DOCSLIB.ORG

Aztec Human Sacrifice As Entertainment? the Physio-Psycho- Social Rewards of Aztec Sacrificial Celebrations

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Aztec Human Sacrifice As Entertainment? the Physio-Psycho- Social Rewards of Aztec Sacrificial Celebrations University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2017 Aztec Human Sacrifice as Entertainment? The Physio-Psycho- Social Rewards of Aztec Sacrificial Celebrations Linda Jane Hansen University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons, Latin American Languages and Societies Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Hansen, Linda Jane, "Aztec Human Sacrifice as Entertainment? The Physio-Psycho-Social Rewards of Aztec Sacrificial Celebrations" (2017). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1287. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1287 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. AZTEC HUMAN SACRIFICE AS ENTERTAINMENT? THE PHYSIO-PSYCHO-SOCIAL REWARDS OF AZTEC SACRIFICIAL CELEBRATIONS ___________ A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the University of Denver and the Iliff School of Theology Joint PhD Program University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy __________ by Linda Prueitt Hansen June 2017 Advisor: Dr. Annabeth Headrick ©Copyright by Linda Prueitt Hansen 2017 All Rights Reserved Author: Linda Prueitt Hansen Title: Aztec Human Sacrifice as Entertainment? The Physio-Psycho-Social Rewards of Aztec Sacrificial Celebrations Advisor: Dr. Annabeth Headrick Degree Date: June 2017 ABSTRACT Human sacrifice in the sixteenth-century Aztec Empire, as recorded by Spanish chroniclers, was conducted on a large scale and was usually the climactic ritual act culminating elaborate multi-day festivals. Scholars have advanced a wide range of theories explaining the underlying motivations and purposes of these abundant and regulated ritual massacres. Recent scholarship on human sacrifice in ancient Mexico has observed far more complexity, nuance, and fluidity in the nature of these rituals than earlier mono-causal explanations. Several recent examinations have concentrated their analysis on the use of sacred space, architecture, movement, and embodiment in these festivals. As an extension of these efforts, this dissertation uses a phenomenological approach to examine the “experience” of sacrificial rituals. It explores the sensory-emotive and physiological responses to the celebrations and the violence associated with human sacrifice. Using modern bio-social-psychological theory, this study reveals that the brutal treatment of captive enemy bodies in human sacrificial rituals provided physiological, psychological, and social rewards that turned these spectacular events into a form of enthralling entertainment. Several other recompenses for officiants and other spectator-participants included a sense of security, management of anxiety, and social bonding. In addition, this dissertation ii reveals that these ceremonies incorporated different shamanic elements that fostered communally experienced “altered states of consciousness” which further contributed to physiological rewards, the reduction of social anxieties, and an increase in social solidarity. The significance of this research is that it offers additional explanations for the massive scale and longevity of the practice of human sacrifice amongst the ancient Aztec. It also offers other reasons why the lower echelons of society supported these celebrations despite the possibilities that they could be demoted to slave status and become sacrificial victims themselves. This study also presents possible future explorations of ritual violence in other ancient and modern cultures. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt gratitude for the patience and unending support of Dr. Annabeth Headrick who opened my heart and mind to the magnificent ancient cultures in Mesoamerica and for helping me persevere in completing this research and writing. My gratitude extends to all the fabulous mentors and instructors at the University of Denver and the Iliff School of Theology, particularly Dr. Richard Clemmer Smith, Dr. Tracy Bachrach Ehlers, Dr. Larry Conyers, Dr. Gregory Robbins, Dr. Ginni Ishimatsu, Dr. Alison Schofield, and Dr. Ted Vial. My parents are deserving of all of my gratitude as they always encouraged and inspired me. I write this on the anniversary of my father’s passing one year ago, and he is the lodestar of my life. He was a nuclear physicist who pioneered computer graphics and invented renewable energy technologies which will yet change the world. He was a bona-fide genius and yet the most loving, humble man I have ever encountered. This is for you great one!! I thank my children for their encouragement and support, and I expect they will each do great and creative things with their lives. Finally, for the one who will read this, I give all my gratitude and love to my angel husband, Dana Hansen, who supported me every step along the way on this incredible journey. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………........1 Brief Summary of Theoretical Contributions Regarding Sacrifice………………….........5 Theory and Method……………………………………………………………….….......11 Organization of Chapters…………………………………………………………….......15 Part I: Literature Review: Theories of Sacrifice and Aztec Human Sacrifice. Chapter Two: Theories on the Nature and Meaning of Human Sacrifice…………………………..21 Classical Theories of Sacrifice…………………………………………………..............22 Additional Modern Theories of Sacrifice………………………………………………..32 Chapter Three: Theoretical Background Concerning the Ideological/Cosmological Aspects of Aztec Human Sacrifice.........................................................................….....41 Scholarly Treatments of the Ideological Aspects of Aztec Sacrifice…………………....42 Chapter Four: Materialist Theories on the Nature and Meaning of Aztec Human Sacrifice……...53 Aztec Hierarchal Social Order…………………………………………………...............54 Scholarly Treatment of the Political Components of Aztec Human Sacrifice…………..61 Scholarly Treatments of the Economic Advantages of Aztec Human Sacrifice………...73 Scholarly Treatments of the Aztec Warrior/Sacrificial Cult……………………………..78 Summary of Literature and other Rewards Attenuating Aztec Human Sacrifice………..86 Part II: Biological and Social-Psychological Theories Related to the “Experience” of Aztec Sacrificial Ceremonies Chapter Five: Theories Explaining the Biopsychosocial Rewards of Aztec Sacrificial Ceremonies……………………………………………………………………………...91 v A Bio-Cultural Approach to Celebration and Religious Activity………………………..94 Biological Rewards for Viewing and Participating in Violence…………………………98 Shamanic-Like Rituals and Physiological Rewards……………………………………106 Social-Psychological Theories: The Attraction/Fear of Death…………………………119 Summary………………………………………………………………………………..133 Part III: Biopsychosocial Rewards in the Three Phases of Aztec Sacrificial Ceremonies Chapter Six: Physiological Rewards in the Aztec Monthly Veintenas…………………………...139 Interactivity of Religious Ritual, Emotions, and Biological Responses………………..141 Neuro-Physiological Rewards in the Anticipatory Rites of Aztec Feasts……………...146 Neuro-Physiological Rewards in the Violent-Sacrificial Phase of Aztec Feasts……….169 Neuro-Physiological Rewards in Aztec Euphoric-Celebratory Rites…………………..185 Summary………………………………………………………………………………..197 Chapter Seven: Shamanic Elements in Aztec Monthly Feasts and the Biopsychosocial Reward….202 Rhythmic Drivers and Altered States of Consciousness in Aztec Monthly Veintenas...205 Fasting in Aztec Veintenas: Spiritual Connections and Biological Responses………...214 Sexual Abstinence and Wakefulness: Spiritual Meanings and Biological Rewards…...219 Painful Austerities: Cosmological Significance and Biological Responses……………224 Pulque and Hallucinogens in Aztec Ceremonies and Biopsychosocial Responses….....233 Summary………………………………………………………………………………..237 Chapter Eight: Social-Psychological Rewards of Violence and Celebration in the Aztec Monthly Veintenas……………………………………………………………..243 Aztec Ritual Programs and Management of Anxieties and Trepidations………………246 Aztec Veintenas and Psychological Buffering from Threatening Outsiders…………...253 Mortality Salience and Psychological Ramifications in Aztec Feasts………………….269 Summary………………………………………………………………………………..285 Chapter Nine: Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….287 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………...……313 vi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION In the ancient Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, there rose above the bustling metropolis skyline a towering pyramid crowned with two magnificent shrines dedicated to two central Aztec deities. On a massive platform in front of these temples, stood a large pointed stone referred to by modern scholars as a chacmool. Spanish chroniclers reveal that the sharp vertical shape of this stone-idol was designed for ease of extracting the heart from human sacrificial victims. One ethnohistoric account described the procedure for this form of sacrifice: Thus they took (the victim) up (to the pyramid temple) before the devil: the priests) just went holding him by his hands. And he who was known as the arranger (of victims), this one laid him out on the sacrificial stone (on his back facing upwards). And when he had laid him upon it, four men each pulled on his arms, his legs. And already in the hand of the fire priest lay
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Dread Taboo, Human Sacrifice, and Pearl Harbor
    The Dread Taboo, Human Sacrifice, and Pearl Harbor RDKHennan The word taboo, or tabu, is well known to everyone, but it is especially interesting that it is one of but two or possibly three words from the Polynesian language to have been adopted by the English-speaking world. While the original meaning of the taboo was "Sacred" or "Set apart," usage has given it a decidedly secular meaning, and it has become a part of everyday speech all over the world. In the Hawaiian lan­ guage the word is "kapu," and in Honolulu we often see a sign on a newly planted lawn or in a park that reads, not, "Keep off the Grass," but, "Kapu." And to understand the history and character of the Hawaiian people, and be able to interpret many things in our modern life in these islands, one must have some knowledge of the story of the taboo in Hawaii. ANTOINETTE WITHINGTON, "The Dread Taboo," in Hawaiian Tapestry Captain Cook's arrival in the Hawaiian Islands signaled more than just the arrival of western geographical and scientific order; it was the arrival of British social and political order, of British law and order as well. From Cook onward, westerners coming to the islands used their own social­ civil codes as a basis to judge, interpret, describe, and almost uniformly condemn Hawaiian social and civil codes. With this condemnation, west­ erners justified the imposition of their own order on the Hawaiians, lead­ ing to a justification of colonialism and the loss of land and power for the indigenous peoples.
    [Show full text]
  • Research Proposal – Overview of the Literature
    EXPOSURE TO VIOLENT AND PROSOCIAL VIDEO GAMES: EFFECTS ON HOSTILE ATTRIBUTION BIAS, AGGRESSION, AGGRESSIVE DRIVING TENDENCIES, AND EMPATHY by Jason A. Middleton, Bachelor of Arts (Honours), York University, 2007 A thesis presented to Ryerson University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Program of Psychology Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2014 © Jason A. Middleton 2014 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION FOR ELECTRONIC SUBMISSION OF A THESIS I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I authorize Ryerson University to lend this thesis to other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I further authorize Ryerson University to reproduce this thesis by photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Exposure to Violent and Prosocial Video Games: Effects on Hostile Attribution Bias, Aggression, Aggressive Driving Tendencies, and Empathy Jason A. Middleton Master of Arts in Psychology, 2014, Ryerson University Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the possible relation between reported video game play (i.e., violent, aggressive driving, and prosocial types) and four outcomes of social behaviour: hostile attribution bias, aggression, aggressive driving tendencies, and empathy. A sample of 136 university students (67 males and 69 females), age 17 to 58 (M = 20.66), completed various self-report measures. Data were analyzed both in terms of the whole sample and separately according to participant sex.
    [Show full text]
  • Theories of Sacrifice and Ritual
    UC Davis UC Davis Previously Published Works Title Inventing the Scapegoat: Theories of Sacrifice and Ritual Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/055689pg Journal Journal of Ritual Studies, 25(1) Author Janowitz, Naomi Publication Date 2011 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Inventing the Scapegoat: Theories of Sacrifice and Ritual No figure appears in studies of sacrifice more often than the scapegoat. Numerous societies, the argument goes, have a seemingly innate need to purge sins via an innocent victim. The killing of this victim constitutes the core of sacrifice traditions; explaining the efficacy of these rites outlines in turn the inner workings of all sacrifices, if not all rituals. I do not believe, however, that the enigmatic figure of the scapegoat can support a universal theory of sacrifice, especially if the general term “scapegoat” turns out refer to a variety of rituals with very different goals. Rene Girard’s extremely influential theory of the scapegoat includes a biological basis for the importance of the figure (Girard, 1977). According to Girard, humans are naturally aggressive, a la Konrad Lorenz. This innate aggression was channeled into an unending series of attacks and counterattacks during the earliest periods of history. A better outlet for aggression was to find a scapegoat whose death would stop the cycle of retribution (p. 2). For Girard, Oedipus was a human scapegoat, placing this model 2 at the center of Greek culture in addition to Biblical religious traditions (p. 72). Jonathan Smith’s observations on Girard’s model in “The Domestication of Sacrifice” are both simple and devastating (1987).
    [Show full text]
  • Something Is Rotten in the State of Aggression Research
    SOMETHING IS ROTTEN IN THE STATE OF AGGRESSION RESEARCH: NOVEL METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO RESEARCH ON DIGITAL GAMES AND HUMAN AGGRESSION Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Humanwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln nach der Promotionsordnung vom 10.05.2010 vorgelegt von Malte Elson aus Köln 9. April 2014 Diese Dissertation wurde von der Humanwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln im Juli 2014 angenommen. I can’t believe schools are still teaching kids about the null hypothesis. I remember reading a big study that conclusively disproved it years ago. - Randall Munroe, xkcd Acknowledgments For always helping me to make the right decisions, I thank Natalie, my (highly) significant other. And I’m in debt to my parents for unconditionally supporting me when I made the wrong ones. I thank Johannes, my partner in crime, for keeping our research on course, and offering adequate distraction from it whenever necessary. I was truly lucky to have my two supervisors, Prof. Dr. Gary Bente and Prof. Dr. Christopher Ferguson, who allowed me all the freedom in the world in my research adventure, but always offered guidance whenever I wandered off (on side quests). None of this would have been possible, of course, without my boss, Thorsten, who paid not only for my bread and butter, but also for many studies, conference trips, and other events that gave me the opportunity to make new friends abroad (looking at you, Jimmy). And, of course, I want to express my gratitude to Julia, who became my “academic nanny” when legal complications hampered my full adoption.
    [Show full text]
  • Ready Or Not: 30-Day Discovery for Families Growing Through Foster
    Contents Title Page Praise for Ready or Not Copyright Dedication Acknowledgments Introduction How to Use This 30-Day Journal Foreword by Sandra Stanley Day One - The Call Day Two - Lay Down Your Life Day Three - Not My Will, But Yours Be Done Day Four - Search My Heart Day Five - Pure Motives Day Six - Wisdom Day Seven - Obedience Day Eight - Pure and Faultless Religion Day Nine - The Fatherless Day Ten - Enlarge Your Tent Day Eleven - 'Til Death Do Us Part Day Twelve - Contentment Day Thirteen - The Gift of Peace Day Fourteen - Trustworthy Day Fifteen - Acceptance Day Sixteen - Dealing With Rejection Day Seventeen - The Praise of Men Day Eighteen - Servanthood Day Nineteen - Humility Day Twenty - Inner Healing Day Twenty-One - Releasing Control Day Twenty-Two - The Value of Life Day Twenty-Three - A Living Sacrifice Day Twenty-Four - Washing Feet Day Twenty-Five - Bearing Burdens Day Twenty-Six - The Promise Day Twenty-Seven - In Agreement Day Twenty-Eight - Faith's Stand Day Twenty-Nine - You Are Adopted Day Thirty - For Such A Time As This About The Author Speaking & Training Additional Scriptures Ready or Not 30-Day Discovery For Families Growing Through Foster Care & Adoption Written By: Pam Parish Foreword By: Sandra Stanley PRAISE FOR READY OR NOT Anyone considering foster care or adoption should first spend 30 days with this book. As foster parents ourselves, we've found Ready or Not to be a valuable tool on our journey. So much so, that it's now a part of the core curriculum for families desiring to foster or adopt in our churches.
    [Show full text]
  • 5-Stepcoordination Challenge Pat Travers’ Sandy Gennaro Lessons Learned Mike Johnston Redefining “Drum Hero”
    A WILD ZEBRA BLACK FADE DRUMKIT FROM $ WIN DIXON VALUED OVER 9,250 • HAIM • WARPAINT • MIKE BORDIN THE WORLD’S #1 DRUM MAGAZINE APRIL 2014 DARKEST HOUR’S TRAVIS ORBIN BONUS! MIKE’S LOVES A GOOD CHALLENGE 5-STEPCOORDINATION CHALLENGE PAT TRAVERS’ SANDY GENNARO LESSONS LEARNED MIKE JOHNSTON REDEFINING “DRUM HERO” MODERNDRUMMER.com + SABIAN CYMBAL VOTE WINNERS REVIEWED + VISTA CHINO’S BRANT BJORK TELLS IT LIKE IT IS + OLSSON AND MAHON GEAR UP FOR ELTON JOHN + BLUE NOTE MASTER MICKEY ROKER STYLE AND ANALYSIS NICKAUGUSTO TRIVIUM LEGENDARYIT ONLYSTARTS BEGINS TO HERE.DESCRIBE THEM. “The excitement of getting my first kit was like no other, a Wine Red 5 piece Pearl Export. I couldn’t stop playing it. Export was the beginning of what made me the drummer I am today. I may play Reference Series now but for me, it all started with Export.” - Nick Augusto Join the Export family at pearldrum.com. ® CONTENTS Cover and contents photos by Elle Jaye Volume 38 • Number 4 EDUCATION 60 ROCK ’N’ JAZZ CLINIC Practical Independence Challenge A 5-Step Workout for Building Coordination Over a Pulse by Mike Johnston 66 AROUND THE WORLD Implied Brazilian Rhythms on Drumset Part 3: Cô co by Uka Gameiro 68 STRICTLY TECHNIQUE Rhythm and Timing Part 2: Two-Note 16th Groupings by Bill Bachman 72 JAZZ DRUMMER’S WORKSHOP Mickey Roker Style and Analysis by Steve Fidyk EQUIPMENT On the Cover 20 PRODUCT CLOSE˜UP • DW Collector’s Series Cherry Drumset • Sabian 2014 Cymbal Vote Winners • Rich Sticks Stock Series Drumsticks • TnR Products Booty Shakers and 50 MIKE JOHNSTON Little Booty Shakers by Miguel Monroy • Magnus Opus FiBro-Tone Snare Drums Back in the day—you know, like ve years ago—you 26 ELECTRONIC REVIEW had to be doing world tours or making platinum records Lewitt Audio DTP Beat Kit Pro 7 Drum to in uence as many drummers as this month’s cover Microphone Pack and LCT 240 Condensers star does with his groundbreaking educational website.
    [Show full text]
  • 26363 HON. MICHAEL E. CAPUANO HON. SCOTT Mcinnis HON
    October 20, 1999 EXTENSIONS OF REMARKS 26363 largely composed of what geologists call base- goal. The second extra time period saw a bat- what we have accomplished would have ever ment rocks, the oldest rocks on the earth esti- tle of ferocious intensity where the game’s been possible. mated at 1.7 billion years old. With its narrow outcome was held in the balance. So intense It is with this, Mr. Speaker, that I give my was the last five-minute period that two thanks to the people of Gunnison who played openings, sheer walls, and scenic gorges that Santa Cruz players were carried off injured. plunge 2000 feet into the clear blue majesty of Neither side backed down. The final score a leading role in making the Black Canyon of the Gunnison River, the Black Canyon is a was Boston Demons 4 goals 2 behinds, for a the Gunnison National Park a wonderful reality natural crown jewel second to none in its mag- total of 26 points, to Santa Cruz 3 goals 2 for Colorado, America, and the world to enjoy. nificent splendor. Though other canyons may behinds for a total of 20 points. MEN AND WOMEN OF HONOR have greater depth or descend on a steeper The Boston Demons is composed of expa- course, few combine these attributes as tiate Australians, Americans, Irish, and a breathtakingly as does the Black Canyon. Dane. Based in Boston, MA, the Boston De- HON. HELEN CHENOWETH-HAGE mons have recently had a large amount of OF IDAHO If ever there was a place worthy of the pres- media exposure in both the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and His Position in the Succession of Toltec Rulers: an Interpretation Through Colhua History
    Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl y su lugar en la sucesión de gobernantes toltecas. Una interpretación a través de la historia colhua Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and his Position in the Succession of Toltec Rulers: An Interpretation through Colhua History ERIK DAMIÁN Doctor en historia por la Universidad Nacional Autónoma REYES MORALES de México. Profesor de la Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales en la misma universidad. Su principal línea de investigación es el pensamiento geopolítico en la nobleza prehispánica. Su última publicación, escrita en coautoría con José Rubén Romero Galván, es “Aztlan, Teocolhuacan, el inicio de una migración y el fin de una triple alianza. Tiempos y lugares” (Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl, 2019). [email protected] RESUMEN Una de las principales discusiones sobre el papel de Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl en la historia de Mesoamérica se ha centrado en el lugar que éste ocupó en la sucesión de gobernantes de Tula. Paul Kirchhoff y Wigberto Jiménez Moreno iniciaron esta discusión. A partir de entonces, algunos autores sostienen que Ce Acatl fue uno de los primeros tlahtoque de los toltecas; otros, que fue contemporáneo de Huemac y testigo de la caída de Tula. Este artículo ofrece un análisis de la historia de Ce Acatl desde la tradición colhua, a través de la cual es posible establecer que este gobernante se ubicó en la mitad de la línea de sucesión. Además, en el texto se abordan temas como los vínculos familiares de Ce Acatl, el contexto en el que se estableció la primera excan tlahtoloyan y las características del sistema de gobierno entre los toltecas.
    [Show full text]
  • Stear Dissertation COGA Submission 26 May 2015
    BEYOND THE FIFTH SUN: NAHUA TELEOLOGIES IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES By ©Copyright 2015 Ezekiel G. Stear Submitted to the graduate degree program in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson, Santa Arias ________________________________ Verónica Garibotto ________________________________ Patricia Manning ________________________________ Rocío Cortés ________________________________ Robert C. Schwaller Date Defended: May 6, 2015! ii The Dissertation Committee for Ezekiel G. Stear certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: BEYOND THE FIFTH SUN: NAHUA TELEOLOGIES IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES ________________________________ Chairperson, Santa Arias Date approved: May 6, 2015 iii Abstract After the surrender of Mexico-Tenochtitlan to Hernán Cortés and his native allies in 1521, the lived experiences of the Mexicas and other Nahuatl-speaking peoples in the valley of Mexico shifted radically. Indigenous elites during this new colonial period faced the disappearance of their ancestral knowledge, along with the imposition of Christianity and Spanish rule. Through appropriations of linear writing and collaborative intellectual projects, the native population, in particular the noble elite sought to understand their past, interpret their present, and shape their future. Nahua traditions emphasized balanced living. Yet how one could live out that balance in unknown times ahead became a topic of ongoing discussion in Nahua intellectual communities, and a question that resounds in the texts they produced. Writing at the intersections of Nahua studies, literary and cultural history, and critical theory, in this dissertation I investigate how indigenous intellectuals in Mexico-Tenochtitlan envisioned their future as part of their re-evaluations of the past.
    [Show full text]
  • Toltec.Html Toltec
    Text and pictures adapted from http://www.crystalinks.com/toltec.html Toltec The Atlantes are columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula The word Toltec in Mesoamerican studies has been used in different ways by different scholars to refer to actual populations and polities of pre-Columbian central Mexico or to the mythical ancestors mentioned in the mythical/historical narratives of the Aztecs. It is an ongoing debate whether the Toltecs can be understood to have formed an actual ethnic group at any point in Mesoamerican history or if they are mostly or only a product of Aztec myth. The scholars who have understood the Toltecs to have been an actual ethnic group often connect them to the archeological site of Tula, Hidalgo which is then supposed to have been the Tollan of Aztec myth. This tradition assumes the "Toltec empire" to have dominated much of central Mexico between the 10th and 12th century AD. Other Mexican cities such as Teotihuacán have also been proposed to have been the historical Tollan "Place of Reeds", the city from which the name Tolteca "inhabitant of Tollan" is derived in the Nahuatl language. The term Toltec has also been associated with the arrival of certain Central Mexican cultural traits into the Mayan sphere of dominance that took place in the late classic and early postclassic periods, and the Postclassic Mayan civilizations of Chichén Itzá, Mayapán and the Guatemalan highlands have been referred to as "toltecized" or "mexicanized" Mayas. For example the striking similarities between the city of Tula, Hidalgo and Chichen Itza have often been cited as direct evidence for Toltec dominance of the Postclassic Maya.
    [Show full text]
  • COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL NOT for DISTRIBUTION Figure 0.3
    Contents Acknowledgments ix A Brief Note on Usage xiii Introduction: History and Tlaxilacalli 3 Chapter 1: The Rise of Tlaxilacalli, ca. 1272–1454 40 Chapter 2: Acolhua Imperialisms, ca. 1420s–1583 75 Chapter 3: Community and Change in Cuauhtepoztlan Tlaxilacalli, ca. 1544–1575 97 Chapter 4: Tlaxilacalli Religions, 1537–1587 123 COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL Chapter 5: TlaxilacalliNOT FOR Ascendant, DISTRIBUTION 1562–1613 151 Chapter 6: Communities Reborn, 1581–1692 174 Conclusion: Tlaxilacalli and Barrio 203 List of Acronyms Used Frequently in This Book 208 Bibliography 209 Index 247 vii introduction History and Tlaxilacalli This is the story of how poor, everyday central Mexicans built and rebuilt autono- mous communities over the course of four centuries and two empires. It is also the story of how these self-same commoners constructed the unequal bonds of compul- sion and difference that anchored these vigorous and often beloved communities. It is a story about certain face-to-face human networks, called tlaxilacalli in both singular and plural,1 and about how such networks molded the shape of both the Aztec and Spanish rule.2 Despite this influence, however, tlaxilacalli remain ignored, subordinated as they often were to wider political configurations and most often appearing unmarked—that is, noted by proper name only—in the sources. With care, however, COPYRIGHTEDthe deeper stories of tlaxilacalli canMATERIAL be uncovered. This, in turn, lays bare a root-level history of autonomy and colonialism in central Mexico, told through the powerfulNOT and transformative FOR DISTRIBUTION tlaxilacalli. The robustness of tlaxilacalli over thelongue durée casts new and surprising light on the structures of empire in central Mexico, revealing a counterpoint of weakness and fragmentation in the canonical histories of centralizing power in the region.
    [Show full text]
  • Hindi English Glossary
    Hindi - English Glossary A glossary of commonly appearing words in murlis and clarifications Sr. No. Hindi word Transcription English meaning 1 vk/;kfRed Aadhyaatmik Adhi -inside, aatmik -of the soul; that which is inside the soul 2 vkfn nso Aadi dev The first deity 3 vkfn nsoh Aadi devi The first female deity 4 vkdkjh Aakaari Subtle 5 vkj.;d Aaranyak The name of a class of vedic literature closely connected with the Brahmins 6 vkRefu"B Aatmanishth The one who has realized the self / the one who is in the soul conscious stage 7 vHkksxrk Abhogta The one who doesn't experience pleasure 8 v/kj dqekj Adhar kumar Married man who leads a pure life 9 v/kj dqekjh Adhar kumari Married woman who leads a pure life 10 vk/kkjewrZ Adharmurt Supporting soul / root form soul 11 vf/kdkjh Adhikaari Ruler, officer Myth. wife of Sage Gautam who was cursed to become 12 vfgY;k Ahilya a stone; here it means, the one with a stone like intellect 13 vtUek Ajanma The one who isn’t born 14 vdkyewrZ Akaalmuurt The one whose body can't be devoured by death; the imperishable personality 15 vdeZ Akarma neutral actions; actions that have no karmic return 16 vdrkZ Akarta The one who doesn’t perform actions 17 v{kj Akshar The one who doesn't fall/doesn't get discharged 18 vyQ Alaf First letter in the Urdu language; vertical line 19 vykSfdd Alaukik not from this world / unworldly 20 veu Aman The one who doesn't have a mind, peaceful 21 vejdFkk Amarkatha The story of immortality 22 vejyksd Amarlok The abode of immortality 23 vejukFk Amarnaath The lord of the immortals 24
    [Show full text]