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20 Global Review 5(1)

What Cognitive Tells Us About Education: A Literature Review

Kai Zhou State University of New York at Albany

Abstract Recently, an interest in creativity education has increased globally. research of creativity has provided possible implications for education, yet few literary reviews that bridge the and education studies have been published. This article first introduces the definitions and behavioral measures of creativity from cognitive ’ perspectives and provides a brief overview on the brain regions and neural studies on creativity-related cognitive processes. Second, the article examines neuroscience studies on the relationship between creativity and and discusses the side of creativity. Third, a comprehensive review of cognitive neuroscience studies on activities that may trigger new creativity thinking is provided, followed by a discussion on the nurture side of creativity-- more specifically--how these findings inform creativity education. Supportive evidence from research in cognitive and education are also presented. Then the article discusses the policy implications of the findings from the literature review as they pertain to creativity skills in formal education and training.

Keywords creativity, nature and nurture, neuroscience, skills, educational policy

Introduction A growing body of literature has emerged on the contributing to economic growth of a country influence of creativity on individual and (Reynolds, 2010). The number of creative social economic outcomes. Research has shown entrepreneurs who started small and medium- that creativity is rewarded with wage premium sized enterprises has grown rapidly, accounting (Gabe, Colby, & Bell, 2007), positive at for more than 10% of the labor market work (Tavares, 2016), as well as health and workforce in many countries (Fairlie & well- being (Greaves, 2006). Policy-makers also Holleran, 2012). Florida, Mellander, & Stolarick have noted the critical role of creative workforce (2008) found that the creative class, who plays in transforming industrial economies to represent about 30 percent of the U.S. technology-driven knowledge economies. New ______Corresponding Author: technology-based companies and innovative Kai Zhou, Department of Educational Policy and Leadership, start-up businesses which depend heavily on State University of New York at Albany, 1400 Washington creative and skilled workers have a unique share Avenue, Albany, NY 12222. in the economy, producing new jobs and Email: [email protected]

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Zhou, Kai (2018). What cognitive neuroscience tells us about creativity education: A literature review. Global Education Review, 5 (1), 20-34. Neuroscience and creativity education 21

as they pertain to creativity skills development workforce, has significant positive association in formal education and training. with regional labor . Given the importance of creativity in Cognitive Neuroscience Research determining individual and social outcomes, the interests in integrating creativity and innovation in Creativity development into the education system have Creativity is “the ability to produce work that is been increasing (Sawyer, 2006). However, both novel (i.e., original, unexpected) and empirical studies have shown that creativity has appropriate (i.e., useful, adaptive concerning little or no association with academic task constraints)” (Sternberg & Lubart, 1999, p. achievement (e.g., Ai, 1999; Balgiu & Adîr, 3). Boden (2004) classifies creativity into three 2014). It is therefore possible to say that either types: combinational, exploratory or the creativity is not accurately captured by transformational based on the psychological behavioral assessments that have been used by processing features involved in innovative or creativity has not been properly thinking. Combinational creativity involves measured by standardized achievement tests in combining familiar things and ideas in a schools. The uncertainty may hinder surprising way. An example can be creating a researchers, educators and policy makers from new flavored cake by putting in unexpected drawing out convincing educational policy ingredients. Exploratory creativity is realized by implications from empirical work. Only generating new ideas or artifacts within an recently, technology opened a door to more existing conceptual space based on the direct and comprehensive research on established culturally-accepted rules and creativity. Cognitive neuroscience has emerged conventional style of thinking (Boden, 2013, p. as an important approach that allows 6). Improving the equipment efficiency by using researchers to understand what happens inside better materials and creating new are the brain when performing creative tasks. The examples. Transformational creativity entails development of neuroscience may reshape the the creation of shocking things and ideas that discussion on creativity education. were “impossible” before, which are beyond the This paper is organized into four sections existing conceptual space or specific stylistic to provide an up-to-date review of cognitive and limits. For example, the pioneering idea that the neuroscience research on creativity and discuss earth orbits the sun instead of the sun going the policy implications for creativity education. around the earth was the result of disruptive The first section contains a brief review on the creativity in ancient times. Exploratory and definitions and cognitive measures of creativity, transformational creativity are both defined as well as the brain regions and in within a certain sociocultural space; ideas or creative processes. The second section artifacts are produced before they are updates research findings on the relationship recognized as “creative”. Combinational, between creativity and intelligence and exploratory and transformational creativity can discusses the heritability of creativity. The third either appear in one innovative idea or artifact section focuses on the nurture side of creativity at the same time or separately. and presents neuroscientific evidence on Cognitive neuroscience depends heavily activities that may trigger new creativity on analyses of associative pathways and thinking. The final section discusses the use of relevance in brain system during neuroscientific research for policy implications creative . Thus, cognitive

22 Global Education Review 5(1) psychologists and neuroscientists can carefully imagination (Karwowski, Jankowska, & examine only combinational creativity so far. Szwajkowski, 2017; Roberts et al., 2017). Because of the sociocultural features, Various standardized behavioral assessments exploratory and transformational creativity can on creativity have been developed since the only be explained through post hoc testing after 1950s, among which the most widely used tests the work is valued as exploratory or include the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking transformational creative (Boden, 2013). (TTCT) (Torrance, 1972), Alternative Uses Exploratory or transformational creativity is far Tasks (Guilford, 1967), Remote Associates Test from being stimulable and their occurrence is (Mednick, 1962, 1971), and Creative rare. Though cognitive neuroscience studies can Functioning Test (Smith & Carlsson, 1987). In a compare creative and non-creative individuals cognitive neuroscience experiment, researchers on their brain or the way of cognitive adopt a cognitive assessment and ask processing, the studies do not draw any causal participants to perform a series of simple tasks. conclusion on what factors affect exploratory While a person is engaged in a task, brain and transformational creativity. Since the value activities are captured to show what’s of exploratory and transformational creativity happening in the . Neuroscientists employ has been more valued by the society, the lack of (EEG), functional relevant neuroscience evidence on these two magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and types of creativity makes it challenging to positron emission tomography (PET) to study translate the brain findings into educational brain regions and and explore the practice, not to mention initiating large-scale neural mechanisms underlying combinational policy changes. Yet, the neuroscience approach creative thinking (Gabora & Ranjan, 2013). has made some great contributions to the These technologies sometimes are applied understanding of combinational creativity together to provide more thorough processes (Sawyer, 2012), providing a good start understanding of the brain activities associated for cross- disciplinary discussions. with cognitive functioning of creativity. Neuroscientists use cognitive behavioral The theory of left-brain or right-brain assessment of combinational creativity dominance has been widely accepted by frequently in their studies to identify brain educators and policy makers. The right brain changes while people are engaged in cognitive has been traditionally regarded as the prime tasks. The goal is to explain the combinational organ that controls creativity and innovation. A creativity thinking in a neurobiological way. On number of right-brain training programs that the cognitive behavioral level, creativity can be involve art, music and drama, in particular, measured by a number of indicators: divergent have been carried out to help young children thinking (McCrae, 1987; Runco & Acar, 2012), “stimulate” right brain areas and “strengthen” represented by originality (Beghetto, 2010); their creativity-thinking functions. ideational fluency (Snyder, Mitchell, Nevertheless, no evidence from cognitive Bossomaier, & Pallier, 2004); cognitive neuroscience has been found that a particular flexibility (Ghacibeh, Shenker, Shenal, Uthman, brain area for creativity exists (Sawyer, 2012). & Heilman, 2006) and elaboration (Takeuchi et Creativity involves the whole brain. The right al., 2011); convergent thinking in making and the left hemispheres a critical but unique associations and solving insight disparate role at different stages of the creative problems (Arden, Chavez, Grazioplene, & Jung, process, and collaborate in different creative 2010; Dietrich & Kanso, 2010); and vivid tasks, the same as they do for other cognitive

Neuroscience and creativity education 23 (Sawyer, 2012). When a person individuals who are highly creative are engages in creative thinking, the left biologically different from those with low hemisphere of the brain, which is dominant for creativity. Carlsson, Wendt, & Risberg (2000) analytic and verbal processes, works together revealed that individuals who performed very with the right hemisphere, which is associated well on the Guilford’s Alternate Uses creativity with natural perceptual, whole-pattern, spatial test tended to have higher regional blood flow in processes (Kaufman, Kornilov, Bristol, Tan, & both the left and right frontal lobes than those Grigorenko, 2010). Though some studies have who got very low scores, which implied a shown that the right and left hemispheres have positive association between activation of closer communication and more dynamic frontal cortex and creativity. This positive collaboration during creativity activities (Lezak, correlation was also confirmed by Gibson, 2012, p. 69; Whitman, Holcomb, & Zanes, Folley, & Park (2009) using a near-infrared 2010), creativity results from ordinary mental spectroscopy (NIRS) method. The researchers processes. Neural circuits coBrainmbine compared creativity and frontal cortical activity in both creative and non-creative between a group of trained creative musicians way (Dietrich, 2004). and a demographically matched control group. The prefrontal cortex which is known for The results indicated that creative individuals its “executive” functions in integrating experienced greater bilateral frontal activity information has been shown to be the central than noncreative individuals while performing structure to enable higher-order processing, divergent thinking. Jung et al. (2009) found including but not limited to innovative thinking that the cortical thickness in a region within the (Dietrich, 2004). The prefrontal cortex lingual gyrus and left lateral orbitofrontal area navigates , stores working and was negatively linked to creativity, whereas supports temporal integration (Funahashi & higher cortical thickness in the right posterior Andreau, 2013; Fuster, 2001). Already highly cingulate and right angular gyrus was processed information from different sensory associated with higher scores on a creativity modalities is further screened and aggregated test. for higher cognitive functions, such as flexibility Scientists also found positive associations of cognitive control (Rougier, Noelle, Braver, between regional gray matter volume (rGMV) Cohen, & O’Reilly, 2005), reflective processing and several creativity indicators, such as (van der Meer, Costafreda, Aleman, & David, ideational fluency, combinational fluency, 2010), and reasoning (Krawczyk, 2012) which originality, and cognitive flexibility in the are associated with creative thinking. The precuneus (Fink et al., 2014; Jauk, Neubauer, prefrontal cortex intentionally chooses what Dunst, Fink, & Benedek, 2015; Kühn et al., information an individual attends to and 2014; Takeuchi et al., 2010). These preserves the selected contents for a period that neuroscientific findings provided evidence that allows creativity to happen. Meanwhile, creativity thinking ability is associated with Dietrich (2004) suggested that the prefrontal brain structures. However, a snapshot of the cortex also acts like a search engine that can differences between creative and non-creative retrieve relevant elements from long-term individuals is not sufficient to get an insight of memory stored in the temporal, occipital and whether highly creative individuals were born parietal lobes (TOP) area to form new with these different brain structures or recombinations. developed them later in life through education Brain study scientists have found that and training. Longitudinal investigations are

24 Global Education Review 5(1) needed in the future to provide implications for responsible for creative quality and output creativity education and training. (Haier & Jung, 2008; Sawyer, 2012). Since 1870s, twin studies have been used Nature or Nurture? as one of the best approaches to evaluate the There has long been an argument on whether heritability of creative abilities. Most twin creativity is a heritable trait or determined by studies based on behavioral cognitive approach the environment, and to what extent education failed to reveal convincing evidence of a genetic can foster creativity ability. Some researchers basis for creativity (Sawyer, 2012, p. 181). For claimed that creativity is a subcategory of example, Reznikoff, Domino, Bridges, & intelligence (e.g., Guilford & Christensen, 1973) Honeyman (1973) administered ten creativity which has been found to have genetic origin tests to 117 pairs of adolescent twins. The (e.g., Posthuma et al., 2002). However, findings subjects were divided into four groups—28 on the relationship between creativity and pairs of identical males, 35 pairs of identical intelligence have been mixed. Some behavioral females, 19 pairs of fraternal males and 35 pairs studies have shown that creative individuals are of fraternal females. The researchers didn’t find more likely to perform well on general proof of a genetic component in creative intelligence tests (e.g., Barron & Harrington, abilities. However, emerging evidence from 1981, p. 445). Others have found that brain imaging has told a different story. Schmitt intelligence is not a good predictor of creativity et al. (2014) conducted a longitudinal study (e.g., Hocevar, 1980; Subotnik, Karp, & collecting 1,748 anatomic MRI scans from 792 Morgan, 1989). Individuals who score high in healthy twins and siblings. Their findings the intelligence quotient (IQ) are not noticeably indicated that both genetic and environmental creative (Terman & Oden, 1959). Today, most factors had significant contributions to the researchers agree that creativity and variance in cortical thickness change in intelligence are associated up to a certain prefrontal cortex, which has been shown to be point—around an average IQ of 120, while related to creative activities (Jung et al., 2009). correlations in the higher IQ is negligible (Cho, Some genetic analyses of creativity Nijenhuis, Vianen, Kim, & Lee, 2010; Sligh, released recently also supported the existence of Conners, & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2005). The the nature side of creativity. Reuter, Roth, current neuroscience literature Holve, & Hennig (2006) proposed the first and creativity has further provided brain candidate gene for creativity through a test on imaging evidence that intelligence lays genetic 92 healthy Caucasian individuals while foundation for the occurrence of creative controlling for intelligence. They found that D2 processes but is not sufficient to ensure the Dopamine Receptor (DRD2) gene and complex brain to exhibit creativity (Haier & Tryptophane Hydroxylase (TPH1) gene were Jung, 2008). Basically, most neuroscientists associated with total creativity, accounting for supported the claims that genetically reflected 9% of the variance. Runco et al., (2011) intelligence is largely responsible for the neural replicated and extended the analyses to include efficiency in the general cognitive functions a test on five candidate genes. They found that (Fink, Benedek, Grabner, Staudt, & Neubauer, ideational fluency scores were significantly 2007; Grabner, Fink, Stipacek, Neuper, & related to Dopamine Transporter (DAT), Neubauer, 2004; Neubauer, Grabner, Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT), Freudenthaler, Beckmann, & Guthke, 2004), Dopamine Receptor D4 (DRD4), and whereas environmental factors are mostly Tryptophane Hydroxylase (TPH1). Volf,

Neuroscience and creativity education 25

Kulikov, Bortsov, & Popova (2009) identified Neuroscience and Creativity the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism of the Education serotonin transporter gene (5- A substantial amount of evidence has HTT) to be associated significantly with accumulated to show the possibility of divergent thinking. Other researchers have also enhancing creativity via targeted cognitive found the genetic basis of creativity-related education and trainings, most of which came cognitive factors (e.g., Kéri, 2009; Smalley, Loo, from the analyses of behavioral data (Scott, Yang, & Cantor, 2005). However, though Leritz, & Mumford, 2004; Tsai, 2013). studies have shown a clear genetic basis for Diversifying experiences (Ritter et al., 2012), some creativity cognitive components, the episodic memory activation (Madore, Addis, & extent to which the genes contribute to the Schacter, 2015; Madore, Jing, & Schacter, manifestation of individuals’ creativity is not 2016), improvisation activities (Sawyer, 2006; within sight (Runco et al., 2011). Sowden, Clements, Redlich, & Lewis, 2015) and The cognitive neuroscience research is puzzle based open-ended tasks (Ramaraj & still in its infancy. How intelligence and Nagammal, 2017) are examples of creativity creativity are distinctly or commonly expressed training that have been shown to be effective in the brain structures and regions, based on behavioral creativity assessments. But organization, and networks has not yet been behavioral observations in creativity are limited thoroughly researched. The genetic in capturing the exact cognitive processing contributions to creativity need further changes related to educational practices. exploration through cross-disciplinary efforts, Cognitive neuroscience research that examines combining neuroscience with psychology, both behavioral changes and how these changes , molecular and others. It’s now correspond to the structural and functional generally accepted that all creative activities changes in the brain is a powerful approach to have a genetic basis. But creativity is a complex provide insights about the intervention phenomenon that involves a large number of effectiveness in education. behavioral characteristics (Treffinger, 2009) Structural and functional plasticity in the and different cognitive processes in various brain in correlation with behavioral changes brain regions and structures (Sawyer, 2012), from education and training has been well each of which have interactions with the documented (Vartanian, 2013). For example, environment, the inheritability of creativity is Hyde et al. (2009) found significant changes in limited to some extent (Barbot, Tan, & brain structures that are related to musically Grigorenko, 2013). Thus, we have good reasons relevant motor and auditory skills after 15 to argue that it’s possible to foster creativity months of music training. Rueda, Rothbart, from a variety of aspects through quality McCandliss, Saccomanno, & Posner (2005) educational practices. Findings from brain investigated the efficiency of attentional control studies in the near future may allow educators training in neural network which involves the to target those underlying components of anterior cingulate in addition to lateral creativity and focus effort to achieve creativity prefrontal areas. The researchers compared education in school (Vartanian, 2013). individuals with 5 days training and individuals

with different types of no training and recorded

the event-related potentials from the scalp during attention network test performance.

26 Global Education Review 5(1)

They found that the attentional mechanisms musicians who had training in musical and their neural activities in the brain were improvisation with individuals who had no malleable through intervention. The training formal improvisation training in their frontal group had significant improvement in executive upper alpha-band activity recorded by EEG attention and intelligence. Takeuchi et al. during creative and non-creative tasks and (2013) found that a 4-week objective ratings on creativity performances. training program induced changes in functional They found that spontaneous processing of connectivity and cerebral blood flow involving creative ideas can be effectively fostered the and the external through formal improvisation training. attention system during rest. Klingberg (2010) Similarly, Fink, Graif, & Neubauer (2009) reviewed literature on working memory training investigated EEG activity in professional effects and suggested that adaptive and dancers compared to a group of novices with no extended training in working memory, which is comprehensive training in the field during fundamental to creative thinking, can lead to performance of different creative dancing tasks. changes in brain activity in frontal and parietal They found that professional dancers showed cortex and basal ganglia, as well as changes in more right-hemispheric alpha synchronization the density of dopamine receptor. All these then the novices did during improvisation dance neuroscientific findings have implied that tasks but not during imagining dancing tasks. education and training focusing on music, The researchers also measured brain activity of attentional control, and working memory can the two groups during performance of the significantly change an individual’s brain Alternative Uses test. They found that structurally and functionally. It can improve professional dancers showed stronger alpha innovation-related cognitive skills, including synchronization in posterior parietal brain motor and auditory skills, executive attention, regions than novice dancers when performing intelligence and working memory. the creativity test. These neuroscientific There has been a growing body of research findings have suggested that formal research that examines the efficiency of arts education may enhance creativity abilities, creativity- related education and training by improvisation and generating alternative ideas combining evidence from behavioral effects and in particular. the neural system underlying the transfer Brain imaging evidence on non-arts effects. For more than five decades, creativity creativity education and trainings have also education has closely bonded with the arts been documented recently. For example, (Sawyer, 2012, p. 391). But criticisms have been researchers designed a 5-week creativity raised that the creativity features in the arts capacity building program (CCBP) as a targeted education may not be transferable to other creativity intervention class offered to students domains. Results from cognitive behavioral at the Stanford Design Institute. The training analyses on the association between music or program allowed participants to experience visual arts education and cross- applied creativity, spontaneity, uncertainty and creativity were contradictory (Hetland & “failing fast,” the reduction of bias and rapid Winner, 2004). Recently, neuroscientists began prototyping through a cycle of five phases— to explore the cognitive benefits of arts observe, brainstorm, synthesize, prototype and education, providing evidence from the neural implement, and participants were asked to data of biological brain. For instance, Lopata, repeat the cycle when necessary (Hawthorne et Nowicki, & Joanisse (2017) compared skilled al., 2014; Kienitz et al., 2014). Researchers

Neuroscience and creativity education 27 administered CCBP in parallel with a 5-week developed from daily non-creative activities capacity building training program (Sawyer, 2012, p. 158). Creative thinking is (LCBP) as a control intervention, and measured linked to the activation of brain regions and creativity before and after the CCBP/LCBP biological changes that are associated with training on the Torrance Test of Creative different fundamental cognitive processing Thinking-Figural (TTCT-F) to examine the activities, such as attention and working effectiveness of CCBP. Kienitz et al. (2014) memory. Given the multi-facets phenomenon found that CCBP resulted in significantly and the complex combination of ordinary greater increase in the performance on two cognitive features, many neuroscience facets of creativity assessed in TTCT-F— implications for educational interventions on resistance to premature closure and creativity improvement came from research elaboration. Hawthorne et al. (2014) illustrated focusing on optimizing attention and working these findings further by investigating the memory. neural correlates of creativity in both CCBP and Behavioral research has revealed that findLCBP groups as reported. Another example creativity is associated with a wider breadth of is that of Sun et al. (2016) who implemented 20 attention that allows individuals to collect more sessions of cognitive stimulation to train information at the same time (Kasof, 1997; individuals on creative thinking. Longitudinal Memmert, 2007). If individuals can attend to analyses in this study showed that at the more things concurrently, they are more likely behavioral level, individuals performed better in to have more diverse and a greater number of both the originality and the fluency of divergent elements to combine, connect and construct, thinking after training. At the neural level, increasing the possibility of creative functional changes were found in the dorsal (Martindale, 1999). Creativity has also been anterior cingulate cortex, dorsal lateral found to be related to efficient selective prefrontal cortex and posterior brain regions attention that inhibits irrelevant information after the training. Increase in the gray matter and facilitates relevant information to boost the volume in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex production of original and useful ideas was also observed after divergent thinking (Kharkhurin, 2011). Thus, cognitive training training. Neuroscience research has provided that helps expand attention and optimize evidence that some short-term, well-arranged, selective attention may lead to better creative non-arts creativity education and trainings are thinking (Takeuchi et al., 2013). Consistent with effective in improving individuals’ creativity this notion, Liu et al. (2012) provided neural thinking. Educators and policy makers may evidence on the potential cognitive benefits of consider introducing some practices into the attention training. The researchers investigated classroom that were proven by neuroscience the activity patterns in the brain during the and behavioral research to be effective in creative process—spontaneous lyrical creativity education. improvisation for individuals who had free-style However, studies that investigated the arts practice and the brain image results role of a specific creativity training or education suggested that a state of defocused attention play in both behavioral changes and neural may enable the novel generation, characterized manifestations of creative thinking are still very by disassociated activity in medial and limited so far. As mentioned in the first section dorsolateral prefrontal cortices. Additionally, in of this article, creativity depends greatly on a fMRI study, Fink et al. (2010) found that integrated fundamental cognitive abilities cognitive stimulation via idea sharing with

28 Global Education Review 5(1) other people which could have resulted in a to increase neural efficiency in creative thinking modulation of bottom-up attention can enhance through cognitive behavioral interventions originality. This creativity behavioral (Vartanian et al., 2013). Brain studies have performance was found to be linked to shown great possibilities in developing increased activation in right- hemispheric creativity through education. temporo-parietal, medial frontal, and posterior cingulate cortices, bilaterally. Although there Implications for Educational are few studies that analyze the neural and Policy behavioral data together to examine the In this literature review, the main findings from effectiveness of attention-creativity training, it’s the cognitive and neuroscience studies on promising that creativity can be developed creativity are the following: (a) Creativity is a through well-designed training focusing on complex construct defined within a specific attention. sociocultural context and the neural techniques Researchers also found that working today can only explain a small part of creativity; memory capability can predict a wide range of (b) There is no particular brain area for creative activities based on behavioral creativity. Instead, creativity depends on observations (e.g., De Dreu, Nijstad, Baas, integrated activation of brain regions and Wolsink, & Roskes, 2012; Lee & Therriault, biological changes that are related to a variety of 2013). Recently, Vartanian et al. (2013) basic cognitive functions; (c) Creativity is extended previous research by combining brain heritable to some extent while it can be fostered imaging and cognitive behavioral approach to through education and training; and (d) examine the relationships between working Creativity can be developed through arts memory training and creativity. They education and systematic creativity training administered the Alternate Uses Task (AUT) programs, as well as targeted training on creative test in the fMRI scanner in both fundamental cognitive abilities such as experiment groups who received working attention and working memory. Cognitive memory training and the control group who neuroscience has made significant progress in engaged in a choice reaction time task that is enriching our understanding of creativity and not related to working memory. They found that how to foster creative cognition. It has great the experiment group showed significantly potential for playing a role in education reform lower activation in ventrolateral prefrontal and by providing brain-based implications for policy dorsolateral prefrontal cortices, which are and practice changes that aim at creating a known to be associated with divergent thinking, creative workforce in a knowledge economy. than the control group, even though There have been a growing number of performance variance on the AUT was not countries that prioritize creativity in found between the two groups. The results the education system. Many countries and suggested that a short regimen of working regions, including but not limited to Austria, memory training can moderate prefrontal Belgium, Bhutan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, cortex neural function in divergent thinking. Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Finland, In sum, cognitive neuroscience literature France, Ireland, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, on the direct effects of training on creativity is Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, limited. However, based on the results from Republic of Korea, Romania, Singapore, fMRI and EEG studies of creativity-related Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, UK, Canada, training, researchers believe that it’s very likely and the U.S, have a similar agenda for the arts

Neuroscience and creativity education 29 and creativity education but they differ in Geake, 2010) and neuroscientific messages are approach (Heilmann & Werner, 2010; Sharp & often distorted (Howard-Jones, 2014). To Le Metais, 2000; Zhou, 2017). For instance, increase the impact from neuroscience on Northern Ireland and Singapore include creativity education policy, it is necessary to creativity in all curriculum areas, whereas the communicate brain findings in an Republic of Korea emphasizes different aspects understandable way at all levels of the of creativity distinctively in the objectives of stakeholders and educate the general public primary, lower secondary education and upper (Akil et al., 2016). Meanwhile, given that secondary education (Sharp & Le Metais, creativity is defined within a particular 2000). In its recent national education sociocultural context, we will need to collect framework, Malta highlights discovery and more neuroscience evidence from different creativity in its early education learning sociocultural backgrounds. Currently, solid objectives. brain-based international studies that integrate Cognitive neuroscience studies have both biological measurements and sociocultural confirmed that educational training can information are very limited. There is a need for improve an individual’s creative thinking. policy makers to identify a systematic However, not all educational practices in assessment plan to evaluate curricular creativity development have been demonstrated effectiveness of culturally different creativity to be effective. So far, many countries depend programs. Then, educators can collaborate with greatly on arts education to develop individuals’ educational researchers and neuroscientists to creative abilities. Some countries have create a database that supports evidence-based integrated arts in other subject areas to reach a creativity education. broader transferability of creativity skills (Heilmann & Werner, 2010). As mentioned References earlier, a few brain studies have suggested that Ai, X. (1999). Creativity and Academic Achievement: An Investigation of Differences. Creativity arts education may enhance creativity in general Research Journal, 12(4), 329–337. but current evidence is not sufficient to defend https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1204_11 that arts education can generate cross-domain Akil, H., Balice-Gordon, R., Cardozo, D. L., Koroshetz, W., creative cognition skill. Instead of teaching Posey Norris, S. M., Sherer, T., … Thiels, E. (2016). Neuroscience Training for the 21st creativity through arts education, neuroscience Century. , 90(5), 917–926. research had implied that general creativity https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.05.030 education can be extended to focus on basic Arden, R., Chavez, R. S., Grazioplene, R., & Jung, R. E. cognitive skills development in working (2010). creativity: A psychometric view. Behavioural Brain Research, 214(2), 143– memory and attention, which have been proven 156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2010.05.015 to be closely linked to creative abilities. Balgiu, B. A., & Adîr, V. (2014). Creativity Tasks and Despite the fact that neuroscience has Academic Achievement. A Study on Romanian continuously provided important scientific Politehnica Undergraduate Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral , 116, 924–928. implications for educators and policy makers, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.321 putting brain-based theory or findings into Barbot, B., Tan, M., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2013). The universal classroom practice is still not near and genetics of creativity: The fenerative and receptive challenging to reach. Many practitioners and sides of the creativity equation. In O. Vartanian, A. S. Bristol, & J. C. Kaufman (Eds.), Neuroscience of policy makers fail to interpret and use scientific creativity. Retrieved from facts correctly. A bridge between neuroscience http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.as and education is lacking (Fischer, Goswami, & px?p=3339674

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Volf, N. V., Kulikov, A. V., Bortsov, C. U., & Popova, N. K. Education. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12241 (2009). Association of verbal and figural creative achievement with polymorphism in the human serotonin transporter gene. Neuroscience Letters, About the Author 463(2), 154–157. Kai Zhou is a senior administrator and research analyst at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2009.07.070 Orange County Public Schools, Florida. She is also a doctoral Whitman, R. D., Holcomb, E., & Zanes, J. (2010). candidate from the Department of Educational Policy and Hemispheric Collaboration in Creative Subjects: Leadership, University at Albany, State University of New Cross-Hemisphere Priming in a Lexical Decision York. Her articles have appeared in European Journal of Task. Creativity Research Journal, 22(2), 109– Education, The International Journal of Higher Education 118. Research and the UNESCO Global Monitoring Report. Her https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2010.481480 research interests are currently focused on the relationship Zhou, K. (2017). Non-cognitive skills: Potential candidates for between soft skills, education and labor market outcomes. global measurement: ZHOU. European Journal of