Police Attitudes Toward Abuse of Authority: Findings from a National

Home , Abner Louima, Misconduct, Police brutality, Police misconduct

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice National Institute of Justice R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f Julie E. Samuels, Acting Director May 2000

Issues and Findings Police Attitudes Toward Abuse Discussed in this Brief: The of Authority: Findings From Police Foundation’s nationally representative telephone survey of 925 randomly selected American a National Study police officers from 121 departments explores the officers’ views By David Weisburd and Rosann Greenspan with Edwin E. Hamilton, Hubert Williams, on the abuse of police authority. and Kellie A. Bryant Officers also provided information on different forms of abuse they Serious cases of abuse of police authority Foundation—a nonprofit organization in have observed, the frequency of often stimulate intense public debate. Washington, D.C., that seeks to improve abuse in their departments, and For example, a videotape of Rodney policing in America through research— effective strategies for controlling King being beaten by Los Angeles police surveyed a representative national sample abuse. General findings, as well as differing attitudes of black, white, officers or reports of the torture of Abner of American police officers to explore and other minority officers, are pre- Louima by New York City police capture their attitudes on the abuse of authority sented and discussed in this Brief. the public’s attention and raise troubling by police (see “Study Methodology”). The questions regarding the limits of legiti- survey sought to determine whether offic- Key issues: Unlike previous studies on the abuse of police authority, mate police authority in a democratic ers view abuse of authority as an inevi- this survey provides a nationwide society. Are such events isolated occur- table byproduct of increased efforts to portrait of how police officers view rences in particular police departments control crime and disorder. It also asked this critical issue. The 92-question or extreme examples of a more general what forms of abuse exist, how common survey assessed American police problem plaguing police departments abuse of authority is, and what strategies officers’ views on a number of important issues relating to the across the United States? Does the fact and tactics would be most effective in pre- abuse of police authority in the that such abuses often involve minority venting police from abusing authority. The United States: victims reveal important disparities in the survey also considered how community- way that law enforcement officers treat oriented policing has affected officers’ at- ● Whether officers believe that members of certain racial, socioeco- titudes on abuse of authority and the rule the abuse of police authority is a necessary byproduct of efforts to nomic, or cultural groups? In turn, what of law. In particular, it explored whether reduce and control crime. measures can be taken to constrain po- community policing has led police to show lice abuse, and which are likely to be greater respect for the rights of citizens or, ● What types of abuse and most effective? Although such questions conversely, has increased the potential for attitudes toward abuse officers observe in their departments. have been raised and debated in the me- police abuse and encouraged police offic- Within this broad issue, the survey dia, by politicians, and by police scholars ers to expand the boundaries of accept- explores officers’ views on the code and administrators, little is known about able use of police authority. of silence, whistle blowing, and how police officers themselves view these the extent to which a citizen’s critical issues. Relatively few surveys of police attitudes demeanor, race, or class affects toward abuse of authority have been con- the way that he or she is treated With the support of the Office of Com- ducted, and these have focused primarily by police. munity Oriented Policing Services, on specific police agencies or local or ● What strategies or tactics U.S. Department of Justice, the Police State jurisdictions.1 Some of these studies (including first-line supervision, community policing, citizen review boards, and training) officers continued… R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Issues and Findings yield important insights regarding the departments or regions of the country. continued… problem of police abuse of authority. Results of the Police Foundation’s study, Studies conducted across two midwestern by contrast, are based on a telephone sur- find to be effective means of preventing officers from abusing States (one in Illinois and one in Ohio), vey of a representative national sample of authority. for example, suggest that a significant more than 900 American police officers. minority of police officers have observed Their responses provide the first national The survey also analyzed responses police using “considerably” more force portrait of police attitudes toward the according to the participants’ race, rank, and sex. than necessary when apprehending a sus- abuse of authority. pect. In the Illinois study, more than 20 Key findings: The results of the percent of the officers surveyed reported General findings survey indicate that the majority of having observed this type of abuse2; in American police officers believe Overview of findings. The use of force that: the Ohio study, 13 percent of respondents had seen such abuse.3 Moreover, both is a relatively rare occurrence in Ameri- 4 ● It is unacceptable to use more studies suggest that police harassment of can policing, but previous studies sug- force than legally allowable to minorities is not an isolated occurrence. gest that when it does occur, it may often control someone who physically escalate to the level of excessive force. assaults an officer. More than 25 percent of officers surveyed in the Illinois study and 15 percent of For example, a 1996 reexamination of ● Extreme cases of police abuse of those in the Ohio study stated that they 5,688 cases in the 1977 Police Services authority occur infrequently. had observed an officer harassing a citi- Study data found that reasonable force was used in 37 cases (0.65 percent) and ● Their departments take a “tough zen “most likely” because of his or her that improper force was used in 23 cases stand” on the issue of police abuse. race. (0.40 percent).5 Therefore, improper force ● At times their fellow officers use Prior studies such as these provide was used in 38 percent of encounters that more force than necessary when suggestive findings on police officers’ involved force. As the author of that study, making an arrest. attitudes toward the abuse of authority. Robert Worden, stated, “[I]ncidents in ● It is not unusual for officers to Nonetheless, the conclusions that may which improper force was used represent ignore improper conduct by their be drawn from them are limited by the a substantial proportion of the incidents fellow officers. fact that they were conducted in specific in which any force (reasonable or ● Training and education are effective ways to reduce police abuse. Exhibit 1. General attitudes toward the use of force (in percent) ● A department’s chief and first-line supervisors can play an important Strongly Strongly role in preventing police from abus- Agree Agree Disagree Disagree ing authority. Police are not permitted to use 6.2b 24.9 60.5 8.4 as much force as is often necessary ● Community-oriented policing in making arrests. (n=912)a reduces or has no impact upon the potential for police abuse. It is sometimes acceptable to use 3.3 21.2 55.2 20.3 more force than is legally allowable In addition, the survey finds race to control someone who physically to be a divisive issue for American assaults an officer. (n=912) police. In particular, black and Always following the rules is not 3.8 39.1 49.6 7.6 nonblack officers had significantly compatible with getting the job different views about the effect of done. (n=919) a citizen’s race and socioeconomic status on the likelihood of police a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. abuse of authority and about the b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence intervals effect of community policing on for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 1.0 percent and 4.0 percent for the frequencies the potential for abuse. reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or sampling error of the survey findings. Target audience: Legislators, Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. policymakers, prosecutors, judges, police chiefs, police officers, and others interested in the critical issue of police officers’ abuse of police authority. 2 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f improper) was used.”6 In his 1980 Exhibit 2. Use of force behavior in officers’ departments (in percent) reanalysis of 1,565 cases in Albert Reiss’ 1967 data, Robert Friedrich simi- Sometimes, larly found that reasonable force had Never Seldom Often, or Always been used in 52 cases (3.3 percent) and Police officers in [your department] 16.0b 62.4 21.7 that excessive force was used in 28 use more force than is necessary to make an arrest. (n=922)a cases (1.8 percent).7 Excessive force was thus used in 35 percent of encoun- Police officers in your department 31.8 53.5 14.7 ters that involved force. Nevertheless, respond to verbal abuse with physical force. (n=922) it is unclear whether the same results would be found today, because police a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. policies and training regarding use of b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence force have changed since these data intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 1.0 percent and 4.0 percent for the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or were collected. Moreover, given the sampling error of the survey findings. difficulties of defining excessive force in Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. studies based on systematic social ob- servations, a general caveat regarding Although a substantial minority of The code of silence. Some of the these reported statistics is in order. officers in the sample expressed strongest and most varied opinions the view that the police should be expressed by respondents concerned In trying to understand why incidents permitted to use more force, the over- the difficult question of whether offic- involving force escalate to the level of whelming majority did not believe ers should report other officers’ mis- excessive force, the authors asked offic- that officers regularly engaged in the conduct. Responses on this subject ers in the sample a series of questions excessive use of force. A mere 4.1 suggest the possibility of a large gap about their attitudes toward the use of percent thought that police officers between attitudes and behavior. That force and the behavior of fellow officers. regularly used more physical force is, even though officers do not believe Responses show that most police officers than necessary when making arrests, in protecting wrongdoers, they often in the United States disapprove of the use and almost all of the officers (97.1 do not turn them in. of excessive force. Nonetheless, a sub- percent) agreed that serious cases of stantial minority believed that officers misconduct (like the Rodney King More than 80 percent of police sur- should be permitted to use more force case in Los Angeles and the Abner veyed reported that they do not accept than the law currently permits and found Louima case in New York) were the “code of silence” (i.e., keeping it acceptable to sometimes use more force “extremely rare” in their departments. quiet in the face of misconduct by than permitted by the laws that govern others) as an essential part of the them.8 The officers revealed these beliefs Still, respondents did not give their mutual trust necessary to good polic- in responses to several questions (see ex- fellow officers a completely clean ing (see exhibit 3). However, about hibit 1). More than 30 percent of the report. Almost 22 percent agreed or one-quarter (24.9 percent) of the sample agreed or strongly agreed that po- strongly agreed that officers in their sample agreed or strongly agreed that lice officers are not permitted to use as departments sometimes (or often or whistle blowing is not worth it, more much force as is often necessary when always) use more force than necessary, than two-thirds (67.4 percent) reported making arrests. Almost 25 percent agreed and only 16 percent reported that their that police officers who report inci- or strongly agreed that, to control a per- fellow officers never do so (see exhibit dents of misconduct are likely to be son who is physically assaulting an of- 2). Although more than 90 percent given a “cold shoulder” by fellow ficer, it is sometimes acceptable for the found it inappropriate for officers to officers, and a majority (52.4 percent) officer to use more force than legally respond to verbal abuse with physical agreed or strongly agreed that it is not allowable. Moreover, more than 40 per- force, almost 15 percent indicated that unusual for police officers to “turn a cent agreed or strongly agreed that al- officers in their departments engaged blind eye” to other officers’ improper ways following the rules is incompatible in such behavior at least sometimes. conduct (exhibit 3). A surprising 6 in with getting their job done. 10 (61 percent) indicated that police

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Survey Methodology

T he telephone survey of a randomly 113 ultimately agreed to participate in the 8.5 percent of the weighted sample selected national sample of police officers survey (for an overall departmental participa- being female. was administered by Mathematica Policy tion rate of 93.4 percent). Participating de- Research, Inc., a research and analysis firm partments cooperated by submitting rosters Notes based in Princeton, NJ, under the direction of all full-time sworn personnel, with the of the Police Foundation.a Staff members rank, address, and telephone number of a. The authors extend thanks to Rhoda Cohen, who served as project director for of the Police Foundation developed the each officer. Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. survey instrument after reviewing available prior studies and considering the results of From those lists, the authors took a b. In addition to the important contributions a series of focus groups with police schol- weighted representative sample of 1,060 of the police scholars, chiefs, and officers who ars and managers and police rank and officers,g 925 of whom completed the sur- participated in the focus groups and the offic- file.b The survey took officers an average vey (for a completion rate of 87.3 percent). ers who participated in a pretest of the survey, the authors consulted several police research- of 25 minutes to complete and was ad- Combining the departmental participation rate of 93.4 percent with the officer com- ers about the development of the survey ministered with careful concern for pro- instrument. The authors extend particular pletion rate of 87.3 percent results in an tecting participants’ anonymity, privacy, thanks to Professors Carl Klockars, Peter and confidentiality. overall response rate for the survey of Manning, Steve Mastrofski, Albert Reiss, 81.5 percent.h Jerome Skolnick, and Robert Worden. Sample selection. To select a representative national sample of police officers, the Sample characteristics. Because of the c. The sample was selected using probability authors used a multistage or “clustered” stratified and clustered sampling procedures proportional to size (PPS) methods. Each of the 5,042 departments was assigned a mea- sampling method.c Selection of the used in this study, the authors included a correction (based on weighting each depart- sure of size based on an estimate of the sample began by defining the sampling number of full-time sworn officers in the de- ment and police officer according to the pro- frame (that is, the universe of relevant po- partment (estimates were based on Maguire, lice departments throughout the country portion of the actual population of American Edward R., Jeffrey B. Snipes, Craig D. Uchida from which to select officers). For inclu- police officers that they represented) when and Margaret Townsend. 1998. “Counting sion in the sampling frame, a department reporting survey responses.i In the weighted Cops: Estimating the Number of Police had to: sample, 70 percent of the officers were Departments and Police Officers in the USA.” drawn from the rank and file, with sergeants Policing: An International Journal of Police ● Have primary responsibility for pro- constituting about 15 percent and 13 per- Strategies and Management 21(1): 97–120.) Departments were assigned to one of three viding police services to a residential cent holding the rank of lieutenant or above. population. groups, based on size. The first group in- More than 20 percent of the officers were cluded nine departments, each of which was under 30 years old, and more than 8 percent ● Have a minimum of 10 full-time sworn so large that it was certain to be sampled were over 50. Almost three-quarters of the using PPS methods. These departments were officers. officers were either married or living with selected with probability 1.0 and called “certainty selections.” The two other groups or ● Be either a municipal or a county someone as married. strata were “the middle group” (departments police agency. The weighted sample indicated that Ameri- with 25 or more full-time sworn officers) and can policing reflects the racial and ethnic “the smallest group” (departments with 10– The sampling frame identified consisted composition of the population of the United 24 officers). The authors then divided the of 5,042 police departments, which em- States. Approximately 80.8 percent of the strata into four geographic regions and identi- ployed the great majority (between 91.6 fied a stratified sample of departments that officers in the sample, for example, are and 94.1 percent) of all full-time sworn included 9 certainty selections, 84 depart- white (compared with 80.3 percent of the officers serving in local police agencies in ments from the middle group, and 28 from U.S. population),10.7 percent are black the United States.d In 1997, the number the smallest stratum. (compared with 12 percent of the national of officers in these 5,042 departments population), and 9.6 percent are of Hispanic, d. The authors thank Ed Maguire for his was estimated at about 350,000.e From Latino, or Spanish origin (compared with assistance in developing the list of police the 5,042 departments, the authors se- agencies. Maguire developed the sampling 8.8 percent of the U.S. population).j How- lected 121 representative departments frame by combining information contained in ever, American policing continues to be a (based on size and region),f and of these, the Uniform Crime Reports, the 1992 Census predominantly male profession, with only

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Exhibit 3. Code of silence (in percent) Strongly Strongly of Law Enforcement Agencies, and a list of Agree Agree Disagree Disagree police departments provided by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. (See The code of silence is an essential part 1.2b 15.7 65.6 17.5 also Maguire, Edward R., “The Police Foun- of the mutual trust necessary to good dation Use of Force Study: Sampling Frame policing. (n=905)a Design Issues,” memorandum prepared for the Police Foundation, October 20, 1997.) Whistle blowing is not worth it. 3.1 21.8 63.5 11.7 (n=904) e. Ibid. An officer who reports another officer’s 11.0 56.4 30.9 1.8 misconduct is likely to be given the f. See note c. cold shoulder by his or her fellow g. The authors based selection of officers on officers. (n=908) a final sample goal of between 925 and 950 It is not unusual for a police officer to 1.8 50.6 43.3 4.4 completed surveys. For certainty depart- turn a blind eye to improper conduct ments, the number of officers selected was by other officers. (n=908) based on a proportion of the total number of officers in the department. For depart- Police officers always report serious 2.8 36.2 58.5 2.5 ments with 25 or more officers, 10 officers criminal violations involving abuse of per department were included in the authority by fellow officers. (n=899) sample, and for departments with 10–24 officers, an average of 4.5 officers per depart- a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. ment were included (a random half of the b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence departments in this group was allocated for intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for 5 selections, and the other half was allo- the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or cated for 4). sampling error of the survey findings. Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. h. The overall response rate is the product of the officer completion rate (87.3 percent) and the departmental participation rate (93.4 percent). officers do not always report even seri- (51.2 percent) disagreed or strongly ous criminal violations that involve the disagreed with the statement (see i. The weighting procedure was developed abuse of authority by fellow officers.9 exhibit 4). by John Hall of Mathematica Policy Re- search, Inc. For a full description of the weighting procedure, readers may contact The role of race, class, and de- Do other extralegal factors, such as the authors or refer to the full technical meanor. The role of societal and other whether a citizen is black or white, report: Weisburd, David, Rosann Greenspan, extralegal factors in law enforcement poor or middle class, make a differ- Kellie Bryant, Edwin E. Hamilton, Hubert has long been a concern of criminolo- ence in the type of treatment he or Williams, and David Olson, Abuse of Author- 10 ity in the Age of Community Policing: A Pre- gists. Examining how demeanor she is likely to receive from the po- liminary Study of Issues and Attitudes, Final affects police behavior, scholars have lice? The criminological literature Report, Washington, DC: Police Foundation. generally found that a citizen’s disre- is split on the extent to which race This report is forthcoming in 2000 from spectful or hostile manner increases affects everyday policing,12 the likeli- the Police Foundation, 1201 Connecticut 11 13 Avenue N.W., Suite 200, Washington, DC the likelihood of his or her arrest. hood of being arrested, and the use 14 20036. The Police Foundation’s survey shows of excessive force. Of the sample, American police almost evenly divided about one in six (17 percent) believed j. U.S. Census Bureau, Census of Population on the issue of whether a police officer that whites are treated better by police and Housing, 1990: Summary Tape File 3, Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census, is more likely to arrest a person who than blacks and other minorities, 1991. displays what the officer considers to and about one in 10 (11.1 percent) be a bad attitude. Almost half (48.8 believed that more police violence percent) of the officers in the sample occurs against blacks than against agreed or strongly agreed that a bad whites (see exhibit 4). Fourteen per- attitude would increase the likelihood cent of the sample believed that police of arrest, and just more than half officers use physical force against poor

5 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f people more often than they do against majority (almost 90 percent) believed and professionals have recently empha- middle-class people in similar situa- that good first-line supervisors were sized the importance of changing tions. These responses suggest that effective in preventing police officers models of police training, renewing most American police do not believe from abusing their authority (see departments’ commitments to training, that race and class are important in exhibit 5). In focus-group sessions, and exploring vastly different training understanding police abuse of author- police supervisors indicated that su- curriculums.18 As reflected in exhibit 5, ity. However, findings presented later pervisors serving as role models was a the majority of police officers in the in this Research in Brief suggest that critical aspect in good first-line lead- sample who had received training in black officers and nonblack (white and ership.16 Although 90 percent of the ethics, interpersonal skills, or cultural other minority) police officers strongly survey sample stressed the importance sensitivity believed that such training disagree about the salience of race. of good supervisors in preventing could play a role in controlling abuse of abuse, only 55 percent agreed or police authority. A substantial majority Methods of controlling abuse of strongly agreed that most abuse could (82.2 percent) of officers who had re- authority. Officers in the sample be stopped with more effective meth- ceived training in law enforcement eth- were asked how their departments ods of supervision (see exhibit 5). ics (in the academy or after becoming handle cases of abuse of authority. an officer) agreed that such training Officers overwhelmingly (92.6 percent) The survey also examined the extent to was effective in preventing the abuse of reported that their departments take a which specialized training helps con- authority. A similar majority (80.3 per- very tough stance on improper behav- trol the abuse of authority. Contrary cent) of those who had received police ior by police and overwhelmingly (94.4 to the traditional view that most impor- training in interpersonal skills or rela- percent) disagreed with the suggestion tant policing lessons are obtained tions believed that the training pre- that investigations of police miscon- through experience in the field rather vented the abuse of authority, and 17 duct are usually biased in favor of the than in the academy, police scholars almost 75 percent of officers who had police (see exhibit 5).

Can leadership within a department Exhibit 4. The impact of demeanor, race, and socioeconomic status on police behavior (in percent) make a difference in preventing police officers from abusing authority? Polic- Strongly Strongly ing scholars have often recognized Agree Agree Disagree Disagree the importance of a police chief’s role. A police officer is more likely to arrest 2.1b 46.7 45.1 6.1 Jerome Skolnick and James Fyfe, for a person who displays what he or example, have argued that “[T]he chief she considers to be a bad attitude. (n=917)a is the main architect of police officers’ street behavior. This is so because the Police officers often treat whites 1.2 15.8 57.8 25.2 strength and direction of street-level better than they do blacks and other minorities. (n=914) police peer pressures ultimately are determined by administrative defini- Police officers are more likely to use 1.7 9.4 55.6 33.3 physical force against blacks and tions of good and bad policing and by other minorities than against whites the general tone that comes down from in similar situations. (n=916) the top.”15 Almost 85 percent of the Police officers are more likely to use 1.9 12.3 57.9 27.9 sample agreed or strongly agreed that physical force against poor people a police chief’s strong position against than against middle-class people in the abuse of authority can make a big similar situations. (n=918) difference in deterring officers from a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. abusing their authority (see exhibit 5). b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for As important as the officers in the the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or sample viewed the role of the chief in sampling error of the survey findings. preventing abuse, an even greater Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding.

6 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f received training in human diversity, citizen review boards an effective way lunch, professional discount, or gift cultural differences, cultural aware- to prevent police misconduct. of appreciation).19 Others maintain that ness, or ethnic sensitivity reported that community policing has no discernible the training prevented the abuse of Effects of community-oriented impact on corrupt behavior.20 As dis- authority. policing. Some scholars have sug- cussed below, officers surveyed in the gested that community-oriented study generally believed that a close When asked about the effectiveness policing decreases the likelihood that relationship with the community, such of different institutional procedures for officers will engage in gross forms as that resulting from community- addressing abuses of authority, most of corruption (such as extortion) but oriented policing, did not increase the considered internal affairs units effec- increases the chance that they will risk of police corruption. tive (78.6 percent). A much smaller engage in softer or less serious forms percentage (37.8 percent) considered of corruption (such as accepting a free The study examined officers’ attitudes toward police corruption in two ways. Exhibit 5. Controlling abuses of authority (in percent) First, researchers asked officers whether they agreed with the following Strongly Strongly statement (which includes no refer- Agree Agree Disagree Disagree ence to community policing): “Fre- b Your police department takes a very 35.2 57.4 6.6 0.9 quent friendly contact with local tough stance on improper behavior by police. (n=921)a residents and merchants increases the likelihood that police officers will Investigations of police misconduct 0.4 5.1 72.4 22.0 accept free lunches, discounts, or gifts are usually biased in favor of the police. (n=914) of appreciation for effective service.” Although approximately 20 percent of If a police chief takes a strong position 24.5 60.3 13.8 1.4 against abuses of authority, he or the officers agreed or strongly agreed she can make a big difference in with the statement, almost 80 percent preventing officers from abusing their disagreed or strongly disagreed with it. authority. (n=920) Second, because almost all the officers Good first-line supervisors can help 22.9 66.9 9.3 0.9 in the sample (98.4 percent) claimed prevent police officers from abusing to be familiar with the concept of their authority. (n=921) community-oriented policing, the Most police abuse of force could be 7.3 48.0 39.5 5.2 survey asked whether officers thought stopped by more effective methods that community policing increased, of supervision. (n=913) decreased, or had no impact on the risk of corrupt behavior. Only 7.1 per- (Questions below are applicable only to officers who cent thought that community policing have received training in the area specified) Yes No increased the risk of corruption (see Do you think training in ethics is effective at preventing 82.2 17.8 exhibit 6). More than one-third (35.8 abuse of authority? (n=576) percent) of the officers thought it Do you think training in interpersonal skills or relations is 80.3 19.7 decreased the risk of corruption, and effective at preventing abuse of authority? (n=674) more than one-half (57.1 percent) Do you think training in human diversity or cultural awareness 74.9 25.1 believed that it had no impact (see is effective at preventing abuse of authority? (n=807) exhibit 6). a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. Do officers see any relationship be- b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence tween community policing and exces- intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for sive force? Almost none believed that the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or sampling error of the survey findings. community policing increased the Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. number (2.0 percent) or seriousness (3.4 percent) of incidents involving

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be included in each category.) How- Exhibit 6. The role of community policing (in percent) ever, after detecting strong differences Increases Decreases Has No Impact in the responses of white and nonwhite Do you think that community policing 7.1b 35.8 57.1 officers, the authors divided the non- increases, decreases, or has no impact white category into two subcategories on the risk of corrupt behavior? (n=883)a (black officers and other minority of- Do you think that community policing 2.0 50.9 47.1 ficers) and reexamined the data. The increases, decreases, or has no impact reexamination revealed that black of- on the number of incidents involving ficers’ opinions on abuse of authority excessive force? (n=885) differed significantly from those of Do you think that community policing 3.4 42.2 54.4 white and other minority officers. increases, decreases, or has no impact on the seriousness of incidents involving The survey revealed that the attitudes excessive force? (n=884) of “other minority” officers were a. Numbers in parentheses represent valid responses. more similar to those of white police b. The frequencies are weighted to reflect the population parameters. The 95-percent confidence officers than to those of black officers. intervals for responses in this exhibit range between plus or minus 0.5 percent and 4.0 percent for Although the survey may not be gener- the frequencies reported. Such confidence intervals are commonly noted as the margin of error or sampling error of the survey findings. alizable beyond police officers, its findings seem to corroborate the view that there is a racial divide between excessive force (see exhibit 6). to “cross the line” and use tactics pro- whites and blacks in American soci- One-half of the officers surveyed hibited by law remains unanswered. ety—a divide so pronounced that even (50.9 percent) said that community the apparently strong culture of polic- policing reduced the number of inci- Additional findings by race, ing does not transcend it. dents involving excessive force, and rank, and sex 42.2 percent thought that it decreased Differences among black, white, and The general findings described above the seriousness of incidents. Approxi- other minority officers did not emerge reflect how officers in the sample (as mately one-half of the officers reported on every issue addressed by the sur- a group) view a number of issues relat- that community policing had no im- vey. When different opinions (based ing to the abuse of authority. But the pact on either the number of incidents on race) did occur, however, the dis- data also reveal important findings of excessive force (47.1 percent) or parity was strong, and the types of regarding how different subgroups in the seriousness of those incidents questions that officers answered differ- the sample view these issues. To iden- (54.4 percent) (see exhibit 6). ently (based on their race) could be tify and explore these differences, this grouped into meaningful configura- The community policing partnership section breaks down the officers’ re- tions. As reported earlier, 17 percent is often a complicated one. Almost all sponses to selected questions accord- of all officers in the weighted sample officers in the sample (96.9 percent) ing to the responding officers’ race, agreed or strongly agreed that police indicated that police officers some- rank, and sex. officers often treat whites better than times have to explain to individuals they treat blacks and other minorities. and groups of citizens that the police Impact of race: White, black, and Yet more than half (51.3 percent) of are prohibited by law from using cer- other minority officers. By far, the the black officers agreed or strongly tain tactics that citizens may encour- most striking differences among sub- agreed that whites receive better treat- age them to use. Approximately 2 out groups of officers in the sample were ment. By contrast, less than one-fourth of 10 officers (21.4 percent), however, among police officers of different of the other minority officers (23.4 felt that they could use more aggres- races. The sample was originally di- percent) and less than one-eighth of sive tactics than they otherwise would vided into two racial categories: white white officers (11.9 percent) agreed if the community asked them to do so. and nonwhite. (Officers were grouped or strongly agreed with the statement The question of whether requests from in this manner to ensure that a suffi- (see exhibit 7). the community sometimes lead officers ciently large number of officers would

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The divergence between the views of communities they serve.21 Approxi- boards further demonstrate their faith black officers and those of other offic- mately 65 percent of black officers in the community—with slightly less ers was even more pronounced on the (compared with 49.2 percent of white than 70 percent of black officers in the question of whether police officers officers) believed that community- sample agreeing or strongly agreeing are more likely to use physical force oriented policing was capable of re- that citizen review boards are effective against blacks and other minorities ducing the number of incidents involv- at preventing police misconduct, com- than against whites in similar situa- ing excessive force, and 63 percent of pared with one-third (33.3 percent) of tions. Although only 1 in 20 (5.1 black officers (compared with 39 per- white officers who found the boards percent) white officers in the sample cent of white officers) believed that effective (exhibit 8). believed that blacks and other minori- community policing could decrease ties received such unequal treatment, the seriousness of incidents involving Impact of rank: Supervisors ver- well over half of the black officers sur- excessive force. Black officers’ re- sus nonsupervisors. Although the veyed (57.1 percent) thought that po- sponses regarding citizen review majority of officers in the sample— lice officers were more likely to use physical force against blacks and other minorities than against whites in simi- Exhibit 7. Impact of officers’ race on attitudes toward treatment of minority lar situations. The opinion of other and poor citizens (in percent) minority officers (12.4 percent of whom Police officers often treat whites better than blacks and other minorities. agreed or strongly agreed with the statement) was much closer to that of Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree the white officers (see exhibit 7). White officers 0.7 11.2 60.5 27.7 Black officers were also more likely than whites and other minorities to Black officers 4.6 46.7 39.8 8.9 report unequal treatment by police Other minority officers 2.4 21.0 53.8 22.9 on the basis of socioeconomic status. Chi-square=41.78, df=6, and p<0.001 Although less than one-tenth of white officers in the sample (8.8 percent) Police officers are more likely to use physical force against blacks and other minorities than against whites in similar situations. agreed or strongly agreed that police officers were more likely to use physi- Strongly Strongly cal force against poor people than Agree Agree Disagree Disagree against middle-class people in similar White officers 0.6 4.5 58.0 37.0 situations, more than one-half of the Black officers 9.4 47.7 42.1 0.9 black officers (54.4 percent) felt that way. Again, the position of other mi- Other minority officers 2.4 10.0 50.7 36.9 nority officers (17.2 percent of whom Chi-square=86.80, df=6, and p<0.001 agreed or strongly agreed with the Police officers are more likely to use physical force against poor people than against statement) fell between that of the middle-class people in similar situations. white and the black officers but closer to that of the white officers Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree (see exhibit 7). White officers 0.8 8.0 60.1 31.1 Although the survey suggests that Black officers 9.1 45.3 43.6 2.0 black officers are more likely than other officers to believe that minority Other minority officers 4.2 13.0 52.9 30.0 and poor citizens are treated unfairly Chi-square=85.42, df=6, and p<0.001 by police, it also indicates that black officers have greater faith in the Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding.

9 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f supervisors and nonsupervisors Exhibit 8. Impact of officers’ race on attitudes toward community policing and alike—agreed that supervision plays citizen review boards (in percent) an important role in controlling abuse of authority (see exhibit 5), this belief Community-oriented policing increases, decreases, or has no impact on the number of incidents involving excessive force. is particularly strong among supervisors themselves. For instance, 87 Increases Decreases Has No Impact percent of nonsupervisors (primarily White officers 1.2 49.2 49.6 patrol officers) and 97 percent of su- Black officers 6.6 65.4 28.1 pervisors indicated that good first-line supervisors could help prevent police Other minority officers 3.9 50.1 46.0 officers from abusing their authority Chi-square=20.92, df=4, and p<0.001 (see exhibit 9). Similarly, 50 percent Community-oriented policing increases, decreases, or has no impact on the seriousness of of nonsupervisors and 68 percent of incidents involving excessive force. supervisors believed that most police abuse of force could be stopped by Increases Decreases Has No Impact developing more effective methods White officers 3.2 39.0 57.9 of supervision. Black officers 7.2 63.4 29.3 Still in keeping with their role as su- Other minority officers 1.0 46.8 52.3 pervisors, but less predictable, were Chi-square=27.13, df=4, and p<0.001 supervisors’ responses to a series of questions about the reporting of mis- Citizen review boards are an effective means of preventing police misconduct. behavior. More than 80 percent of Strongly Strongly supervisors believed in the value of Agree Agree Disagree Disagree reporting or “blowing the whistle” on White officers 2.5 30.8 52.2 14.6 fellow officers who engaged in mis- Black officers 8.4 61.4 22.3 7.9 behavior, compared with slightly more than 70 percent of nonsupervisors. Other minority officers 2.4 38.9 43.6 15.1 Similarly, supervising officers in the Chi-square=32.04, df=6, and p<0.001 sample were less likely to subscribe to the code of silence, with only 7.6 per- Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. cent of supervisors agreeing that the code of silence is an essential part of (54.5 percent versus 70.2 percent) “self-select” to enter policing are the mutual trust necessary to good po- (see exhibit 9). more likely to adapt to the culture of licing (compared with 20.7 percent of policing from the outset. The authors, nonsupervising officers). Supervisors Impact of officers’ sex. The survey however, feel that these would be pre- also agreed to a lesser extent than revealed no meaningful differences mature conclusions. As the National nonsupervisors that it is sometimes based on the sex of the responding of- Center for Women and Policing re- acceptable to use more force than ficers. Differences observed (between ports, women police outperform their legally allowable to control someone responses of male and female officers) male counterparts at defusing poten- who physically assaults an officer were small in size, and no consistent tially violent situations and become (16.4 percent of supervisors and 27.8 theory or idea link them or suggest involved in the use of excessive force percent of nonsupervisors agreed or that they are meaningful. less often than male officers.22 The strongly agreed that such conduct was The lack of meaningful difference survey may not have included ques- acceptable). Supervisors were also less based on sex arguably suggests that tions that would reveal female officers’ likely to agree that departmental rules female officers have adapted to the strength in handling potentially explo- about the use of force should not be predominantly male culture of polic- sive situations through strong verbal any stricter than those required by law ing, or that women who decide or skills.

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Exhibit 9. Comparing supervisors with nonsupervisors (in percent) Discussion

Good first-line supervision can help prevent police officers from abusing their authority. Results of the survey suggest that police officers have complex and some- Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree times contradictory attitudes toward Nonsupervisors 16.5 70.2 12.4 0.9 the abuse of authority. On the one hand, the survey reveals positive Supervisors 38.5 58.8 1.9 0.8 evidence of American police officers’ Chi-square=76.12, df=3, and p<0.001 integrity. The majority of officers in Most police abuse could be stopped by developing more effective methods of supervision. the sample, for example, disagreed that it is acceptable to use more force Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree than legally necessary—even to con- Nonsupervisors 6.3 43.7 44.7 5.4 trol someone who physically assaults Supervisors 9.9 58.5 26.7 4.9 an officer. In addition, the vast major-

Chi-square=33.01, df=3, and p<0.001 ity of responding officers described serious incidents of police abuse (such Whistle blowing is not worth it. as the Rodney King and Abner Louima Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree cases) as isolated and very rare occur- Nonsupervisors 3.9 24.4 61.4 10.3 rences and indicated that their departments take a tough stand on police Supervisors 1.1 15.6 68.4 15.0 abuse. Chi-square=24.99, df=3, and p<0.001 Notwithstanding its positive findings, The code of silence is an essential part of the mutual trust necessary to good policing. the survey suggests that police abuse Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree remains a problem that needs to be Nonsupervisors 1.5 19.2 64.2 15.1 addressed by policymakers and police professionals. Even though most police Supervisors 0.3 7.3 68.8 23.5 officers disapprove of the use of exces- Chi-square=28.46, df=3, and p<0.001 sive force, a substantial minority con- It is sometimes acceptable to use more force than legally allowable to control someone who sider it acceptable to sometimes use physically assaults an officer. more force than permitted by the laws that govern them. The code of silence Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree also remains a troubling issue for Nonsupervisors 3.9 23.9 54.5 17.7 American police, with approximately Supervisors 1.8 14.6 56.8 26.9 one-quarter of police officers surveyed stating that whistle blowing is not Chi-square=21.09, df=3, and p<0.001 worth it, two-thirds reporting that po- Police department rules about the use of force should not be any stricter than lice officers who report misconduct required by law. are likely to receive a “cold shoulder” Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree from fellow officers, and more than Nonsupervisors 7.4 62.8 28.6 1.2 one-half reporting that it is not unusual for police officers to turn a Supervisors 4.9 49.6 41.4 4.1 “blind eye” to improper conduct by Chi-square=24.90, df=3, and p<0.001 other officers. These findings suggest that the culture of silence that has Note: Totals may not equal 100 percent due to rounding. continually plagued the reform of American policing continues.

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The survey also provides surprising for a wide range of police abuse—from 2. Martin, Christine, Illinois Municipal Offic- and important lessons about police petty corruption to acts of violence. ers’ Perceptions of Police Ethics, Chicago, officers’ views on ways to control the The survey does not address whether IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information abuse of authority. Consistent with community policing has, in fact, low- Authority, 1994. the suggestions of certain scholars and ered the level of abuse in American 3. Knowles, Jeffrey J., The Ohio Police 23 police professionals, most officers policing, but it shows police officers’ Behavior Study, Columbus, OH: Office of believed that training and education belief that it has. Criminal Justice Services, 1996. are effective methods for reducing police abuse. A substantial majority of The effect of an officer’s race on his or 4. Worden, Robert E., and Robin L. officers who had received training in her attitudes was particularly striking Shephard, “Demeanor, Crime, and Police Behavior: A Reexamination of the Police interpersonal skills or taken courses in the study. Comparing black officers’ views about police abuse with those of Services Study Data,” Criminology 34(1996): in ethics or diversity believed that the 83–105. education or training was effective in white and other minority officers, the preventing misbehavior. These re- authors found significant and substan- 5. Worden, Robert E., “The ‘Causes’ of sponses may not establish the effec- tial differences. As discussed in detail Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on tiveness of such programs, but they earlier in this Research in Brief, a Police Use of Force,” in Police Violence: do show that American police find small minority of white officers in the Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse them important and useful. sample believed that police treat white of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans citizens better than they treat black or Toch, New Haven, CT: Yale University Officers in the sample also empha- other minority citizens in similar situa- Press, 1996. sized the importance of police man- tions, while a majority of black police 6. Ibid., 36. agement in preventing violence and officers held this view. Similar differ- other forms of police abuse. A sub- ences existed between black and other 7. Friedrich, Robert J., “Police Use of Force: stantial majority believed that when officers’ views on the likelihood of po- Individuals, Situations, and Organizations,” a chief of police takes a strong stand lice using force against minorities and The Annals of the American Academy of Po- against police violence, rank and file poor citizens. In addition, the survey litical and Social Science 452(1980): 82–97. officers will follow his or her lead. found that black officers had a more 8. Questions were worded to encompass Similarly, officers identified strong positive view of community policing’s the varying laws and departmental policies first-line supervision as an effective ability to control the abuse of police that govern police officers in different way to prevent abuse and violence by authority. The magnitude of these jurisdictions. police. These findings reinforce schol- race-based differences in opinion 9. Interpreting responses to this item is ars’ and police professionals’ long-held suggests a large gap between black difficult, however, because respondents’ view that developing effective methods police officers and other officers in disagreement with the statement, “Police of supervision and strong supervisors the sample. Such a deep divide was officers always report serious criminal viola- should be a first priority for police not predicted at the outset of the study tions involving abuse of authority by fellow departments as they attempt to control and may reflect the salience of race officers,” does not indicate how often they and prevent abuse of authority. as a central divide not only among believe such nonreporting occurs. American police officers but in Over the past three decades, Ameri- American society more generally. 10. See, e.g., Westley, William A., “Vio- can policing has undergone dramatic lence and the Police,” American Journal changes in organization, tactics, and of Sociology 59(1953): 34–41. Notes philosophy. At the forefront of these 11. Klinger, David A., “More on Demeanor changes has been a transition from 1. Indeed, the authors were able to identify and Arrest in Dade County,” Criminology traditional military and professional only one national survey of police, and that 34(1996): 61–82; Lundman, Richard J., models of policing to innovative survey focused on police officers’ attitudes “Demeanor and Arrest: Additional Evidence models of community policing. The concerning rape. LeDoux, John C., and Rob- from Previously Unpublished Data,” Journal ert R. Hazelwood, “Police Attitudes and surveyed officers believed that com- of Research in Crime and Delinquency Beliefs Toward Rape,” Journal of Police Sci- 33(1996): 306–353; Worden, “The ‘Causes’ munity policing reduces the potential ence and Administration 13(1985): 306–353.

12 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

of Police Brutality: Theory and Evidence on 14. Researchers are divided on whether ra- 17. Bayley, David H., and Egon Bittner, Police Use of Force” (see note 5). cial differences in the excessive use of force “Learning the Skills of Policing,” Law & exist and on whether such disparities are Society Review 30(3)(1984): 586–606. 12. Moreover, Stephen Mastrofski and col- attributable to race itself. In his 1996 review, leagues argue that, “Despite the obvious Kenneth Adams concludes that, “the avail- 18. See, e.g., Goldstein, Herman, “Improving salience of race as an issue in policing able research on the question of whether the Policing: A Problem-Oriented Approach,” over the last 30 years, there has been re- rate of excessive force is higher among mi- Crime and Delinquency 25(1979): 236–258; markably little rigorous research in this norities is far from determinative” (Adams, see also Trojanowicz, Robert, and Bonnie area.” Mastrofski, Stephen D., Roger B. Kenneth, “Measuring the Prevalence of Bucqueroux, Community Policing: How to Parks, Christina DeJong, and Robert E. Police Abuse of Force,” in Police Violence: Get Started, Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Worden, “Race and Every-Day Policing: Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse Publishing, 1994. A Research Perspective,” paper delivered of Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans 19. Weisburd, David, Jerome McElroy, and at the Twelfth International Congress Toch, New Haven, CT: Yale University Patricia Hardyman, “Maintaining Order in on Criminology, Seoul, Korea, August Press, 1996: 59). Worden (see note 5), for Community-Oriented Policing,” in Police 24–28, 1998: 14. example, finds an independent race effect, and Policing, ed. Dennis J. Kenney, New while Albert Reiss does not (Reiss, Albert J., 13. Michael Tonry, for example, argues York, NY: Praeger, 1989. The Police and the Public, New Haven, CT: that “few or no reliable, systematic data Yale University Press, 1971). Others point are available that demonstrate systematic 20. McElroy, Jerome, Colleen A. Cosgrove, out that “the use of physical force has spe- [racial] discrimination” in arrest practices. and Susan Sadd, CPOP: The Research, An cial significance for racial minority commu- Tonry, Michael, Malign Neglect—Race, Evaluative Study of the New York City Com- nities” (Walker, Samuel, Cassia Spohn, and Crime, and Punishment in America, New munity Patrol Officer Program. New York, Miriam DeLone, The Color of Justice: Race, York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995, NY: The Vera Institute of Justice, 1990. Ethnicity, and Crime in America, Belmont, 71. Although studies have found racial dis- CA: Wadsworth, 1996, 97. See also 21. Findings regarding black officers’ more parities in arrest practices, some attribute Ogletree, Charles, Jr., Mary Prosser, Abbe optimistic view of community-oriented polic- such disparities to causes other than race Smith, and William Talley, Jr., Beyond the ing, and other minorities being closer in atti- itself (see, e.g., Black, Donald, and Albert J. Rodney King Story: An Investigation of tudes to whites than to blacks, are consistent Reiss, Jr., “Police Control of Juveniles,” Police Misconduct in Minority Communities, with the 1997 finding of Wesley Skogan and American Sociological Review 35[1970]: Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, Susan Hartnett. Skogan, Wesley G., and 63–77; Lundman, Richard, Richard E. 1995). Susan M. Hartnett, Community Policing: Sykes, and John P. Clark, “Police Control of Chicago Style, New York, NY: Oxford Uni- Juveniles: A Replication,” Journal of Re- 15. Skolnick, Jerome H., and James J. Fyfe, versity Press, 1997. search in Crime and Delinquency 33[1978]: Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use 306–353). Others find an independent race of Force, New York, NY: The Free Press, 22. National Center for Women and Policing, effect (see, e.g., Smith, Douglas A. and 1993: 136; see also Skolnick, Jerome H., retrieved April 13, 1998, from National Cen- Christy A. Visher. 1981. “Street-Level and David H. Bayley, The New Blue Line: ter for Women and Policing, on the World Justice: Situational Determinants of Police Police Innovation in Six American Cities, Wide Web: www.feminist.org/police/ Arrest Decisions.” Social Problems 29[2]: New York, NY: The Free Press, 1986. ncwpAbout.html. 167–177; Smith, Douglas A., Christy A. Visher, and Laura A. Davidson. “Equity and 16. Weisburd, David, Rosann Greenspan, 23. Grant, J. Douglas, and Joan Grant, Discretionary Justice: The Influence of Race Kellie Bryant, Edwin E. Hamilton, Hubert “Officer Selection and the Prevention of on Police Arrest Decisions.” Journal of Williams, and David Olson, Abuse of Author- Abuse of Force,” in Police Violence: Under- Criminal Law and Criminology 75[1]: 234– ity in the Age of Community Policing: A Pre- standing and Controlling Police Abuse of 249; Worden, “The ‘Causes’ of Police liminary Study of Issues and Attitudes, Final Force, ed. William A. Geller and Hans Toch, Brutality: Theory and Evidence on Police Report to the U.S. Department of Justice, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, Use of Force” [see note 5]; and Lundman, Office of Community Oriented Policing Ser- 1996; Scrivner, Ellen M., The Role of Police “Demeanor and Arrest: Additional Evidence vices, Washington, DC: Police Foundation, Psychology in Controlling Excessive Force, from Previously Unpublished Data” [see 1998, appendix D. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, note 11]). Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.

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Findings and conclusions of the research David Weisburd, Ph.D., is Senior of the Police Foundation; and Kellie reported here are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or Research Scientist at the Police A. Bryant, M.S., formerly Research policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Foundation and Director of the Associate at the Police Foundation, Institute of Criminology at Hebrew is a Deputy Marshal with the U.S. The National Institute of Justice is a University Law School in Jerusa- Marshals Service. This study, con- component of the Office of Justice lem, Israel; Rosann Greenspan, ducted by the Police Foundation, Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Ph.D., is Research Director of was supported by Grant Number 97– Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and the Police Foundation; Edwin E. CK–WX–0047, awarded on behalf of Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Hamilton, M.A., is Senior Research Community Oriented Policing Ser- Victims of Crime. Analyst at the Police Foundation; vices, U.S. Department of Justice. Hubert Williams, J.D., is President

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Adams, Kenneth, Geoffrey P. Alpert, tions to an understanding of the impor- issues related to race as a risk factor for Roger G. Dunham, Joel H. Garner, tance of several other factors including criminality and argues that such prac- Lawrence A. Greenfield, Mark A. leadership, command behavior, supervision, tices are unwise and counterproductive Henriquez, Patrick A. Langan, Christo- discipline, and the police subculture. even if they are legal. pher D. Maxwell, and Steven K. Smith. Use of Force by Police: Overview of Garner, Joel, John Buchanan, Tom Langworthy, Robert H., ed. Measur- National and Local Data, Research Schade, and John Hepburn. Under- ing What Matters: Proceedings From Report, 1999, NCJ 176330. Presents find- standing the Use of Force by and the Policing Research Institute Meet- ings on the extent and nature of police Against the Police, Research in Brief, ings, Research Report, 1999, NCJ use of force on both a local and national 1996, NCJ 158614. Examines 1,585 adult 170610. Presents a compilation of pa- scale with particular attention to establish- custody arrests in Phoenix, Arizona, to pers presented at three meetings con- ing accurate measurement guidelines. determine the use of force both by and vened to focus on how to measure Also available at http://www.ojp.usdoj. against the police. crime, disorder, and fear; public atti- gov/nij/pubs-sum/176330.htm. tudes and expectations; and the perfor- Kelling, George L. “Broken Windows” mance of police in the expanding goals Brady, Thomas V. Measuring What and Police Discretion, Research Report, of community policing. Also available at Matters; Part One: Measures of Crime, 1999, NCJ 178259. Details how a police http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/ Fear, and Disorder, Research in Action, officer’s role in order maintenance and 170610.htm. 1996, NCJ 162205. Discusses police per- crime prevention extends beyond arresting formance and the need to establish mea- violators of the law and contends that Mastrofski, Stephen, Roger B. Parks, surements of crime to improve police police officers should exercise discretion Albert J. Reiss, Jr., Robert E. Worden. accountability. in every situation. Also available at Community Policing in Action: Les- http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/ sons Learned from an Observational Brady, Thomas V. Measuring What 178259.htm. Study, NIJ Research in Progress Semi- Matters; Part Two: Developing Mea- nar, 1997. NCJ 167028 (videotape). sures of What the Police Do, Research Kelling, George L. Crime Control, the Observes the various aspects of commu- in Action, 1997, NCJ 167255. Summa- Police and Culture Wars: Broken Win- nity policing in Indianapolis, Indiana, par- rizes seven papers prepared for a meeting dows and Cultural Pluralism, NIJ Per- ticularly police behavior and interaction with NIJ and the Office of Community spectives on Crime and Justice Lecture with various citizens and types of neigh- Oriented Policing Services that focused on Series, 1997, NCJ 168103 (videotape) borhoods and management styles of expectations of the police by the general and NCJ 169608 (audiotape). Explains police supervisors. public, the media, community organiza- the “broken windows” metaphor and tions, local government, and other police concludes that multiple actions by citizens, Pinizzotto, Anthony J., Edward F. constituencies. community groups, and the police are Davis, Charles E. Miller. In the Line of effective in crime prevention. Fire: A Study of Selected Felonious Gaffigan, Stephen J. and Phyllis P. Assaults on Law Enforcement Offic- McDonald. Police Integrity: Public Kennedy, Randall. Race, the Police ers, 1997, NCJ 168972. Addresses forty Service With Honor, 1997, NCJ 163811. and “Reasonable Suspicion,” NIJ Per- distinct cases of serious assaults on law Analyzes how police integrity has broad- spectives on Crime and Justice Lecture enforcement officers. ened from a narrow focus on police officer Series, 1998, NCJ 168967 (videotape) behavior and internal corruption investiga- and NCJ 169609 (audiotape). Discusses