Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Trees and shrubs: the use of wood in prehispanic Teotihuacan

Carmen Cristina Adriano-Mora´n a,*, Emily McClung de Tapia b a Posgrado en Ciencias Biolo´gicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico, Cd. Universitaria, 04510 Me´xico D.F., Mexico b Instituto de Investigaciones Antropolo´gicas, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico, Cd. Universitaria, 04510 Me´xico D.F., Mexico article info abstract

Article history: Charcoal recovered from different archaeological excavations carried out in the Teotihuacan Valley, Received 21 September 2007 Me´xico was used to evaluate whether significant changes in the use of wood took place through time Received in revised form 2 June 2008 (approx. 400 B.C.–A.D. 1500). Sixteen taxa of trees and shrubs characteristic of the Basin of Mexico were Accepted 6 June 2008 identified (including Pinus, Quercus, Arbutus, Cupressaceae, Alnus, Prunus, Taxodium, Salix, Baccharis and Buddleia, among others). Variations in the proportions of taxa are interpreted as a reflection of the in- Keywords: tensity of use rather than an indicator of deforestation. The analysis of the data shows a pattern of Teotihuacan region continuity in the utilization of taxa throughout the occupation. This includes the use of different vege- Charcoal tative parts (trunk and branches), genera and species with different life forms (trees, shrubs, herbaceous Wood Vegetation plants) and primary (Pinus and Quercus) as well as secondary taxa (Prunus and Arbutus). We propose that Management the inhabitants of the Teotihuacan Valley implemented practices to manage vegetation in order to assure Exploitation resource availability in the region. Trees Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Shrubs

1. Introduction particularly in the Teotihuacan Valley. As a result there is a consid- erable shortage of studies that systematize and analyze information The Teotihuacan Valley, located in the NE sector of the Basin of necessary to propose hypotheses concerning relationships between Mexico, is best known for the archaeological site of Teotihuacan, humans and their environment, particularly in forest ecosystems. the most important city in central Mexico during the Classic period Until the end of the 1990s, studies did not concentrate on this (ca. A.D. 1–650). With a surface area of 20 km2 and around 100,000 type of material and the little evidence available was either un- inhabitants (Millon, 1970, 1973), the city undoubtedly relied on an published or briefly incorporated into analyses of seed remains. efficient supply network to guarantee its operation (McClung de Published information on charcoal analyses comes mainly from Tapia, 1990). In addition to an external supply network, the city studies where the identification of seeds was the main focus and is depended on the management of local resources to cover the basic only provided as complementary information. In such publications, needs of its inhabitants. Wood resources must have played an im- only identified taxa are listed and inferences and interpretations portant role in the city’s growth. However, little is known about the about their uses are very general (Kovar,1970; Ford,1976; Gonza´lez, use and management of wood and the impact this had on the en- 1982; A´ lvarez del Castillo, 1984; Manzanilla, 1985; Flannery, 1986; vironment and human population. Gonza´lez et al., 1993; Popper, 1995; Montu´ far, 1996; Montu´ far, Charcoal recovered from archaeological excavations provides 1999). data for the reconstruction of past vegetation as well as the use of The first systematic effort to explore the potential of charcoal as forest resources, including aspects of management, changes in pat- evidence was undertaken by Adriano-Mora´n (2000). The objective terns of exploitation of diverse species and consequent impact on the was to contribute evidence for reconstructing the vegetation of the environment (Salisbury and Jane, 1940; Godwin and Tansley, 1941; Teotihuacan Valley during the Classic period, when the landscape Minnis, 1978; Vernet, 1980; Kohler et al., 1984; Miller, 1985; Smart was dominated by the powerful city of Teotihuacan. Identified taxa and Hoffman, 1988; Johannessen and Hastorf, 1990; Heinz, 1991; were associated with temperate forest (Pinus, Quercus, Alnus, Bac- Newsom, 1993; Asouti and Hather, 2001; Scheel-Ybert et al., 2003; charis, Buddleia), xerophytic scrub (Agave) and riparian vegetation Rodrı´guez, 2004). However, this type of botanical evidence has re- (Fraxinus, Salix, Cornus). These genera suggested the existence of ceived little attention in paleoethnobotanical research in Mexico, distinct vegetation types, of which a mixture of pine and oak comprised the main component of the valley’s landscape prior to * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ52 5556229503; fax: þ52 5556229651. human settlement. This evidence led Adriano-Mora´n to propose E-mail address: [email protected] (C.C. Adriano-Mora´n). that the utilization of different types of wood could be a function of

0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.06.001 2928 C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936 their availability in the environment and that, apparently, there was vegetation includes secondary associations of agrestal and ruderal a preference for certain genera over others. This study showed taxa species that develop in areas of human impact. that existed in the region and were used during the Teotihuacan The conformation of present day vegetation communities in the period. Furthermore, it provided an important point of departure to Teotihuacan Valley is undoubtedly a product of the combined ac- compare with present day environmental conditions in the region. tion of natural and anthropogenic factors over time. Castilla and Based on this information, further investigation purported to Tejero (1983) suggest that vegetation types in the past were pos- reconstruct the patterns of use and exploitation of wood on the part sibly quite similar to the present although distributed more of the valley’s inhabitants from the Preclassic through the Post- broadly. This is based on the idea that if past climatic conditions classic periods (ca. 400 B.C.–A.D. 1500). An understanding of the were similar to the present, climax communities (such as forest or way in which these activities were carried out is important because scrub in temperate subhumid or semi-arid climates) should be the deforestation, as a consequence of poor management of the land- same. Evidence from recent studies (McClung de Tapia and Tapia- scape and its resources, has been cited by some authors (Sanders, Recillas, 1997; McClung de Tapia et al., 1998, 2003; Adriano-Mora´n, 1965) as the cause of environmental deterioration in the region 2000) supports the presence of these communities in the valley (soil loss and erosion, changes in hydrographic patterns) that could together with changes in their distribution as well as their floristic have been one of the factors leading to the fall of Teotihuacan. composition. The most noticeable change is the disappearance of In this study, statistical analyses are used to determine if sig- Pinus from the present day flora in the region. nificant differences are apparent in the proportions of taxa through time, in order to evaluate the evidence for changes in the use of wood between 400 B.C.–A.D. 1500. The long and continuous oc- 3. Numerical analysis of botanical materials cupation of the Teotihuacan region, added to the apparent changes in its demographic history and settlement patterns through the Archaeobotanical and paleoethnobotanical investigations com- course of its prehispanic history, make this an ideal region for such monly use ubiquity to describe and analyze data. Ubiquity is a study. a semiquantitative form of describing the data (Jones, 1991), de- fined as the number of samples of a collection in which a particular taxon is found, expressed as a percentage (relative frequency). 2. Study area Ubiquities are compared in graphs or tables that allow viewers to observe tendencies in the behavior of the taxa among contexts or The Teotihuacan Valley is located in the NE sector of the Basin of through time. Often ubiquities vary noticeably from one context or Mexico (19 340 N, 99 400 W) between 2240 and 3100 masl (Fig. 1). time period to another that frequently are interpreted as significant Climate is semi-arid on the plain and temperate subhumid in the differences, although without the application of statistical tests. A surrounding elevations. Because it is situated in a transition zone number of examples of this approach (Willcox, 1974; Minnis, 1978; between dry and subhumid climate types, the region is highly Hastorf, 1988; February, 1992; Figueiral, 1993), where samples that susceptible to climatic variations. Average annual temperature is have been grouped by contexts or periods are compared numeri- 14.9 C, and varies between 12 C and 18 C below 2800 masl and cally without statistical testing, produce partial or even potentially between 5 C and 12 C above 2800 masl; mean annual pre- erroneous conclusions. However, the paucity of statistical analyses cipitation for the region is 563.3 mm (Garcı´a, 1968, 1988). The main in paleoethnobotanical studies, including significance testing, re- drainages are Rio San Juan, El Huixulco and Rio San Lorenzo, which flects the researchers’ awareness of random or nonrandom factors are largely seasonal and which infiltrate the subsoil to reappear as that affect the conservation of botanical remains so that they are springs in the SW sector of the valley (Lorenzo, 1968; Mooser, not ‘‘populations’’ representative of some larger universe and, as 1968). Principal soil types in the region include phaeozems (40%), such, are not considered appropriate subjects for formal statistical vertisols (16%), cambisols (13%) and leptosols (13.5%), many of analysis. which present an advanced state of erosion (McClung de Tapia and In recent years, the use of multivariate techniques for data ex- Tapia-Recillas, 1997). ploration has increased, including correspondence analysis, prin- Six main types of vegetation currently predominate in the re- cipal components, cluster analysis and discriminant analysis (Prior gion (Castilla and Tejero, 1987). The oak forest (Quercus crassipes, and Price-Williams, 1985; Jones, 1987, 1991; Heinz and Thie´bault, Quercus greggii and Quercus mexicana) community covers a small 1998; Scheel-Ybert, 2000; Asouti, 2003). In other cases, contin- area restricted to the north slope of Cerro Gordo (2800–3050 masl) gency tables and four-way log-linear analysis have been employed but may have extended over a broader area in the past, at least as to explore categorical variables (Kohler and Matthews, 1988). far as the area covered today by oak scrub. Oak scrub (Quercus Studies in which significance testing has been used include microphylla) is situated between the oak forest and xerophytic techniques such as ANOVA and regression (Lepofsky et al., 1996; scrub (2850–3000 masl). It has been suggested that the oak scrub Johannessen, 1988). However, parametric statistical approaches community replaces the pine–oak component of the temperate require that data be normally distributed or close to it. Other sup- forests in the Basin of Mexico as a result of repeated fires (Rze- positions of the model include independence and homoscedastic- dowski et al., 1964). However, Castilla and Tejero (1987) consider ity. Archaeobotanical data are not normally distributed, and that its presence in the Teotihuacan region may be a consequence frequently a large number of samples contain a small number of of cutting the oak forest. Xerophytic scrub (Opuntia streptacantha, taxa or small numbers of samples contain numerous taxa. Signifi- Zaluzania augusta, Mimosa biuncifera) is the most representative cance tests cannot be applied in this type of situation, and other vegetation type of the region and it occupies the largest area methods or techniques that do not require a normal distribution (2300–2750 masl). Grasslands (Buchloe dactyloides, Hilaria cen- must be employed. chroides, Bouteloua gracilis) cover a small part of the area and are Generalized Linear Models were developed to analyze both mostly interdigitated with xerophytic scrub, oak scrub or scrub discrete and continuous data that do not comply with the normal comprised of Senecio salignus and Baccharis conferta (associations model, while recognizing that many of the properties of normal within the oak scrub community). Hydrophylous vegetation is distribution are found in the so-called exponential family, which, in comprised of seasonal taxa associated with the rainy season or addition to the normal distribution, includes the binomial, negative artificial systems such as dams, irrigation ditches and water de- binomial, gamma and Poisson distributions. By means of these posits. Natural stands occur in inundated areas. Anthropogenic models, equations can be developed that permit estimates of the C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936 2929

Fig. 1. Location of the Teotihuacan Valley, including the Archaeological Zone (ancient city of Teotihuacan) and the sites of Cuanalan and Otumba, outside of the urban perimeter.

behavior of the response variable as a result of one or more ex- 550) and Late (A.D. 550–650), and the Postclassic period (A.D. 650– planatory variables (Crawley, 1996). 1500) is also treated as a single unit. The approximate duration of The logit model is employed for the analysis of data expressed as these periods is based on Cowgill (1996). However, few excavations proportions in a binomial distribution. Since ubiquity is repre- corresponding to the Postclassic have been carried out in the study sented as a fraction, it should follow a binomial distribution. The region and available charcoal was insufficient to permit a finer main advantage of this model is that it does not require that the chronological division. data be normally distributed or that the groups of samples to be Sixteen taxa of trees and shrubs characteristic of the Basin of compared be of the same size (McCullag and Nelder, 1989; Crawley, Mexico, together with monocotyledons (Agave and Zea mays) 1996). (Table 1, Fig. 3), were identified in the samples which come from diverse archaeological excavations undertaken in the region over 4. Method of analysis the past 30 years (Figs. 1 and 2). Ubiquity analysis shows important fluctuations in the percentages of different genera for contexts as A total of 2613 charcoal fragments, from 297 samples of charcoal well as time periods, possibly indicating changes in their uses. recovered from various contexts in different excavations, were used In order to build the database for the analyses, numerical ref- in this study. Based on their association with specific contexts erences were assigned to four contexts, five periods and 14 taxa. (floors, fill, hearths and various), it is assumed that the charcoal The context referred to as ‘‘various’’ includes samples that were fragments represent wood used as fuel. The forms and sizes of the recovered from fill, but directly associated with burials, offerings fragments indicate that branches and twigs as well as trunks were and storage features. Taxa that were present in a single sample or used. that could not be identified to the genus form the category referred The time frame represented by the samples is based on the to as ‘‘Others’’. Fabaceae and Cupressaceae are represented as ceramic chronology previously established for the Teotihuacan re- families due to the difficulty in identifying the genus of some of the gion by stratigraphic relationships and radiocarbon dating of samples. Z. mays was included because, although it is not a woody charcoal associated with diagnostic ceramic types (Cowgill, 1996; plant it occurs frequently among the charcoal samples and is con- Rattray, 2001). In this study the occupation phases defined by ar- sidered an important fuel resource, as are other monocotyledons. chaeologists (Cowgill, 1996) have been grouped into periods to The statistical program GLIM 4.0 (Crawley, 1996) was employed form broader more manageable and comparable time units. Thus, for the analysis. One of the characteristics of an interactive pro- the Preclassic period (ca. 400–100 B.C.) is considered as a unit, the cedure is that following the adjustment of a model that includes all Classic period is divided into Early (A.D. 0–250), Middle (A.D. 250– of the variables and their interactions, the insignificant terms are 2930 C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936

Table 1 Identified taxa by excavation

Excavationa 123456789101112131415

Taxa Agavaceae Agave sp. Asteraceae Baccharis spp. Cf. Senecio salignus DC. Betulaceae Alnus spp. Cupressaceae Juniperus cf. deppeana Steud. Cupressus cf. lindleyi Klotzsch. Ericaceae Arbutus cf. xalapensis H.B.K. Fabaceae Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ort.) Sarg. Mimosa cf. aculeaticarpa var. biuncifera (Benth) Barnabery Prosopis laevigata (Willd.) M.C. Johnst. Fagaceae Quercus spp. Loganiaceae Buddleia cf. parviflora H.B.K. Onagraceae Fuchsia cf. arborescens Sims. Pinaceae Pinus spp. Poaceae Zea mays L. Rosaceae Prunus serotina ssp. capuli (Cav.) McVaugh Salicaceae Salix spp. Taxodiaceae Taxodium mucronatum Ten. Monocotyledons Not identified

a Excavations: 1. Cuanala´n(Manzanilla, 1985), 2. Sun Pyramid (Millon, 1973), 3. Moon Pyramid (Sugiyama, 2004), 4. TE 5 (Millon, 1973), 5. Oztoyahualco (Manzanilla, 1993), 6. Oaxaca Barrio (Millon, 1973), 7. Teopancazco (Millon, 1973; Manzanilla, 2003), 8. Tetitla (Millon, 1973), 9. Tepantitla (Millon, 1973), 10. Yayahuala (Millon, 1973), 11. TE 1 (Millon, 1973), 12. TE 2 (Millon, 1973), 13. TE 11 (Millon, 1973), 14. Tunnels (Manzanilla et al., 1996), 15. Otumba (Charlton et al., 2000). See Figs. 1 and 2. eliminated as the model is simplified. This procedure allows the temporal divisions: (1) Preclassic; (2) Early Classic; (3) Middle–Late testing of significance of each of the variables in the presence of the Classic; and (4) Postclassic. Once this adjustment was carried out, others, since the group of variables may explain patterns that in- a c2 of 63.36 was obtained (Table 2). The time periods alone account dividual variables cannot. All of the contexts, periods and taxa were for 5.44% of the total variation. compared with each other to establish which are significantly dif- Insofar as the taxa are concerned, Pinus, Quercus, Cupressaceae, ferent in terms of the wood used. Because the fraction of samples Z. mays, Monocotyledons and ‘‘Others’’ were distinct from each from each group that was analyzed showed the presence of each other and from the rest of the taxa. The remaining taxa formed two taxon, a logit transformation of the data, a binomial error and a c2 groups: Group 1 included Taxodium, Arbutus, Baccharis and Prunus, significance test (a ¼ 95%) were employed. and Group 2 included Alnus, Buddleia, Fabaceae and Salix. Thus, taxa were reduced from 14 to 8: (1) Pinus; (2) Quercus; (3) Cupressaceae; 5. Results (4) Taxodium–Arbutus–Baccharis–Prunus; (5) Alnus–Salix–Buddleia– Fabaceae; (6) Z. mays; (7) Monocotyledons; and (8) Others. Comparison of all the contexts, time periods and taxa showed Following this re-arrangement of taxa, all of the groups were sig- that many of the components are significantly different. However, nificantly different from one another (c2 ¼ 914.9). only the values of total significance of each variable and its in- Group 1 (Taxodium–Arbutus–Baccharis–Prunus) is comprised of teractions are presented in Table 2. In the section dealing with the genera that are present during all of the periods (Taxodium and interactions themselves, the probabilities of significant variables Baccharis) or during at least four of them (Arbutus and Prunus). All are considered. show similar behavior through time in that their proportions in- With respect to the archaeological contexts under consider- crease or decrease in the same period, thus they behave as a unit. In ation, c2 ¼ 2.63 (Table 2), indicating that there is no significant the second group (Alnus–Salix–Buddleia–Fabaceae), most of the difference among hearths, floors and fill and, as such, these may be taxa appear in three of the time periods (Alnus, Salix and Fabaceae) considered as a single context. Thus, only two contexts differ from or in at least two (Buddleia), and all have low presence. each other: (1) hearths/floors/fills and (2) various. The homoge- Taxa that are significantly different are present in all of the time neity observed in the majority of the contexts is responsible for the periods and generally show the highest percentages of ubiquity. fact that context as a variable explains only a small proportion of Probably for this reason, taxa alone account for 78.66% of the var- variation among the data. iation evident in the data. With respect to the time periods considered, only Middle Classic Based on the previous results, the interactions taxa vs. context and Late Classic showed no significant difference. Therefore, these and taxa vs. period were evaluated, resulting in highly significant c2 were combined into a single period, resulting in the following values (Table 2). C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936 2931

Fig. 2. Excavations located within the perimeter of the ancient city of Teotihuacan from which charcoal samples were obtained for this study (based on Millon, 1973).

5.1. Variation of taxa among contexts 6. Discussion

The next step in the procedure was to evaluate the behavior of 6.1. Variations in contexts, time periods and taxa the taxa in Contexts 1 and 2. The genera that show significant differences between contexts are: Pinus (c2 ¼ 7.931, p ¼ 0.0049), The fact that floors, fills and hearths were not significantly dif- Quercus (c2 ¼ 13.54, p ¼ 0.0002) and Group 1 (c2 ¼ 7.62, ferent from each other was evident from the ubiquity analysis (not p ¼ 0.0058). The observed differences are due to the fact that in shown), in which the composition of taxa in these different con- Context 1, these genera appear constantly in high proportions texts is essentially the same although their proportions differ. This throughout the chronological sequence. In Context 2, Pinus occurs confirms the idea that the charcoal present in these contexts rep- in a lower proportion of the samples and Quercus in a higher pro- resents the remains of wood used as fuel. portion, whereas the taxa that comprise Group 1 are practically The context referred to as ‘‘Various’’ differs from the others in absent. In this case, only Prunus was present (in low proportion and the number of taxa present (six as opposed to 14 for the other in a single period) (Fig. 4). contexts prior to grouping), the fact that those taxa do not occur consistently throughout the sequence of periods, and that there 5.2. Variation among taxa through time was considerably more variation in their ubiquity proportions. The results of the analysis may be pointing to the low diversity in taxa The last step of the procedure involved exploring variation rather than to differential or particular use of wood in the domestic among taxa during each of the time periods. Cupressaceae, Group 2 and ritual activities represented by this context. (Alnus–Salix–Buddleia–Fabaceae) and Monocotyledons showed no One possible explanation for the lack of any statistical difference significant change between periods, whereas Pinus, Quercus, Group between the Middle and Late Classic periods is that the proportions 1(Taxodium–Arbutus–Baccharis–Prunus), Z. mays and ‘‘Others’’ did of most of the taxa during these periods were very similar and in change significantly. one case, Arbutus, the same. It may be that the model is unable to Once it was established which taxa varied, the periods during distinguish between such fine differences, and therefore, cannot which variation took place were determined (Fig. 5). Pinus changed distinguish between the periods, even though at least one taxon in periods 1, 2 (c2 ¼ 3.951, p ¼ 0.0468) and 3 (c2 ¼ 10.21, (Pinus) shows dissimilar values in these periods. The remaining p ¼ 0.0014). For Quercus, on the other hand, variation was observed time periods differ from each other based on the distinct pro- between periods 3 and 4 (c2 ¼ 5.611, p ¼ 0.0178). For Group 1, all portions of taxa in each. four periods are different (periods 1–2, c2 ¼ 28.26, p ¼ 0.0001; The variations in the proportions of Pinus during the Pre- periods 2–3, c2 ¼ 49.67, p ¼ 0.0001; periods 3–4, c2 ¼ 6.199, classic, Early Classic, and Middle–Late Classic periods may be p ¼ 0.0128). Z. mays varied between periods 2 and 3 (c2 ¼ 13.54, due to more intense use and preference by the Teotihuacanos p ¼ 0.0002) and extending to period 4 (c2 ¼ 15.8, p ¼ 0.0001). The for this genus, particularly if we consider that these periods change in ‘‘Others’’ took place between periods 2 and 3 (c2 ¼ 18.83, marked the development and florescence of Teotihuacan cul- p ¼ 0.0001). ture. The absence of change during the Late Classic–Postclassic 2932 C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936

Fig. 3. Some genera identified in wood charcoal from the Teotihuacan Valley. (a, b) Cupressaceae: Juniperus cf. deppeana; (c, d) Ericaceae: cf. Arbutus; (e, f) Fabaceae: Mimosa cf. aculeaticarpa var. biuncifera. (a, b, c, and e) Transverse section; (d, f) tangential longitudinal section.

transition probably indicates a reduction in the intensity with because of their depletion. Another possibility is a change in which this resource was exploited as a consequence of pop- preference reflecting changes in the ethnic composition of the ulation decline in the region, the exhaustion of the resource or local human population. the loss of important trade routes as Teotihuacan came to its Group 1, comprised of Taxodium–Arbutus–Baccharis–Prunus, end. fluctuates throughout the entire chronological sequence. The In the case of Quercus, the proportions are stable during the highest proportion corresponds to the Early Classic; the lowest in Preclassic and the entire Classic, suggesting a constant but less the Postclassic period. The permanence through time suggests that intensive use than that of Pinus. The most noticeable change these genera were used frequently from the early occupation of the clearly takes place at the beginning of the Postclassic period, valley. It is possible that during the Early Classic they were used consisting of a drastic reduction in its proportion. This may in- more intensively than in later periods. In the Postclassic, as in the dicate a reduction in the availability of oaks in the region, case of Quercus, an important reduction in their proportion is observed. The proportions of Z. mays are maintained without change Table 2 Significance values obtained from logistic analysis during the Preclassic and Early Classic. However, they vary between Early Classic and Middle–Late Classic and again between this period Variable c2 df Significance % of variation explained and the Postclassic. This is apparently due to the absence of Z. mays Taxa 914.9 7 <0.0001 78.66 in samples pertaining to the Middle–Late Classic and their reap- Context 2.63 1 n.s. ——— Period 63.36 3 <0.0001 5.44 pearance during the Postclassic although in a higher proportion Taxa vs. Period 68.69 6 <0.0001 5.91 than during the other periods. Taxa vs. Context 28.54 2 <0.0001 2.45 The taxon designated as ‘‘Others’’ changes only between the R2 ¼ 91.27% (variation explained by the model); variation not explained by the Early Classic and the Middle–Late Classic. Here the change consists model: 8%; df ¼ degrees of freedom. of the reduction in ubiquity values. C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936 2933

Fig. 4. Differences in ubiquity among taxa by context. Floors, fills and hearths (black) differed significantly from various (white). Gray indicates ubiquity of taxa that showed no significant variation between contexts. Intervals correspond to standard errors.

6.2. Use and management of vegetation: a hypothesis

Taxa present in the samples recovered from numerous archae- ological excavations in the Teotihuacan Valley represent different types of vegetation: pine–oak forest (Pinus, Quercus, Arbutus), xe- rophytic scrub (Fabaceae, Agave) and riparian vegetation (Taxodium, Alnus and Salix). Because these taxa are evident since the Preclassic period, this mosaic of vegetation types was present in the valley at this time and, as a group, probably represents the vegetation of the region before human settlement. This agrees with Castilla and Tejero (1983), the results of Adriano-Mora´n’s initial study of ar- chaeological specimens (2000), and studies of other materials such as pollen, phytoliths and soils (McClung de Tapia, 1996; McClung de Tapia et al., 1998, 2003). The constant presence of wood from Pinus, Quercus and Cupressaceae indicates a preference for these taxa used as fuel. The variations in proportions of identified taxa do not indicate a change in the composition of genera utilized throughout the time of oc- cupation [Asouti (2003) found similar evidence from a Neolithic site in Turkey] nor do they indicate that arboreal species utilized during the earlier occupation stages were replaced by shrub species in later stages, as would be expected if the main resource (trees) had been depleted by overexploitation (deforestation) as suggested by other studies (Newsom, 1993). The presence of Groups 1 and 2 (comprised of trees and shrubs) from the Preclassic suggests that both were being utilized from the initial occupation of the valley. Their constancy over time, especially in the case of Group 1, may indicate that they were preferred as fuel. It is probable that Pinus, Fig. 5. Differences in ubiquity among taxa by period. Periods during which the ubiq- Quercus, Cupressaceae and Groups 1 and 2 were utilized together as uity of a taxon showed no significant variation are indicated by the same bar. Intervals complementary resources rather than as substitutes for one or correspond to standard errors. Taxa in which ubiquity did not differ in any given period are not shown. another. The preference for the taxa mentioned above suggests that they were selected intentionally because they were considered to be good materials for fuel. If this were the case, we can suppose that The behavior of Z. mays and other taxa such as monocotyledons the prehispanic inhabitants of the Teotihuacan Valley were familiar indicate that they were also used in combination with other woody with the characteristics of the woods and, as a function of this fa- species rather than as a substitute due to a shortage of wood. The miliarity, chose the most suitable for their purposes. In other words, combinations of different woods (or other fuel materials) may be they maintained a sort of quality control over the taxa chosen for a function of the purpose and duration of the fire (for example, specific purposes. Today in some of the rural communities of cen- ignition, illumination, heating, cooking, firing ceramics) and would tral Mexico in which wood remains the primary source of fuel, the also include the use of different parts of the tree such as trunks, genera employed include Pinus, Quercus, Prunus, Alnus, Arbutus, branches and twigs. This practice is reported among present day Baccharis, Buddleia and Salix because these are considered to be of rural communities where the species are utilized in different pro- good to fair quality based on the selection criteria: easy ignition, portions according to the activity to be undertaken (Camacho, slow burning, intense flame, little smoke, production of embers and 1985; Martorell, 1995). For example, in an Otomı´ community in the availability of the species (Camacho, 1985; Almeida, 1990; Estrada, State of Mexico, the first step of the firing process in the production 1996). of roof tiles is carried out with a combination of madron˜o(Arbutus) 2934 C.C. Adriano-Mora´n, E. McClung de Tapia / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 2927–2936 and alder (Alnus), followed by the addition of ‘‘broom’’ (Baccharis) familiarity not only with the plants themselves but also with eco- when the heat is intense, in order to produce the characteristic logical processes. Indigenous communities are able to adapt and reddish tone. In this case, the intensity of caloric output and rapid integrate new practices into the original multiple management combustion of the wood is important. Other genera, such as oak strategy in response to recent economic changes (Toledo et al., (Quercus) – which also has a high caloric output but burns more 2003). However, it is also possible that some of these strategies slowly – are not used because the tiles would break during firing. have been employed since prehispanic times. On the other hand, species of oak (and alder and madron˜oto Several authors have suggested that Maya communities during a lesser extent) are preferred for domestic consumption because the Classic period (ca. A.D. 250–900) used and managed the tropical intense, longer lasting heat is required. In some cases, in order to forest (Barrera et al., 1977; Alcorn, 1981), resulting in the present get better heat yield from logs, branches and twigs from trees as day floristic composition and distribution visible in association well as shrubs (such as Prunus, Baccharis and Buddleia) are added as with ancient sites. Sylviculture formed part of the management complements. In addition, other woody or combustible materials strategies that included the use of multiple resources from pre- such as maize cobs and stalks as well as Agave leaves (pencas)are hispanic times. In the temperate zones of the central highlands of also used (Camacho, 1985). Mexico indigenous agricultural practices, including shifting culti- Genera and families identified in the archaeological samples vation with fallow periods, are mentioned in 16th and 17th century represent components of primary as well as secondary vegetation. documents. In shifting cultivation, the fallow periods and rotation Genera such as Pinus, Quercus, Taxodium and Cupressus are repre- of plots were employed as a means of regenerating vegetation as sentative of temperate forests characteristic of higher elevations in well as soil fertility (Rojas, 1985). In addition, there are indications Mexico and constitute primary vegetation or climax communities. that at least the Aztecs recognized that the vegetation growing on Alnus, Salix, Juniperus, Prunus, Arbutus, Buddleia and Baccharis are fallowed plots was different from the original. Based on Molina’s commonly present as companion species in stands of primary (1992) 16th century vocabulary, the term quauhtapaçolli refers to forest but also play an important role as secondary taxa (Va´zquez- brambles or upland weeds and can be understood to refer to sec- Yanes et al., 1999; Rzedowski and Rzedowski, 2001). When dis- ondary vegetation, whereas quauhtla, meaning mountain, woods or turbance occurs, either natural or anthropogenic, species of these forest and quauhyouacatla meaning forest or dense woods, suggests genera are pioneers in the succession. They establish in disturbed primary vegetation. and open spaces because they are mainly heliophilous and, there- fore, of considerable importance in the regeneration of the forest. 7. Conclusions Also, some of these species are able to reproduce vegetatively from shoots (such as Alnus, Prunus and Juniperus), which allows more The use of wood by the prehispanic occupants of the Teoti- rapid recuperation of the vegetation. Because of these character- huacan Valley was a complex activity that required considerable istics, Baccharis and Buddleia are considered indicators of secondary knowledge on the part of the inhabitants of the resource and the vegetation. processes that controlled its availability. The presence of these genera among the samples from archae- The taxa show a pattern of continuity with respect to the ex- ological contexts in the Teotihuacan Valley may indicate pertur- ploitation of particular genera from the Preclassic through the bation of the vegetation from very early times and the possibility Postclassic period. This pattern is characterized by the utilization of that vegetation types present in the region prior to human settle- distinct genera including trees and shrubs, as well as herbaceous ment persisted through time in different stages of regeneration (Monocotyledons) and cultivated taxa (Z. mays); in addition it (secondary vegetation). From this perspective, the inhabitants of comprises the use of different parts of trees and shrubs such as the valley appear to have been intentionally using primary as well branches and trunks. Both the taxa employed and their specific as secondary species. The extension of secondary communities vegetative parts were used in diverse combinations and quantities, must have been quite broad considering that these rapidly growing depending upon the energetic requirements. Changes in the pro- plants could establish in abandoned lands or fallow agricultural portions of different genera are interpreted as reflecting preference plots following the completion of their planting/harvesting cycle. and intensity of usage and not as indicators of regional The use and maintenance of secondary vegetation would guarantee deforestation. a constant wood supply and, particularly in the valley, a large Deforestation, as a consequence of the use of wood, could have amount of wood suitable for domestic consumption, which would been of two types: (1) partial, in which isolated patches of natural be advantageous for the human population by reducing costs of vegetation were maintained throughout the region through time; transportation and recollection (time and distance) of the resource. or (2) total, in which the resource was rapidly extinguished, Independently, the acquisition of wood such as Pinus and Quercus resulting in the disappearance of the arboreal community early on from other parts of the Basin of Mexico was probably established in the history of human occupation. The results of this study sup- early in the occupation of the region, based on estimates suggesting port the first option; however, it is also possible that the alternative that only around 12% of the area was suitable to support primary scenario occurred at some point in the past but is unobservable in pine–oak forest (McClung de Tapia and Tapia-Recillas, 1997). the archaeological record. Therefore, it is likely that local availability was not sufficient to The population of the Teotihuacan region apparently selected cover the needs of the valley’s inhabitants during periods of in- firewood based on its quality. The data suggest that the preference creased population. for certain genera was diversified instead of limited; in other words, The use of secondary vegetation among indigenous various genera with similar characteristics (e.g. easy cutting, quick groups (Huastecs, Totonacs and Maya) is well documented for the ignition, slow burning and intense heat production) were exploited warm–humid tropics in Mexico as well as other parts of Latin rather than a single taxon. This practice contributed to maintaining America and represents one of the strategies included in a di- the availability of preferred taxa (such as Pinus, Quercus, Cupres- versified management system or multiple-use strategy (Alcorn, saceae, Group 1) in the region throughout the period of prehispanic 1983; Toledo et al., 1995, 2003). 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