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Farming Bivalve Molluscs: Methods for Study and Development by D Advances in World Aquaculture, Volume 1 Managing Editor, Paul A. Sandifer Farming Bivalve Molluscs: Methods for Study and Development by D. B. Quayle Department of Fisheries and Oceans Fisheries Research Branch Pacific Biological Station Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5K6 Canada and G. F. Newkirk Department of Biology Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 471 Canada Published by THE WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY in association with THE INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE The World Aquaculture Society 16 East Fraternity Lane Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70803 Copyright 1989 by INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE, Canada All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, The World Aquaculture Society, 16 E. Fraternity Lane, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 and the International Development Research Centre, 250 Albert St., P.O. Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9. ; t" ary of Congress Catalog Number: 89-40570 tI"624529-0-4 t t lq 7 i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The following figures are reproduced with permission: Figures 1- 10, 12, 13, 17,20,22,23, 32, 35, 37, 42, 45, 48, 50 - 54, 62, 64, 72, 75, 86, and 87 from the Fisheries Board of Canada; Figures 11 and 21 from the United States Government Printing Office; Figure 15 from the Buckland Founda- tion; Figures 18, 19,24 - 28, 33, 34, 38, 41, 56, and 65 from the International Development Research Centre; Figures 29 and 30 from the Journal of Shellfish Research; and Figure 43 from Fritz (1982). Data for Figure 39 are used with permission from D. Thompson, for Figure 40 from W. M. Indrasena, and for Figure 44 from A. G. Elnaiem. Figures 57 and 58 are based on a Canadian Hydrographic Survey chart and Figures 59 and 60 on British Admialty charts and are reproduced with permission. ii Farming Bivalve Molluscs PREFACE Bivalve mollusc farming has been developing rapidly in many temper- ate countries in recent years. This development is, to a large extent, driven by market demand. Interest in the developmentof tropical bivalve species is also high where there is potential for bivalves to provide cash crops and additional animal protein. However, bivalve farming is constrained in many countries by a limitation of available biological information and experience in devel- oping and testing culture systems. It is for this reason that the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) (Canada) has been sponsoring re- search projects in developing countries of Asia, Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. As part of IDRC's mollusc culture program, we supported a training course at Dalhousie University in 1982 and 1983. The emphasis was on the development of research skills to understand the biology of indigenous species and the adaptation and evaluation of culture methods. The course was not continued as it served the immediate training needs but it was decided that the lecture material developed for the course should be published to serve ongoing regional needs. These lectures have served as a basis for the present book. The publication of this book, which has turned out to be a much expanded version of the original lecture notes, represents a significant step in IDRC's program to develop support systems for the developmentof small- scale bivalve farming in less developed countries. IDRC welcomes the opportunity to join with the World Aquaculture Society in publishing this book. This will extend the distribution of the book to the global aquaculture community. The basic principles presented here should be applicable in any setting. It is our hope that this material will be useful to researchers and bivalve farmers throughout the world. By providing in one volume informa- tion on a wide variety of culture methods it should stimulate thought and new culture ideas. Perhaps it will also stimulate others to share in the development of culture systems in the scientifically less developed countries with the application of the scientific method to serve the poor rural communities. F. Brian Davy Associate Director (Fisheries) Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Sciences Division International Development Research Centre Quayle and Newkirk iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................i PREFACE ................................................................ ii INTRODUCTION ...................................................viii CHAPTER 1: BIVALVE BIOLOGY ...................I ANATOMY (OYSTER) ..........................................1 BREEDING (OYSTER) ..........................................10 OTHER SPECIES ...................................................14 TAXONOMY ...........................................................23 CHAPTER 2: SEED PRODUCTION ..................31 BREEDING CYCLE .........................................32 LARVAE ............................................................41 SPATFALL FORECASTING ..........................48 SETTING BEHAVIOR ....................................63 CULTCH ...................................................................69 HATCHERY SEED .................................................75 iv Farming Bivalve Molluscs CHAPTER 3: MEASURING GROWTH OF BIVALVES ........................................................79 MEASURING GROWTH .......................................80 MODEL EXPERIMENTAL PLAN .......................93 STATISTICS ............................................................97 CHAPTER 4: UNWANTED SPECIES ................103 FOULING .................................................................103 FOULING CONTROL ............................................109 FOULING STUDY ..................................................111 PARASITES AND DISEASE .................................113 PREDATORS ...........................................................120 CHAPTER 5: GENERAL ASPECTS OF BIVALVE CULTURE ...............................................................126 CHOOSING A SITE ................................................127 OCEANOGRAPHY .................................................137 MARINE CHARTS .................................................144 CHAPTER 6: OYSTER CULTURE ....................153 Quayle and Newkirk BOTTOM CULTURE .............................................154 Intertidal Bottom Culture .................................155 Subtidal Bottom Culture ...................................166 RACK CULTURE ...................................................167 Rack construction ..............................................168 Tray culture .......................................................174 String culture .....................................................176 Stick culture .......................................................180 SUSPENDED CULTURE .......................................181 Rafts ....................................................................182 Long Lines ..........................................................184 Anchors and Anchoring ....................................187 String Culture ....................................................192 Floating Stick Culture .......................................195 Tray Culture ......................................................195 Harvesting Suspended Cultured Oysters ........200 PROCESSING .......................................................... 200 Vi Farming Bivalve Molluscs CHAPTER 7: MUSSEL CULTURE ....................205 CHAPTER 8: CLAM CULTURE ........................214 LITTLENECK CLAMS ..........................................216 THE COCKLE (ANADARA) .................................223 TRIDACNIDAE .......................................................226 CHAPTER 9: SCALLOPS ....................................229 SEED COLLECTION .............................................230 NURSERY ................................................................231 ADULT CULTURE .................................................233 CHAPTER 10: TOWARDS CLEANER SHELLFISH: PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF BIVALVE CULTURE ............................................239 PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISON ....................239 SHELLFISH SANITATION ...................................245 APPENDIX I: EQUIPMENT ................................252 APPENDIX H: MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE ..........................................................256 APPENDIX III: MAKING FERROCEMENT ...264 Quayle and Newkirk vii BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................269 SUBJECT INDEX ...................................................280 TAXONOMIC INDEX ...........................................291 viii Farming Bivalve Molluscs INTRODUCTION Interest in farming bivalves exists in many countries. In the temperate regions there are well established culture industries. New industries, such as clam and mussel farming in North America and oyster culture in Australia, have also become established in recent years. In the tropics there are a few bivalve culture industries; many have been established for quite a long time. Unlike some forms of aquaculture such as the farming of Atlantic salmon or penaeid shrimps, the culture of bivalves does not appear to be suitable for rapid expansion. The one species that seems to be suitable for development in new places is the Pacific oyster, Crassosrrea gigas. One of the features of the geographically widespread success stories of Pacific oysters,
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