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Article • DOI: 10.1515/tnsci-2019-0007 • Translational • 10 • 2019 • 37-43

Translational Neuroscience

INFLUENCE OF ON CONTEMPORARY OF Fang Ren

Abstract Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China The study of contemporary based on cognitive neuroscience has strongly promoted the philosophy study of cognitive problems. It has pointed out the research direction for to explore the relationship between the traditional and brain while systematically reflecting and investigating the theoretical basis and research method of cognitive neuroscience. Therefore, this study explores the influence and the significance of cognitive neuroscience on of science.

Keywords Received 04 December 2018 Cognitive neuroscience • Contemporary philosophy of science • Implications accepted 28 January 2019

1. Introduction for scientific to solve the problem namely, how the mobilizes its of philosophy of science. components at all levels, including molecules, is an emerging In the 1980s, cognitive realized cells, brain regions and the whole brain, to interdisciplinary subject including cognitive that neuroscience was the foundation of achieve various cognitive activities” [1]. The , artificial , philosophy, cognitive science. Because the brain’s thinking traditional ability of solving epistemological , and cognitive process was not clarified, problems is not enough to reveal the riddle neuroscience. Its birth and development have simulation of the brain was fundamentally of human , so it is necessary to had a profound impact on contemporary impossible. Functionalism’s view of studying discuss and the , philosophy of science. Cognitive science is an the mind without relying on the brain is model and of human cognition in an emerging interdisciplinary subject involving increasingly in trouble, and cognitive scientists empirical way and a naturalistic way from the , , are paying more to the research inside of cognitive science. Thus, the derived philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, of neuroscience. After the of contemporary philosophy of science based and cognitive neuroscience. Its birth and cognitive neuroscience in the 1990s, cognitive on cognitive neuroscience has become the development have had a profound impact neuroscience is a new-born that combines the hottest research field of philosophy of science on contemporary philosophy of science. The compelling cognitive science and neuroscience at present [2]. Therefore, this study explores study of the formation of scientific in scientific development. It is not only loved the influence and the significance of cognitive from the perspective of cognitive psychology by both parents, but also by computers. The neuroscience on contemporary philosophy of has become a new trend in contemporary concern of the , because science. philosophy of science. Cognitive the thorny problems encountered in intelligent 1.1 Introduction to cognitive generally oppose the practice of logical computer research are all related to cognitive and behaviourism against neuroscience. The research task of cognitive neuroscience psychology, emphasizing the study of human neuroscience is to clarify the brain mechanism The study of the formation of scientific psychological processes, and treating cognitive of cognitive activity. In other words, how does theory from the perspective of cognitive processes as a series of the human brain call it? The various levels psychology has become a new trend in that can symbolize external environmental of components, including molecules, cells, contemporary philosophy of science. Cognitive events and themselves. brain tissue regions, and to achieve psychologists generally oppose the practice of representation, and reasoning, their own cognitive activities are fundamental and behaviourism against pattern recognition, , and that cognitive neuroscience psychology, emphasizing the study of human problems are not only important needs to answer.” psychological processes, and treating cognitive research topics in psychology, but also issues The integration of various disciplines processes as a series of information processing in the study of philosophy of science. The provides support for the study of contemporary that can symbolize external environmental knowledge, , and thinking of cognitive philosophy of science which aims at “clarifying events and themselves process. Knowledge psychology research provide a new perspective the brain mechanism of cognitive activities, representation, problem solving and reasoning,

* E-mail: [email protected] © 2019 Fang Ren, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public License.

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pattern recognition, memory learning, and science, which is highly interdisciplinary and the role of the individual’s internal cognitive language problems are not only important trans-disciplinary. Cognitive neuroscience factors in forming scientific . Scientific research topics in psychology, but also attaches great importance to rigorous philosophers must not only analyse linguistic, issues in the study of philosophy of science. experimental research and the application of logical, historical, and cultural , but also The knowledge, concepts, and thinking of scientific research methods and . conduct cognitive . The combination cognitive psychology research provide a new The emergence of various brain function image of cognitive analysis and linguistic analysis, perspective for scientific philosophers to solve has laid a solid methodological logical analysis, historical analysis and cultural the problem of philosophy of science. Scientific foundation for the rapid development of analysis reinforces the cognitive function of philosophers began to draw on the research cognitive neuroscience [4]. The main research scientific philosophy. For example, Sagad results of cognitive psychology. For example, methods and technologies are shown in combines cognitive and social factors to Kuhn used psychology’s Gestalt to transform Table 1. study new models of science, and illustrates the shift of analogical science theory. its effectiveness through case studies of the Gonick applied the results of human individual 1.2 Current status and development chemical . of cognitive psychology trend of contemporary philosophy Nowadays, philosophy of science is in a “non- to . The of Nassian of science breakthrough” period as a whole, that is, there explains the development of theory Cognitive science makes cognitive problems is no major breakthrough theory. However, no from the perspective of cognitive psychology. the focus of scientific philosophy research. how the philosophy of science develops, Jill studies the cognitive structure of scientific Logical and falsifications focus on the core of its scientific can’t be theory from the perspective of psychology. As the logical structure of scientific knowledge. changed for the shown in Table 2. Sagard said that at present, the philosophy of pays attention to the social and At present, is standing on the science has undergone a cognitive shift, and it historical investigation of scientific knowledge, standpoint of cultural analysis to appeal to the attempts to study the development of science while ignoring the of science and cultural of scientific development. from the perspective of cognitive psychology the cognitive phenomenon of the core. The Although this explanation expands the and artificial intelligence. of science always pays attention perspective and scope of contemporary Cognitive neuroscience is a discipline to to the objective content reflected by scientific philosophy of science on a certain level, it study cognition from the level of cranial nerve, theory and ignores the relationship between has the tendency of pan-culturalism and the and is an important field of learning science. this content and the cognitive subject. tendency of dispelling scientific . It mainly focuses on the neural mechanisms Cognitive science requires studying the The itself is of , selective attention, memory, cognitive ability of the examiner to study inherently endowed with more cultural traits language, and . Cognitive neuroscience has a of nearly Table 1. Main methods and techniques of cognitive neuroscience 20 years. It began to come into people’s view in -related brain A series of brain waves formed by a brain reaction that has a fixed time potential (ERP) relationship with actual or expected stimuli (sound, light, and electricity). the 1980s and became a new branch of science recognized by international academic circles in Positron Emission Using a large of radioactive isotopes present in the natural elements Tomography (PET) of the human body, multi-level cross-sectional imaging is performed to the 1990s. Its development history is shown in reflect static or dynamic brain functional status. Figure 1. fMRI Similar to PET, changes in cerebral blood flow and deoxygenated Cognitive neuroscience belongs to a branch haemoglobin concentrations can be recorded by fMRI to indirectly study of the field of brain structure and function neuronal function

1982 1987 1990 1991 1996 2006-2020

European Cognitive China ranks "brain science Gazzaniga established The United States Europe launches the Japan introduced the Science Proposal (The and cognitive science" as Cognitive Neuroscience proposed the "Decade of "The European Decade "Time for Brain Cognitive one of the eight leading Institute the Brain" plan; of Brain" program; Science" program. Neuroscience) scientific fields.

As one of the five research guidelines for cognitive science

Figure 1. The development of cognitive neuroscience

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Table 2. Reasons for not changing the scientific methodology of contemporary philosophy of science No. Reason

1 Scientific rationality cannot be dispelled, and philosophy of science should always hold high the banner of scientific rationality.

2 The philosophical problems of cannot be dispelled. This is the foundation on which the philosophy of science depends.

3 The analysis method of language philosophy and its context theory are the basis of the various schools of unified philosophy of science and their traditional methodology. 4 The subject of science cannot replace scientific questioning methods with social, epistemological, and psychological things.

Table 3. The main objectives of contemporary philosophy of science and its guiding difficulties” Main target Difficulty

Rebuilding the New Logical Starting Point for the Development of Philosophy of How does the starting point surpass the paradigm of logical empiricism, Science historicism, and post-historicism Build a new platform for mutual dialogue, exchange, penetration and integration How to do this on the platform, they can truly communicate with each other and between and anti-realism among various schools. promote together, making it a stage for the growth of scientific philosophy. Exploring a new base for the mutual reference, mutual complementarity, and On this basis, how to obtain an effective unity of the philosophy of science and cross-intersection of various scientific forge a viable theory and development direction Adhere to the essence of scientific rationality; we must continue to promote the Only on this basis can we talk about the unity of scientific rationality and spirit of scientific rationality. irrationality, and talk about the connection between scientific philosophy and the schools or disciplines of scientific , scientific knowledge theory, scientific history, and scientific culture and philosophy.

Table 4. Theoretical content of contemporary philosophy of science Content Manifestations

Science as a knowledge production activity Scientific practice reflects , clearly shows the way in which science is presented, and highlights the ways and methods for discovering science under social and historical circumstances. Science as a knowledge utilization activity Using science as a paradigm to solve difficult problems using scientific knowledge

Science as a technology transformation activity Reflecting the movement of the material world and the development of change in the form of , it is the main means and method for to understand truth and falsehood. that determine that it is not based on the between brain activity and behaviour to paying has hardly developed in thousands of years, and requirements of pure scientific rationality [5]. In attention to the development of brain structure cognitive development is the result of culture. the 20th century, the cognition, and function; from attaching importance to All human culture, including science, relies on and exploration of these problems are a brain and external behaviour to attaching symbols, culture, not society. It is a distinctive process from nature to necessity. Through importance to “gene and environment— characteristic of human . Culture has reflection on the course of the 20th century, brain—behaviour”. Based on the theoretical a more direct and more important role in the development of contemporary philosophy content of contemporary philosophy of science science than science in society; a discovery and of science towards the 21st century has formed (as shown in Table 4), this part describes invention is a synthesis of cultural elements that the main objectives and “leading difficulties”, as the influence of cognitive neuroscience on have existed or a new element is absorbed into shown in Table 3. contemporary philosophy of science. one in a cultural system. Maurice N. Richter (Jr) that science is a cultural counterpart 2. The influence of cognitive 2.1 Cognitive neuroscience as a cognitive development of an individual, neuroscience on the philosophy influences the cognitive turn a growth of traditional cultural knowledge, of science of contemporary philosophy of and a cognitive form of cultural development; The development trend of cognitive science The direction of development is similar to the neuroscience is from paying attention to the Human culture influences the humanistic direction of individual cognitive development. neurobiological activities of the brain to paying trend of philosophy of science. Human cultural The starting point of scientific development is attention to the high-level cognitive function scientists focus on the impact of environment traditional cultural knowledge. The structure of the brain; from focusing on attention to and culture on cognitive ability, and regard of scientific development is generally similar partial level to focusing on the whole brain cognition as a cultural phenomenon. According to the structure of evolutionary process, level; from paying attention to the relationship to Leslie A. White’s research, especially the structure similar to the process

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of cultural evolution. Science is an individual. to be anti-biological, it is advocated that the cognitive dimension and philosophy of science The extension of the level to the cognitive abstract program with is (as shown in Table 5). development of the cultural level, it is not only independent of the neurobiology of the brain a developmental growth above the traditional or the hardware level of the computer silicon 2.2 Human culture influences the cultural knowledge, but also a special cognitive chip. In other words, neurobiological details humanistic trend of contemporary variant and extension of cultural evolution. do not help people understand the level of philosophy of science Brune Latour and Karin D. Knorr - Cetina cognition. All human cultures, including science, depend used anthropological methods to study the Philosophers, as cognitive scientists, did on symbols. It is culture rather than society actual cognitive processes of scientists in the not regard neuroscience as part of cognitive that is the distinctive feature of human beings. laboratory. Xie Tingna called this method a science at first, and believed that the entire Culture plays a more direct and important role micro-prone method. Their research shows philosophical basis of artificial intelligence in science than society. A kind of discovery that the process of scientific cognition is the is anti-biological; advocating that the and invention is the synthesis of existing process by which experimental personnel abstract program level with algorithms was cultural elements or the absorption of a new create scientific . Scientific independent of the neurobiology of the brain element into a cultural system [8]. The direction are not to discover facts but to create facts. The or the hardware level of a computer silicon of scientific development is similar to that of experimental is not a scientific chip. All the difficult problems encountered individual cognitive development. The starting community, but a social network formed by in intelligent computer research are related to point of scientific development is traditional super-recognizing resource relationships. cognitive neuroscience. The task of cognitive cultural knowledge. The structure of scientific of science have moved the neuroscience is to clarify the brain mechanism development is generally similar to that of philosophy of science from a philosophy of of cognitive activities. The discussion of the evolutionary process. It is not only the growth science to a philosophy of science and culture. status quo and future of artificial intelligence of traditional cultural knowledge, but also Sixth, cognitive neuroscience affects the has already become the focus of popular a special cognitive variant and extension of cognitive shift of philosophy of science. Qiu culture, which have far-reaching influence cultural evolution. Through the accumulation of Qilande believes: “The scientific philosopher on the development of the organization form traditional cultural knowledge, contemporary is a cognitive . For a long time, and structure of the whole human society philosophers of science can provide basic philosophers are the only cognitive scientists.” [7]. According to the structure of cognitive concepts and ideological basis for cognitive As philosophers of cognitive scientists, they did neuroscience and contemporary philosophy neuroscience, as well as examine and reflect on not initially consider neuroscience as cognitive of science, the artificial intelligence can be the basic assumptions by using the methods of science. In part, and the whole philosophical divided into three levels: artificial intelligence, argument, conceptual analysis and historical foundation of artificial intelligence is considered and based on reflection (as shown in Table 6).

Table 5. Artificial intelligence hierarchy

Artificial intelligence level Division basis Thinking qualities Functional positioning

Artificial intelligence Have smart behaviour or Mainly based on memory level Extension of human thinking and functional assistant performance Artificial life Self-reproducing ability Have symbol communication Different from human primary life skills Artificial intelligence Self-awareness and emotion Emotional thinking ability May be dangerous to humans and need special treatment

Table 6. The philosophical method of the use of cognitive neuroscience by contemporary philosophers of science Methods Manifestations Dispute method Contemporary scientific philosophy penetrates into the core of various disciplines with its dialectical role, and dialectically analyses the contradictions between scientists’ empirical findings and theories. method The concept of cognition plays an important role in cognitive science. The concept of cognition is the premise and foundation of cognition and reasoning. In cognitive science, cognitive science tends to focus on the specific process of acquiring new concepts from or other concepts. Historical reflection and critical method Philosophical reflection can transcend experience, exceed existing, present and present, and overcome common and prejudice. The exploratory and creative nature of philosophical activities and the charm of philosophy are reflected in this critical reaction of “making problems a problem”.

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2.3 of mind provides cognitive theoretical basis for contemporary scientific philosophers to explore neurocognitive process Cognitive science deepens the understanding Brain Body Envirment of the nature of scientific knowledge. Logical empiricism regards scientific knowledge as a static propositional language system, falsifications emphasizes the process of Computation- Non-characteristic-kinetic- of scientific knowledge acquisition, characterization - and historicism exaggerates the social agreement factors formed by scientific Figure 2. The basic style of cognitivism and philosophy of mind knowledge. They submerged cognitive Table 7. The Change of Cognitive Neuroscience to Contemporary Philosophy of Science problems in language analysis, historical analysis and psychosocial analysis, replacing Cognitive neuroscience makes cognitive issues The combination of cognitive analysis and language the focus of contemporary scientific philosophy. analysis, logical analysis, historical analysis and cognition with the linguistic, historical and cultural analysis reinforces the cognitive function of of scientific knowledge, philosophy of science. ignoring the close correlation between Cognitive neuroscience deepens the Think of it as the characterization structure in the mind scientific knowledge and psychological understanding of the nature of scientific and the computational procedures that operate on knowledge. these structures representation. Although the early thinkers Cognitive neuroscience contributes to the solution The discovery of contemporary philosophy of science , Locke, and Kant discussed the of problems found in contemporary philosophy is a solution to creative problems and is a sequence of psychological representation, they were of science. cognitive operations guided by goals. rejected by positivism and behaviourism as a Cognitive Neuroscience Deepens the Evaluation of Cognitive neuroscience puts the evaluation of the metaphysical construction. The development Contemporary Philosophy of Science philosophy of science between the individual’s selection criteria and the objective criteria commonly of cognitive science has made people realize recognized by the scientific community. that scientific knowledge is the representation and symbolization of world in psychology, and psychological representation representations represent the essence of cause fundamental changes in the research provides a partial picture of the real world. scientific theory, and the theory is hidden in strategy of philosophy of science and the basis Scientists form a psychological representation the psychological representation of scientists. of science of interpretation, as shown in Table of all aspects of their activities, so that scientific The philosophy of mind with information 7. Based on this, the significance of cognitive knowledge is reflected in the psychological processing as its core has exerted an important neuroscience to contemporary philosophy representation of scientists. The current influence on scientific realism. To some extent, of science is expressed in the following four central hypothesis of cognitive science holds both enactive cognition and situational aspects: that the most appropriate understanding of cognition can be integrated by embodied thinking is to regard it as a representational cognition [9]. Therefore, from the discussion of 3.1 Providing basic concepts, structure in the mind and a computational these two points, we can basically distinguish ideological foundations and program that operates on these structures. between cognitivism and reflections for contemporary People generate and behaviours by approach (as shown in Figure 2). philosophy of science running psychological programs on top of The most basic of cognitive science psychological representations, while different 3. The significance of cognitive comes from the construction of philosophy. types of psychological representations of , neuroscience to the philosophy The task of cognitive neuroscience is to clarify rules, concepts, , representations, of science the brain mechanism of cognitive activities and connections support different types [10]. People produce thinking and behaviour by of psychological procedures. These The emergence of cognitive scientists with running psychological procedure on mental characterizations together constitute the philosophical and philosophers with representation while logic, rule, concept, scientist’s knowledge system, and through cognitive science knowledge is very useful to , representation and connection of the communication and dialogue between overcome this gap. As mentioned above, the support different types scientists, form a common representation of the profound influences of cognitive neuroscience of philosophical forms. These representations scientific community. Therefore, psychological on contemporary philosophy of science will constitute the knowledge system of the

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Table 8. Reflection on contemporary philosophy of science under cognitive neuroscience contemporary philosophers of science, The Origin Reflection of Thinking about the general research and assumptions and form the common representation of Contemporary Philosophy of followed by cognitive neuroscience is a of rigorous and orderly the contemporary scientific philosophy Science Based on Cognitive natural science research ideas and research hypotheses, and it is community through the communication and Neuroscience. also a science-based armed force that psychology pursues science. dialogue between the scientific philosophers. Methodological Reflection on Scientific methods determine the of scientific research issues Contemporary Philosophy of and determine the appropriateness of scientific knowledge. The To this end, we must reflect on the problems as Science in Cognitive Neuroscience. of science depends on the progress and improvement of shown in Table 8. scientific methods.

3.2 Examining and reflecting the computational models. They deal with some role of the individual’s internal cognitive factors basic assumption of contemporary basic problems of cognitive neuroscience, in forming scientific theories. The combination philosophy of science such as the rationality of computer metaphor, of cognitive analysis and linguistic analysis, For cognitive neuroscience, each specialized the nature of representation and computation, logical analysis, historical analysis and cultural theory that explores the mind is assumed based general knowledge, the nature of intelligence, analysis reinforces the cognitive function of on basic theory and methodology, and forms and the essence of explanation in cognitive scientific philosophy. the basis of the entire cognitive neuroscience science, the function of consciousness in The flourishing research of contemporary despite further testing is needed. The basic mental research, how people carry out neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience has assumption of dualism is that the mind exists thinking, so as to clarify these not only answered and solved the mechanism independently of the body while the basic questions and test the from the logic of human cognitive function, but also assumption of is that the mind and significance. Therefore, we can say that enriched and supported the research content depends on living body. The basic assumption contemporary scientific philosophy without of philosophy of cognitive neuroscience. of behaviourism is that the mind doesn’t exist cognitive neuroscience is empty, and cognitive Neuroscience with and brain structure and the behaviour determines the function neuroscience without contemporary scientific as its research object is connected with while the basic assumption of functionalism is philosophy is blind. philosophy, especially philosophy of science, that the psychological state and the physical which has become a frontier field in the state are causal . The assumption of 4. Conclusions development of contemporary philosophy of representational computation is that the mind science. From the perspective of philosophy, is a process of representational computation. These profound influences of cognitive science especially , the emergence of on philosophy of science will fundamentally the philosophy of cognitive neuroscience 3.3 Clarify and test the basic issues change the research strategy of science is an inevitable process of exploring the and propositions of contemporary philosophy and the foundation of science. mechanism of human cognition to a great philosophy of science Cognitive science makes cognitive problems extent, which obviously becomes the direct In cognitive neuroscience, contemporary the focus of scientific philosophy research. impetus of the emergence of cognitive philosophers of science usually don’t conduct Cognitive science requires studying the neuroscience in the field of contemporary systematic empirical or build cognitive ability of the examiner to study the philosophy of science.

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