Aquaculture in Ancient Hawaii Author(S): Barry A

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Aquaculture in Ancient Hawaii Author(s): Barry A. Costa-Pierce Source: BioScience, Vol. 37, No. 5, Aquaculture (May, 1987), pp. 320-331 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1310688 . Accessed: 13/01/2014 16:16

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Aquaculturecam~~~~00in Ancient Hawaii

Integrated farming systems included massive freshwater and seawater fish ponds

Barry A. Costa-Pierce

- F A combinationof food-produc- crop of barley. This system reclaims ing technologiesis requiredto Seawater soils over a three- to four-year period support a large human popu- farming may and has replaced the costly conven- lationwhere there is a limitedamount have originatedin Hawaii tional ten-year reclamation schemes of arable land. Today integrated previously used by government engi- farmingsystems-combining agricul- more than 1500 years ago neers in the region. ture, aquaculture,animal husbandry, Similarly, in Thailand, a single and waste treatment technologies- large farm may contain several thou- arein use in Southand SoutheastAsia In the northern Delta region of sand ducks, chickens, and pigs, as and China, as well as in EasternEu- Egypt, aquaculture is being used as a well as over a million fish, in a system rope and the Middle East. first stage of reclaiming over 50,000 incorporating anaerobic digestion, In Hungary, for example, a ten- ha of highly saline soils for agricul- waste recycling, and water reuse (Fig- year cycle of land and water use is ture, and up to 10,000 families are ure 1). commonlypracticed to convert mar- supported by the practice (Cross Only recently have scientists begun ginal agricultural and waste lands 1981). In spring, large ponds are con- to understand the fundamental value into productive agricultural lands structed in unreclaimed saline soils, of integrating food production sys- (Brown1977, Muller 1978). For five which may have salt concentrations tems (Bardach 1982, Billard 1986, years a combination of duck and as high as 200 parts per thousand Ma 1985, Pullin and Shehadeh 1980, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) (ppt). These ponds are flooded with Shang and Costa-Pierce 1983). In farming in ponds produces about water of 5-8 ppt for two weeks, then some cases, however, integrated 4000 kg/ha/year of ducks and fish. the water is drained. Flooding is then farming systems techniques have ex- Duringyears six and seven, the ponds repeated. After the second batch of perienced failure due at least in part are drained and alfalfa is planted in water is discarded, the ponds are to socio-economic, cultural, and po- the pond bottoms. Yields of alfalfa filled to 30 cm depth and stocked litical factors. Therefore it is useful to are approximately8000kg/ha in the with mullet fingerlings (Lisa ramada, consider historical examples of inte- first year and 6000 kg/ha in the sec- Lisa saliens, and Mugil cephalus) grated farming systems and their so- ond. During years eight, nine, and caught from the sea. Farmers regulate cio-cultural contexts. ten, rice is planted,and harvestsaver- the pond salinity by adding water age 3000-3500 kg/ha/year.The ten- during the season, and no feed or Some traditions of then anew with fertilizer is used. Fish are harvested year cycle begins ancient aquaculture combinedduck and fish farming. from December to April and yields are 300-500 kg/ha/year. Integrated farming systems, which in- BarryA. Costa-Pierceconducted this re- Low salinity standing water in the cluded aquaculture, arose in ancient search for IntegratedAquaculture, Inc., ponds forces the higher salinity China, Egypt, and Hawaii, and per- Waimanalo,HI 96795. He is now project groundwater downwards through the haps also Europe and the southwest- and leaderof the IntegratedAquaculture soil profile, where it is collected in ern United States. This innovation in Fisheries for Indonesian Development subsurface drains. Each spring the food production, which developed in ReservoirsProject and an associatescien- of soil desalination is localized have resulted in the Interna- progress regions, may tist AquacultureProgram, of Euca- from extreme on tional Center for Re- checked by inserting twigs population pressure Living Aquatic the soil. If the the of natural sources (ICLARM), MC lyptus sp. into pond production capacities Management for P.O. Box 1501, Makati, Metro Manila, twigs die, the land is again used and agricultural ecosystems. There is Philippines.? 1987 AmericanInstitute of aquaculture; if the twigs live, the evidence of both local and wide- BiologicalSciences. farmers know the soil can support a spread famine in ancient China, Eu-

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions rope, the Middle East, and Oceania. Mallory (1928) reported that China experienced famine in some province nearly every year for over a thousand years. In 1878 Cornelius Walford compiled a chronicle of 350 famines in Europe and the Middle East, going back as far as a famine in Rome in CHICKEN3 ? MARKET 436 B.C. (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1972). Originally, aquaculture seems to have evolved from fishing. Then it developed into integrated agriculture- t ]WASTES 1 EcOGS aquaculture farming systems in the MARKET PIGS DUCKS i E MARKET most advanced ancient agricultural societies (Ruddle 1980, 1982). For GA S] example, in the upper Mekong River DIOGESTER WASTES WASTES watershed, in southwest China and Laos, ricefield fisheries may have co- evolved with wet rice cultivation and A DEAD the fermentation of rice and fish sur- FISH FISH MARKET pluses (Ishige and Ruddle 1985). In these freshwater systems aquaculture WATER was integrated into existing agricultural enterprises, creating a new type SLURRY CROPS - J' of agroecosystem. | MILL China is often credited with the VEGETABLES FRUITS development of much of the art and science of modern aquaculture. Chi- MARKET MARKET nese fishing methods, fisheries man- and tech- agement, early aquaculture Figure 1. System schematic of Kirikan Farm, Thailand, a have been documented as large-scale integrated biogas niques far energy-agriculture-aquaculturefacility, which illustrates the principles of resource back as 1122 B.C. (Radcliffe 1926). conservation,waste recycling,and symbiotic,high-yielding food productionsubunits. Intensive fishing pressure, due to the Modifiedfrom Edwards(1980). great population pressures in the coastal zone of ancient China likely helped initiate the early aquaculture easily caught in the Pearl and Yangtze techniques also spread into India development. Around 2000 B.C. the rivers and reared together in ponds. around 1127 A.D. (Bimacher and Tri- ruler Yu Wang issued a conservation Thus arose the classical Chinese fish pathi 1966, Jhingran 1969). More edict prohibiting fishing during the polyculture that is widely practiced recently (about 1910), Chinese immi- spawning seasons (Wu 1985). During today (FAO 1983, Ruddle and Zhong grants introduced aquaculture into the Chou Dynasty (1122 to 249 B.C.), 1987). Thailand (Smith 1925) and integrated Fan Li started breeding and raising It is not clear whether aquaculture farming techniques into Malaysia, common carp in Wuxi, Jiangsu Prov- originated in China or was intro- Singapore, and Indonesia (Terra ince, in eastern China. In 473 B.C. he duced from elsewhere before 2000 1958). wrote a book entitled Fish Breeding, B.C. Common carp are not native to The sophistication of aquaculture the first known document on aqua- China but came from the rivers of in ancient China has been well docu- culture (Fan Li fifth century B.C.). Central Asia that drain into the Black mented; however, parallel develop- Ancient Chinese aquaculture em- and Caspian Seas (Schaperclaus ments occurred in ancient Egypt. Al- ployed only common carp until the 1962). Okada (1960) proposes that though no written treatise is known Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 A.D.), the Romans or their predecessors in- that describes ancient Egyptian aqua- when the Emperor Li banned the cul- troduced the fish into ancient China culture techniques, well-preserved, ture, fishing, sale, and consumption and Europe. Thus the origins of aqua- magnificently detailed bas reliefs il- of this fish because its Chinese name culture might lie somewhere in an- lustrate a highly developed technolo- was the same as that of the Emperor! cient Europe, and aquaculture may gy of farming the Nile tilapia (Oreo- Over time, aquaculture was begun have been transplanted into China by chromis niloticus) (Chimits 1957). using five other carp species-grass ancient trade and migration. In a scene on the Tomb of Thebaine carp (Ctenopharyngodonidella), sil- Once established in China, howev- (Davis and Gardner 1954), for in- ver carp (Hypophthalmichthysmoli- er, fish culture techniques spread rap- stance, an Egyptian of importance is trix), bigheadcarp (Aristichthysnobi- idly from the Chinese mainland into sitting in his garden and fishing a lis), mud carp (Cirrhinamolitorella), Japan, but aquaculture in Japan re- drainable, artificial fish tank for Nile and black carp (Mylopharyngodon mained unimportant until recently tilapia, using a double line with two piceus)-whose fingerlingscould be (Drews 1951). Chinese aquaculture hooks (Figure 2). His wife is seated

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions the resort of ducks and other water fowl. -T. Bloxam, Britishnaturalist on H. M. S. Blonde, describingWaikiki in 1825 (Handy and Handy 1972, p. 482).

The ancient Hawaiian fishponds were part of a large, integrated, and complex Hawaiian subsistence and barter economy that included agriculture, aquaculture, and animal rearing. The political aspects of this sociocultural system contributed greatly to the development of the expansive aquaculture-agriculture network. Hierarchical political control and redistribution of food was essential to the smooth functioning of the ancient integrated farming systems, because Figure2. Bas reliefon the Tombof Thebaine,Nile Delta, Egypt,circa 2000 B.C.Note construction and management of the the central drainagecanal, floating plants, and juxtapositionof tank to fruit trees. huge fishpond complexes required These components are widely used in modern aquacultureto harvest fish, provide sizeable labor forces. Massive ponds shelterfor small fish, and reusewastewaters in agriculture,respectively. Redrawn from such as the Kaloko pond in Kona, author'sphotographs and Chimits(1957). Hawaii, have a 229-m-long wall mea- suring about 2 m high and 11 m thick at the base. This wall contains an just behind him to unhook the catch. In addition to the Chinese and estimated 150,000 m3 of rock and fill The tank has a clearly defined central Egyptian examples of ancient aqua- (Apple and Kikuchi 1975). The drainage canal and shallow sides with culture, fish culture or fish "storage" Kuapa pond at Maunalua, Oahu, was floating plants as shelter for the fish. may have been practiced in ancient reportedly built over several years by In the background are servants pick- Poland (Bogucki and Grygiel 1983) thousands of people who formed long ing fruit from trees that are irrigated and in the US Southwest (Figure 3) human chains to transport rocks from by water from the fish pond. This (McCown and McCown 1982). But the Ko'olau Mountains. Efforts of illustration indicates that fish culture more careful studies are needed to this magnitude obviously required in artificial ponds was used in con- document true aquaculture at these great social organization. junction with agriculture before 2000 sites. Ancient Hawaii had highly strati- B.C. in Egypt, and the system provides The ancient aquaculture and inte- fied chiefdoms with a well-defined a remarkable parallel to ancient Chi- grated farming systems of Hawaii ex- class structure separating chiefs, advi- nese integrated farming systems. hibit a very remarkable sophistication sors, stewards, and commoners. This With a system of canals and gates, in terms of their diversity, distinctive organization was similar to that of ancient Egyptians managed large in- management, and sheer extent of de- the chiefdoms found in Tonga, Sa- land lakes for fish production. Isa- velopment, especially given the small moa, and the Society Islands (Sahlins iah's prophesy (19 Is 10) was failure size of Hawaii. Although the Hawai- 1958). Prior to 1848, all Hawaiian "for all that make sluices or ponds for ian systems are only 1500-1800 land-its resources, fishponds, and fish," referring to the ancient Egyp- years old (a comparatively recent de- communal and spiritual centers- tians (Fryer and Iles 1972). These velopment by Chinese and Egyptian were owned by the kings (ali'i). The techniques are described further: standards) mariculture-seawater kings would contract the bulk of the farming-may have originated in land and fishponds to lesser chiefs Lake which is in a Moeris, very dry Hawaii. (konohiki) but keep sacred and spe- region, is fed by an artificialcanal cial such as that from the the water resources, fishponds coming Nile; under flows into the lake for six months, Socio-cultural system of produced especially tasty fish, and back from the lake into the Nile ancient Hawaii their direct control. Couriers would for another six months. With the transport, from these royal ponds to The whole distanceto the of water flowingback into the Nile, the village the court, plump fish in water-filled lake to the Whyeeteis taken up with innumera- or hand brought Royal Treasury, ble artificial a gourds by (Rice 1923) (Fig- through its fisheries,one talent [35 fishponds extending ure 4). a While mile inland from shore, in these the kg] day. flowing back into fish Konohiki were granted large, the the was 20 taken by nets in the sea are put, lake, output only and most of the are wedge-shaped areas (ahupua'a) of the mines [11 kg]. though ponds fresh water, yet the fish seem to Hawaiian islands that encompassed -Herodotus, Book II written circa thrive and fatten ... The ponds are entire valleys and stretched from the 450 B.C.(Chimits 1957, p. 214). several hundredin number and are mountains to the sea (Lind 1938)

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Figure3. Aerialview of fish ponds, possiblybuilt by the PalmSprings or CahuillaNative Americans,along the shore of ancientLake Le Conte, now west of the SaltonSea in SouthernCalifornia. Numerous circular and rectangularponds can be seen along the former lake shoreline.It is not yet known if true aquacultureor simple fish trappingoccurred in this region, but growing archeological evidenceexists that a highlysophisticated agricultural/fisheries society trapped migrating fish from the ancientlake, culturedthem in small ponds, and reproducedthem for distributionelsewhere. Photo: Frank Colver with permission from B. H. McCown, ArchaeologicalSurvey Association of SouthernCalifornia, Redlands, CA.

(Figure 5). These ahupua'a were gen- erally not demarcated in Hawaii; no evidence of erect stones marking individual land holdings, such as in Tahi- ti, have been found (Handy and Handy 1972). It appears that the ahupua'a were mainly political subdivi- sions granted by the ali'i to konohiki to assure subsistence supplies of food, i , ...i firewood, timber, thatch, and ornamentation. . Handy and Handy (1972) have de- i scribed a share-cropping arrangement i between tenant families and the konohiki that was "comprehensive and S ., ie reciprocal in its benefits." Within an ahupua'a were sections of land ('iii) granted to individual extended families ('ohana) for cultivation. These t. temporary or permanent land divi- sions within the ahupua'a were clear- Figure4. "Makoa,"an illustrationof the Hawaiianfish courierswho carriedfresh fish ly marked and carried individual ti- over long distancesfrom royalponds to the travellingcourt of ancientHawaiian kings. tles. "It was said that in every com- Print:Dietrich Varez, Volcano, HI.

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions HAWAIIAN AHUPUA'A Contact with Europeans, which be- ls) gan in 1778, had a variety of dramat- ic effects on Hawaiian society. It de- stroyed the ancient religion and the chief's supernatural right to control all the land, its resources, and its people. The economy changed from the traditional barter system to a money economy. Contact with foreigners also brought new diseases, which led to the massive depopula- tion of Hawaii. The Hawaiian land decision of 1848 allowed the purchase of land by Hawaiian commoners and by foreigners. In many areas the largest purchase of government lands was by some ELEVATION1000' foreigners; foreigners purchased RAINFALL60" thousands of acres for $.25-$.50 per acre (Kelly 1980). This land decision (locally known as the Great Mahele) was a pivotal point not only in Ha- waiian history but also in the history of the integrated farming systems. De- cline of the fishpond complexes and Hawaiian integrated farming systems was rapid after the Great Mahele. Once the harvests from the lands and fishponds became economic enti- ties with prices, their distribution tended no longer to follow either an Makai institutionalized pattern of sharing ur SEA LEVEL / - Palms / CoconU'C (ocean) and 1972) or of ex- RAINFALL25" (Handy Handy ploitation of the commoners by the ( LOKO'UMEIKI LOKO KUAPA chiefs (Kikuchi 1973), as before the Great Mahele. With the general de- mise of native Hawaiian society, the majority of Hawaiian integrated fell into disuse and Figure 5. An idealized Hawaiian ahupua'a showing topographicalpla cement of farming systems freshwater,brackish-water, and oceanic integratedfarming systems. Stars indicate disrepair. placementof settlements.The systemswere very diverseand were adaptedt :o the wide When Captain James Cook reached range of environmentspresent, but typical valley systems of this type would be Hawaii in 1778, at least 360 fish- approximately10 km from mountainsto ocean and 10-20 km along the s;horeline. ponds existed. They produced some 900,000 kg fish/yr (Table 1). Accord- ing to the State of Hawaii only 28 munity there were individuals who that the presence of the fish]ponds did ponds were suitable for fish culture in were well versed in the local lore of not indicate any contempt oon the part 1977 (Madden and Paulsen 1977); by land boundaries, rights, and history" of the konohiki for the lo cal popu- 1985 only seven ponds were in com- (Handy and Handy 1972, p. 49). lace. He stated, "How c(ould they mercial or subsistence use. These All harvests from the fishponds have worked together in iunity and ponds produced 15,000-20,000 kg/ were distributed in a politically insti- made these walls if they had been yr, a mere one to two percent of the tutionalized manner by the konohiki frequently at war and in c)pposition earlier production. to the 'ohana and pond workers liv- one against another? If they did not ing in the ahupua'a. Kikuchi (1976) eat the fruit of their efforts? Inea, farming systems has suggested that the fishponds were a native Hawaiian, Dav id Integrated symbols of the chiefly right to con- wrote of a Big Island chief who was Four basic types of fishponds and one spicuous consumption and the exclu- killed because of his cruel efforts to fish "trap" were known in ancient sive ownership of the land and its exploit his people when he' '... made Hawaii and were integrated to vari- resources, and that the fishponds the people of Ka'u sweat aind groan ous degrees with taro (Colocasia es- were the subject of frequent intertri- .. .[with] the building of he-avy stone culenta) agriculture. Ponds were fed bal and intratribal conflict. walls about several fishr)onds..." with cut grass, mussels, clams, sea- Kamakau (1976) argues, however, (Malo 1951). weeds, and taro leaf from adjacent

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions agricultural or natural ecosystems Table 1. Estimatedyields of Hawaiian aquacultureponds before 1900. (Titcomb 1952, Wilder 1923). In contrast to modern integrated systems, Numberof Area in Minimum Percent Island ponds hectares* yieldt total Hawaiian fishponds did not receive (kg) fertilization from animal or human Oahu 175 1306 438,816 49 wastes or kitchen refuse; the chiefs Hawaii 59 440 147,840 16 prohibited such waste use (Kikuchi Molokai 56 418 140,448 16 1976). Kauai 42 313 105,168 12 The and number Maui 26 194 65,184 7 diversity, extent, Lanai of in Hawaii before contact 1 7 2,352 <1 fishponds Niihau 1 7 2,352 <1 with Europeans is impressive. The various fishponds (Figure 6) spanned Total 360 2685 902,160 100 the natural salinity range of water. The four types of fishponds (Figure 7) * Using an averageof 7.46 ha per fishpond(Kikuchi 1973). an of 336 developed within the ahupua'a were: t Using average kg/ha/yr(Cobb 1902). * freshwater taro fishponds (loko i'a and well. also noticed that kalo) algae (Spirogyra sp. Cladophora They probably limu were also their taro more and * other freshwater ponds (loko wai) sp.; kalawai) grown. grew luxuriantly These arose had fewer to the contin- * brackish water ponds (loko fishponds probably orig- pests, owing from shallow ual and activities of pu'uone) inally ponds (lo'i), grazing pruning which were created the diversion certain of fish. Taro was * seawater ponds (loko kuapa) by types planted of stream runoff for the irrigation of in mounds to leave channels for An additional type of pond (really a taro, and over time the Hawaiians swimming fish to feed on the insects fish trap) was known as loko 'umeiki added aquaculture to the design of and ripe leaf stems of the taro (Kama- (Summers 1964). these ponds. kau 1976). Surplus fish from abundant sea Freshwater taro fishponds. The taro harvests of milkfish (Chanos chanos), Other freshwater ponds. The second fishponds (loko i'a kalo) were devel- mullet, and silver perch were put in type of freshwater ponds, loko wai oped in the uplands to cultivate taro shallow ponds located close to the (Figure 7), were inland ponds or lakes and simultaneously grow a limited sea. Fish also directly entered the taro typically excavated by hand from a range of euryhaline and freshwater patch-fishponds from the sea through natural depression, lake, or pool and fish, such as mullet (Mugil cephalus; the newly created artificial estuary. It supplied with water diverted by ditch- ama 'ama), silver perch (Kuhlia sand- is likely that the originators of the es from streams, rivers, or by natural wicensis; aholehole), and Hawaiian stocking practice observed that fish groundwater springs or aquifers. Na- gobies (Eleotris sandwicensis and E. held in these ponds not only survived tive species of freshwater prawn and fusca; 'o'opu). Freshwater prawn the harsh transition in salinity from Hawaiian gobies (Eleotris sandwicen- (Macrobrachium sp.; opae) and green seawater to freshwater but also grew sis, E. fusca, and Gnatholepis anjer-

HAWAIIANINTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEM

AGRICULTURE AQUACULTURE I I NON-IRRIGATED IRRIGATED FISHPONDS FISHTRAPS I I I I , I I I LO'I KALO LOKO I'A KALO LOKO WAI LOKO PU'UONE LOKO KUAPA LOKO UME'IKI I I I I I TARO TARO TARO PRAWNS CRABS (MO'ALA) CRABS SAME MARINE SPECIES YAM PRAWNS (OPAE OEHA'A) GOBIES GOBIES MULLET SWEET POTATO GOBIES (O'OPU) MULLET LADYFISH SURMULLETS BANANA MULLET (AMA'AMA) SURMULLETS MULLET MILKFISH SURMULLETS (I, WEKE) MILKFISH SURMULLETS SILVER PERCH MILKFISH (AWA) LADYFISH MILKFISH BONEFISH LADYFISH (AWA'AUA) SILVER PERCH SILVER PERCH LADYFISH SILVER PERCH (AHOLEHOLE) BONEFISH (O'10) JACKS POND ALGAE (LIMU KALAWAI) JACKS (PAPI'O, ULUA, AMAKA) THREADFIN (MOI) ANCHOVY (NEHU) ANCHOVY BIG-EYE SCAD (AKULE) BIG-EYE SCAD TEN POUNDERS (AWA'AWA) BARACUDDA (KAKU)

NUMEROUS HAWAIIAN REEF FISH: PARROTFISH (UHU) WRASSE (HINALEA) AMBER JACK (KAHALA) CONVICT TANG (MANINI) GOATFISH (KUMU) STURGEONFISH (PALANI)I UNICORNFISH (KALA)l MORAY EELS (PUHI)

FRESHWATER SALTWATER

Figure6. The Hawaiian integratedfarming system spannedthe normal salinity range of water and compriseda continuumfrom agricultureto aquaculture.An impressivenumber of specieswere harvestedfrom seawater fishponds and traps;the ponds encloseda reef-flatenvironment and all its species. Modifiedfrom Kikuchi(1976).

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions both fresh and salt water. Two types of loko pu'uone have been described, a planter's pu'uone and an ali'i pu'uone (Handy and Handy 1972), classified by their ownership and the effort and elaboration used in their construction.

Seawater ponds. The fourth type of fishpond, the seawater ponds or loko kuapa (Figure 7), was the ultimate aquaculture achievement of the native Hawaiians and a valuable contribution to native engineering and subsistence food production. Mariculture, or the farming of euryhaline and marine aquatic animals in seawater, appears to have reached a sophisticated level in ancient Hawaii. Summers (1964) states that loko kuapa are found nowhere else in Polynesia. The main isolating feature of these ponds was a seawall (kuapa) constructed of coral or lava rock. Kikuchi (1973) noted that the lengths of 90 fishponds studied ranged from 46- 1920 m, with the greatest frequency of lengths between 366-610 m, and containing an average of 955 m3 of rocks and fill. Some of the stones used in the walls have been estimated to Figure7. Fourmain typesof ancientHawaiian integrated farming systems: (a) lo'i were weigh as much as a half a ton. for the paddyculture of taro (Colocasiaesculenta, and loko i'a kalo were taro patches On the island of Molokai, which modified to include aquaculture;these upland ponds are depicted in a valley with has a shoal south- loko wai were artificialand naturalfreshwater lakes protected, regular, elevationcontours indicated; (b) ern more loko were excavatedfor or modifiedfor loko were brackish- coastline, kuapa aquaculturerespectively; (c) pu'uone constructed area of land than waterlakes from the sea a or of land reinforcedby mud, silt, per separated by pu'uone spit else in Hawaii and refuse and connectedto the sea by a ditch that had gratesto trap and hold large anywhere (Figure 8). fish; (d) loko kuapa were ponds built along the shorelineusually on top of a reef flat Large numbers of these ponds were with volcanic rock and/or coral to form a wall (kuapa). Controlledharvests were also developed in the Kaneohe Bay, accomplishedusing a canal, net, and grate system. Modifiedfrom Kikuchi(1976). Waikiki, and Pearl Harbor areas of Oahu (Figure 9). In some of the Mo- lokai ponds coralline algae, which nesis) and migrantsfrom the sea that strandedby eustaticsea-level changes secretes a natural cement, was used to move into fresh water (mullet, milk- (Kikuchi1976), or formed by piling strengthen the walls. Women and fish, and silver perch) were stocked, mud, sand, and coral to form earth children gathered these algae from the grown, and harvested from these embankmentsparallel to the coast sea for this purpose (Summers 1964). ponds. Milkfish were particularly (Figure7). A sand bar, coastal reef, or Ponds on Molokai were built on a abundantin these ponds, having been two adjacentedges of land mass iso- reef flat, with the walls extending in a procured in shallow shoreline areas lated these ponds from the open sea. semicircle from the shoreline. The and carried long distances in large These loko pu'uone were connected ponds thereby contained all of the gourds filled with water (Beckley to the ocean by a canal constructedso marine aquatic biota of the original 1883). These ponds were harvested that seawater would enter the fish- reef environment. At least 22 species by woven reed nets (hala) placed pond on a rising tide. Loko pu'uone of marine life flourished in these across a channel to capture the fish usually had some freshwaterinputs, ponds. during their seaward spawning mi- either from springs, streamsentering Loko kuapa had an additional fea- grations, oftentimes during full the pond, submarine groundwater ture that can only be described as an moons in the spring. discharges,or water percolatingfrom ancient engineering marvel. Canals adjacent aquifers. The combination (auwai) were constructed into the Brackish-waterponds. Brackish-wa- of fresh and salt water produced a walls of the ponds for the stocking, ter ponds, the third type of fishpond, brackish-waterenvironment that was harvesting, and cleaning of the seawa- were coastal ponds excavated by very productive and very diverse in ter ponds with minimal human effort. hand from a natural body of water the species that could acclimatefrom The canals connected the ponds di-

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions rectly to the sea and had, in the would scentthe freshsea and long for become silted, the grates and canals middle, a single, immovable grate it. I have seen them become like wild were operated to clean the ponds, in a (makaha) made of dense native things.At a sluice where the fish had clever example of practical mainte- been treatedlike would woods (Figure 10). These grates were pet pigs, they nance. In these cases, more than one constructed solid crowdto the makahawhere the keep- canal was constructed in an by vertically lashing ers felt of them with their hands and orderly timbers ('ohi'ia or lama) to two or in the with took whatever of them they pattern pond walls, grates three cross beams with ferns, so that wanted.... set across from each other into the the individual timbers were direction of the separated -S. M. Kamakau,9 December1869 prevailing longshore by approximately 0.5-2.0-cm wide Translatedfrom a Hawaiian current. Thus water and On a tide the on the spaces. only very Newspaper,Ke Au 'Oko'a rising grate small fish could in and pass freely out (Kamakau1976, p. 49) upstream end of the longshore cur- of the pond. The pond was therefore rent was opened. This washed the automatically stocked from the sea. Over time the loko kuapa would sediment accumulated at this up- The grates were fixed in the canal become filled with sediments, either stream grate downstream toward the and large fish trying to migrate to the washed in during heavy rains or accu- middle of the fishpond. On the next sea were harvested by setting nets on mulated from the settling of particles ebb tide this upstream grate was the pond side of the grate or by hand in the water. In some of the larger closed, and the downstream grate on capture (Kamakau 1976). Harvesting ponds on Molokai that tended to the opposite side of the pond opened. was attuned to the behavior of the ,o fish. Loko kuapa were used to culture 0 mainly two species of fish-milkfish and mullet. Both are technically sea spawners (catadromous). During certain seasons (frequently spring moons in Hawaii), they return from their freshwater and brackish-water habitats to spawn in coastal seawater. In contrast, salmon, being anadromous fish, have an exactly opposite life cycle. During the migration periods the keepers of the fish pond (kia'i) would joyously watch hundreds of fish swim into the canal in a futile attempt to reach the sea. Nets set on the side of the makaha would pond Figure 8. A map of the Hawaiian island of Molokai with its shoal southern off the route. long, close migratory coastline. Darkened areas indicate the areas of some 28 marine fishponds (loko kuapa). Later in Hawaiian history, the ca- Two brackish water ponds (loko pu'uone) are indicated by letters. Numbers refer to the nals were modified to have one or location of fish traps (loko 'umeiki). Modified from Cobb (i902). two vertically moveable makaha sub- stituting for the set net and immovable makaha used earlier. With this modification, as the fish entered the canal and tried to migrate to the sea, the seaside makaha was lowered (or - .?'. ..- * -. . . i " ', was permanently fixed) and the pondside makaha raised. The pondside makaha was then lowered, trapping the fish, which were simply netted out of the canal. The process was then repeated. Thus through the use of NORTH keen observational skills and knowledge of fish behavior, a method was devised of allowing the fish to harvest themselves.

When the keeperof the pond wished to removesome fish, he would go to PEARKALLIHI the makaha(grate) while the tide was : X ;- coming.... The keeper would dip *2i-^ *RPEARL -KALBASIN HARBOR O his foot into the water at the makaha and if the sea pressedin like a stream Figure 9. A map of the Pearl Harbor and Kalihi Basin areas of the island of Oahu, and felt warm, then he knew that the Hawaii. Darkened areas depict the locations of more than 30 loko wai, loko pu'uone, sluice would be full of fish. The fish and loko kuapa. Modified from McAllister (1933).

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions or wholly submergedat high tide and contained numerous openings, or lanes, leading into or out of the trap. Most known loko'umeikiwere located on the island of Molokai, possibly owing to the favorableorientation of the island with regard to longshore currents.However, it is claimed that PearlHarbor, on Oahu, had three or four of these types of traps and that one fish trap may have existed on land.1 VI , . These lanes connecting the traps v. . . or MAAKAUA!FOM S;AWARD with the ocean were used to catch fish migratingdown the coastline, which were attractedto the surgeof water at the lane entrances(Figure 11). Fisher- men simply laid a net facing the sea across the opening of the lane to captureinflowing fish on an incoming tide. When the tide reversed, fishermen faced theirnets toward the traps, capturingfish as they swam out toward the sea. It was reportedthat the right to fish during differentportions of the tidal cycle was divided among family groups. Suchwas the case of MikiawaPond at Ka'amola,Molokai. When the tide 5.AWA RDC was coming in, the people of Keawanuicould use the lanes.When PLAN OF MA Ar.UP the sea ebbed, the fish belong to Ka'amola. Figure10. Details of the sluice grate (makaha)that was fixed in a canal -Timoteo Keaweiwi,1853 permanently Native (auwaio ka makaha)connecting the pond to the open sea. Nets were set on the pond Foreign TestimonyBook 16 side of the canal to capturefish gatheringin the canalattempting to migrateto the sea. Stateof HawaiiArchives Note that a single, immovablegrate was used in the ancient design. Modified from Honolulu,Hawaii Apple and Kikuchi(1975). (Summers1964, p. 56)

Implications The ebb tide therefore tended to pull these types of ponds on Molokai pri- the accumulated sediment from the or to the 1946 tsunami. Although It is evident that the ancient Hawai- middle of the pond toward the down- modern scientists have had great diffi- ians supported a relatively high popu- stream grate. By a regular program of culty in spawning mullet in captivity lation density by managing an eco- following the tidal cycle and opening (this has improved only recently), logically complex integrated farming and closing the proper grates the Phelps was assured by Hawaiian el- system that connected agricultural ponds could be effectively cleaned of ders that mullet had indeed spawned watersheds to oceanic environments. sediment. In addition, if a pond was regularly in these ponds. He states, These historical developments are re- silted up after a particularly heavy "The Hawaiian knowledge of the nat- markably similar in principle to inte- rain, weighted bamboo rakes (kope ural history of fishes, in the old days, grated farming systems developed in 'ohe) were towed behind outrigger should not be underestimated" ancient China and Egypt. Hawaiian canoes to facilitate movement of the (Phelps 1937, p. 14). society, like other ancient civiliza- accumulated sediment out of the fish tions, was subject to droughts, climat- ponds. Fish trap. The last type of fishpond ic disruptions, natural disasters, and Cordover (1970) has discovered used by the Hawaiians, loko 'umeiki, famines; it may have developed these another type of seawater fishpond on was actually a trap rather than a pond integrated farming systems in Molokai with no grates. These ponds (Figure 11). Hawaiian fish traps are response. were stocked with fingerling mullet very similar to those in much of Ocea- The limited archeological and (Mugil cephalus) only once, and it nia. Like loko kuapa, these traps were was Hawaiians that mul- shoreline with semicircu- reported by ponds low, 1W. Kikuchi, 1985, personal communication. let spawned and grew there success- lar pond walls. However, unlike the Department of Science, Kauai Community Col- fully. Hamre (1945) reported more of loko kuapa, pond walls were partially lege, Lihue, Kauai, HI.

328 BioScience Vol. 37 No. 5

This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions aquaculture research, as well as ex- ploration in the Pacific Basin, allows no conclusions to be drawn either regarding the uniqueness of the Ha- waiian integrated farming systems among the Pacific islands, as some have suggested (Kikuchi 1973, Sum- mers 1964), or their possible relation- ships to Chinese or other Asian systems. The Hawaiians appear to be one of the originators of mariculture; there is no evidence of another ancient culture using oceanic resources in this manner. Most of the previous work on early Hawaiian aquaculture focused on the marine fishponds. These studies con- cluded that the ponds were techno- logically primitive, ecologically inefficient, and unproductive in biomass per unit area when compared with Asian practices (Hiatt 1947a,b, Kiku- chi 1973, 1976). But these earlier interpretations may be inappropriate in light of the total farming system, which spanned an extensive salinity range of water and encompassed entire valleys. Direct comparison with Asian systems is unjustified, because the aquaculture are at ends systems opposite Figure11. Planof a fish (loko'umeiki)(Papa'ili'ili), from Molokai wedged between of the The trap management spectrum. two marinefishponds (loko kuapa) (Kaina'oheand Keawanui).Details of three pond Asian systems are semi-intensive, sus- outlet canals (A, B, C) and one pond inlet canal (D) are shown. Note the enlargedwall tained by large inputs of labor, feed, sectionson canalsB, C, and D accommodatingfisherman. These areasindicate where and fertilizer supplements; whereas nets were set to capturefish on rising (D) and falling (A, B, C) tides. Modifiedfrom the Hawaiian systems were mostly Stokes (1909). sustained by natural productivity, and thus are called extensive. For an extensive system, the estimated yields fishing and agricultural societies were Extensive aquaculture systems, by Cobb (1902) of 336 kg/ha/year attributed to their "inefficient," their sustainability, productivity, and would place the Hawaiian fishpond "primitive," and "subsistence" tech- roles in traditional food production systems operated before contact with nologies, without any consideration networks have received little atten- European culture on par with most of sociocultural and economic con- tion to date. These systems may have extensive aquaculture systems in the cerns (Ruddle and Grandstaff 1978). a much greater role in integrated rural world today. Indeed these yields are Thus, the poverty of traditional fish- development schemes worldwide comparable to some of the smaller ermen was ascribed to a lack of mod- than the high-yielding intensive aqua- intensively managed modern Chinese ern fishing gear and methods. Recent culture systems because they can be lakes and reservoirs (Billard 1986). scientific study, however, has shown ecologically benign and integrated Only recently have scientists sys- that traditional fishermen have a wide into fragile natural ecosystems with tematically documented traditional knowledge of oceanography, fish bi- no pollution impact (Hirata 1983); technologies of agricultural and fish- ology and behavior, and conservation they have lower capital costs, allowing societies. These studies of tradi- and management practices that pre- ing entry by the poorest farmers in tional crops, methods, and systems served the biological integrity of fish society; they require little manage- have produced so many advances in stocks for generations before the ad- ment or foreign expertise; and they such a short time, many agricultural vent of modern gear or methods (Jo- frequently have higher economic re- researchers now first consider tradi- hannes 1978, Johannes et al. 1983, turns than intensive systems (Hir- tional knowledge, however primitive RaiChoudhury 1980, Roy 1982, asawa 1985). it may appear, and use it as a founda- Ruddle and Johannes 1985). Perhaps The vast majority of aquaculture tion for further research (Richards these traditional fishing and agricul- production today comes from exten- 1985). tural societies should be termed eco- sive and integrated farming systems in Until the 1970s, however, the pov- logically advanced rather than tech- Asia (FAO 1984, Zweig 1985). The erty and underdeveloped status of nologically backward. principles and management of these

May 1987 329

This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions systems are quite similar to the an- my of Knowledge); W. Kikuchi (Kau- omons, MD. cient Hawaiian tech- ai G. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). systems. Simple Community College); 1983. Freshwater aquaculture development nology transfer from one traditional Krishnakan (Honolulu Community in China. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. 215, Rome. system to another may dramatically College); S. Maynard (University of 1984. A study of methodologies for increase productivity and efficiency. Hawaii); S. Nakagawa (Hilo, HI); D. forecasting aquaculture development. FAO For the modern version of Penn of K. Rud- Fish. Tech. Pap. 248, Rome. example, (University Hawaii); and T. D. Iles. 1972. The Cichlid the Hawaiian dle Sea Fryer, G., canal-grate system may (National Museum, Japan); Fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa: Their have great potential for the thousands Grant Extension, University of Ha- Biology and Evolution. T. E H. Publ., Nep- of hectares of extensive marine ponds waii (SGEUH); H. Takata (SGEUH); tune City, NJ. along the coasts of India and John Wagner (Integrated Aquacul- Hamre, C. J. 1945. A survey of nine commer- Indonesia. cial fishponds. Cooperative Fisheries Re- ture, Inc.). search Unit, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Transfer and improvement of Handy, E. S. C., and E. G. Handy. 1972. Na- knowledge in traditional food pro- References cited tive Planters in Old Hawaii. Bishop Museum duction systems may have greater val- Press, Honolulu. ue than fix" Apple, R. A., and W. K. Kikuchi. 1975. An- Hiatt, R. W. 1947a. Food-chains and the food any "technological ap- cient Hawaii Shore Zone An in Hawaiian fish I. The machines and Fishponds: cycle ponds-Part plied by modern Evaluation of Survivors for Historical Pres- food and feeding habits of mullet (Mugil methods. While we do not know how ervation. National Park Service, Honolulu. cephalus), milkfish (Chanos chanos), and the to stimulate, manage, and sustain a Bardach, J. E. 1982. Contributions of alterna- ten-pounder (Elops machnata). Trans. Am. natural food web in an extensive tive energy technologies to aquaculture and Fish. Soc. 74: 250-261. to ob- animal husbandry: a selected overview. 1947b. Food-chains and the food cycle aquaculture system repeatedly Pages 52-68 in F Vogt, ed. Energy Conser- in Hawaiian fish ponds-Part II. Biotic inter- tain high yields, we do know it is vation and Use of Renewable Energies in the actions. Trans. Am. Fish Soc. 74: 262-280. possible. With no supplemental feeds Bio-Industries 2. Pergamon Press, New Hirasawa, Y. 1985. Economics of shrimp cul- or fertilizers added, and management York. ture in Asia. Pages 131-150 in Y. Taki, J. H. timed to the abundances of natural Beckley, E. M. 1883. Hawaiian Fisheries and Primavera, and J. A. Llobrera, eds. Proceed- Methods Advertiser Stream the First International on foods scientists have of Fishing. Print, ings of Conference available, Honolulu. the Culture of Penaeid Prawns/Shrimps. achieved experimental productivities Billard, R. 1986. Symbiotic integration of Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Cen- from 11,000-25,500 kg/ha/year in aquaculture and agriculture. Fisheries 11: ter (SEAFDEC), Iloilo City, Philippines. A of Laguna de Bay, Philippines (SEAF- 14-19. Hirata, H. 1983. reevaluation extensive DEC Bimacher, B. S., and S. D. Tripathi. 1966. A aquaculture systems in Madura Island, East 1980). review of fish culture activities in India. Proc. Java, and Indonesia. Pages 41-50 in Report Hawaiian integrated farming sys- World Symp. Warm Water Fish Cul. Fish. of Kagoshima University's Scientific Survey tems evolved and proliferated within Rep. 2 44: 1-33. to Indonesia, 1981. Kagoshima University, a unique socio-cultural context. Bogucki, P., and R. Grygiel. 1983. Early farm- Kagoshima, Japan. the traditional eco- ers of the North European Plain. Sci. Am. Ishige, N., and K. Ruddle. 1985. Fermented However, designs, 248: 104-113. fish sauce and fish fermented with rice. and in- Pages system development concepts, Brown, E. E. 1977. World Fish Farming: Culti- 177-242 in N. Ishige, ed. Readings in East tegrated aquatic resources manage- vation and Economics. AVI Publ., Westport, Asian Food Culture (in Japanese). Heibon- ment principles may be instructive to CT. sha Press, Tokyo. some modern societies with burgeon- Chimits, P. 1957. Tilapia in ancient Egypt. Jhingran, V. G. 1969. Fish and Fisheries of to increase Food and Agriculture Organization Report India. Hindustan Publ., New Delhi. ing populations desperate 10 (4): 211-215. Johannes, R. E. 1978. Traditional marine con- food production and employment op- Cobb, J. N. 1902. Commerical fisheries of the servation methods in Oceania and their de- portunities in traditional agricultural Hawaiian Islands. US Fish. Commission 12: mise. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 9: 349-364. sectors. 383-499. Johannes, R. E., P. Lasserre, S. Nixon, J. Pliya, Cordover, J. 1970. Molokai fishponds: Man- and K. Ruddle. 1983. Traditional knowledge made ecosystems. Pages 27-44 in H. T. Lew- and management of marine coastal systems. is, ed. Molokai Studies; Preliminary Re- Bio. Int. 4: 1-18. Acknowledgments search in Human Ecology. University of Kamakau, S. M. 1976. The Works of the Peo- I would like to express my sincere Hawaii Press, Honolulu. ple of Old. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. to the and Cross, D. 1981. Reclaiming saline soils using Kelly, M. 1980. Majestic Ka'u; Mo'olelo of Aloha following people a new to an old Nine 80-2. Muse- institutions for use of aquaculture: approach prob- Ahupua'a. Report Bishop information, lem. Appro. Technol. 8: 4-6. um Press, Honolulu. materials both published and unpub- Davis, T., and M. Gardner. 1954. Seven Private Kikuchi, W. K. 1973. Hawaiian aquacultural lished, field and office support, edito- Tombs at Kurmah. Desroches-Noblecourt, systems. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Ar- rial and abundant encour- Paris. izona, Tucson. assistance, in Prehistoric Hawaiian in the of this Drews, R. 1951. The cultivation of food fish 1976. fishponds. agement preparation China and Japan: a study disclosing con- Science 193: 295-299. article: J. Bardach (East-West Cen- trasting national patterns for rearing fish Kondo, D. H., S. Choy, M. Maruyama, and N. ter); E. Bartholomew (Sea Grant Ex- consistent with the differing cultural histories Nakamura. 1981. The Mokauea fishpond tension, University of Hawaii of China and Japan. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni- project. Pac. Sci. 35: 271. of Ann Arbor. A. W. 1938. An Island Eco- Museum (Honolu- versity Michigan, Lind, Community, [SGEUH]); Bishop Edwards, P. 1980. A review of recycling organ- logical Succession in Hawaii. University of lu); R. Fassler (State of Hawaii Aqua- ic wastes into fish, with emphasis on the Chicago Press, Chicago. culture Development Program); D. Tropics. Aquaculture 21: 261-279. Ma, S. 1985. Ecological engineering: applica- Heacock (Division of Aquatic Re- Ehrlich, P. R., and A. H. Ehrlich. 1972. Popu- tion of ecosystem principles. Environ. Con- State of L. Ho- lation, Resources and Environment. W. H. serv. 12: 331-335. sources, Hawaii); San Francisco. and C. L. Paulsen. 1977. The Pierce Kona Freeman, Madden, D., (Bandung, Indonesia); Fan Li. fifth century B.C. The Chinese Fish potential for mullet and milkfish culture in Freshwater Products, Inc. (Kailua- Culture Classic. Reprinted as Contribution Hawaiian fishponds. State of Hawaii De- Kona, HI); B. Keala (Molokai Acade- 489, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Sol- partment of Planning and Economic Devel-

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This content downloaded from 140.160.116.36 on Mon, 13 Jan 2014 16:16:37 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions __ opment, Honolulu. international potential of traditional re- Mallory, W. 1928. China: Land of Famine. source systems in marginal areas. Technol. American Geographical Society Special Pub- Forecast.Soc. Change11: 119-131. lication No. 6, Washington, DC. Ruddle, K., and R. E. Johannes. 1985. The KeepAGreat Malo, D. 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities(Mo'o- TraditionalKnowledge and Managementof ThingGrowing lelo Hawaii). Bishop Museum Press, Coastal Systems in Asia and the Pacific. Honolulu. UNESCO Regional Office for Science and AMCERICA McAllister, J. G. 1933. Archaeology of Oahu. Technology for Southeast Asia, Jakarta, Bishop Museum Bulletin 104, Honolulu. Indonesia. TREE CITY USA McCown, B. H., and L. R. McCown. 1982. A Ruddle, K., and G. F. Zhong. 1987. Large- view of the fish traps from a hot air balloon. Scale IntegratedAgriculture-Aquaculture in Journalof the ArchaeologicalSurvey Associ- South China: The Dike-PondSystem of the ation of SouthernCalifornia 7 (1): 46-56. Zhujiang Delta. Cambridge University Press, Muller, F 1978. The aquaculture rotation. Cambridge, UK. AquaculturaHungarica (Szarvas) 1: 73-139. Sahlins, M. D. 1958. Social Stratification in Okada, Y. 1960. Studies on freshwater fishes of Polynesia. University of Washington Press, Japan.J. Fac. Fish. Prefect. Univ. Mie 4(2): Seattle. 267-588. Schaperclaus, W. 1962. Traite de Pisciculture Phelps,S. 1937. A RegionalStudy of Molokai. en Etang. Vigot Freres, Paris. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Shang, Y.C., and B. A. Costa-Pierce. 1983. Pullin, R. S.V., and Z. H. Shehadeh. 1980. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming IntegratedAgriculture-Aquaculture Farming systems: some economic aspects. J. World Systems. International Center for Living Mariculture Soc. 14: 523-530. Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), Smith, H. M. 1925. A review of the aquatic Manila, Philippines. resources and fisheries of Siam, with plans Radcliffe, W. 1926. Fishing from Earliest and recommendations for their administra- Times. John Murray Press, London. tion, conservation, and development. Minis- RaiChoudhury, B. 1980. The moon and net: try of Lands and Agriculture, Bangkok, study of a transient community of fishermen Thailand. at Jambudwig. Anthropological Survey of Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center India Report, Calcutta. (SEAFDEC). 1980. Polyculture of milkfish, Rice, W. H. 1923. Hawaiian Legends. Bishop carps, and tilapia in pens in Laguna de Bay. All across America hun- Museum Press, Honolulu. 1980 Annual Report, SEAFDEC, Iliolio City, dreds of cities, large and Richards, P. 1985. Indigenous Agricultural Philippines. are a Revolution: and Food Productionin F. G. 1909. Molokai Field small, joining growing Ecology Stokes, J. Survey movement.. Tree USA. West Africa. Hutchinson Press, London. Notebook. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. City Roy, R. N. 1982. Integration, application and Summers, C. C. 1964. Hawaiian Fishponds. From Manchester, Maine, to management of energy activities at the com- Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Pacific Grove, California, in munity level: technology transfer and com- Terra, G. 1958. Farm systems South-East people are planting and car- munication. 167-184 in R. C. et Asia. Neth. Sci. 6: 157-182. Pages May J. Agric. ing for trees. al., eds. AppropriateTechnology for Alterna- Titcomb, M. 1952. Native Use of Fish in tive EnergySources in Fisheries.Internation- Hawaii. Polynesian Society Press, Welling- What is Tree USA? It is a al Center for Resources Man- New Zealand. City Living Aquatic ton, national urban agement (ICLARM), Manila, Phillipines. Wilder, G. P. 1923. The Taro, or Kalo, in forestry pro- Ruddle, K. 1980. Resource systems and devel- Hawaii. University of Hawaii Extension Ser- gram designed to make opmental strategy in rural transformation in vice, Honolulu. every community a better the developing world. Pages 55-66 in R. L. Wu, B. L. 1985. Traditional management of place in which to live. It is a Singh and R. P. B. Singh, eds. Transforma- coastal systems in China. Pages 181-190 in where tion Rural Habitats in WorldFrontiers. K. Ruddle and R. E. eds. The proven program of Johannes, American cities and towns National Geographic Institute of India, Re- TraditionalKnowledge and Managementof search Pub. 30, Varanasi, India. Coastal Systems in Asia and the Pacific. are given the guidelines for 1982. Traditional integrated farming UNESCO, Jakarta, Indonesia. effective urban forestry the of ricefield fisheries in R. D. 1985. Freshwater in systems: example Zweig, aquaculture management. Southeast Asia. Agric. Admin. 10: 1-11. China: ecosystem management for survival. Ruddle, K., and T. B. Grandstaff. 1978. The Ambio 14: 66-74. Be a part of this growing movement. Join New York, Chicago, Anaheim, Green- leaf and Broken Bow and support Tree City USA where you live. For more information, write: The National Arbor Day Foundation, Nebraska City, NE 68410.

The National r Arbor Day G M Foundation NebraskaCity, Nebraska 68410 May 1987

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