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Home , Cognitive neuroscience

Child Development, March/April 2004, Volume 75, Number 2, Pages 366 – 370

Emotion and : An Intricately Bound Developmental Process

Martha Ann Bell and Christy D. Wolfe

Regulatory aspects of development can best be understood by research that conceptualizes relations between cognition and . The neural mechanisms associated with regulatory processes may be the same as those associated with higher order cognitive processes. Thus, from a developmental cognitive per- spective, emotion and cognition are dynamically linked and work together to process information and execute action. This article highlights the authors’ recent efforts at integrating emotion regulation and cognitive pro- cessing during the first year of life by focusing on the methodological criteria outlined by Cole, Martin, and Dennis (this issue), and it discusses the idea that emotion and cognition are an intricately bound developmental process.

From a developmental cognitive neuroscience point cognitive neuroscience findings suggest that the of view, emotion and cognition, traditionally con- neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation sidered separate processes, are dynamically linked may be the same as those underlying cognitive and work together to process information and exe- processes, specifically, higher order cognitive pro- cute action (e.g., Cacioppo & Berntson, 1999). In cesses such as volitional sustained or other words, regulatory aspects of development can working . Recently, Posner and colleagues best be understood by investigations that con- (Bush, Luu, & Posner, 2000) proposed that the at- ceptualize relations between emotion and cognition. tentional processes associated with the Anterior At- Cole, Martin, and Dennis (this issue) noted in their tention System regulate both cognitive and Summary and Conclusions section that develop- emotional processing. One structure, in partic- mental research can be enriched by studies of the ular, has been associated with the Anterior Atten- role of in organizing a child’s thinking, tion System. This is the anterior cingulate cortex , and action (emotions as regulating), and (ACC), which has two major subdivisions to process likewise by studies of the role of thinking, learning, separately cognitive and emotional information. The and action in the regulating of emotions (emotions as cognitive subdivision has interconnections with the regulated). In this commentary, we propose that prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and premotor and those suggested developmental studies linking cog- supplementary motor areas. This subdivision is ac- nition and emotion would do more than simply tivated by tasks that involve choice selection from enrich the child development field. Research in- conflicting information, which includes many tegrating cognition and emotion is essential in any working memory tasks (Bush et al., 2000). The af- attempt to comprehend emotion regulation and to fective subdivision has interconnections with the endorse it as a scientific construct because cognition orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus, and emotion represent an intricately bound devel- among other brain areas. This subdivision is acti- opmental process. vated by affect-related tasks. It appears that there is suppression of the affective subdivision during cognitive processing and of the cognitive subdivision Anterior Attention System during affective processing; however, recent studies Cole et al. (this issue) proposed that, as a scientific with point toward some interaction between construct, emotion regulation can be used to con- cognition and emotion on Stroop-like or similar de- ceptualize the processes by which emotions cision-making tasks (Bush et al., 2000). Thus, when relate to cognition and behavior. There already may considering the functionality and the neural con- be some neurological support for this linkage. Recent nectivity of the ACC, the cognitive and emotion processes that were traditionally considered to be independent and separable can readily be under- Martha Ann Bell and Christy D. Wolfe, Department of Psy- stood as intricately bound and inseparable, espe- chology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. cially on certain types of tasks. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Martha Ann Bell, Department of (0436), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061. Electronic mail may be sent to mabell r 2004 by the Society for Research in Child Development, Inc. @vt.edu. All rights reserved. 0009-3920/2004/7502-0008 From Another Perspective: Emotion and Cognition 367

The Anterior Attention System has a long devel- infant spatial working memory task. Our develop- opmental process and begins to show some devel- mental cognitive neuroscience program of research opmental changes in the last half of the first year of has linked individual differences in infant spatial life, with major development occurring during tod- working memory to variations in frontal (and some dlerhood (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Rothbart, posterior) brain electrical activity (Bell, 2001, 2003). Derryberry, & Posner, 1994). This coincides with the Likewise, developmental evidence seems to sug- development of self-initiated regulatory strategies gest that electrophysiological differences in affective noted by Cole et al. (this issue). Even during infancy, style, or temperament, may be evident as early as the however, the Anterior Attention System may already first year of life. Fox and colleagues have shown that begin to integrate and behavior and exert infants who cry at maternal separation are more control on emotional experience and expression. likely to exhibit right frontal brain electrical activa- This has led to speculation that self-regulation is tion during rest (Fox, 1994; Fox, Calkins, & Bell, driven not only by positive or negative affect, for 1994). In addition, infants who display negative af- example, but also at the cognitive level. Rothbart has fect and high motor activity at 4 months of age are hypothesized that high attentional control is asso- reported to exhibit right frontal activation at 9 ciated with low negative affect (Rothbart et al., 1994). months and inhibited behavior at 14 months (Calk- In fact, Rothbart has considered the state of attention ins, Fox, & Marshall, 1996). For many infants, these to be incompatible with emotional distress, thus individual differences in affective style and brain highlighting attention as a potential influence in electrical activation persist throughout the preschool emotion regulation (Ruff & Rothbart, 1996). Indeed, years (Fox, Henderson, Rubin, Calkins, & Schmidt, Rothbart’s model of the development of tempera- 2001). Fox (1994) has developed a model of differ- ment (i.e., emotion reactivity and emotion regula- ential activation of the left and right frontal cortices tion) describes the process by which infants regulate that relates differential asymmetry patterns to in- distress using developing attentional abilities (Pos- dividual differences in emotion reactivity and reg- ner & Rothbart, 2000; Rothbart et al., 1994). These ulation (i.e., temperament). Fox has proposed both basic self-regulatory capacities are limited in effec- cortical and subcortical influences on these brain tiveness during infancy (Cole et al., this issue). Be- electrical patterns. Thus, different levels of reg- cause of the beginnings of development of the ulatory ability may be associated with frontal lobe Anterior Attention System in the first year of life, activation asymmetries. however, infants who react strongly to events may To summarize, there are separate lines of evidence initially be irritable but later develop the ability for in the developmental literature to suggest that the sustained attention (Ruff & Rothbart, 1996). processes associated with the Anterior Attention System may be involved in cognitive processing as well as emotion processing (Bush et al., 2000). In- Frontal Brain Systems, Cognition, and deed, there is the suggestion that cognition and Emotion Style emotion are integrated by school age (Blair, 2002). The Anterior Attention System is involved in cog- Whether this integration is due to very early infant nitive processing when there is a resolution of con- relationships is open to question. Our current re- flict between two forms of stored information. The search focuses on emotion regulation and cognitive choice of hiding locations in an infant spatial work- development and is designed to answer that ques- ing memory task may represent this type of conflict tion. (Posner & Rothbart, 1998). In the developmental lit- erature, Ruff and Rothbart (1996) have described a Research Program Integrating Cognition and higher order attention system similar to the Anterior Emotion Regulation Attention System that is involved in the inhibition of responses and the of goal-directed behav- We have begun attempts at integrating the study of iors. This attention system involves the frontal cognition and emotion in the first year of life by ex- cortex and emerges in the last half of the first year of amining the development of regulatory processes in life. Although little detail is given of the specifics of infants at 5 and 10 months of age. The groundwork this attention system, the skills described by Ruff for this current short-term longitudinal study came and Rothbart are similar to those Diamond (1990) from our previous work with infants and young has demonstrated to be involved in the performance children in which we examined interrelations among of the classic reaching A-not-B task and that we (Bell cognition, temperament, and emotion (Bell, 2003; & Adams, 1999) have suggested are involved in the Wolfe & Bell, 2004). We focused on activated 368 Bell and Wolfe emotions (i.e., emotion reactivity), rather than emo- especially cognitive processes linked to frontal lobe tion regulation, and used those findings as an aid in functioning such as working memory. For our cur- conceptualizing our current focus on the develop- rent study, the focus is on temperamental distress mental dynamics of cognition and emotion regula- because we agree with Cole et al. (this issue) that tion. regulation strategies are more likely when the infant In those foundation studies, we discovered that is distressed. One of our hypotheses is that infants infants with better working memory performance high in distress who have mothers skilled at regu- had parents who ranked them high on duration of lating infant emotion state will have enhanced regu- orienting, which was not surprising, but also high on latory capabilities. These regulatory skills are linked activity level and distress to limitations, which was to working memory performance. Thus, the moderat- not hypothesized and in fact is contrary to other re- ing effect of maternal regulatory abilities influences ports (but see Belsky, Friedman, & Hsieh, 2001). This the infant self-regulation variable, which in turn counterintuitive finding linking these emotion traits affects infant cognitive development. with enhanced cognitive performance on the spatial According to Cole et al. (this issue), if emotion working memory task may mean that infants with regulation is to achieve status as a scientific con- high distress to limitations and activity levels require struct, care must be taken with the methodology more parental interaction than infants with lower used in studies in which researchers purport to ex- distress and activity levels (emotions as regulated). amine emotion regulation either as having a reg- Conceivably, then, these infants attain more parental ulating effect or as being regulated itself. We are support in the development of their attentional using a short-term longitudinal design in which re- skills, a result that may lead to enhanced cognitive search participants and their mothers visit our re- skills as the infants get older if that support from the search laboratory at 5 and 10 months of age. These parent is appropriate and sensitive (emotions as ages allow us to observe the beginnings of emotion regulating). This proposition coincides with the de- regulation before developmental changes in the velopmental sequence proposed by Cole et al. (this Anterior Attention System (i.e., at baseline) and just issue) in which an infant first has limited self-reg- as this attention system is beginning to show some ulatory capacities and then takes part in mutually developmental changes in the last half of the first regulatory exchanges with mother. year of life. Both behavioral and electrophysiological Indeed, sensitive maternal behaviors are related to (EEG, ECG) data are being gathered throughout the regulatory behaviors in infants (Calkins & Johnson, protocol, which consists of multiple measures of in- 1998; Calkins, Smith, Gill, & Johnson, 1998) and to fant cognition, emotion activation, emotion regula- cognitive behaviors in young children (Stams, Juffer, tion, sustained attention, and maternal regulatory & van IJzendoorn, 2002). The view that maternal abilities. This work takes advantage of three of the sensitivity is vital for healthy psychosocial growth is four methodological tools highlighted by Cole et al. incorporated into classic psychological theories and to confirm the distinction between emotion regula- research paradigms (Thompson, 1998). Although the tion and emotion. caregiving environment has been given an essential First, there is independent assessment of activated role in an infant’s social development, not much at- emotion and purported emotion-regulation strate- tention has been given to the role of that same care- gies. Under laboratory conditions, we induce dis- giving environment to the development of complex tress in the infants under two conditions, first by infant cognition. It may be, however, that by sup- having the mothers remove a desirable toy from porting infants in the development of attentional reach and then by having mothers restrain their in- skill, in part to relieve infant distress (Ruff & Roth- fants’ arms. During the experience of these restraints, bart, 1996), caregivers are contributing to the atten- infants also experience nonresponsive, blank-face tional skills associated with later emotion regulation, mothers. We code self-regulatory strategies (e.g., self- as well as later complex cognitive processing. comforting, distraction) in the infants during each In our current work we are studying the role that restraint task and immediately afterward during a regulatory processes play for cognitive development sustained attention task (e.g., duration of looking) in infancy. The gist of this work is that individual when distress levels are optimal. differences in emotion reactivity, the moderating ef- Second, we take advantage of the temporal rela- fects of maternal regulation of infant emotion state, tions between emotion activation and emotion reg- and the infant’s regulatory processes associated with ulation by attempting to observe the process of emotion and attention contribute to individual dif- regulation. We look for any differences in sustained ferences in cognitive processing during infancy, attention before the distress-inducing restraint tasks From Another Perspective: Emotion and Cognition 369 and immediately afterward. Changes in these mea- Bell, M. A. (2003). Individual differences in spatial working sures (or the lack of changes) may yield valuable memory at 8 months: Contributions of and information about infants’ regulatory capacities. The temperament. Manuscript under review. short-term longitudinal design of the study affords Bell, M. A., & Adams, S. E. (1999). Equivalent performance examination of developmental change with respect on looking and reaching versions of the A-not-B task to initiation of regulatory behaviors aided by the at 8 months of age. Infant Behavior & Development, 22, contributions of neurological maturation of the 221 – 235. Belsky, J., Friedman, S. L., & Hsieh, K. H. (2001). Testing a Anterior Attention System. core emotion-regulation prediction: Does early atten- Finally, the protocol consists of multiple conver- tional persistence moderate the effect of infant negative ging measures. For example, there is maternal report emotionality on later development? Child Development, of emotion activation as well as laboratory induce- 72, 123 – 133. ment of emotion. Emotion regulation is assessed be- Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and haviorally, as well as via electrophysiological means, emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of chil- during different controlled conditions. Overall, we dren’s functioning at school entry. American , use multiple brief cognitive measures, sustained at- 57, 111 – 127. tention and self-regulation tasks, maternal regulation Bush, G., Luu, P., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Cognitive and measures, and restraint and distress tasks. Thus, emotional influences in anterior cingulated cortex. with these multiple measures that take advantage of Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 215 – 222. the temporal relations between emotions and reg- Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1999). The affect system: Architecture and operating characteristics. Current Di- ulatory phenomena, we propose to be able to ex- rections in Psychological Science, 8, 133 – 137. amine the processes by which emotions may be Calkins, S. D., Fox, N. A., & Marshall, T. R. (1996). Behav- regulated by constitutional (i.e., temperament) and ioral and physiological antecedents of inhibited and maternal influences. Furthermore, we propose to be uninhibited behavior. Child Development, 67, 523 – 540. able to examine the processes by which emotions Calkins, S. D., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Toddler regulation may be regulating with respect to cognition. of distress to frustrating events: Temperamental and material correlates. Infant Behavior & Development, 21, 379 – 395. Conclusions Calkins, S. D., Smith, C. L., Gill, K. L., & Johnson, M. C. The significance of our infant project, and the com- (1998). Maternal interaction style across contexts: Rela- plementary child project we will undertake as these tions to emotional, behavioral, and physiological participants grow and mature, lies in the new in- regulation during toddlerhood. Social Development, 7, 350 – 369. formation the data will provide about the develop- Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion ment of the foundations of working memory, a skill regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological essential for higher order cognitive functioning. Emo- challenges and directions for child development re- tion regulation research usually focuses on socio- search. Child Development, 75, 317 – 333. emotional development; however, we have proposed Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and ef- that the neural mechanisms underlying regulatory fortful processes in the organization of temperament. processes may be the same as those underlying Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633 – 652. higher order cognitive processes. Cole et al. (this issue) Diamond, A. (1990). The development and neural bases of noted that there are complex processes by which emo- memory functions as indexed by the AB and delayed tions relate to cognition, behavior, and ultimately response tasks in human infants and infant monkeys. In developmental outcome, and that these processes A. Diamond (Ed.), The development and neural bases of need to be conceptualized and studied. We go one higher cognitive functions (pp. 267 – 317). New York: New step further and propose that emotion-regulation York Academy of Sciences Press. Fox, N. A.(Ed.). (1994). Dynamic cerebral processes un- research must necessarily include cognitive counter- derlying emotion regulation. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The parts. To consider emotion regulation without development of emotion regulation: Biological and be- simultaneously considering cognition gives a less havioral considerations. Monographs of the Society for than dynamic view of child development. Research in Child Development, 59(2-3, Serial No. 240), 152 – 166. Fox, N. A., Calkins, S. D., & Bell, M. A. (1994). Neural References plasticity and development in the first two years of Bell, M. A. (2001). Brain electrical activity associated with life: Evidence from cognitive and socio-emotional cognitive processing during a looking version of the domains of research. Development and Psychopathology, 6, A-not-B object permanence task. Infancy, 2, 311 – 330. 677 – 698. 370 Bell and Wolfe

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