Hawaii's Marine Fisheries: Some History, Long-term Trends, and Recent Developments

Item Type article

Authors Pooley, Samuel G.

Download date 07/10/2021 05:37:07

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/26493 Hawaii's Marine Fisheries: Some History, Long-term Trends, and Recent Developments

SAMUEL G. POOLEY

Introduction coastal zone management processes. Table 1.-List of common and scientific names of This paper concentrates on the eco­ frequently caught commercial species in Hawaii. Recently Hawaii's commercial ma­ nomic development of the offshore Common name Scientific name rine fishery has experienced a period commercial fishery, and places some­ of rapid growth and structural change, Bottomfish what greater emphasis on the large­ Snappers and its characteristics are quite differ­ Onaga Etelis coruscans scale fisheries. Biological and manage­ ent from what they were a decade ago. Opakapaka Pristipomoides filamentosus ment features of Hawaii's marine fish­ Ehu E. carbunculus Some of these changes are the result of Kalekale P. seiboldii eries are considered in other papers in Gindai P. zonatus governmental and private-sector deci­ this number (Mar. Fish. Rev. 55(2)). Uku Aprian virescens sions on fishery development in Ha­ Lehi Aphareus rutilans Hawaii's marine fisheries can be di­ Yellowtail kalekale P. auricilla waii, but many have occurred because vided into three geographical areas Taape Lutjanus kasmira of increasingly competitive pressures, (Fig. 1): Grouper particularly as they have affected main­ Hapuupuu Epinephelus quernus 1) The inhabited main Hawaiian Is­ land U.S. commercial fishing fleets. lands (MHI), with their surrounding Jacks Further changes are anticipated as di­ White ulua Caranx ignobilis reefs and offshore banks (the island of Black ulua C.lugubris verse fishing interests (including both Hawaii to Niihau and Kauai); Butaguchi Pseudocaranx dentex large-scale and small-scale commer­ Kahala Seriola dumerili 2) The Northwestern Hawaiian Is­ cial, indigenous, and recreational fish­ lands (NWHI), a 1,200 mile string of Other ing interests, as well as nonconsump­ Lobster basically uninhabited reefs, shoals, and Spiny Panu/irus marginatus tive marine resource interests) are Slipper Scyl/arides squammosus worked out in fishery, marine, and islets ranging west northwest from the main Hawaiian Islands (i.e., west of Pelagic Management Unit Species Blue marlin Makaira mazara Niihau and Kauai); Striped marlin Tetrapturus audax Samuel G. Pooley is with the Honolulu Labora­ Broadbill swordfish Xiphias gladius 3) The mid-North Pacific Ocean, Shortbill spearfish T. anguslirostris tory, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Na­ 0 tional Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 2570 ranging from lat. 40 N to the Equator, Black marlin M. indica Indo-Pacific sailfish Isliophorus platypterus Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396. and from long. 145°W to long. l7YE. Mahimahi Coryphaena hippurus Hawaii's fishing fleets can also be Ono (wahoo) Acanthocybium solandri divided into three somewhat overlap­ Blue shark Prionace glauca ping or interconnected segments: Mako shark (short-fin) Isurus oxyrinchus Mako shark (long-fin) I. paucus 1) Large-scale commercial fishing. Oceanic whitetip shark Carcharhinus long/manus Although termed "large-scale" in Thresher shark Alopias superciliosus ABSTRACT - This paper provides an Tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvieri overview ofHawaii's marinefisheries from Hawaii, by mainland U.S. and foreign Tunas J948 to the present. After three decades of fishing fleet standards almost all the Bigeye Tuna Thunnus obesus decline following a briefperiod ofgrowth vessels in this segment would be con­ Yellowfin tuna T. albacares at the conclusion to World War lJ, Hawaii's sidered small. Most "large-scale" com­ Albacore T. alalunga commercial fisheries began a decade of Skipjack tuna (Aku) Katsuwonus pelamis mercial fishing vessels in Hawaii are Kawakawa Euthynnus allin/s sustained development in the J980's. At Frigate tunas Auxis spp. the same time, fisheries management is­ less than 100 feet in overall length. sues became more significant as different These include the older aku boats (pole­ tuna2) (Table 1) and tuna longline sam­ segments of the fishery came into more and-line sampans 1 fishing for skipjack direct competition. This paper provides pans (also wooden but of a different new estimates ofcommercial landings for design), as well as modem tuna and IThe term "sampan" in Hawaii refers primarily the J977-90 period, and summarizes lim­ swordfish longline vessels, distant-wa­ ited information on recreational and sub­ to wooden-hulled fishing craft of a design in­ troduced by Japanese fishermen in the early sistence fisheries in the J980's. Jt also 1900's. The vessels range from 35 to 75 feet 2Hawaii common names for commercial marine provides some historical context which may with a flared bow, a low stem, and a deep profile fish and shellfish species are used throughout this be useful in evaluating fishery develop­ to maintain seaworthiness in Hawaii's rough paper. Scientific names and corresponding Ha­ ment and management options. waters. waii, names are found in Table 1.

55(2), J993 7 D~L.I'I\,rLl.STERN HAW IIAN ISLANDS M IN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS HANCOCK 1--,"'6,..,S~E~A'tM~O~UN~T'..:'S'--- ""::""~ -+__ __-+ -+ --J_-t- --1-----30'

FREN~'ii ,\.!'jECKER I. FRIGATE ",,' "" ",.,',·NIHOA SHOALS KAUAI NIIHAU '. OAHU KAUL;' c 'i!;.~?LOKAI ~~~r~'MAUI -----+-20'

SCALE: :150 MILES TO THE INCH HAWAII !

lao' 170' 165' 161 W 160' 155'

Figure I.-Hawaii map, including WHI.

ter albacore trollers, and multipurpose commercial, and subsistence fishing. Hawaii's Traditional Commercial vessels which fish for bottomfish This segment includes the same kind Marine Fisheries (deepwater snappers, groupers, and of vessels as found in the small-scale jacks) and spiny and slipper lobster in commercial fleet, as well as some very Shortly after Statehood, a U.S. De­ the NWHI. These vessels can operate small boats (including surf boards and partment of Interior, Bureau of Com­ as far as 1,000 nautical miles from mercial Fisheries proposal labeled the sail boards), charter fishing boats and 3 Hawaii throughout the mid-North Pa­ dive fishing boats. Although charter Hawaii fishery as "dying" (lversen ). cific, and some span the South Pacific. fishing is a commercial operation, its Hawaii's major commercial fisheries Most operate within 200 miles of the clients are oriented toward recreational had been dominated by traditional prac­ MHI or within the NWHI. opportunities and thus it is distin­ tices that reflected Hawaii's Japanese 2) Small-scale commercial fishing. guished from commercial fishing. The immigrant heritage and its impact on The vessels in this segment include target species for this segment of the the local fishery and seafood markets. a wide variety of trailered and moored fishery are more v'aried than those of The predominant commercial fishery boats between 12 and 45 feet in length. the commercial segments, and include was aku (skipjack tuna), which was These vessels primarily use trolling and a variety of reef species, as well as the caught by a live-bait, pole-and-line, handline techniques, although some more familiar tunas, billfish, mahimahi wooden sampan fleet, known as aku traps and surrounding nets are used. and ono (wahoo), bottomfish, and crus­ boats (Fig. 2), and which was landed The target species include tunas, bill­ taceans. The fishing methods used are primarily for canning. In 1960, over fish, mahimahi, ono (wahoo), bottom­ also considerably more varied. 60% of Hawaii's total recorded com­ fish for the trollers and handliners; The issue of categorizing Hawaii's mercial fishery landings (by weight) bottomfish, reef fish, and crustaceans small-boat fisheries is a difficult one, was aku, and the percentage remained for the trap vessels; and small mid­ and is discussed later in this paper. For over 50% until 1970. water scads (known locally as akule the moment we would categorize this By the mid-1970's the number of and opelu) for the surrounding-net fish­ segment as one where the fishery has aku boats and their companion sam­ ery. These vessels operate almost ex­ limited fishing power and its fisher­ clusively in the MHI. men have mixed motivations in terms 3R. T, B. Iversen, 45-626 Halekou Place, 3) Small-scale recreational, part-time of fishing activity. Kaneohe, HI 96744, Personal commun., 1991.

8 Marine Fisheries Review Table 2.-Hawaii commerciallisheries, 1990. NMFS estimates based on logbooks and shoreside moni· toring. MHI = main Hawaiian Islands; NWHI = North· western Hawaiian Islands.

Weight (1,000 lb.) Thousand Fleet Caught Sold dollars

Longline 13,090 12,200 $28,800 Troll and handline pelagics 4,460 4,050 6,980 Aku boat 1,005 1,005 1,838 65 to 80 feet MHI bottomfish 830 810 3,300 NWHI bottomlish 420 400 1,070 NWHI lobster 949 949 4,887 Figure 2.-Drawing of typical Hawaii aku (skipjack tuna pole-and-line) boat. Other 1,700 1,594 3,513

Total 22,454 21,008 50,388

ings. The average annual variation in detrended aku landings was 164% (compared with 27% for non-aku land­ ings) in the period 1948-90.7 Any _l_~ analysis of the overall Hawaii com­ mercial fishery over time must differ­ entiate the overall trend from these fluctuations in the aku fishery. 45 to 65 feet Aku landings declined through the mid-1970's to the closing of the can­ nery in 1984, and then continued to fall through 1990. Aku landings fell as Figure 3.-Drawing of typical Hawaii flagline (longline sampan) boat. a percentage of total landings (by weight) from over 70% in the 1960's to less than 20% in the last five years pans, the longline tuna boats (known justed values to a 1990 base year. Fig­ of the 1980's, and to only 4.5% in locally as flagline boats, Fig. 3), had ures on landings and revenue for the 1990. However aku revenue has not decreased substantially, and the condi­ period 1948-76 are based entirely on fallen as appreciably because of the tion of many of the boats was poor. the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Re­ higher market price of fresh aku (com­ Fishing remained close to the main sources (HDAR) commercial fishing pared with the cannery price in the Hawaiian islands, although some older landings reports. Figures for the pe­ pre-1985 period). bottomfish boats fished the NWHI. riod 1986-90 are based largely on Volume of fish in the fresh fish market NMFS estimates of Hawaii's commer­ had declined, and few improvements cial landings and on our own whole­ Major Developments Since in marketing were apparent. Most fresh sale market monitoring program. The the Mid-1970's seafood appeared to be consumed in period 1977-85 is a combination of the home, and ethnic identification with the HDAR data with NMFS estimates The nature and value of Hawaii's particular species was very strong. of particular gear types (longline and present day fisheries and seafood in­ Nearshore reef and schooling fish were NWHI lobster).6 Table 2 provides a dustry have changed dramatically since still relatively abundant, but Hawaii's breakdown of the NMFS data for 1990 the 1970's. The commercial fishery has commercial fishery reached its nadir by gear type. more than doubled in inflation-adjusted in 1975.4 Figure 4 differentiates the aku boat ex-vessel value since 1970 to $50 mil­ Figures 4 and 5 provide estimates of fishery (skipjack tuna) from the rest of lion in 1990 and $60 million in 1991. Hawaii's long-term commercial fish­ the fishery (identified as "non-aku") The seafood market is probably worth ing landings and revenue.s Revenues because the aku fleet has been the over $100 million (including imported throughout this paper are inflation-ad­ source of most annual variation in land­ seafood), there is a $10-15 million char­

4In terms of inflation-adjusted revenue. The 6Appendix A, available from the author, pro­ 7Detrending is a simple statistical procedure to lowest landings were in 1969 using NMFS esti­ vides additional detail on the NMFS estimates remove the long-term change (growth or de­ mates, but 1975 was the second lowest year. for the period 1979-90, as well as time-series cline) in a time series. The resulting figures 5Estimates are required because official records for individual gear types (aku boat, longline, then reflect more accurately the shorter-term of commercial fisheries landings were not com­ NWHI lobster, NWHI bottomfish, main Hawai­ variation, in this case, the year-to-year varia­ prehensive in some years during that period. ian Islands, and other gears) from 1948 to 90. tion, in the 1948 to 1990 time period.

55(2), 1993 9 the increased value of the marketing 25,000 ,------,-­ .-<>- TO;::la:..cI__-o-----'A:..::k:.::u'--__-_x---'N.:.,:o:.:..:n_-:..cAk::cu=--­ sector, is even greater than the increase in pounds landed (200%), although less

20,000 than the increase in non-aku landings (300%). The increase in average ag­

Ul gregate price reflects a substantially -g 15,000 growing demand, particularly in the ;:l o p., restaurant and export (U.S. mainland o and foreign) markets, more than match­ S 10,000 ing the increased supply for most spe­ cies during the period. 5,000 There are many elements to these recent changes in Hawaii's seafood in­ dustry. Perhaps the first harbinger of change was the arrival of albacore troll­ 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 ers from the west coast en route to newly discovered fishing grounds north Figure 4.-Hawaii commercial fishery landings (pounds), 1948-90. NMFS estimates, total, of Midway Islands late in the 1970's. aku (skipjack tuna), and all other species. This caused a new perspective on the nature of Hawaii's role in the Pacific­ wide fishery and led to some substan­

80.000 ,------c--,-,---,.,------:c-,------:,.,------,---,------:=---,------, tial changes on the Honolulu water­ Inflation-adjusted to current year CPI front. Not the least of these changes ~ Aku Baal -0- All Olher Gears -x- Tolal was the technological demonstration effect of the mere presence of these 60,000 distant-water, highly mobile vessels 10. In 1985, there were 75 albacore troll­ oUl ers in the U.S. North Pacific fishery 9 40,000 (Hawaii Division of Aquatic Re­ oW sources, 1986). Landings peaked at 3.8 million pounds, but because of logis­

20,000 tics, the closure of the Honolulu can­ nery, and the changing world tuna mar­ ket, Hawaii did not become the tuna processing and transshipment center that was anticipated. Eventually less than 20 albacore vessels chose to make Honolulu their home port. Figure 5.-Hawaii commercial fishery revenue, 1948-90. NMFS estimates, total, aku boat Also in the 1980's, the Northwest­ (pole-n-line skipjack tuna), and all other gears. Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. $ base. ern Hawaiian Islands spiny lobster fish­ ery began to bloom. The NWHI possess ter boat industry, probably an equiva­ fishery is the dramatic increase in in­ a large EEZ but have relatively limited lently valued tournament fishery, and flation-adjusted ex-vessel revenue in fishing grounds for nonpelagic species. there is a recreational and subsistence the 1980's (Fig. 5). The increase in During a cooperative research effort of marine fishery with direct expenditures revenue (240%), which is reflected in the NMFS, HDAR, University of Ha­ of $24 million. 8 Figure 6 displays our waii, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser­ estimate of the Hawaii seafood market 8The definition and determination of "value" vice in the 1970's (Grigg and Tanoue, supply in 1990, with 20 million pounds for recreational and subsistence fisheries is a ($50 million) from commercial fish­ complex methodological issue. Direct compari­ markets. Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep.H­ son of the expressed dollar values of commer­ 82-15, 12 p.; J. C. Cooper and S. G. Pooley. ing, 9 million pounds from recreational cial vs. recreational fisheries is generally not 1983. Characteristics of Hawaii's wholesale fishing, 15 million pounds ($30 mil­ appropriate; see Edwards (1990) for a primer seafood market. Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. lion) from foreign imports, 24 million on these issues. Meyer (footnote 20) estimated Rep. H-83-22, 33 p.; W. K. Higuchi and S. G. the nonmarket value of small-boat noncommer­ Pooley. 1985. Hawaii's retail seafood volume. pounds ($45 million) from the main­ cial fishing in Hawaii at $200 million, using Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-85-06, land U.S., and 3.5 million pounds ($10 hedonic valuation methods, compared to actual 16 p.; and MacDonald and Deese (1988). million) exported.9 direct expenditures of $24 million. IOThe demonstration effect relects indirect learn­ 9Hawaii's seafood marketing sector is described ing initiated by the presence of a new technol­ Perhaps the most notable long-term in: J. C. Cooper and S. G. Pooley. 1982. Total ogy or methodology, usually introduced into a trend in Hawaii's overall commercial seafood volume in Hawaii's wholesale fish culture or a society from outside.

10 Marine Fisheries Review nized "handline" fishing for snappers, 80,000 ,------r------, [J 1000 Pounds EJ $ 1000 groupers, and jacks), which required a medium-scale modem fishing vessel (Fig. 9) similar to those used in the 60,000 lobster and albacore fisheries. The ex­ panding supply of pink and red snap­ pers (opakapaka and onaga) locally made possible the expansion of the res­ 40,000 taurant market by allowing a regular and consistent supply of relatively fresh fish (Fig. 10). At the same time, the 20,000 restaurant market for fresh mahimahi also expanded, providing a new source of income for local trollers (Takenaka et aL II). Local wholesale dealers were able to promote fresh local mahimahi Commercial Fishing Foreign imports as a substitute for some of the large Recreational Fishing U.S. Mainland "imports" imports offrozen mahimahi. Since both bottom fish and mahimahi were landed Figure 6.-Hawaii seafood market shares, 1990. NMFS estimates. fresh and sold primarily at the Hono­ lulu auction, this marked an important change in the local fishery and rein­ vigorated the local fresh fish market. 10,000 ,------.------,------, ~ Pounds (Whole weight) With a much larger restaurant mar­ -0- Revenue ,Adjusted for inflation) ket in Honolulu, bottomfish fishermen 8,000 from the main Hawaiian Islands were able to obtain premium prices for their considerably fresher catch, and thus 6,000 were motivated to increase their land­ ings (Fig. 11). Finally, some whole­ sale seafood dealers began sending 4,000 opakapaka and mahimahi to the main­ land, establishing a distinctively Ha­ 2,000 waiian seafood presence linked to Hawaii's tourism market. In the late 1970's and early 1980's ..... 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1~85 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 the traditional Hawaiian tuna handline fisheries, known as ika shibi (lkeharaI2) and palu ahi, revived owing to fuel­ Figure 7.-NWHI lobster landings, pounds and revenue, 1977-90. NMFS estimates and figures. Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. $ base. efficient small-scale vessels (Fig. 12). These fisheries, which targeted yellow­ fin and bigeye tuna (both known lo­ 1984), scientists discovered substan­ only more efficient but also allowed the cally as ahi, along with albacore), were tial quantities of spiny lobster in the slipper lobster to be caught commercially. centered on the Big Island (Hawaii), NWHI. By the mid-1980's, with the Although the first lobsters were sold but much of the product at the time additional discovery of slipper lobster, locally as a live product, soon almost was shipped to Honolulu for the res­ NWHI lobster was one of Hawaii's all were produced as a frozen tail prod­ taurant market. This was a useful de­ largest fisheries in terms of ex-vessel uct and sold to mainland U.S. buyers. revenue (Fig. 7). To develop the lob­ This was the first premium product of "B. Takenaka, L. Toricer, S. G. Pooley, and J. C. Cooper. 1984. Recent trends in the commer­ ster fishery, new fishermen and new Hawaii's new commercial fisheries, cial fishery and marketing of mahimahi and boats came to Hawaii, primarily from with prices ranging up to $13.50 per ono in Hawaii. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, the Pacific Northwest (Fig. 8). Large pound for the tails. However, neither Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. vessels, some over 100 feet in length, the albacore nor the lobster fishery Rep. H-84-9, 20 p. with advanced technology freezing changed the basic structure of the Ha­ I2W. Ikehara. 1981. A survey of the ika-shibi and processing equipment, entered the waii fresh fish market. fishery in the state of Hawaii, 1980. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar.Fish. Serv., South­ fishery. New traps were introduced The NWHI also proved to be a good west Fish. Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. from California which made fishing not location for bottom fishing (mecha­ Cent. Admin Rep. H-82-4C, lip.

55(2), 1993 II dustry. As a result, the aku boat fleet declined from 12 active boats in 1979 (Hudgins, 1980) to just 7 active boats in 1986, selling solely to the fresh mar­ ket (Boggs and Pooley, 1987; Pooley et al. 13). Attempting to expand that market was a major project of State government in the 1980's (MacDonald et aI., 1991), but current conditions in the fishery suggest that an entirely new start will be required, including a solu­ tion to the perceived bait problem and limitations on market penetration (pri­ marily due to limited shelf life), if the potential yield of the skipjack resource is to be achieved in the future (Boggs and Pooley, 1987). Landings in the past Figure 8.-Drawing of typical NWHI lobster boat. five years have averaged less than 5 million pounds, with only 4 full-time aku boats active in the fishery. By the mid-1980's, the export mar­ ket for Hawaii's fresh bigeye tuna rose dramatically, largely as a result of mar­ keting efforts by major wholesale deal­ ers and the favorable exchange rate between the dollar and the yen. This marked the early resurgence of Hawaii's traditionallongline tuna fleet, which produces a superior-grade tuna for sashimi (raw tuna). In the late 1980's, both NWHI bottomfish and lobster boats began facing lower catch rates and increased regulation, so that a number of these vessels began to transfer to the longline fi shery. In the early 1980's, perhaps as few as 15 vessels were fishing with longline 40 to 65 feet gear in Hawaii. Today, over 150 ves­ sels are in the longline fleet. Most of the vessels are newer and larger. Figure 9.-Drawing of typical NWHI bottomfish boat. Whereas the older sampans are about 45 feet, the new steel-hulled vessels range from 65 to 115 feet (Fig. 14). velopment for the neighbor islands enon," a condition in which the meat Many of the older vessels have new whose commercial fishery appeared to of handline and troll caught yellowfin owners and have been refurbished. The be left behind by the growth of the tuna is metabolically degraded during longline crews have been trying a num­ large-scale fishing fleets based in Ho­ fishing when not offset by rapid icing. ber of different fishing strategies, from nolulu. Today, there are strong local Nonetheless, landings of tuna and other fishing as far as 1,200 miles from Ho­ markets for fresh fish on the neighbor pelagics (primarily billfish, mahimahi, nolulu to fishing right off the reef, 14 islands, associated with the expansion and ono) by troll, handline, and mis­ 13S. G. Pooley, S. Teramoto, and A. C. Todoki. of the tourist trade on those islands, cellaneous gears (i.e., excluding 1988. Hawaii's aku fishery in 1986 and 1987. and there is considerable "export" of longline and aku boat) increased by U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H­ fresh fish to the U.S. mainland. How­ elevenfold from 1970 to 1990 (Fig. 13). 88-16.15 p. ever, access by handline boats to the In 1984 the tuna cannery Hawaiian 14Fishing off the reef provides a major fisheries higher value-added market has been Tuna Packers closed, coinciding with management controversy. The Western Pacific Fishery Management Council has closed the limited on account of a phenomenon a period of substantial reorganization waters around the main Hawaiian Islands to known as the "burnt tuna phenom­ in the multinational canned tuna in­ Continued

12 Marine Fisheries Review compete with the Tskuji market in To­ 4,000 ~------,------, kyo for the raw product, and local con­ --<>- Pounds --0- Revenue (Adjusted for inflation) sumers must compete with the local restaurant trade and the export market. 3,000 If we take a brief look in retrospect, in 1979 the Hawaii Fisheries Develop­ ment Plan predicted commercial fish­ Ul o eries growth to 50 million pounds in o 2,000 S 1990 and 85 million pounds in the year 2000 (Department of Land and Natu­ ral Resources, 1979b). As one of the 1,000 Plan's co-authors, I would say we failed to anticipate the likelihood and poten­ tial consequences of the collapse of U.S, production of canned tuna (the 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 closure of the California and Hawaii canneries, and the emphasis on purse­ Figure 10,-NWHI bOtlomfish landings, pounds and revenue, 1970-91. NMFS estima1es, seine tuna processing at the American Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. $ base. Samoa and Puerto Rico canneries), and thus our forecasts for skipjack and al­ bacore tuna landings were far afield. 5,000 We also expected a rapid development -<>- Pounds -a- Inflation-adjusted Revenue of the oceanic shrimp fishery, but ulti­ mately the resource did not support 4,000 large-scale development (Tagami and Ralston I6). But for ahi, NWHI lobster and bottomfish, the projections for 3,000 Ul growth have been quite reasonable. The 0 0 prospects for further development in S 2,000 pelagics remain strong, although de­ velopment must now be tempered by fisheries management considerations. 17 1,000 Fleets and Current Landings ~ - Hawaii's commercial fishery ex­ I ceeds $50 million in ex-vessel rev­ 1970 1975 1980 1985 enues, from 22 million pounds of landings in 1990. The longline tuna Figure II.-MHI bOtlomfish landings, pounds and revenue, 1970-91. NMFS estimates, Revenue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U,S, $ base. Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin, Rep. H-89-1O, 33 p, 160, T. Tagami and S. Ralston, 1988. An as­ from fishing for the high-valued big­ longline fishery, the more efficient sessment of exploitable biomass and projection eye tuna to fishing for the lower-val­ monofilament mainlines stored on of maximum sustainable yield for Heterocarpus laevigatus (shrimp) in the Hawaiian Islands. ued but more abundant yellowfin tuna, reels, frequently set by powered line U.S, Oep, Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. to long-distance fishing for swordfish throwers (Kawamoto et aI. 15 ). The Serv., Southwest Fish, Cent., Honolulu Lab., destined for export to the east coast. Southwest Fish. Cent, Admin, Rep, H-88-14, growth of the longline fishery is de­ 22 p. The new vessels deployed a new gear picted in Figure 15. 17The relationship, or lack thereof, of fishery which has now become the predomi­ Hawaii's market for fresh tuna (and development and fishery management has been nant gear throughout the Hawaiian other pelagics such as mahimahi) is a difficult one, The Western Pacific Fishery Management Council initially tried to bridge now highly competitive, with compe­ the gap, but it had few resources which could longline fishing and has imposed a moratorium tition in supply from Florida to Aus­ be placed on fishery development issues. Within on new entry into the Hawaii-based longline tralia, The local fish market must now the State of Hawaii government, the two func­ fishery from 1991 through 1994 (Amendments tions exist in different departments, while within 2,4, and 5 to the Fishery Management Plan for NMFS, fishery development functions have the Pelagic Fisheries of the Western Pacific 15K. E, Kawamoto, R, Y, Ito, R. P, Clarke, and been phased out since the late 1970' s except Region, Western Pacific Regional Fishery Man­ A, Chun, 1989, Status of the Hawaiian tuna for awards to private sector projects (the agement Council, Honolulu, Hawaii 1986, as longline fishery 1987-88, U.S, Oep, Commer., Saltonstall-Kennedy grants), Most State of Ha­ amended in 1991.) NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish, Serv., Southwest Fish. waii fishery

55(2), 1993 13 mercial fishing licenses (issued to in­ dividuals), most commercial fishing li­ cense holders make minimal record of A landings. There are perhaps only 750­ 500 boats that could be considered full­ time commercial and charter-boat fishing operations. Almost all the fish­ ing boats in Hawaii are less than 100 feet overall; only a portion of the longline fleet is longer than 75 feet. This mixture of small and medium­ 25 to 50 feet sized fishing vessels has been relatively beneficial for Hawaii's fisheries (POOley21). Large vessels can easily overharvest many of the nonpelagic resources while having a hard time making ends meet over the long run in such limited fisheries22 . Many of the medium-sized vessels have the ad­ vanced technology and mobility to make switching between fisheries a vi­ able business strategy23, while at the same time not having a strongly nega­ tive impact on the small-scale com­ 24 to 40 feet mercial and recreational fishermen. Indeed, it was believed that Hawaii's offshore pelagic fisheries, which are substantially less susceptible to over­ fishing by small and medium-sized

ISR. A. Skillman and D. K. H. Louie. 1984. Inventory of U.S. vessels in the central and western Pacific: Phase 2-verification and clas­ sification. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., Hono­ lulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-84-12, 21 p. 19R. F. Sumida, B. M. Ito, and J. P. Draper. 1985. Inventory and uses of vessels in Hawaii, 1984. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., Honolulu 26 to 50 feet Lab., nontechnical report. 20Meyer Resources Inc. (P. A. Meyer.) 1987. A report on resident fishing in the Hawaiian is­ lands. (A project to determine the economic Figure l2.-Drawing of typical MHI (A) bottomfish, (B) pelagic handline, and (C) lrolling boats. value of recreational fishing in Hawaii.) U.S. Dep. Comrner., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest fishery is the largest commercial fish­ $7 million, while lobster, aku (skip­ Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-87-8C, 74 p. ery in Hawaii, valued at $29 million. jack tuna), and bottomfish (snappers, 21S. G. Pooley. 1985. The hopelessness of the invisible hand: small versus large fishing ves­ The smaller-scale troll and handline groupers, and jacks) are the other ma­ sels in Hawaii. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, fisheries for tuna and mixed pelagics, jor commercial fisheries (Table 2). Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Honolulu Lab., South­ such as mahimahi, are next in value, at While there were 15,000 boats reg­ west Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-85-02, 16 p. 22For example, Clarke and Pooley (1988) found Continued istered (or documented) in Hawaii in that mid-sized vessels (65 feet overall length) 17 Continued the 1980's, only from 7,500 to 5,000 were the most profitable in the NWHI lobster conservation aClivllies are oriented toward were used for fishing (Skillman and fishery, while the larger vessels (greater than nearshore fisheries. The State's 1985 fishery l8 19 75 feet in overall length) were not profitable. development plan added an emphasis toward Louie , Sumida, et a1. ; Meyer Re­ However, the larger lobster vessels have par­ the noncommercial sectors Hawaii's fishery and sources Inc.2o). Less than 2,000 ves­ ticipated in the NWHI lobster fishery and have warned: "Fisheries development can only be sels are presently registered for a dramatic impact on available stocks of lobsters. promoted for those fishery resources that can 23 A strategy increasingly constrained by the withstand increased fishing pressure without commercial fishing and, while there implementation of limited entry in Hawaii's damaging the integrity of the resource...." are less than 3,500 people holding com­ major commercial fisheries. (Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources, 1986).

14 Marine Fisheries Review fishing vessels, would be an attractive 15,000 ,------,-, avenue for future growth. Unfortu­ ---<>-- Pounds --0- Inflation-adjusted Revenue nately the recent development of the longline fishery has been less benign, with substantial disputes amongst par­ ticipants (Pooley, 1990). 10,000 The structure of Hawaii's seafood rn o markets has encouraged value-added o S fisheries development (i.e., the produc­ tion of a higher quality and higher­ 5,000 priced product through improved handling and marketing and the in­ creased utilization of lower valued spe­ cies), but with some definite side effects for Hawaii consumers (i.e., higher 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 prices and lower availability). Whereas many mainland U.S. fisheries are "in­ Figure 13.-MHI pelagic landings, pounds and revenue, 1970-91. NMFS estimates. Rev­ dustrial-strength" with poor reputations enue adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. $ base. for quality, low fresh fish prices, and poor incomes for fishermen, in Hawaii the combination of auctions and direct purchases from outside sources has meant a consistently high-quality prod­ uct. However, fresh fish prices have risen considerably since 1970, even adjusted for the general rate of con­ sumer price inflation (Fig. 16). This has been prompted by the explosion of restaurant demand, where fresh mahimahi can be found on local res­ taurant menus from Moiliili to Kaanapali, and on the U.S. mainland 65 to 90 feet from Seattle to Des Moines to Boston. For local consumers, the loss of the aku (skipjack tuna) fleet has produced Figure 14.-Drawing of typical modern Hawaii longline boat. higher retail prices for fresh tuna. Our analysis of the price structure of Ha­ waii fresh fish prices (Pooley, 1987; Pooley24, 25) indicates that the market 50,000 ,------,------, ---<>- Pounds provides strong quality premiums and -0- Revenue (Adjusted for inflation) is thus a competitive forum for most major fishery producers. However, as 40,000 the export market develops from the sashimi "niche" to the swordfish "seg­ 30,000 ment," transshipping operations are in­ rn o o creasing. This reduces the "local o ....; content" of Hawaii's fishery landings, 20,000 at some detriment to Hawaii's economy and to local consumers.

10.000 /' 24S. G. Pooley. 1986. Competitive markets and bilateral exchange: the wholesale seafood mar­ ket in Hawaii. U.S. Dep. Commer. , NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-86-08, 14 p. 25S. G. Pooley. 1991. Revised market analysis: Figure IS.-Hawaii longline landings and revenue, 1970-91. NMFS estimates. Revenue Hawaii yellowfin tuna. NMFS Southwest Fish. adjusted for inflation to 1990 U.S. $ base. Cent., Honolulu Lab. manuscr. 003-91H-MRF.

55(2),1993 15 headquarters (with minimal actual in­ 4.00 ,------,------­ volvement by NMFS staff in Hawaii), -<>-- Aku (skipjack) --0- Other Species but the statistical expansions were un­ dertaken by a firm on the mainland and delivered only to NMFS headquar­ ters. For reasons not entirely under­ stood, the expansions provided incon­ sistent estimates of various species and the results were never published. How­ ever, if we assume the major source of error was in individual species extrapo­ lation, rather than in total participation and total or aggregate landings, then the following results can be derived. The 1980 estimates of participation 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 were 2.1 million fishing trips (620,000 by private boats and 88,000 by charter Figure 16.-Hawaii commercial fishery ex-vessel prices, 1948-91. U.S. $ per pound boats, the remainder being shoreside (whole weight). NMFS estimates, aku (skipjack lUna) and all other species. Prices adjusted fishing) taken by 235,200 residents and for inflation to 1990 U.S. $ base. 82,200 visitors (tourists). This amounted to 24% of the de facto resi­ Recreational Fisheries fishing tournaments is frequently sold dent population. The estimated weight The distinction between "recre­ by the charter captains. Not only are of "recreational" fish caught was 4.4 there overlapping structural factors in ational" and "commercial" marine fish­ million pounds, of which 94% was commercial and recreational fishing, ing in Hawaii's small boat fleets is from boat fishing. 28 but the legalistic differentiation is not extremely tenuous. As opposed to most In 1984, the Honolulu Laboratory, particularly helpful. People who catch mainland U.S. states, there is relatively NMFS, and the Division of Aquatic and sell at least a part of their catch are easy access to most fishing locations Resources, State of Hawaii, conducted required to have a State of Hawaii com­ by most residents of Hawaii. Further­ a survey of vessel owners registered mercial fishing license. However these more, and perhaps most important, with the State of Hawaii's Department licenses cost only $25 ($50 to nonresi­ Hawaii's seafood market is not as cen­ of Transportation29 (Skillman and dents), and there is no marine recre­ tralized and industrialized as mainland Louie30 ; Sumida et apt). Of the re­ ational fishing license. Furthermore, fisheries, so that it has always been spondents who indicated they fished there is no active dealer-reporting sys­ feasible for small-scale fishermen to during the year, 70% said they never sell any or all of their catch for a re­ tem, and Federal fisheries management sold any of their catch, and only 16% has yet to require permits for the small­ spectable price. Many people sell a sold at least half their catch. 32 boat bottomfish and pelagic fleets. portion of their catch to offset fishing costs, while division of the catch Because of the lack of information 28These estimates were based on samples taken on the small-boat fisheries, a number from the 8,033 people who were "intercepted" amongst family and friends is also a of survey approaches have been taken (sampled) in Hawaii. "Recreational" was not common practice and indeed in some well defined, but is believed to indicate the fish circles, an important cultural and so­ to estimate the extent of Hawaii's "rec­ weighed at the sample location were not to be reational" fisheries. The most compre­ sold. The expansion was based on 4,593 tele­ cial obligation. Many people who might hensive was the NMFS Marine Recre­ phone interviews to Hawaii households, of be considered "commercial" fishermen which 15% contained people who went fishing. in fact hold a full-time or part-time job ational Fishing Statistical Survey 290f the approximately 14,500 vessels regis­ tered in 1984 with the State Department of which provides more income than fish­ (1979-81) which was a combined tele­ phone and creel intercept surveyY The Transportation (or documented with the Coast ing. Furthermore, charter-fishing boat Guard in Hawaii), 12,578 were deemed to have intercept included all modes of marine captains generally retain their catch for fishing vessel characteristics (cruise liners were fishing: shoreline; piers and jetties, pri­ excluded, for example). Sixty percent of the sale in the local market, unless explicit vate vessel; and charter boat. The tele­ questionnaires were completed, with 5,496 ves­ arrangements are made to the con­ sel owners reporting their vessel was used for trary.26 Even the catch at major sports phone and intercepts were fielded by a fishing. No examination of the nonrespondents local company under contract to NMFS was made, so it is not known to what extent returns on this survey were self-selected from 26Reporting of catch by charter boats to the fishing vessel owners or not. Presumably 9,200 Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources was for­ vessels (60% of the initial population of ves­ malized in 1985. Prior to that, some charter 27Data and methodology for the NMFS Marine sels) could have been used for fishing, but we boats reported their catch, and others did not. Recreational Fishing Statistical Survey in the have tended to use the lower figure as more Charter boats are not explicitly differentiated western Pacific were never published officially. realistic on the expectation that many people in the State commercial fish catch reports, al­ These interpretations are based on project docu­ who did not use their boat for fishing would not though the commercial fishing license identi­ ments obtained by the Honolulu Laboratory sev­ bother to answer and return a survey oriented fies these vessels. eral years after the survey was completed. Continued

16 Marine Fisheries Review In 1987 the Hawaii Division of The only major study of the eco­ fisheries are no longer what they were, Aquatic Resources surveyed its license nomics of recreational fishing in Ha­ and the relationship between Hawaii's holders on a number of issues. Al­ waii was undertaken by Meyer people and the sea has changed. We though the response rate was low (30% Resources Inc. 2o for NMFS. This study have already mentioned the change in of the 2,529 license holders responded), used a variation of the contingent (non­ availability and price of locally caught the survey appears to confirm the im­ market) valuation technique on focus fish for Hawaii's resident consumers, pression that most "commercial" fish­ groups composed of recreational fish­ but there have been changes in the wa­ ing license holders in Hawaii do not ing clubs in Hawaii. Meyer estimated ter and on the docks too. make their livelihood from fishing: that there were 6,684 small boats used Recognition that nearshore fish re­ 80% or more of the respondents on for "resident" fishing (defined as: "per­ sources have diminished (as well as each island indicated they earned less sons who are not making their primary consumer fears concerning ciguatera than 51 % of their gross income from living from commercial fishing," toxins), combined with the rise in tour­ fishing. Meyer20, p. 1) in Hawaii, with direct ism-related ocean recreation, means Karl Samples, University of Hawaii, expenditures of $24 million. Total catch that there will be more pressure for prepared a series of studies on charter by these vessels was 21 million pounds, nearshore marine environment manage­ boat fishing during the early 1980' s of which 47% was sold. The remain­ ment, with a premium on noncon­ for NMFS. Samples found that the der was used for home consumption sumptive uses of marine resources. A charter boat fleet consisted of 119 boats (23%), given away to friends and fam­ number of State of Hawaii initiatives in 1982 (Samples et aP3). These ves­ ily (21%), or otherwise used. Using have focused on this recognition, in­ sels are almost entirely 2-6 passenger contingent valuation techniques, Meyer cluding the Main Hawaiian Islands ­ vessels where half-day and whole-day estimated that the nonmarket value of Marine Resources Investigation charters are sold to the group, rather these fishing trips to Hawaii resident (Pooley38 and Hawaii Division of than to individuals (as in U.S. main­ fishermen was $239 million.36 Aquatic Resources, 1988), and there land "head" and "party" boats). This Finally, in 1990 and early 1991 the has been a broad strategic planning fleet generated 73,780 passenger trips State of Hawaii, with the assistance of approach to coastal zone management with a direct income of $8.1 million34. NMFS, conducted a survey of small and development (Hawaii Ocean and Total fish catch by the charter boat boat launch sites and harbors on Oahu Marine Resources Council, 1991). Fur­ fleet was 2.2 million pounds. It was (the island on which Honolulu and 80% thermore, rights of native Hawaiians also estimated that charter boat patrons of the population is situated) to under­ to fishery resources are being explored, spent $39 million directly related to stand better offshore fishing by recre­ primarily through the offices of the charter fishing as a vacation or leisure ational and subsistence fishermen. The Western Pacific Fishery Management activity (Samples and Schug35 ). results from this survey may provide a Council (Iversen et aI., 1989), and these stronger basis for estimating current will undoubtedly affect the ultimate 29 Continued recreational and part-time commercial resolution to fishery management is­ towards fishing. We also noted through inspec­ fishing activity (Hamm and Lum3?). sues. How Hawaii balances all of these tion of the respondents that most of the full­ interests may be a major political issue time commercial fishing boats also did not Recent Issues respond. for the 1990's. 30R. A. Skillman and D. K. H. Louie. 1984. Naturally, the transition from the old There are also some direct competi­ Inventory of U.S. vessels in the central and western Pacific: Phase 2-verification and clas­ style to the new in Hawaii's offshore tive pressures accompanying the rapid sification. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. fisheries has not occurred without bio­ growth of the longline fishery. The Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. logical, economic, and social impacts. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Man­ Rep. H-84-12, 21 p. Hawaii's commercial and recreational agement Council (Council) is the cen­ 3JR. F. Sumida, B. M. Ito, and J. D Draper. J985. Inventory and uses of vessels in Hawaii, ter of commercial fisheries manage­ 1984. NMFS Southwest Fish. Cent., Honolulu 35 Continued ment in Hawaii, whereas the state Lab., nontechnical rep. fishing values. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, government is concentrating on near­ 320nly 3% of the respondents said they made Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., shore fishing issues. The early years of half their income from fishing, suggesting that Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. the survey returns were biased toward small­ Rep. H-8S-8C, 95 p. the Council involved laying out a fish­ scale recreational fishermen. 36Nonmarket value means in this case what the ery management structure with rela­ 33K. C. Samples, J. N. Kusakabe, and J. T. participants thought their fishing "experience" tively little emphasis on the distribu­ Sproul. 1984. A description and economic ap­ was worth in market terms. Frequently this is praisal of charter boat fishing in Hawaii. U.S. termed "willingness to pay," as in "How much tive issues which were central on the Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., would you be willing to pay to continue fishing Southwest Fish. Cent., Honolulu Lab., South­ ....?" although that is not the precise approach west Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-84-6C, 130 p. used by Meyer. 38S. G. Pooley (Editor). 1988. Recommenda­ 34Income from charter fees was approximately 37D. C. Hamm and H. K. Lum. 1992. Prelimi­ tions for a five-year scientific investigation on $5.8 million while income from selling fish nary results of the Hawaii small-boat fisheries the marine resources and environment of the was $2.3 million. survey. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA, Natl. Mar. main Hawaiian islands. U.S. Dep. Commer., 35K. C. Samples and D. M. Schug. 1985. Char­ Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. Cent., Honolulu NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., Southwest Fish. ter fishing patrons in Hawaii: a study of their Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. Admin. Rep. H­ Cent., Honolulu Lab., Southwest Fish. Cent. demographics, motivations, expenditures and 92-08,35 p. Admin. Rep. H-88-2, 22 p.

55(2), 1993 17 U.S. mainland. The NWHI lobster and and the Northern Mariana Islands are Literature Cited bottomfish fishery management plans also used as transshipment centers for Boggs, C. H., and S. G. Pooley. 1987. Forces (FMP's) addressed limited fisheries purse seine and longline fisheries. The of change in Hawaii's aku (skipjack tuna) industry, 1986. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA with limited interaction with other fish­ apparent closing down of the Japanese, Tech. Memo. NMFS-SWFC-On, 70 p. eries. The pelagic species FMP's orien­ South Korean, and Taiwanese drift Clarke, R. P., and S. G. Pooley. 1988. An eco­ nomic analysis of NWHI lobster fishing ves­ tation was simply toward displacing for­ gillnet fleets fishing for squid and al­ sel performance. U.S. Dep. Commer., eign longline fishing in the Council areas. bacore tuna, due to their impact on sea NOAA, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA-TM­ However, with the growth of the domes­ birds and marine mammals, may af­ NMFS-SWFC-106. Department of Land and Natural Resources. tic longline fishery in the late 1980' s, the fect both the commercial fisheries of 1979a. Hawaii coastal zone fisheries man­ Council was suddenly faced with com­ the central Pacific and seafood mar­ agement study. State of Hawaii. Honolulu, peting domestic issues. kets. In addition, there are the poten­ Hawaii, 48 p. ____ . 1979b. Hawaii fisheries develop­ Resolving these pressures has in­ tial impacts of ocean mining and other ment plan. State of Hawaii. Honolulu, Ha­ volved a real trade-off between the cost nonfishery related marine developments. waii, 297 p. of regulation, in terms of the cost of Ironically, perhaps one of the most Edwards, S. F. 1990. An economics guide to allocation of fish stocks between commer­ biological and economic research and important economic components of cial and recreational fisheries. U.S. Dep. in terms of changes in life-styles, and Hawaii's commercial fishing industry Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 94, the potential benefits of well-managed is not fishing at all; it is the resupply 29 p. Grigg, R. W., and K. Y. Tanoue. 1984. Pro­ natural resources. People who go fish­ operations for the hundreds of foreign ceedings of the second symposium on re­ ing are frequently very independent, fishing boats and refrigerated transports source investigations in the Northwestern more so than most. All one needs to do which stop in Honolulu harbor for sup­ Hawaiian Islands. Sea Grant Miscellaneous Report UNIHI-SEAGRANT-MR-84-01. is examine the vastness and isolation plies. The direct economic impact of Harman, R. F., and A. Z. Katekaru. 1988. of their working environment. They these vessels is $46 million annually 1987 Hawaii commercial fishing survey. are also our most accessible observers (Hudgins and Iversen, 1990). The State of Hawaii Department of Land & Natu­ ral Resources. Honolulu, Hawaii. of oceanographic conditions and ma­ whole question of harbor infrastruc­ Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. rine biology. It seems that more needs ture has been a thorny one even before 1986. Hawaii fisheries plan, 1985. State to be done to encourage their commu­ the original fisheries development plan of Hawaii Department of Land & Natural Resources. Honolulu, Hawaii. nity of interests with the rest of (Department of Land and Natural Re­ _-,-__ .1988. Main Hawaiian Islands ma­ Hawaii's ocean and coastal users. sources, I979b). Similarly, the rela­ rine resources investigation-1988 survey. State of Hawaii Department of Land & Natu­ Foreign and U.S. mainland fisheries tionship between fisheries development ral Resources. Honolulu, Hawaii. and markets are also influencing and fisheries management and between Hawaii Ocean and Marine Resources Coun­ Hawaii's marine fisheries either fisheries and other coastal zone activi­ cil. 1991. Hawaii ocean resources manage­ ment plan. State of Hawaii Department of through biological resource pressure ties (cf. Department of Land and Natu­ Business and Economic Development. Ho­ and environmental effects which have ral Resources, 1979a) are central to nolulu, Hawaii. led to displaced fleets or changes in Hawaii's political agenda in the 1990's. Hudgins, L. L. 1980. Economic model of a fisheries market with endogenous supply: market conditions, or through more di­ Commercial fishing and the expen­ the Hawaii skipjack tuna case. Ph.D. disser­ rect changes in seafood markets. For­ ditures of the recreational and subsis­ tation. Department of Economics, Univ. of eign longline and baitboat fisheries for tence fisheries do not comprise a large Hawaii,114 p. _--,-----;:;- and R. T. B. Iversen. 1990. For­ tuna have fished the central Pacific for industry in Hawaii, not even as a per­ eign flag fishing vessel expenditures in the decades. Although foreign longline centage of the overall ocean sector, Port of Honolulu, 1986-88. Report prepared for the State of Hawaii Department of Busi­ vessels are effectively precluded from although they are larger than many sec­ ness, Economic Development and Tourism, fishing within 200 miles of Hawaii (in­ tors of diversified agriculture and Honolulu, Hawaii, 26 p. cluding the NWHI), the tuna and bill­ manufacturing. But fishing has a num­ __-:-_ and S. G. Pooley. 1987. Growth and contraction of domestic fisheries: fish stocks they seek probably are ber of important linkages to Hawaii's Hawaii's tuna industry in the 1980s./n D. J. sufficiently migratory to hypothesize current industrial and commercial Doulman (editor), Tuna Issues and Perspec­ tives in the Pacific Islands Region. Hono­ an interaction between their distant­ structure and to Hawaii's cultural heri­ lulu: East-West Center Press, 225 p. water capture and fishing conditions tage. The commercial, recreational, and Iversen, R., T. Dye, and L. M. B. Paul. 1989. in Hawaii. Furthermore, a number of subsistence fisheries of Hawaii are im­ Rights of native Hawaiian fishermen with specific regard to harvesting bottomfish in local entrepreneurs have been explor­ portant barometers of conditions in the the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and with ing the importation of fresh fish di­ ocean environment. Those of us whose regard to harvesting of bottomfish, crusta­ rectly into Honolulu from foreign job it is to monitor the marine fisheries ceans, precious corals, and open-ocean fish in offshore areas surrounding the entire Ha­ longline vessels fishing just outside the and to conduct applied research on waiian island chain. A contract report pre­ U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. The those fisheries are constantly fascinated pared for the Western Pacific Regional Fish­ U.S. purse seine tuna fleet has ex­ ery Management Council, Honolulu, Hawaii. by the variation which is displayed. 2 vols; voU, 59 p, vol. 2, 143 p. panded dramatically into the South Pa­ The purpose of this paper has been to MacDonald, C. D., and H. E. Deese. 1988. cific, and the U.S. albacore trollers are provide a better historical framework Opportunities for development: a growth sce­ nario and situation analysis of Hawaii's now fishing the South Pacific, both with which policymakers and the pub­ ocean industries. Oceans '88, Proceedings using American Samoa as a base. Guam lic can assess Hawaii's marine fisheries. of the 13th annual Oceans conference, Vol-

18 Marine Fisheries Review ume 3, Marine Technology Society and Pooley, S. G. 1987. Demand considerations in ____ . 1990. Hawaii longline fishing con­ IEEE, Washington, D.C., approx. 10 p. fisheries management- Hawaii's market for troversy. Southwest Fish. Sci. Cent., Natl. _-=--=-_' H. E. Deese, and E. Corbin. 1991. bottom fish. In J. J. Polovina and S. Ralston Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, P.O. Box 271, La Seafood marketing: innovative support for (editors), Tropical snappers and groupers: Jolla, CA 92038. Tuna Newsletter 97:3-6. fisheries management in Hawaii. MTS '91 Biology and fisheries management, p. 605­ Proceedings. Marine Technology Society, 638. Westview Press, Boulder, Colo. Washington, D.C., p. 113-120.

55(2), 1993 19