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The A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION FOR TEACHERS The is organized by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in collaboration with the Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA) and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) of .

Major sponsors of this exhibition are

Additional support provided by

This exhibition has also been made possible in part by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities, together with the generous support of the Leadership Committee for The Aztec Empire , GRUMA, ALFA, and Con Edison.

Transportation assistance provided by

Media support provided by Thirteen/WNET

Special thanks to the Embassy of Mexico in the U.S., the Embassy of the United States in Mexico, and the Consulate General of Mexico in New York . s t n e t MAP 5 n o TIMELINE 6 C f USING THIS GUIDE 8 o

e INTRODUCTION 10 l b MEXICO-, AXIS MUNDI OF THE UNIVERSE 13 a

T 17

LEGENDARY CULTURES – AZTEC ANCESTORS 21

MEXICAN BESTIARY 25

PEOPLES AND SOCIETIES OF THE AZTEC 29

NOBLE LIFE AND EVERYDAY LIFE 33

GODS AND 37

MANUSCRIPTS AND 41

CULTURES SUBJUGATED BY THE 45

THE TARASCAN EMPIRE 49

THE TWILIGHT OF THE EMPIRE 53

VOCABULARY 56

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTED RESOURCES 58

CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 61 Postcl Prec Cl asi l as as c si ic c 1 1 1 1 9 7 6 4 2 20 492 521 30 60 90 20 0 50 0 50 50 AD AD AD AD AD AD AD AD BC BC BC BC 0 Timelin

Olmec

Maya

Toltec-Maya

Zapotec

Teotihuacán

Toltec

Mixtec

Aztec 5 Map TA EM RA PIRE SCA N PA CIF IC TENO ( M O EXICO CEAN CHTI CI AZTE TLA TY) N C EMPIR

VERACRUZ s i h t g n i s U

This guide, which accompanies the Solomon R. Guggenheim exhibition The Aztec Empire , is designed to provide ideas, activities, and resources that explore issues raised by this exhibition. The exhibition and guide focus on the varied historical and cultural influences that have contributed to Aztec art and its development as culturally rich, visually engaging, and emotionally compelling.

For Aztecs, art was a material manifestation of their vision of the universe; its symbols were the reflection of their religious, economic, political and social concepts. The objects that they created were designed to be used and integrated into daily life. Although visitors can appreciate these works for their beauty, expressive qualities, and workmanship, they are fragments dislocated from their past.

The Aztec Empire at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, on view October 15, 2004 – February 13, 2005, represents the largest survey of Aztec art ever to have been staged outside Mexico. It brings together more than 430 works drawn from public and private collections, including archaeological finds of the last decade never before seen outside Mexico. Organized thematically, the exhibition explores all aspects of Aztec religious, social, and economic life through the sheer diversity and range of artifacts on display: from monumental stone to miniature objects, and from intricate mosaics to rare pictorial manuscripts (or codices).

This guide is not intended as a comprehensive overview of Aztec art or history; rather it focuses on an important work selected from each of the major themes in the exhibition, and provides suggestions for discussion questions and classroom activities (Further Explorations) intended to encourage students to speculate and develop hypotheses both about and the objects they left behind. It is hoped that students will be able to relate much of the material to their own lives – citing both

8 similarities and differences. The back of the guide includes vocabulary and phonetic spellings for selected Aztec words, as well as a list of additional resources. The guide is available in printed form and on the museum’s Website at www.guggenheim.org.

The design and content of these materials have a three-fold purpose: • To assist educators in developing classroom units focusing on The Aztec Empire , and aspects of Precolumbian • To provide educators with the tools to conduct a self-guided museum visit • To expand upon, themes and ideas imbedded in the exhibition

By examining these representative works, a cultural context emerges to highlight the modes of expression that are the hallmarks of Aztec culture. Although the guide is designed to support the exhibition and will be most useful in conjunction with a trip to the museum, it is also intended to serve as a resource long after the exhibition has closed. Before bringing a class to the museum, teachers are invited to visit the exhibition, read the guide, and decide which aspects are most relevant for their students.

The exhibition has been organized by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in collaboration with the Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA) and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). Guest curator is Felipe Solís, Director of the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico , co-curator of the large-scale survey Aztecs at the Royal Academy in London in 2003, and one of the world's foremost authorities on Aztec art and culture. Exhibition design is by Enrique Norten of TEN Arquitectos + J. Meejin Yoon.

9 Introduction 1With such wonderful sights to gaze on we did not know what to say, or if this was real that we saw before our eyes. Bernal Diaz, a 26-year-old (Spanish conqueror), who fought in Cortés’s army. The Conquest of New , 1580s.

The Aztecs were a mighty foretold that his people should that flourished in settle where they saw an eagle between 1325 on a with a snake in its and 1521, when they were forced beak. After a long journey, the to surrender to an invading Aztecs arrived at a lake, called Spanish army led by Hernán Lake , in Mexico’s central Cortés. From their magnificent highland basin. In the middle of capital, Tenochtitlan, they the lake was an island, and on this governed a vast empire that island they saw the strange sight stretched from present-day that had predicted. Mexico to , and from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans (see Having arrived at their promised map). They are often remembered land, the Aztecs claimed the island as a fierce and bloodthirsty race, and its surrounding fertile land, aggressive in battle and engaging and, in 1325, founded a city they in to appease named Tenochtitlan, “the place their various . However, as of the stone cactus.” They built this exhibition shows, the Aztecs a in the center of the city were also extremely civilized and (later called the Templo Mayor, sophisticated. They produced or Great Temple, by the Spanish), highly skilled and sensitive art, which they dedicated to conceived perhaps the most Huitzilopochtli, their patron . advanced of their time, In time, Tenochtitlan would grow and built extraordinary to become a beautiful and in clean and well-organized . prosperous city of about 250,000 inhabitants, the heart of a vast The Aztecs or (as they Aztec empire. When the Spanish called themselves and are referred arrived to conquer the Aztecs in to by historians), migrated through 1519, they were awestruck by Mexico in search of land to settle. the great towering over According to the , the Aztecs’ the sacred center, the dazzling tribal leader, Huitzilopochtli and colorful markets

10 selling a bewildering variety to an awareness of the of food and luxuries. interdependence of nature and humanity. Fearless and pragmatic builders, the Aztecs created an When the Spanish defeated empire during the the Aztecs they destroyed much that was surpassed in size in the of Tenochtitlan and rebuilt it as only by that of the Incas , the capital of modern- in Peru. As early texts and modern day Mexico. The legacy of the continue to reveal, Aztecs remains, however, in the beyond their conquests, there form of archaeological such were many positive achievements: as the Templo Mayor, the heart • the formation of a highly of Aztec religious activity and specialized and stratified society the symbolic center of the empire. and an imperial administration • the expansion of a trading Today’s are very proud network as well as a of their Aztec past and continue system to remember the traditions and • the development and practice the art forms of their maintenance of a sophisticated ancestors. More than two million agricultural economy, carefully people still speak the indigenous adjusted to the ecology of the Aztecs, . • and the creation of an However, perhaps the most and religious outlook poignant reminder of the Aztecs that held society to be an is the Mexican national flag, which integral part of the cosmos. features the legendary eagle, cactus, and snake emblem of the The yearly round of rites and long-buried heart of the mighty ceremonies in the cities of Aztec empire, Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan and neighboring Tetzcoco, and their symbolic art and architecture, gave expression

11

Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Axis 2Mundi

The great temple known as Huitzilopochtli, encompass the the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan natural and social universe of symbolizes the axis mundi , the the Aztec empire. While Aztec center of the world, where was a god of earth and rain, the sky, the earth, and the Huitzilopochtli stood for the met. According to and the sky. Tlaloc marked the Aztec , the universe time of rains; Huitzilopochtli consisted of three layers. The scorched the earth, with sun middle layer was the earthly one, and , in the dry months. Tlaloc inhabited by . Above that and Huitzilopochtli together world, the Aztecs imaged thirteen represent the cycle of life and levels or heavens, , fertility, and mark the geographic, the “place of duality,” being the , and symbolic heart of the uppermost. Below the earthly universe, uniting old and new, layer, there were the nine levels center and periphery, in the sacred of the underworld. The lowest artificial mountain looming over of these was the realm of the Aztec capital. Mictlantecuhtli, the of the Land of the Dead.

Each of the four cardinal directions radiated out from the Templo Mayor and was associated with a , a bird, a color, and a glyph. The dual temple rose above all 121 Fragment of an other buildings in the Sacred anthropomorphic brazier Aztec, Precinct. The southern half was ca. 1300 dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, solar Fired clay and pigment, 18 x 22 x 9 cm Museo and war god, while the northern Universitario de Ciencias y Arte, UNAM, Mexico City half was dedicated to Tlaloc, the 08-741814 god of rain, water, and the earth’s Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant Enrique Macías fertility. Together Tlaloc and

13 FRAGMENT OF AN Nezahualcoyotl, the poet- of ANTHROPOMORPHIC BRAZIER Texcoco writes: The Aztec were known not only for their sculpture, but also for I, Nezahualcoyotl, ask this: their expressive and sensitive Is it true one really lives on poetry. The sculpture and poem the earth? below provide a glimpse into Not forever on earth, only a little ways that the cycles of life were while here. portrayed. Look carefully at the Though it be it falls apart, sculpture. The three faces though it be gold it wears away, represent the cycle of life. In the Not forever on earth, only a little middle we can see the face of a while here. young man, with all his teeth and wearing an ornament between Michael D. Coe, Mexico: From the nose and upper lip. On either the to the Aztecs , side are two halves of the face (New York: Thames and Hudson, of an old, toothless man; these 2002), fifth edition, p. 223. two faces are framed by the symmetrically divided face of a corpse with its eyes closed. The thirteen decorative rings (four on the young man’s head, nine on the corpse’s) represent the parts of a calendar cycle.

14 Discussion Questions Further Explorations • After reading the poem, describe • The artist who made the its meaning in your own words. with Three Faces chose to represent the life cycle in three • What similarities can you find stages. How would you choose in the poem and the sculpture. to portray the cycle of life? What differences? What phases of life would you include? Why?

15

Templo Mayor and its 3Symbolism

This part of the exhibition is recorded their awe upon devoted to the wealth of seeing this amazing building. extraordinary artifacts excavated from the most significant religious In 1978 workers carrying out building in Tenochtitlan, the great routine maintenance work Templo Mayor. When the Aztecs on electric-lighting equipment founded their capital, they built uncovered a large circular a temple. Between 1325 and 1521, sculpture that was identified by each Aztec ruler added a new archaeologists as a representation outermost layer to the temple out of the dismembered body of of respect to the gods and to , of the ensure that his reign would be moon. This find led to the eventual immortalized within the great stone unearthing of the Templo Mayor’s structure. This imposing structure long-buried foundations. During lay at the ritual heart of the city. the excavation, it was discovered It was here that public rituals, that the preceding versions of the including , took complex had been place. Like most buildings of the preserved intact with each time, the Templo Mayor was subsequent ruler’s rebuilding, covered in stucco, a type of and so archaeologists were able plaster, and painted. Large to identify seven different layers, further decorated peeling each away like an onion the building. skin. Over 100 sacrificial deposits or offerings containing more than Recognizing its importance to the 6,000 objects have been 154 Aztec people, after the conquest discovered built into the structure. Eagle the Spanish quickly dismantled the Aztec, ca. 1440–69 Templo Mayor, and reused some of Fired clay, stucco, and paint, 170 x 118 x 55 cm the stone in their construction of Museo del Templo Mayor, a cathedral, which still occupies INAH, Mexico City 10-220366 Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant one side of Mexico City’s main Enrique Macías square (or zócalo ) today. They also

17 The excavations of the Templo Mayor also yielded objects from The most prestigious older Mesoamerican cultures that societies or orders were those the Aztecs had held in high regard. of the eagle and the . The exhaustive range of offerings These warriors wore either eagle suggests that the Aztecs created or jaguar costumes. This life-size the Templo Mayor as a model of sculpture represents an eagle everything that could be found in warrior. It is one of a pair that was the universe, both past and found flanking a doorway to the present. The organization of the chamber where the eagle warriors four-sided temple structure is also met, next to the Temple Mayor. thought to reflect the Aztec The eagle was the symbol of the worldview, in which the earth is sun, to whom all were understood to be a disk, offered. This is one of the finest surrounded by water and divided examples of large, hollow ceramic into four quarters. sculptures ever found in the .

18 Discussion Questions Further Explorations • The eagle is one of the greatest • Choose another animal and predators in the skies. To the design a costume that utilizes Aztec it represented the strength its characteristics. What traits and bravery essential to a would this costume lend to warrior. What characteristics its wearer? do you associate with eagles?

• How do you imagine the costumes looked? What characteristics would a jaguar warrior possess?

19

Legendary Cultures – 4Aztec Ancestors

The Aztecs were not the first 200,000 people, with extensive people to settle in Mexico. temple complexes and specialized For 2,500 years before their arrival, craft districts. Historically, it was the area had been home to many a site of vital importance to the , including the Olmecs, Aztecs, who revered it as the , and the people of City of the Gods (“”). Teotihuacan. The Aztecs were They also incorporated a number the last of these great cultures to of Teotihuacano gods into their settle there, and, as a result, were (family of gods), heavily influenced by the already including Tlaloc, the rain god, and established groups. In order to (“she of the jade integrate themselves into the area, skirt”), the goddess of lakes and they adopted the native language, streams. A principal deity, the Nahuatl, and copied artistic styles ruler-priest known as and techniques from other (“feathered ”), was Mesoamerican cultures. adopted from the Toltecs. ( is the term used to describe the central region of the (“place of reeds”) and Americas inhabited by native home to the Toltecs, thrived a few civilizations before the arrival of hundred years after Teotihuacan, the Spanish.) The warlike Aztecs and left a similarly influential also formed alliances with nearby legacy to later Mesoamerican communities to consolidate their cultures. The Aztecs believed military strength and expand the Toltecs were the founders their empire. of civilization and credited them 86 Mask with the invention of painting and Teotihuacan, ca. 450, Perhaps the two greatest sculpture. Aztec craftsmen held Stone, turquoise, , influences on Aztec art and culture a privileged position in society, and shell, 21.5 x 20 cm came from the ancient cities of working for the . Although Museo Nacional de Teotihuacan and Tula. Before its they were extremely important, Antropología, INAH, Mexico City. decline in A.D. 700, Teotihuacan artists never signed their work, Photo: Michel Zabé had been a wondrous city of about which was considered collective.

21 MASK The Aztecs took their inspiration This burial mask is from from Teotihuacan, Tula, , Teotihuacan, a distinctive Olmec, and other ancient civilization that reached its peak Mesoamerican cultures, adopting around the sixth century, five everything from stone-cutting hundred years before the Aztecs techniques to calendar systems. migrated from northwestern The discovery of objects from Mexico. The skilled craftsmanship other Mesoamerican cultures and the exquisite mosaic during the excavation of the patterning would have been Templo Mayor suggests that, Aztec greatly admired by the Aztecs, rulers brought artists from other as it is by people today. This mask areas, including goldsmiths from is acknowledged as one of the the Mixteca (near present-day great treasures of Pre-Hispanic ), to work in Tenochtitlan. art in Mesoamerica. were Over time they would develop commonly placed over their own original style and bundles to protect the deceased iconography, which sprang from from the dangers of the . a uniquely Aztec perspective on Made of stone, its surface is warfare, and . covered in bits of turquoise, obsidian, and shell.

22 Discussion Questions • The technique of mosaic has • Experts have determined been used for decoration in that this mask was probably many cultures and continues not meant to be worn by a to be popular today. Where have living person, but was attached you seen the mosaic technique? to a funerary bundle. What attributes of this mask lead to that conclusion?

• In Aztec society craftsmen Further Explorations passed their skills on to • Mosaics can be executed their sons, who took up their in a wide range of materials trade upon reaching manhood. from paper to marble. Some What tools and skills and readily available and inexpensive materials would have been choices include seeds, pebbles, required to make this mask? small shells, buttons and beads. In contemporary society what There are many excellent books skills are passed from parent that provide step-by-step to child? instructions on the design and execution of this decorative • For hundreds of years, masks art form. made from many different materials, have been fashioned by people in the Americas. Precolumbian people were known to use clay, gold, stone, obsidian, wood, bone, shell, turquoise, jade, hair, cloth, emerald, alabaster, coral, , diorite, onyx, and leather for masks. Where would they have found each of these materials?

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5Mexican Bestiary

The great variety of sculpted There are many examples in animal forms, from minuscule fleas Aztec art in which gods such to large coiled serpents, highlight as Quetzalcoatl, the “feathered the importance of the natural serpent,” take a hybrid form, in his world in both daily life and, more case a snake-bird, combining the profoundly, in Aztec religious and features or qualities of two animals cosmological beliefs. The Aztecs created carefully observed to emphasize aspects of the deity’s sculptures of domesticated mythical or powers. animals such as turkeys and dogs, as well as wild coyotes, snakes, and . The intensity of their In addition to the animals that they observations and their ability to coexisted with, the Aztecs were create naturalistic forms are also reliant on the plant world to exemplified by the stone sculpture of an insect thought to be a flea. provide food for sustenance and The Aztec artist has magnified fibers from which to weave cloth, this tiny creature many hundreds baskets, and mats. As Aztec of times, so that features barely society was largely agricultural, it visible to the naked eye are was reliant on the weather, which fully discernible. was sometimes unpredictable or harsh. When the Aztecs first The Aztecs explained the settled around Lake Tetzcoco, distinguishing features and roles farmland was relatively scarce of different animals through and so they created floating fields elaborate and often entertaining called , which were . One such story tells how, arranged in a grid pattern with when the moon was born, it was canals between each block. 80 Flea so bright that one of the gods Here they cultivated pumpkins, Aztec, threw a rabbit at its face to dull its avocados, and tomatoes (from the ca. 1500 Stone, 22 x 21.5 x 36.5 cm glow. This is why, for the Aztecs, Nahuatl aguacatl , tomatl ), sweet Museo Nacional de a full moon appears to contain the potatoes, chillies, and beans, as Antropología, INAH Mexico City, silhouette of a rabbit. well as corn, which they used to 10-594039

25 make pancakes known as tortillas. Discussion Questions The market – a bustling, vibrant, • As a class, generate a list of and noisy place central to Aztec things you know about fleas. daily life – was where farmers, Look carefully at the sculpture. traders, and craftsmen came to What other information about exchange their produce. One fleas can you learn from careful Spanish conquistador later observation? commented: “We were astounded at the number of people and • Why might someone focus on the quantity of merchandise it something as tiny as a flea and contained” (Bernal Díaz, The create a sculpture of it magnified Conquest of , 1580s). hundreds of times? Why might Valuable items such as gold dust, this theme have been important quetzal feathers, and cacao beans to Aztec artists? What animals were used to barter for goods of are important in contemporary equal value: turkeys, quail, rabbits, society? What artifacts might and deer; ducks and other water later explorers find from the 21st birds; maguey (cactus) syrup, and century that include references honey. Cacao beans were also to animals? used by the Aztecs to make a special drink, which only nobles could afford. Until the arrival of the Spanish in 1519, chocolate was unknown beyond the Americas.

26 Further Explorations • Students can experience the • This sculpted flea, on a process of carving by using monumental scale, reflects the a soft material like a bar of soap skill of Aztec stone carvers and or a potato. A butter knife, plastic their ability to capture minute or wooden clay tools, and details of insect anatomy using toothpicks can be used as only stone tools. Both artists implements. Choose simple forms and scientists learn about the such as and fruits to natural world through close model. The Aztecs created observation. Select a small, excellent examples in the form complex natural object. A dead of pumpkins, squashes, and cacti insect is best for this exercise, carved from stone. This project but a small or seed can is best done outdoors under also serve as a model. Closely adult supervision. observe your subject, using a magnifying glass if you have • Aztec gods such as one. Then make a detailed Quetzalcoatl, the “feathered drawing on a piece of paper that serpent,” frequently take a is at least 9 x 12 inches (larger is hybrid form, in his case a snake- better). Your drawing should fill bird, combining the features or the entire page. Once you are qualities of two animals to done, make a list of the things emphasize aspects of the deity’s you learned about your subject mythical or supernatural by drawing it. powers. What two animals would you combine to create a supernatural being? Sketch your creation and write a description of the qualities that this new creature would possess.

27

Peoples and Societies of the 6Aztec World

By examining Aztec sculptures accoutrements. Because Aztec depicting the human form, we sculpture was standardized, it is see a vivid and immediately sometimes interpreted as being recognizable portrait of daily life rigid, expressionless, stylized, in a thriving metropolis. In stone conforming to a set artistic and clay sculptors have depicted formula and established “rules” an urbane people in an ascendant of representation. society in a variety of poses: standing, seated, kneeling, At the same time, the Aztecs had crouching, or wearing an an extensive and highly scientific elaborate headdress. Some are understanding of the human body, stylized such as fertility figures or and some Aztec sculptures are figures of warriors; other like the very naturalistic, displaying stone sculpture of a hunchback wrinkled foreheads, hunched (ca. 1500) are more naturalistic , backs, and gap-toothed grimaces savoring the particular. as evidence that Aztec artists carefully observed their subjects. Aztec artists rarely, if ever, created realistic portraits of Aztec artists did represent the individuals, instead they relied human form in a wide variety of on a standard repertoire of figure media and in a surprising range types and poses: seated male of styles. Among the most common figure, kneeling woman, standing representations in this exhibition nude. Since the primary function are three-dimensional sculptures of Aztec art was to convey of the human form in stone and 13 meaning, the imagery was clay. These sculptures in the round Hunchback conventionalized. Standardized represent , warriors, Aztec, ca. 1500 types of human figures gods, and . Stone, 33 x 17 x 12 cm Museo Nacional de represented rulers, warriors, Antropología, INAH, priests, and a kind of everyman for Mexico City 10-97 Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant figures. were Enrique Macías identified by their dress and other

29 For the Aztecs, the human body HUNCHBACK and spirit were intimately linked This old stone hunchback with his to the natural and supernatural bony rib cage and short limbs is a world around them, so the state particularly good example of the of their own being could have honest and often humorous realism a direct impact on their for which Aztec artists are today surroundings. The aim, in all admired. He wears a and aspects of Aztec life, was to sports the hairstyle characteristic maintain natural harmony. of warriors, with a tied A balanced body and life ultimately with tassels on the right led to a balanced society and side of his head. universe. Therefore moderation was advised in everything and excesses avoided for fear of upsetting the cosmic equilibrium.

30 Discussion Questions Further Explorations • What is meant by the words • Look through a magazine or stylized and naturalistic ? Are newspaper and find examples there aspects of this work that of both naturalistic and stylized seem stylized? What are they? images. Discuss what attributes Which aspects seem more you considered in putting them naturalistic? Explain. in each category.

• Compare this human figure with • Choose a single subject. It can sculptural images of Aztec gods be a person, but it can also be included in this guide. How do any other natural form, a flower, they differ? What are some fruit, leaf, or animal. Create two reasons that they might be so works based on this subject, different in appearance? one stylized and the other naturalistic. The work can be three-dimensional or it can be a drawing. Which approach did you prefer? Why?

31

7Noble Life and Everyday Life

Like many civilizations, Aztec the great Motecuhzoma demanded society was hierarchical and one-third of everything his people a person’s , and produced in taxes. He also therefore one’s way of life, was demanded regular payments, largely determined by birthright. known as tribute, from the subjects Commoners worked as farmers, of conquered provinces. fishermen, or craftsmen. Noblemen served as government officials, At the opposite end of the social scribes, and teachers. Although hierarchy were farmers, the class structure was reasonably landless commoners, and slaves. rigid, some was They had few rights or luxuries possible through entry into the and spent their lives growing crops priesthood, achievement in for food and tribute. A privileged warfare, or success in trade. The was formed by nobles Aztec ruler, however, had to have and priests, both of whom played been born into the right family. an important role in government As the only figure allowed to wear and lawmaking. The higher classes the precious color turquoise, he were distinguished by their fine lived in a sumptuous with decorated textiles and sandals, spectacular gardens, a banqueting which were important symbols hall, a large , and gold cutlery. of rank. They lived in palatial Attended by an abundance of complexes and enjoyed objects of bodyguards and beautiful women the finest quality. Only nobles were (who had to approach him with allowed to wear clothes made of 401 downcast eyes and bare feet), the cotton, and they frequently adorned Pendent in the shape of a warrior ruler possessed an almost godlike themselves with intricate Aztec, status. The ruler at the time of the ornaments – pendants, lip plugs, after 1325 Cast gold-silver- alloy, Spanish invasion was the ninth and earspools. Commoners wore 11.2 x 6.1 cm Aztec , Motecuhzoma II, clothes woven from the much The Cleveland Museum of Art, Leonard C. Hanna, Jr. Fund who could trace his ancestry back coarser fiber of the maguey plant. 1984.37 to the first ruler, . Below the nobles were the Photo © The Cleveland Museum of Art To maintain his luxurious lifestyle, merchants and skilled craftsmen.

33 It was to this that beauty, such as fans, shields, and professional warriors belonged. headdresses. Featherworks were Young boys would be educated at insignia of wealth and power, and home by their parents until the age an important element of the ritual of 15, at which point they would outfit of warriors. Mosaics made either be trained in warfare or sent of shell, turquoise, and other for priestly instruction in writing, stones were also highly prized. philosophy, and astronomy. (Girls were educated at home until 15 as well, but then married.) Although already respected members of society, warriors could improve their rank by capturing an ever- greater number of victims, and were rewarded with increasingly impressive costumes and precious tribute items.

Although we tend to think of gold as the most precious of materials, as did the Spanish , the Aztecs did not. They worked the gold into exquisite pieces of jewelry, but referred to it as the excrement of the gods. Perhaps surprisingly to us, the most venerated material was feathers. Brightly colored plumes were gathered, often from farmed birds, and sent to Tenochtitlan as tax payment or tribute. They were fashioned into objects of great

34 Discussion Questions Further Explorations • This figure represents a warrior • Within Aztec society a person’s who holds a serpent-headed status and were -thrower in one hand and clearly delineated. Look through a shield, darts, and banner in magazines and newspapers for the other. Experts believe that indications of how people from he represents someone of various levels of contemporary status. How can you tell that this society are depicted. Cut out warrior is part of a respected your examples and have a class group within his society? discussion about current indicators of status. What are • Stone figures, clay pots, and contemporary “status symbols”? jade ornaments are some of the objects that preserve our • Read over the section above knowledge of Aztec civilization. and write a parallel essay What objects or images would about social class and status you select to represent life in contemporary society. today? Why do these objects serve as a valid representation of contemporary society?

• Although only nobles had objects made from precious metals and stones, all Aztec homes had small shrines to the gods that might help to protect the family. Do you have religious objects in your home? Describe what they are, where they are placed, and how they are used.

35

8Gods and Rituals

The Aztecs had hundreds of into a fire and rising as the sun and different gods and goddesses – the moon. The remaining gods then one for every aspect of their lives. sacrificed themselves, their blood The various deities were believed setting the sun and moon in motion. to exert immense power and From then on, the daily movement influence over everything people of the sun, and therefore the did and, as a result, were continuation of life itself, depended worshipped devoutly by all levels on the nourishment of the gods of society, both at domestic shrines with human blood. and also in elaborate public rituals. These ceremonies, led by priests Although Aztec deities can be who often “became” gods during broadly divided into male and the ceremony, were highly female, those of life and , and theatrical and dramatic affairs, those of creation and destruction, integrating festive dancing in they were far more complex than fantastic costumes with bloody being either purely good or evil. human sacrifice, which was Many were dual in nature, thought to be necessary to incorporating a particular quality, continue and keep in balance gender or role, with its opposite. the cycle of life and death. This duality (double nature) reflected one of the dominant Underlying Aztec religious beliefs principles of and was the Legend of the , the thought: that the cosmos was explanation of the origin of the organized into binary opposites, universe. According to legend, the such as night and day, fire and 311 universe had been created and water, cold and heat. Dead warrior brazier Aztec, ca. 1500 destroyed four previous times, and Fired clay and paint, each creation formed an age called In many ways, Aztec gods and 91 x 76 x 57.5 cm Museo Nacional del a “sun.” The fifth epoch began in goddesses were just like ordinary Virreinato, INAH, darkness. The gods gathered at men and women. They each had Tepotzotlán 10-133646 Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant Teotihuacan, and two of them their own personality and well- Enrique Macías sacrificed themselves by jumping defined role. Humans impersonated

37 the gods at religious ceremonies, they died. Although it wasn’t quite becoming them for that time. as grim as the Christian concept Because the gods could transform of , the people banished here themselves into earthly forms, had to brave such hazards as almost everything was considered clashing mountains and flying divine, from the lowliest insect to knives made from obsidian, a black the largest mountain. Among the volcanic glass that is so hard and Aztec gods and goddesses was sharp that the Aztecs used it to a supreme deity called Ometeotl make swords. (“two god”), who, as both female and male, was the embodiment of In Aztec art, deities can be the Aztec idea of duality and was identified through a standard set responsible for creating both of accoutrements, including dress, humans and gods. headwear, face markings, jewelry, or ornamentation, and other The Aztecs had no concept of accessories such as . heaven and hell as places of , for example, an reward and punishment. Instead, ancient Mexican sorcerer and they envisioned the cosmos as the god of night and destiny, is divided into layers, both above and generally depicted with a black below the earth, each of which band across his nose and face received people who had died a and a withered foot that ends in particular death. If you had died a mirror made of obsidian. by drowning or been struck by Tezcatlipoca’s name actually lightning, for example, you ended means “smoking mirror” and up on the celestial (heavenly) it was said that, with this plane governed by Tlaloc, the rain instrument, he could see and god. The nine levels beneath the control what was happening earth, collectively known as throughout the universe. (the underworld), were less welcoming and were where the majority of Aztecs went when

38 DEIFIED WARRIOR BRAZIER Discussion Questions This ceremonial brazier, or • Which characteristics of this fire pot, was discovered during sculpture seem warrior-like? the construction of the Metro How would you depict a brave in Mexico City, near where the warrior who had been killed in Templo Mayor had previously a battle? stood. It depicts the fiercely expressive form of a warrior • Compare this figure with the crossing the threshold of death, other eagle warrior pictured either killed in battle or sacrificed in this guide. In what ways do to the gods. Such a death was people today honor the memory honorable and the of dead of those who have been killed warriors went to their own in war? celestial plane, where they were thought to accompany the sun on its daily path across the sky. The figure wears an enormous eagle helmet with an open beak, Further Explorations identified with eagle warriors, one • The exhibition contains many of the most distinguished military examples of vessels decorated orders that could be awarded to a with images of gods and people. brave Aztec fighter. The black, , With self-hardening clay create and yellow decoration and facial a vessel adorned with a paint identify him as a patron of personage. When dry, paint can youthful energy and military be applied. Remember that self- victory, while the “halo of nine hardening clay can never be feathers” around the upper part of used as a container for food. his face evokes the planes of the underworld. Like many other Aztec sculptures (and many buildings), this brazier would have been lit during religious ceremonies.

39

Manuscripts and 9Calendars

Aztecs were greatly concerned such as “1 Rabbi,” “2 Water,” or with the passage of time and “3 Jaguar,” each of which was devised sophisticated calendars associated with a different fate. and elaborate counting systems Aztec people were named after the that regulated their religious, day of the ritual calendar on which economic, political, and social they were born. It was thought that lives. Two interrelated calendars the fate of this day would affect were used to measure time. their personal destiny. The 365-day solar or yearly calendar was closely linked to When the various numbers the seasons and to agricultural and signs of these two different activities such as harvesting. calendars were integrated, It was made up of 18 “months” of they produced a combination 20 days (360). The remaining five that would occur once every days were tacked onto the end of 52 years and might be considered each year and considered very equivalent to our century. This was unlucky. Each ‘month’ was a time of terrifying uncertainty for dedicated to a particular deity the Aztecs. It was marked with and was distinguished by a a New Fire Ceremony. All fires different feast. Although it also were extinguished and household regulated human activities, the pots smashed, ready for renewal. 260-day ritual calendar was more Priests waited on the outskirts religious in nature, particularly of Tenochtitlan. At midnight they concerned with fate and destiny. lit a new fire in the chest cavity This calendar consisted of two of a captive warrior, and its flame 335 Xiuhmolpilli (1 Death) wheels, or rounds. One round had was distributed to temples and Aztec, ca. 1500 13 numbered positions. The other eventually to households. This Stone, had 20 positions, each with a ceremony epitomized the concept l. 61 cm, diam. 26 cm, Museo Nacional de named sign, such as rabbit, house, that out of human sacrifice came Antropología, INAH, or . The interlocking life, a sacred aspect of the duality Mexico City 10-220917 Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant of these two rounds produced of death and rebirth. Enrique Macías a number-name for each day,

41 XIUHMOLPILLI Discussion Questions The xiuhmolpilli , meaning “year • When the millennium year 2000 bundle,” is a stone monument was approaching, there were created to commemorate a New speculations about possible Fire Ceremony. As its name catastrophes, as well as major suggests, it represents a bundle celebrations. Research both of 52 reeds, tied with rope and aspects of the commemoration covered with a symbol of the final of the recent millennium. How year. During the ceremony, 52 of did contemporary observances these bundles were burned. parallel or differ from Aztec traditions? The Aztecs believed that the world had already been created and • In many ways the description destroyed four times before, and of Aztec beliefs about the fate that their Fifth World was also of people being determined doomed. It was thought that this by the calendar seems similar ritual of renewal would prevent the to astrology. Do you believe destruction of the world a fifth that the month, day, and time time. The last New Fire Ceremony when a person is born affects before the arrival of the Spanish their fate? Do you think there took place in 1507. are lucky and unlucky days? Explain your answer.

• This stone monument commemorated a special ceremonial event in the lives of the Aztecs. What special events have occurred during your lifetime? How have they been commemorated?

42 Further Explorations • The end of each 52-year Aztec “century” was considered a period of terrible danger when the world could come to an end. No one was sure if the sun would rise again. Although today we may view such beliefs as irrational, continues to pervade, even in contemporary culture. With your class, brainstorm a list of . Some examples include, “Friday the thirteenth,” and “the of the Bambino.” Research and report on the history behind these ideas and why they continue.

43

Cultures Subjugated By the 10 Aztecs

From the 14th through 16th ambassadors to the city they centuries Aztecs dominated planned to attack. They would ask central and southern Mexico the city leaders to become allies and established an elaborate by paying tribute, trading with and wide-ranging empire. the Aztecs, and putting a statue As the Aztecs grew in number, of their god Huitzilopochtli in their they developed superior military temple. They had twenty days to and civil organizations. decide whether they would comply. If the city refused, more The Aztecs formed military ambassadors arrived. This time alliances with other groups, the talk was tougher, less about creating an empire that extended the advantages of joining the from central Mexico to the Aztecs and more about the Guatemalan border. By the end destruction and death, which of the reign of Motecuhzoma II in came to any city that did not 1520, 38 tributary provinces had submit. To show how confident been established; however, some they were about the outcome of of the tribes at the fringes of the any future war, the Aztecs gave Aztec empire remained fiercely the enemy chief weapons, and independent. more warnings. If this did not work, a third embassy arrived Aztec rulers approached war twenty days later. Polite talk was somewhat differently than we do replaced by bloodcurdling threats today. There were varied reasons about what would happen after 526 Life-Death figure (Apotheosis) for warfare. An insult, a tribute that the city lost the war. This included Huaxtec, had not been paid or an attack on destruction of the city’s temple, ca. 900 – 1250 Stone, Aztec traders could trigger a enslavement of population, and 158 x 67 x 22.9 cm military response. The Aztecs a promise that crippling tribute Brooklyn Museum of Art, Henry L. Batterman Fund and did not launch surprise attacks, would be demanded for years to the Frank Sherman Benson nor did they fight during certain come. If the city still refused to Fund, 37.2897PA Photo © Brooklyn Museum seasons or at night. Declarations join the Aztecs, the war began. of Art of war began by sending Through all of these negotiations,

45 the Aztecs had time to gain LIFE – DEATH FIGURE information and plan how to best This Life – Death figure was attack the city. Priests decided on created by the Huaxtec, a people the luckiest day to start the battle, who were defeated by the Aztec soldiers prepared for war, the army armies around 1450 and henceforth set out, and the battles began. paid tribute to the Aztec empire. Usually the Aztecs won quickly. It is an excellent embodiment of They took as many as a concept that ran through possible for sacrifice, destroyed Mesoamerican cultures; the the local temples and decided on concept of duality. This life-size the tribute to be paid. Then they sculpture represents a youthful made the local people male wearing ornaments and a Huitzilopochtli and respect the cloth knotted around his waist, but Aztec emperor. Tribute was paid when we examine the other side regularly, or else another battle of this figure we find a skeletal would occur. figure with its rib cage and internal organs exposed. Discussion Questions • How do Aztec war tactics and The Huaxtec language is still strategies differ from those spoken in Mexico today, especially used today? Are there parts in rural areas, and the people that seem effective? Ineffective? retain characteristic traditions If you were counseling the in their music and dance. Aztecs on military strategy, what It is estimated that the Huaxtec suggestions would you make? population in Mexico numbers approximately 80,000 people. • If you were part of a neighboring group what tactics would you suggest to avoid being conquered?

46 Discussion Questions Further Explorations • Divide the class into two groups. • Although we see the front and Each group should compose a back of this work in the list of words that describe one photograph, make a drawing side of the sculpture. When that shows how it might look complete, post both lists. Are from theside – in profile. If you there words in each list that can are visiting the museum during be combined to demonstrate the the exhibition, bring the drawing concept of duality? Are there with you, so that you can other combinations that suggest compare your conception with other qualities in this sculpture? your observations in the gallery.

• Are some dualities still part of • Consider the concept of duality our contemporary life? Do you and create a drawing, poem, feel this concept is still essay, sculpture, or other important or has it been replaced personal expression of this by other ideas. Explain. pervasive theme.

47

11 The Tarascan Empire

To the west, the Purepecha people, of 24,000 confronted by an called Tarascan by the Spanish, opposing force of more than 40,000 flourished from 1100 to 1530. Tarascan warriors. A ferocious The center of the Tarascan battle went on all day. Many of Empire was their capital city of the Aztec warriors were badly Tzintzuntzan. From this religious wounded by , stones, and administrative center, the , and sword thrusts. The Tarascans waged war against following day, the Aztecs were their enemies, the Aztecs. forced to retreat, having suffered the loss of more than half of their Products such as honey, cotton, elite warriors. feathers, , gold, and copper were highly prized by the The arrival of the Spanish captain Tarascans. Neighboring regions Hernán Cortés and his men on the that possessed these commodities east coast of Mexico in April 1519 quickly became a primary target of led to the end of both the Aztec their military expansion. When and the Tarascan . conquered, the peoples of these Knowing that the Spaniards were regions were expected to pay on their way to the Aztec capital of material goods to the of Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs sent Tarascan lord. emissaries to the Tarascans to ask for help. Instead of providing The Aztecs attempted more than assistance, they sacrificed the once to conquer the Tarascan Aztec messengers. Tenochtitlan fell lands, but never succeeded. This in 1521 after a bloody siege. 625 left the Aztecs with a major rival on The Tarascans’ turn came in 1522. Tarascan, ca. 1250–1521 their western border. In combat The last Tarascan king, Tangaxoan Stone, they repeatedly suffered grievous II, offered little resistance. Once he 84 x 150 x 48 cm Museo Nacional de losses to the Tarascan armies. For submitted, all the other Tarascan Antropología, INAH, example, in 1478 the ruling Aztec realms surrendered peacefully. Mexico City 10-1609 Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant lord, , marched against After the conquest, Spanish Enrique Macías the Tarascans. He found his army organized the

49 Tarascan Empire into a series of Discussion Question craft-oriented villages, and today • With new technologies there the area abounds with are many ways to preserve craftspeople skilled in wood, history. Name some of the copper, cloth, and clay. institutions and technologies that help preserve history Why isn’t the Tarascan empire for future generations. Also better known? Unlike the Aztecs, consider ways that even today the Tarascans left no personal important histories can be lost documentary histories. Without the or obliterated. assistance of Spanish - historians dedicated to writing down their story, much of their history was lost. However, archaeological excavations and a significant body of pottery, copper, and stone objects affords us a glimpse into the lives of this strong and highly developed civilization.

50 CHACMOOL Discussion Question The term chacmool refers to a • The style of this Tarascan figure style of sculpture, representing differs from those of the Aztecs. a male figure in a specific pose: Choose another figure in this seated on the ground with its guide and compare and contrast upper back raised, the head is the style of the two works. turned to a near right angle, the legs are drawn up, elbows rest on • Take the pose of the chacmool the ground. The receptacle held on figure. Describe how it feels to the stomach is thought to be for assume this pose. What areas sacrificial offerings. Chacmool of your body are in tension? Even figures have been found at temples though you are reclining, do you throughout Mesoamerica feel relaxed? What words can suggesting that this sculptural you find to describe your form was important to several associations with this pose? civilizations, including Mayan, Toltec, Aztec, and Tarascan.

Further Explorations • Although they display a similar pose, chacmool figures in different styles have been found in many Mesoamerican cultures. Research other chacmool figures and, using that information, design one that you think might be discovered in future archaeological excavations.

51 52 12 The Twilight of the Empire

On November 8, 1519, the Aztec outnumbered, they soon betrayed world changed forever when a the Aztec ruler and took him group of Spanish conquistadores, hostage. In response, the Aztecs led by Hernán Cortés, arrived at attacked the Spaniards, resulting Tenochtitlan to meet Motecuhzoma in a war in which both sides II. The ninth Aztec ruler had known sustained heavy casualties. of the impending arrival of white Motecuhzoma died during the men from the east for a number of fighting, possibly killed by his own years and had sent messengers people as they threw stones at the to the Gulf Coast to bring news conquistadores. In desperation, of these strangers, whose the Spanish finally fled the city by approaching ships appeared to moonlight on late June 1520, an the Aztecs as houses floating occasion that has come to be on the sea. Upon his arrival, known as the Noche Triste (Sad Motecuhzoma invited Cortés to Night) by the Spanish. Tenochtitlan, perhaps in the that he was Quetzalcoatl, the ruler- The following year a 900-strong priest and god who had been Spanish army returned, beginning banished and who, according to a nearly 3-month-long siege legend, would return from the east. that claimed many Aztec lives through intense fighting, starvation, Cortés and Motecuhzoma met on and disease. After fierce one of the causeways that linked resistance, the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan to the mainland. Tenochtitlan finally fell to Cortés Here they exchanged words and on , 1521. 598 gifts. Treated like gods, the Spanish Lienzo de Quetzpalan Colonial-, were welcomed in Tenochtitlan, The Spanish conquest can be late 16th century a city whose beauty and attributed to several factors, among Cotton and pigments, 154 x 183 x 53 cm sophistication overwhelmed them were their superior weapons, Fundación Cultural Televisa, them. They were uncertain of which included firearms and steel Mexico City REG 21 PJ 403 Photo: Michel Zabé, assistant Motecuhzoma’s intentions however, swords, and their military tactics, Enrique Macías and, aware that they were which, unlike ,

53 focused on actually killing the Further Explorations enemy (rather than capturing them • The meeting between Cortés alive to be sacrificed to the gods and Motecuhzoma II marked later). Cortés also exploited the encounter between two underlying tensions between different civilizations who knew Tenochtitlan and other cities. little of each other. Divide the He was helped in his negotiations class in half: one half will with the Aztecs by an interpreter, represent how Motecuhzoma II an indigenous woman, Malintzin, and his armies saw the invaders; whom the Spaniards renamed the rest should imagine Marina and is known today in themselves as the Spanish Mexico as La Malinche. expedition. Write scripts that demonstrate disparate points As might be expected considering of view, and then stage a the conviction with which they had meeting envisioning what took practiced their own religion place in November 1519, along previously, the Aztecs’ conversion the causeway leading to the to was a slow and Aztec capitol. gradual process. For a while, the two existed somewhat uneasily together as the Aztecs were forced to relinquish their many gods and goddesses in favor of one supreme deity. Despite the eventual success of the Christian mission, some Aztec idols were still being worshipped more than 300 years later.

54 CODICES Discussion Questions Much of what we know about the • Examine the page from the Aztecs comes from their beautiful, , Lienzo of Quetzpalan. hand-painted manuscripts, or How many symbols (glyphs) can codices (singular: codex). you decipher? Which symbols are difficult to equate with In their codices, Aztec painter- a meaning? Try to construct scribes used a form of picture a narrative that describes what writing, which resembled the is being depicted. ancient Egyptians’ hieroglyphics or the modern-day comic. This “writing” included , phonetic signs, religious emblems, and even mathematical symbols. Further Explorations • To practice communicating using During the initial years of Spanish glyphs, try a game of Pictionary® rule, many codices were (picture charades). Divide the destroyed, especially those that class in half. Each team should documented Aztec rituals. Today write a set of secret words that only a few pre-Hispanic painted the other team will try to guess. books from Mexico survive. Movie, play, and song titles are some possible categories. This codex, known as the Lienzo of A player tries to draw symbols Quetzpalan, was produced as part that will get their team to guess of a large-scale geographic survey correctly. No talking or written of Mexico ordered by the Spanish words allowed. government in the 1570s. • Many codices document historical information and events. Choose a subject and create a set of graphic symbols (glyphs) to illustrate your codex.

55 y r a l u b a c o V

CACAO Chocolate. MESOAMERICA Term used to describe the central region of CALPULLI (cal-PUL-li) A form the Americas inhabited by native of kin-based communal living civilizations before the arrival of practiced in Tenochtitlan. the Spanish.

CAUSEWAYS Raised roads or (Mah-SHEE-kahs) pathways across water. People of the Aztec empire.

CHINAMPAS (chi-NAM-pahs) MICTLANTECUHTLI (mict-lan-te- Aztec floating gardens made from CUH-tli) Lord of Mictlan, the reclaimed swampland. underworld.

CODEX An Aztec book of picture MOSAIC A design make from small symbols. The plural is codices. pieces of stone or colored glass.

EMPIRE A group of countries or MOTECUHZOMA II (-te-cuh-ZO- states, ruled by a single ma) The ninth Aztec ruler at the government or emperor. time of the Conquest.

GLYPH A picture symbol standing NOBLE A person of high birth, for a word or idea. such as a lord.

HUITZILPOCHTLI (huit-zi-lo- NAHUATL (NAH-hua-tl) POCHT-li) Sun god and god of war. The language spoken by the Aztecs and still spoken today by MAGUEY (MA-guey) A type of some groups of Central Highland cactus plant that provided cloth Mexico. Avocado ( aguacatl ) and and food for the Aztecs. ( tomatl ) are Nahuatl words.

56 NATURALISTIC The suggestion, TENOCHTITLAN (Te-noch-TIT-lan) in a work of art, of the direct The capital city of the Aztec observation of a scene or figure. empire.

OBSIDIAN Hard volcanic glass TLALOC (TLA-loc) God of rain. that the Aztecs used for blades. TRIBUTE A type of tax paid in food and other goods. PRECOLUMBIAN The period of time before the arrival of UNDERWORLD The place where Christopher Columbus to the the Aztecs believed people went New World in 1492. when they died.

QUETZALCOATL (quet-zal-CO-a-tl) (Shee-pe TOH-tec) “,” important God of renewal and rebirth. pan-Mesoamerican deity.

SACRIFICE To kill an animal or person as an offering to the gods.

SCRIBE A person who writes documents and books by hand.

STYLIZED The simplification or generalization of forms found in nature.

TEMPLO MAYOR (TEM-plo may- OR) The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan.

57 s d e n c a r u y o h s p e a R r g d o e i t l In the interest of simplifying the For Adults s b

e text of this guide, footnotes have Gordon Brotherston. Painted i

g been eliminated. Grateful Books from Mexico . London: B

g acknowledgment is made to the Press, 1995.

u authors of the following works for

S their contributions to the content Davíd Carrasco. Daily Life of the of this guide. Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth . Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Nina Miall. Aztecs: An Introduction Press, 1998. to the Exhibition . London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2002. Michael D. Coe. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs . New York: and Thames and Hudson, 2002. Felipe Solís. Aztecs . New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2002. Miguel León-Portilla. Aztec Thought and Culture . Translated Richard F. Townsend. The Aztecs. by Jack Emory Davis. Norman: London: Thames and Hudson, 2000. University of Press, 1990.

Eduardo Matos Moctezuma. The Great Temple of the Aztecs: Treasures of Tenochtitlan . London: Thames and Hudson, 1994.

Mary Ellen Miller. The Art of Mesoamerica from Olmec to Aztec . London: Thames and Hudson, 1996.

58 Mary Ellen Miller and . For Children An Illustrated Dictionary of the Elizabeth Baquedano. Aztec, Gods and Symbols of Ancient Inca & Maya . London: Dorling Mexico and the Maya . London: Kindersley, 1993. Thames and Hudson, 1997. Peter Hicks. The Aztecs. New York: Esther Pasztory. Aztec Art . Thomson Learning, 1993. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998. Fiona Macdonald. How Would You Survive as an Aztec? Danbury, Patricia Rieff Anawalt and Frances Conn.: Franklin Watts, 1997. F. Berdan. The Essential . Berkeley: University of Neil Morris. Uncovering History Press, 1997. Everyday Life of The Aztec, Incas, & Maya . , Italy: McRae Felipe Solís. The Aztec Empire . Books Srl, 2003. New York: Guggenheim Museum and Mexico City: Landucci Philip Steele. Aztec-News: The Editores, 2004. Greatest Newspaper in Civilization. Cambridge, Mass.: Candlewick Thelma D. Sullivan and T. J. Knab. Press, 1997. A Scattering of : Stories, Poems and of the Aztecs . Tim Wood. The Aztecs. New York: New York: Simon & Viking Penguin,199 2. Schuster/Touchstone, 1994.

59 Websites http://anthro.amnh.org Department of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History

www.famsi.org Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies

www.archaeology.org Archaeology Magazine, Archaeological Association of America

http://copan.bioz.unibas.ch/mesolinks.html

http://www.atlanticava.org/WebandCamSites/AztecsIncasMyans.htm

Precolumbian Archaeology Related Links http://library.thinkquest.org/27981/god.html

http://www.mexicolore.co.uk/azt_pron.htm Provides audio pronunciation for selected Aztec gods and Nahuatl words

Videos In Search of History: The Aztec Empire New York: A&E Television Networks , 1997 Color, 50 min

Empires of the Americas: A Journey Back in Time New Jersey: Kultur, 2000 Color, 50 min

60 d n a s t i d e r C

The Sackler Center for Arts Special Thanks is an interactive-media We are grateful to Nina Miall, facility dedicated to exploring Public Programs Manager at the museum’s collections and the Royal Academy of Arts, for exhibitions and modern and granting permission to adapt contemporary art in general. educational materials written for the exhibition Aztecs . The Sackler Center for Arts Education is a gift of the Mortimer For curatorial insights and review: D. Sackler Family. Marion Kocot, Project Manager, The Aztec Empire . Educational activities are made possible by The Edith and Frances For educational insights and review: Mulhall Achilles Memorial Fund, Kim Kanatani, Gail Engelberg, The Engelberg Foundation, William Director of Education Randolph Hearst Foundation, and Rebecca Herz, Education Manager The Peter Jay Sharp Foundation. Jessica Wright, Education Manager Sarah Selvidge, Education Intern Project Management Dr. George Rappaport, Sharon Vatsky, Senior Education Emeritus, Wagner College Manager Edited by Stephen Hoban and Elizabeth Franzen Designed by Janice Lee

61 THE SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM FOUNDATION

Honorary Trustees in Perpetuity Trustees Solomon R. Guggenheim Jon Imanol Azua Justin K. Thannhauser Peter M. Brant Peggy Guggenheim Mary Sharp Cronson Gail May Engelberg Honorary Chairman Daniel Filipacchi Peter Lawson-Johnston Martin D. Gruss Frederick B. Henry Chairman David H. Koch Peter B. Lewis Thomas Krens Peter Lawson-Johnston Vice-Presidents Peter Lawson-Johnston II Wendy L-J. McNeil Peter B. Lewis Stephen C. Swid Howard Lutnick John S. Wadsworth, Jr. William L. Mack Wendy L-J. McNeil Director Edward H. Meyer Thomas Krens Vladimir O. Potanin Frederick W. Reid Secretary Stephen M. Ross Edward F. Rover Mortimer D.A. Sackler Denise Saul Honorary Trustee Terry Semel Claude Pompidou James B. Sherwood Raja W. Sidawi Trustees Ex Officio Seymour Slive David Gallagher Jennifer Stockman Dakis Joannou Stephen C. Swid John S. Wadsworth, Jr. Director Emeritus Mark R. Walter Thomas M. Messer John Wilmerding

62 SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM EDUCATION COMMITTEE 2004

Chair Gail May Engelberg

Members Elizabeth Bader Anna Deveare Smith Lesley M. Friedman Rebecca Grafstein Alan C. Greenberg Roslalind G. Jacobs Maureen Lee Wynton Marsalis Wendy L-J. McNeil Elihu H. Modlin Paloma Picasso Suzanne Plotch Kathe A. Sackler Gabriela Serna Vivian Serota Elizabeth R. Varet Peter Yarrow

63