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Keystone Journal of Undergraduate Research volume 5(1): 1-11, 2018 A Critical Analysis of the Shootings of Unarmed by : A Social Work Perspective

Senneca Davis Azadeh Masalehdan Block

Department of Social Work California University of Pennsylvania

ABSTRACT

In recent years, more media attention has been garnered by the shootings of unarmed African Americans. This highlights the issue of the Black/White dichotomy of treatment under the law that has long been an issue in the United States. Presented herein is a literature review that contextualizes these shootings from a social work theoretical perspective. This review implements theories from the social work profession, such as critical race theory, contact theory, fundamental attribution error, and the strength based perspective, which offer a multidimensional understanding of the circumstances, history and underlying these shootings. The evidence provided in this review underscores the persistence of and its specific of African Americans in society at large. It also highlights some of the ways in which American culture can redress issues such as segregation. Future directions, including the promise of reconciliation through consensus building within the communities impacted by shootings of unarmed African Americans, are discussed.

Keywords: Critical Race Theory; Contact Theory; Fundamental Attribution Error; Reconciliation; Racial Bias

Introduction After numerous shootings of understand its nature as well as to present unarmed African American individuals, feasible solutions. riots, protest, and the birth of the Black Until recently, the Department of Lives Matter movement it is important that Justice has not required police departments social workers bring their perspective to to collect data on officer related fatalities. the table to integrate the profession’s In 2016, new procedures were enacted to unique ethical and theoretical standpoint ensure accuracy in the counting of “arrest on current affairs. Use of deadly force is related deaths” (Bureau of Justice an act impacted by both conscious and Statistics, Department of Justice, 2016). In unconscious forces. Accounts from law the interim, created enforcement officials offer a narrative that an archival database of all officer-related purports that it is noncompliance with fatalities in the USA from 2015-2017 officer orders that justifies use of deadly (present). In 2015, 995 individuals were force, and is in fact a calculated decision killed of whom 259 (26%) were African rather than one based on automatic American, 497 (50%) of whom were thoughts or “split second” decision making White, 172 (17%) were Hispanic. In 2016, (Gross, 2016). Herein, authors seek to 963 individuals were killed of whom 233 understand the implicit bias that affects (24%) African American, 466 (48%) this post hoc use of deadly force. It is White, 160 (17%) Hispanic, the count for important for social workers to 2017 is ongoing (Washington Post, 2017). acknowledge and critically examine this In comparison to demographic data, as of social problem from all angles to fully the last Census in 2010, the percentage of 2 Davis and Block – Critical Analysis of Shootings Whites in the US is 63.7%, African Issues of racial inequality, oppression and Americans 12.6%, 16.3% Hispanic (U.S. have persisted as social Census Bureau, 2011). As can be seen problems in the United States since the use from these numbers, African Americans of as a means of production, nation are overrepresented in these fatality building and social control. Severe statistics by at least a margin of 2:1. inequality is accepted in U.S. culture and Whereas hispanic representation is near to the legacy of slavery, without a doubt, population levels at around 16-17%. affects cultural conceptions of African Moreover, it has been found that unarmed Americans today. CRT focuses on the African Americans are 3.5 times more primacy of race and racism and the likely to be shot than their unarmed White connectedness with other forms of counterparts (Mapping Police , subordination. It questions the status quo, 2015). Also, African Americans who are is committed to social justice, and places armed but do not pose an imminent threat high value on society’s experiential towards the police are more likely to be knowledge (Chaney & Robertson, 2015). killed than Whites, Hispanics, and Asians A CRT approach within the (Mapping Police Violence, 2015). The following articles highlights why the numbers bare out what the following shootings of unarmed African Americans theoretical analysis unpacks: historical and by White police may be happening and socio-cultural factors result in social how it is affecting the African American injustice for African Americans apropos community’s perceptions of law their experiences with the use of deadly enforcement. Chaney & Robertson (2015) force and police. pose three questions: “1: How does the According to the NASW’s Code of of unarmed African American Ethics, (1999) a social worker’s primary (Black) people by police support White mission is to “enhance human well-being supremacy? 2: What do non-indictments and help meet the basic human needs of all of police suggest about the lives of people, with particular attention to the unarmed African American (Black) needs and of people who people? 3: How does the murder of are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in unarmed African American (Black) people poverty” (para. 1). Social workers have an escalate individual, familial, and ethical imperative, unique to this communal mistrust of police?” The profession, which pushes professional authors unpack these questions and apply social workers to prevent injustice and CRT to the situation of shootings of discrimination based on race. This paper African American men by law utilizes theory, specifically critical race enforcement. theory, contact theory and the fundamental Through the first question the attribution error to better understand the authors show the importance of historical context of the issues facing the understanding the historical significance intersection of race and policing. A of slave patrols and their legacy on thorough understanding of the problem is policing in the United States of America. the first step toward identifying possible When African Americans are perceived as solutions. dangerous and subhuman, the socio- political process allows for White METHODS supremacy to hold fast. The lack of indictment tells African Americans that Critical Race Theory police have little to no accountability for their actions against the African American community. Through the second question Keystone Journal of Undergraduate Research 5(1): 1-11, 2018 3 authors emphasize that the lack of shows that retribution is lacking in indictments tells African Americans that correcting the (Chaney & their lives have little value. Through the Robertson, 2013). third question they look at how the Whiteness throughout history and shootings of unarmed African Americans still today conveys a position of privilege impacts mistrust of police throughout the and power. This hierarchy instituted by African American community (Chaney & Whites, for Whites provides the lens Robertson, 2015). In combination, these through which cultural conceptions are research questions underscore the drawn about race and racial inequality, historical and current social circumstances including White attitudes about the use of that allow for the cycle of shootings of force by the police (Carter & Corra, 2016). unarmed African Americans to continue Carta and Corra suggest that one’s (Crenshaw 2011; 2002; 1995; Solorzano, perception of race is not truly their own; Ceja, & Yosso, 2000; Yosso, Smith, Ceja, instead these perceptions are passed down & Solorzano, 2009; Zuberi 2011). through generations and enforced by the From the very beginning, the society one lives in. This theory erodes nation’s “White superiority” and history hope that the elimination of negative has been built on the backs of African and hostile relations can be Americans. They have been victims of achieved through the education of youth brutality, physical force, , and alone and underscores the complexity at the hands of those who surrounding this national illness to erase it. created and enforced the laws in America. Overwhelmingly, White individuals are CRT brings full circle how the historical the ones maintaining social control, and context of White superiority affects CRT bares out as much when one looks at African Americans today. A bedrock piece power dynamics and race. of evidence in connecting theory to reality is the increasing rates of It is a well-known fact that against African Americans in recent years was a method of policing and (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). In this social control, especially in the south, article, CRT helps to show how race is during the time of Jim Crow (post-civil embedded in institutions such as law war) (Petersen & Ward, 2015). Estimates enforcement, etc. As well as how White indicate that over 2500 African Americans leadership could be increasing the were lynched between 1890 and 1930 in possibility of unequal treatment of the American South (Bailey & Snedker, marginalized groups according to CRT 2011). Aymer (2016) discusses how the (Chaney & Robertson, 2013). violence and death from these Through an extensive search of the induced terror in African Americans, National Statistics and destroyed families and tore communities Reporting Project (NPMSRP) data apart. These lynchings also furthered between April 2009 and June 2010 the social control by Whites. These killings authors found that only 33% of were never considered and misconduct cases went through to African Americans never received convictions and that the average protection or justice for their loved ones. incarceration, post-conviction, for officers The scant accountability for lynching in was only 14 months compared to 49 for the Jim Crow south are reminiscent, in the general public (Chaney & Robertson, large part because of the lack of 2013). These findings suggest that for police officers, that by are not being held to the same standard of comparison is consistent of the shootings accountability as the general public. It also 4 Davis and Block – Critical Analysis of Shootings of unarmed African American’s today authority and law, be present within the (Aymer, 2016). contact for there to be positive change. Ramirez, McDevitt, and Ferrell The samples studied show that groups that (2000) indicate that racial profiling specifically used structured contact towards African Americans is situations that followed Allport’s four undermining their physical wellbeing and conditions did in fact have higher amounts quality of life because it works against of reduction in outcomes than African Americans best interests. other groups (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). According to Oh, DeVylder, and Hunt, Study findings can be translated to those who experience racial profiling are underscore the importance of improving at significantly higher risk of having mood relationships and physical connectedness disorders, anxiety disorders, and between African American and police posttraumatic stress disorder (2017). forces (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). The Victims of this type of findings from this meta-analysis also mistreatment were also at greater risk to support integrated schooling environments report lifetime suicidal ideation, plans, and and other mechanisms for early life attempts (Oh, DeVylder, & Hunt 2017). contact between races. Those who face racial profiling also are at Utilizing the aforementioned data higher risk of physical injury. This lack of set, Pettigrew and Tropp (2008) looked at “fit” with one’s environment, in which how contact theory can diminish African Americans are unable to feel safe prejudice. They claim that contact can in their communities, has negative eliminate prejudice by: 1) strengthening consequences on one’s physical/emotional knowledge about other groups, 2) health and well-being (Germain & lowering anxiety about intergroup contact, Glitterman, 1995). and 3) increasing empathy and creating a more open mind set to see things in a Contact Theory/Intergroup Contact better perspective. Knowledge has been the most The next theory that social workers studied/applied concept thus far in contact can use to better understand this issue is theory research. The findings suggest that contact theory (CT). CT states that by learning about the out-group the in- intergroup contact can largely reduce group members can build a knowledge prejudice (Allport, 1954). This theory base, which then reduces prejudice and helps to explain the power dynamics stereotypes about the out-group. In inherent to the relationship between researching how contact can reduce African Americans and the police. Studies prejudice the authors found that this have suggested that the poor quality of concept used alone is likely outdated contact that police have with African because it ignores actual group differences Americans while on duty may be and denies the ability to tackle intergroup negatively affecting their beliefs about conflict at a societal level (Pettigrew & African Americans (Peruche & Plant, Tropp 2008). 2006). The second approach, lowering Pettigrew & Tropp’s (2006) meta- anxiety, is a more recent focus of contact analysis of five-hundred fifteen studies theory research. Feeling threatened by an evaluates Allport’s (1954) application of out-group increases feelings of anxiety intergroup CT which requires that four that are then associated with the out-group particular conditions, equal status between (Stephan & Stephan, 1985). From this groups in the situation, common goals, finding, many other studies have intergroup cooperation, and the support of uncovered that anxious feelings and Keystone Journal of Undergraduate Research 5(1): 1-11, 2018 5 perceived threats from out-groups could be is critical to focus on changing police reduced by intergroup contact (Blasovich, officer’s attitudes and beliefs about Mendes, Hunter, Lickel, & Kowai-Bell, African American individuals when 2001; Page-Gould, Mendoza-Denton, & attempting to reduce racial bias. Tropp, in press; Paolini, Hewstone, Cairns, An important factor in & Voci, 2004; Pettigrew, 1998; Stephan, understanding law enforcement responses Stephan & Gudykunst, 1999; Stephan et to African American suspects is looking at al., 2002; Voci & Hewstone, 2003). the officer’s previous contact with African The third approach used in American suspects. Intergroup contact reducing prejudice is the concept that hypothesis suggests that when certain contact can create empathy and increase criteria are met contact between members perspective taking. Intergroup contact and of out-groups improve intergroup attitudes close cross-group friendships allow for (Tropp & Pettigrew, 2005). If officers members to be exposed to the perspective believe African Americans are more likely of the out-group member and highlights to be dangerous criminals it may lead to having empathy for the out-group more aggressive responses. Contact with member’s troubles or concerns. Recent African American people is primarily findings showed that empathy for the out- done, for many White officers, while on group can even help the individual to the job. Negative contact can greatly create a process of self-expansion wherein increase racial or impede the the individual will extend their sense of elimination of racial biases. In the study, self to include the out-group (Aron & officers with positive contact with African Mclaughlin-Volpe, 2001). This approach American people in their personal lives can promote intergroup contact as a way to were shown to eliminate biases with increase empathy and thus reduce training on simulations much faster than shootings of unarmed African Americans those who only had negative contact with (Pettigrew and Tropp, 2008). Authors African Americans. suggest that the most efficacious way to use these research findings is to reduce Fundamental Attribution Error anxiety and then work on building empathy and knowledge to equip police Another concept that can be with the tools that will best serve the applied when looking at the issue of public interest (Pettigrew and Tropp, shootings of unarmed African Americans 2008). by police is Ross’ fundamental attribution It is important to understand how error (FAE) (as cited in Langdrige & Butt, officers make decisions to shoot and how 2004). This theory of error posits that their previous contact with African people tend to make internal (personal) Americans can affect split second attributions about others, rather than decision-making processes. Peruche & external ones, even when there are clear Plant (2006) explore law enforcement signs of potential situational causes.. FAE officer’s racial biases and their decisions is very common in individualistic cultures, to shoot criminal suspects through the use like the USA, and is engrained in of a shooting simulation. Authors found a American culture (Crisp & Turner, 2014). significantly higher rate of officers Authors suggest that FAE is a critical part mistakenly shooting unarmed African of attributing causality in Western cultures American individuals compared to White and less dominant in non-Western cultures individuals even more so if the officer held (Norenzayan & Nisbett, 2000). negative attitudes toward African FAE happens because automatic Americans. These findings indicate that it processing has the advantage of speed; it 6 Davis and Block – Critical Analysis of Shootings allows individuals to come to conclusions processes in that it allows for both parties almost simultaneously. However, these to be highly involved in the process by attributions are often flawed because they being part of deciding ways in which to are made so quickly (Song, 2012). In times forward (Laxminarayan & Wolthuis, of high stress and pressure the impact of 2015). It is through this mechanism that the situation is rarely acknowledged reconciliation gives the conflict back to because correcting the judgment requires the community allowing for an mental effort and takes longer (Kubota, et empowerment process where the al. 2014, Gilbert & Malone, 1995). communities voices are heard. Authors also found that stress can increase Reconciliation is the process an individual’s reliance on heuristic through which law enforcement would processing (Kubota et al., 2014), which is acknowledge the real and abusive law a fast and easy mental shortcut that enforcement practices in the history of the simplifies complex judgments to easy United States of America, including rules of thumb. However, most result in slavery, toward African Americans to reset biased information processing (Crisp & relationships between them. Next, the Turner, 2014). reconciliation process addresses how It is important to consider the communities have failed to stand up impact the environment has on against crime. This highlights how there individual’s judgments of others around must be a change in both sides to repair them (Kowalski-Trakofler et al., 2003). and move forward. This process would This literature review uncovers this also acknowledge and respect the negative probable formula for unpacking the narrative each group holds about the other shootings of unarmed African American (National Initiative for Building men: intense pressure + racial stereotyping Community Trust and Justice, 2015). x dispositional attributions of the actor = What reconciliation seeks is common shooting of unarmed African American’s. ground so that both sides can move It is clear that the impact of stress on forward in working together to create a ’s decision to shoot must be safer and more equitable community. more in depth; researchers need to better Reconciliation aims for communities and understand the implications of this law enforcement to come to an dispositional attribution and how this understanding of mutual respect and trust could be increasing outcomes of unarmed through acknowledging the historical harm shootings of African Americans. African Americans have faced, accepting that both the police and African American communities have contributed to the

current issues, addressing all DISCUSSION misconceptions, and agreeing on mutual Future Directions support going forward (National Initiative for Building Community Trust and Justice, The first step that must take place 2015). One key point in this process is that to mend the relationship between police they are not “rebuilding” but instead are and African Americans is reconciliation. coming to a mutual understanding in Reconciliation is a form of restorative which both groups desire to build safety justice that focuses on the harm that results within their communities (Harris, 2017). from a crime by involving the victim, Reconciliation actively utilizes a offender and community (Laxminarayan key component of social work theory: the & Wolthuis, 2015). This process is strengths based perspective. The strengths different from traditional criminal justice based perspective focuses on the Keystone Journal of Undergraduate Research 5(1): 1-11, 2018 7 multidimensional nature of personal and Many community members in environmental resources (Cowger & High Point had negative narratives about Snively, 2002; Miley, O’Melia, & DuBois, the police that included beliefs that the 2013; Saleebey, 2009). Applying this police were trying to destroy the foundational piece of the social work community and felt that “three strike profession to reconciliation helps to make laws” were created to put their children in sense of why it works so well. By focusing jail for life. On the other side of things, on strengths instead of shortcomings the police believed that the community didn’t possibility is opened for a dialogue care, had no expectation of finishing between groups that is free of hostility and school and that there wasn’t any flows with possible solutions (Dubois & community left to partner with to address Miley, 2014). Significant intergroup these issues (Kennedy, 2009). From a interactions between Whites and African reconciliation perspective, neither view Americans must exist to dispel the myths was entirely true nor entirely false; the that persist through to today. oppression was real, as was the high crime Research has found that 1) rate. These negative narratives had created individuals living in high crime a wall between officers and community neighborhoods are the least tolerant of the members and in the High Point case, crime and 2) that the vast majority of reconciliation was a key part of the community members are not involved in process to breaking it. any criminal activity (Sampson & Bartusch, 1998; Papachristos, 2009; The conversation that began Papachristos, Meares, & Fagan, 2007). focused on the drug market, rather than This form of restorative justice has the drug use; and chose points that could be potential to lead to greater satisfaction discussed and addressed as a community; from both sides, allows for empowerment specifically retaking the neighborhood of the victims, and decreases the rate of re- locations that had become drug markets offence by the offender (Laxminarayan & (Kennedy, 2009). Law enforcement had to Wolthuis, 2015). High Point, North recognize and declare that they could not Carolina is a successful example of the eliminate the long history of oppression of process of reconciliation, coupled with African Americans. However, the police straight talk about racial conflict, could acknowledge that this history does have an impact and that they want to move High Point was drowning in drugs, forward (Kennedy, 2009). There was an dealers, and violence. The new police open and frank discussion between the chief opted to utilize a new strategic community, police, and dealers that intervention to close drug markets and acknowledged the shortcomings of all bring about reconciliation between law groups and put the decision in the dealer’s enforcement and the community. Based on hands. The community openly clarified to model Ceasefire, started in Boston in the the dealers that they did not accept the 1990s, problem oriented policing was behaviors the dealers were partaking in combined with collaboration with and the police put the dealers on warning community member (Kennedy, 2009), the that if they were caught dealing drugs they High Point Model (also known as the Drug would be arrested (Kennedy, 2009). Soon Market Intervention model) utilizes after this meeting the community and law concepts from the Strategic Approaches to enforcement were amazed to find that the Community Safety Initiative, and Project drug market practically evaporated and Safe Neighborhoods to address violence very few dealers went back to dealing. and end drug markets in communities. 8 Davis and Block – Critical Analysis of Shootings This method of reconciliation has since been used in over 25 other U.S. cities and the results have been remarkable LITERATURE CITED (Kennedy, 2009). Overall there has been a forty to fifty percent reduction in violence Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of and drug related crimes in these cities after prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison reconciliation (Kennedy, 2009). This Wesley. serves as one key example of how the Aron, A., & Mclaughlin-Volpe, T. (2001). process of reconciliation can mend the Including others in the self. In C. broken bonds between law enforcement Sedikides, & M. Brewer (Eds.), and African American communities and Individual self, relational self, how acknowledging the deep history of collective self (pp. 89-108). New racial injustice is a critical part of York, NY: Psychology Press. resolving the problems facing Aymer, S. R. (2016). 'I can’t breathe': A communities today. case study—Helping Black men cope with race-related trauma Conclusion stemming from police killing and This literature review highlights brutality. Journal Of Human the theories that tease apart the uniquely Behavior In The Social complex situation that African Americans Environment, 26(3-4), 367-376. face when engaging with law enforcement. doi:10.1080/10911359.2015.11328 Racial biases can lead to severe and deadly 28 consequences which, this review seeks to Blasovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. frame in a different theoretical B., Lickel, B., & Kowai-Bell, N. understanding. For police officers the use (2001). Perceiver threat in social of physical or deadly force is impacted by interactions with stigmatized history, and experience others. Journal of Personality and (Chaney & Roberston 2013; 2015). In Social Psychology, 80, 253–267 analyzing these forces, authors were able to come to a clearer understanding of the Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of antecedents of this discrimination as well Justice (2016). 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In the interim, Resentment and Attitudes Toward social work professionals must seek the by Police: An dialogue and intervention using the Over-Time Trend theoretical underpinnings discussed Analysis. Sociological herein, to promote social and racial justice Inquiry, 86(4), 492-511. for African American client populations. doi:10.1111/soin.12136 Keystone Journal of Undergraduate Research 5(1): 1-11, 2018 9

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