adapt Japanese tech­ shrimp and as high as abalone (about eries biologists have recently begun niques to their own countries (Wood, U.S.$IO.OO/kg as of early 1985)28. A using cultured cephalopods for life-cycle 1978). Pilot research continues world­ shellfish hatchery to produce larvae of analyses (Hanlon, In press). The advan­ wide, and in Latin America, Peru commercially important bivalves, in­ tages oflaboratory-cultured cephalopods (Wolff, 1984), and Mexico (Kimbrough, cluding several species of oysters, to the researcher include the consistent 1983) have recently reported commer­ clams, scallops, and pen shells, recent­ availability of experimental animals of cial culture operations. Those, however, ly started operating in Bahia Kino, in the known species, age, sex, and environ­ are on the Pacific coast; no pilot- or Gulf of California (O'Sullivan, 1984). mental background (Hanlon and For­ commercial-scale scallop culture project No commercial or research projects are sythe, In press). In the Western Atlan­ is known in the Caribbean. Research on known in the Caribbean. tic, cephalopods are presently being induced reproduction and larval rearing cultured on an experimental scale at the is being carried on in Venezuela25. Berg Exotic Species Marine Biomedical Institute of the Uni­ (1984) recently suggested scallop culture Green Mussels versity of Texas Medical Branch, as having potential in Bermuda. A species from the Indo-Pacific, the Galveston, Tex.24, and at the Centro de Pearl Oysters green mussel, Perna viridis, is con­ Investigaciones Cientificas de la Univer­ sidered to be a good candidate for intro­ Pearl oysters have been successfully sidad de Oriente, on Margarita Island duction into the Caribbean. Presently cultured for many years in Japan, off northeastern Venezuela (Robaina, there are over 5,000 ha under its culture Republic of Korea, China, Australia, In­ 1983). in Thailand and the Philippines. Re­ donesia, the Philippines, and other Roger Hanlon of the Texas Marine search at the Harbor Branch Institution 24 countries, and the techniques are well Biomedical Institute reports that the in Florida has shown considerable known. Berg (1984), in reviewing the life cycles of several Octopus and Loligo potential for this species' culture in culture potential of Bermudian bivalves, species have been closed, and extensive localized Caribbean areas where pri­ mentioned that there appears to be no information pertinent to their potential mary productivity is sufficient to sup­ reason why these techniques could not commercial mariculture has been ac­ port filter-feeding bivalves29. cumulated. He further reports receiving be successfully applied to Atlantic pearl requests from people interested in cul­ oysters, Pinctada spp. On Mexico's Giant Clams turing cephalopods commercially in the Pacific coast the pearl oyster, P mazat­ Species of giant clams, Tridacna southern Caribbean. lanica, has been experimentally cul­ spp., are being intensively studied at The only known commercial culture tured 26. No information is available on various institutions in the Philippines, operation of cephalopods is in Japan, present or recent research on pearl Australia, Micronesia, and California where Octopus vulgaris is reared; pro­ oyster culture in the Caribbean, al­ for possible commercial culture. These duction in recent years was about 50 t though in Venezuela aspects of its annually (Boletzky and Hanlon, 1983). biology have been studied to some ex- "Robaina, G. Universidad de Oriente, Boca de However, "the outlook for future com- Rio, Isla de Margarita, Venezuela. Personal com­ mun., 4 December 1985. "Padron, M. Universidad de Oriente. Boca de 28Reyes, C. Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Rio, Isla de Margarita, Venezuela. Personal com­ Superiores de Monterrey, Guaymas, Sonora, Mex. 23Berg, C. 1. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu­ mun., 5 December 1985. Personal commun., March 1985. tion. Personal commun., 7 November 1984. 26Diaz, G. 1. J. 1969. Cultivo experimental de 2·Creswell, L. Center for Marine Biotechnology, 24R. Hanlon, Marine Biomedical Institute, Texas. madreperla, Pinc/aOO maza/tanica, en la Bahia de Harbor Branch Institution, R. Personal commun., Personal commun., 5 November 1984. La Paz, Baja Calif., Mex., (mimeogr.) 12 p. November 1984.

8 Marine Fisheries Review clams have a thin layer of tissue in their exotic species with phototrophic capa­ To depend on natural spat settlement mantle where zooxanthellae live and bilities, such as giant clams, which may as a source of seed for commercial provide food (Munro and Heslinga, be suitable for introduction in those growout is generally not advisable be­ 1983). This aspect of their biology is areas where the naturally low primary cause of the wide fluctuations in spat unique and actually is a strong plus for productivity precludes the culture of abundance and settlement due to biotic the species' introduction to the Carib­ filter-feeding species. However, much and abiotic factors. Cuba, for example, bean, particularly in areas of low pro­ care should be exercised if these or any has reported such problems for their ductivity that cannot support filter­ other exotic species is introduced into oyster culture operations, and is inves­ feeding bivalves such as oysters or the Caribbean, and guidelines such as tigating controlled reproduction and mussels. Cultured tridacnids from Palau those recommended by the International oyster larval maintenance as well as con­ may soon be introduced to the island of Council for the Exploration of the Sea struction of a hatchery. Other countries Guadaloupe, pending approval of import should be followed (ICES, 1972). such as Mexico, Jamaica, Panama, and permits30. However, as with any other Several problems still hamper Carib­ Venezuela are operating or planning exotic species, the possible ecological bean molluscan culture. These include hatcheries and/or are involved in active consequences of introducing any new insufficient biological information on research for this purpose. species into a new environment must potential candidate species, dependency Economic problems also hamper first be carefully considered, as is on wild spat, lack ofeconomic informa­ development of Caribbean molluscan strongly urged by Munro and Heslinga tion, few trained technicians, inadequate culture (as well as culture of most other (1983). marketing channels, low primary pro­ marine species), particularly the dis­ ductivity in many areas, and pollution tribution channels and availability of the Discussion and Conclusions and public health considerations. products. Acceptability of seafood is not Molluscan mariculture is nonexistent The FAa Species Identification Sheets a problem: Most Caribbean islands and in several Caribbean countries; in a few for Fishery Purposes of the Western countries bordering the Caribbean have it is at an experimental or incipient stage Central Atlantic (Fischer, 1978) list 37 high rates of seafood consumption (>20 of development while only a handful of bivalves and 24 gastropods which are g/person per day), and in some of these commercial molluscan culture opera­ large, edible, and common enough to countries fish constitutes almost 20 per­ tions presently exist anywhere in the serve as human food. Several of these cent of the total protein source (Olsen area. Three species of bivalves (Ameri­ species of oysters, clams, scallops, arks, et aI., 1984). Adequate distribution can and mangrove oysters and rock mussels, and pen shells, as well as channels and product availability prob­ mussels) are raised in semi-intensive others not included in the FAa sheets, lems must be viewed in terms of the facilities; one gastropod, the queen may meet the criteria for culture candi­ added technological and economic bur­ conch, is raised in extensive culture dates proposed by Bardach et al. (1972) den involved in processing and market­ (mass-reared in hatcheries and released and Webber and Riordan (1975). ing highly perishable products in places to augment natural populations). However, adequate biological infor­ where refrigeration may be unavailable Techniques for oyster and mussel cul­ mation on which to judge the feasibil­ or inadequate (May, 1978). That inade­ ture are very similar, involving wild spat ity of culture projects for many species quate marketing channels are a problem collection on different substrates (i.e., is lacking, particularly concerning today is exemplified by the Venezuelan from mangrove branches to synthetic reproductive aspects (spawning season, oyster culture operations discussed ropes) and growout with the collectors larval stage requirements) and growth previously. suspended from floating rafts or wooden rates and factors which affect it. Re­ Another problem is pollution and re­ stockades. These techniques have search in progress at several Caribbean lated public health considerations. Since proven successful in some Caribbean institutions will help alleviate this. How­ the Caribbean is generally a developing countries and have potential in several ever, economic support for research region with relatively modest industrial­ others. Queen conch culture involves sometimes may end prematurely, as in ization and urbanization, water pollution mass-rearing juveniles in hatcheries and the case of the queen conch, whose from land-produced wastes has not field growout to commercial size; the biology and culture potential (including reached the alarming levels of more in­ first has had limited success so far while hatchery techniques) was intensively in­ dustrialized regions. However, there are the second remains unproven. vestigated at several institutions for a localized areas where marine pollution Introduction of exotic molluscan few years, until funding was discon­ from industrial, domestic, and agricul­ species into the Caribbean must be care­ tinued. UNDP/FAO has advocated es­ tural wastes, and from oil production fully considered. Several native species, tablishment of a Caribbean Regional and transport, is a problem (Rodriguez, particularly filter-feeding bivalves, ap­ Aquaculture Center, which has also 1981), and this is likely to become a pear suitable and should be exhaustive­ been strongly supported by countries in problem in other areas as industrializa­ ly studied before considering any intro­ the region and may be approved and im­ tion and urbanization occur. duction. An exception may be that of plemented in the near future3l. Estuarine areas are particularly af­ fected by pollution and urban develop­ ment. Besides being highly productive 30Heslinga, G. Micronesian Mariculture Demon­ "Choudhury, P. C. Fishery Resources and En­ stration Center, Palau. Personal commun., vironment Division, FAO, Rome. Personal com­ nursery grounds for many commercially February 1985. mun., 28 September 1984. important animals, clean estuaries are

47(4), 1985 9 also needed for molluscan culture. (editor), Assessment of the potential for aqua­ Fish. Rev. 37(1):15-18. Public health aspects of pollution must culture in Bermuda, p. 77-89. Bermuda BioI. Martinez, E. R. 1971. Estado actual de la biologia Stn., Ferry Reach, St. George's. y cultivos de moluscos comestibles en Vene­ be especially considered because the oc­ ____ , and P. Alatalo. 1982. Mariculture zuela. Coloquio sobre investigaciones Y Recur­ currence of human viruses in mollusks potential of shallow-water Bahamian bivalves. sos del Mar Caribe y Regiones Adyacentes. J. World Maricult. Soc. 13:294-300. FAO Fish. Rep. 71.2:173-181. from waters lightly to moderately pol­ _---,---__ , and 1984, Potential of May, R. C. 1978. Marine food production: Prob­ luted is well documented (Vaughn and chemosynthesis in molluscan mariculture. lems and prospects for Latin America. Rev. Landry, 1984) and because information Aquaculture 39: 165-179. BioI. Trop. 26(Suppl.1):167-189. Boletzky, S., and R. 1. Hanlon. 1983. A review Morse, D. E., K. K. Chew, and R. Mann (editors). on the extent of pollution in the Carib­ of the laboratory maintenance, rearing, and 1984. Recent innovations in cultivation of bean (i.e., from sewage) is very limited culture of cephalopod molluscs. Mem. Natl. Pacific mollusks. Proc. Int. Symp. La Jolla, (Rodriguez, 1981). Mus. Victoria 44:147-187. Calif., December 1982, Aquaculture 1984:404. Brownell, W. N., and 1. M. Stevely. 1981. The Munro,1. L., and G. A. Heslinga. 1983. Pros­ Finally, the harvesting of cultured biology, fisheries, and management of the queen pects for the cultivation of giant clams. In 1. mollusks may often have to be restricted conch, Strombus gigas. Mar. Fish. Rev. 43(7): B. Higman (editor), Proc. 35th Annu. Gulf 1-12. Caribb. Fish. Inst., Nassau, Bahamas, Nov. owing either to periodic red tide out­ Cervigon, F. (editor). 1983. La Acuicultura en 1982, p. 122-134. breaks, as in the case ofthe Venezuelan Venezuela. Estado Actual y Perspectivas. Edi­ Nikolic, M., A. Bosch, and S. Alfonso. 1976. A mussel culture operations discussed, or torial Arte, Caracas, 121 p. system for farming the mangrove oyster, Cras­ Conrad, 1. 1985. Mexico's cooperative oyster and sostrea rhizophorae. Aquaculture 9(1976):1-18. to ciguatera poisoning, which may oc­ shrimp farms. Aquaculture Magazine, Septem­ Olsen, D. A., D. W. Nellis, and R. S. Wood. 1984. cur in populations of topshells of cer­ ber/October 1985 :46-49. Ciguatera in the eastern Caribbean. Mar. Fish. Creswell, L. 1984. Conch mariculture in the Rev. 46(1):13-18. tain areas (Olsen et al., 1984). Caribbean region and its potential for Bermuda. O'Sullivan, D. 1984. Giant shellfish hatchery In conclusion, molluscan mariculture In 1. D. Sleeter (editor), Assessment of the begins production in Mexico. ICLARM Newsl. in the Caribbean has a long way to go potential for aquaculture in Bermuda, p. 7(3):21-22. 133-141. Bermuda BioI. Stn., Ferry Reach, St. Robaina, G. 0. 1983. Algunos aspectos sobre el to partially augment catches from tradi­ George's. cultivo de los moluscos cefalopodos octopodos. tional capture fisheries. It is doubtful Fay, R. C. 1971. Marine organisms in the research Revista Latinoamericana de Acuicultura 16: that it can soon achieve the production laboratory. Sea Scope 2(2):1, 7-8. 29-34. Fischer, W. 1978. FAO species identification sheets Rodriguez, A. 1981. Marine and coastal environ­ per unit area obtained in other parts of for fishery purposes. West. Cent. Atl. Vol. 6., mental stress in the wider Caribbean region. the world because it is still in its infancy FAO, Rome. Ambio 10(6):283-294. Hanlon, R. 1. in press. Mariculture. In P. R. Boyle Roels, O. A., 1. B. Sunderlin, and S. Laurence. and many of the problems remain un­ (editor), Cephalopod life cycles, Vol. 2. 1979. Bivalve molluscan culture in an artificial resolved. However, current and planned Academic Press, N.Y. upwelling system. Proc. World Maricult. Soc. research are encouraging. ____ , and 1. W. Forsythe. In press. Ad­ 10:122-138. vances in the laboratory culture of octopuses Salaya, 1. 1., I. Beauperthuy, and 1. Martinez. 1973. for biomedical research. Laboratory Animal Estudio sobre la biologia, pesqueria y cultivo Acknowledgments Science. del mejillon, Perna perna, en Venezuela. Haro, B. H., E. P. Nunez, A. F. Mattas, and M. Oficina Nacional de Pesca, Ministerio de This report is based on a search ofthe A. Landin. 1983. The development and per­ Agricultura y Cria, Republica de Venezuela. available literature and on personal com­ spective of oyster culture in Mexico. In K. K. Informe Tecnico 62, 53 p. munications with researchers, fisheries Chew (editor), Proc. North Am. Oyster Work­ Seafood Business Report. 1984. Maritek to harvest shop, p. 64-69. World Maricult. Soc. Spec. shrimp. Spring 1984, p. 98. officers, and administrators involved in Publ. I. Siddall, S. E. 1983. Biological and economic out­ or knowledgeable about aquaculture Heslinga, G. A., and A. Hillman. 1981. Hatch­ look for hatchery production ofjuvenile queen ery culture of the commercial top snail, Trochus conch. In J. B. Higman (editor), Proc. 35th activities throughout the Caribbean, niloticus, in Palau, Caroline Islands. Aqua­ Annu. GulfCaribb. Fish. Inst., Nassau, Baha­ whose contributions we thankfully ac­ culture 22(1981):35-43. mas, Nov. 1982, p. 46-52. knowledge. A shortened version of this ICES, 1972. Report of the working group on in­ Vaughn, 1. M., and E. F. Landry. 1984. Public troduction of nonindigenous marine organisms. health considerations associated with molluscan manuscript was presented at the Novem­ Int. Counc. Explor. Sea Coop. Res. Rep. 32, aquaculture systems: Human viruses. Aqua­ ber 1984 MEXUS-GULF IV and Gulf 59 p. culture 39(1984):299-315. and Caribbean Fisheries Institute 37th Iversen, E S. 1966. New float brings hope to Wade, B., R. Brown, C. Hanson, L. Alexander, mussel farmers. Fish. News IntI. 5(10):49. R. Hubbard, and B. Lopez. 1981. The devel­ Annual Meeting in Cancun, Mexico. ____ , and D. E. Jory. 1985. Queen conch opment of a low-technology oyster culture in­ at the crossroads. Sea Front. 31(3):150-159. dustry in Jamaica. In 1. B. Higman (editor), Literature Cited Jory, D. E., and E. S. Iversen. 1983. Conch Proc. 33rd Annu. GulfCaribb. Fish. Inst., San predators: Not a roadblock to mariculture. In Jose, Costa Rica, Nov. 1980, p. 6-18. ADCP. 1983. A policy for development of aqua­ 1. B. Higman (editor), Proc. 35th Annu. Gulf Watters, K. w., and 1. E. Prinslow. 1975. Culture culture in Jamaica. Report of a Government of Caribb. Fish. Inst., Nassau, Bahamas, Nov. of the mangrove oyster, Crassostrea rhizo­ Jamaica/ADCP study group, 11 January-24 1982, p. 108-lll. phorae, in Puerto Rico. Proc. World Maricult. February 1983. UNDP/FAO (Rome) ADCP/ --c:-:::-:--=-' M. R. Carriker, and E. S. Iversen. Soc. 6:221-233. MR/83/22:115. 1984. Preventing predation in molluscan mari­ Webber, H. H., and P. F. Riordan. 1975. Criteria Aguilera, A. 1984. Proyecto ostricultura. IV culture: An overview. 1. World Maricult. Soc. for candidate species for aquaculture. Proc. Etapa, Enero-Dic. 1983. INVEMAR­ 15:421-432. World Maricult. Soc. 6:389-406. COLCIENCIAS-CIID. Santa Marta, Colom­ Kimbrough, A. 1983. Commercial mariculture of Wedler, E. 1980. Experimental spat collecting and bia, 37 p. a bay scallop, Argopecten circularis in the growing of the oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae Appeldoorn, R. S., and D. L. Ballantine. 1983. Ensenada of La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mex­ Guilding, in the Cienaga Grande de Santa Mar­ Field release of cultured queen conch in Puerto ico. 1. Shellfish Res. (Abstr.) 3(1):114. ta, Colombia. Aquaculture 21:251-259. Rico. In 1. B. Higman (editor), Proc. 35th Lizarraga, M. 1974. Tecnicas aplicadas en el Wolff, M. 1984. Early setback for scallop culture Annu. GulfCaribb. Fish. Inst., Nassau. Baha­ cultivo de moluscos en America Latina. Sim­ in Peru. ICLARM Newsl. 7(3):19-20. mas, Nov. 1982, p. 89-98. posio FAO/CARPAS sobre acuicultura en Wood, M. (editor). 1978. Cultivation experiments Bardach,1. E., 1. H. Ryther, and W. 0. McLarney. America Latina. Montevideo, Uruguay. 26 help predict future stock levels. World Fish. 1972. Aquaculture-The farming and husbandry Noviembre-2 Diciembre 1974. FAO/CARPAS/ 27(12):68. of freshwater and marine organisms. Wiley­ 6174/SR 8. 10 p. Woon, G. L. 1983. Preliminary algal preference Interscience, N.Y., 868 p. Mandelli, E. F., and A. Acuna. 1975. The culture studies and observations of conchs, Strombus Berg, C. 1. 1984. Aquaculture potential of Ber­ of the mussel, Perna perna, and the oyster, gigas and S. costatus, held in high densities. mudian bivalve molluscs. In 1. D. Sleeter Crassostrea rhizophorae, in Venezuela. Mar. 1. World Maricult. Soc. 14:162-163.

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