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FIRST FLEET FOODS Surviving a Hostile New World

FIREBIRDS of the Top End • CROWN OF THORNS STARFISH Unique Spawning Observations MUD,MUD, Glorious Mud AMMONITES Cretaceous Molluscs

SUMMER 1987-88 VOL.22 N0.7 THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM O Introducingthe New lympusAF-10.

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Published by lying over this country recently, cornered. And farming-that is The Australian Museum Trust what struck me most was the producing-these species makes 6-8 College Street, devastation of our land caused ecological sense; it necessitates, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 F by the way we farm it. Tell-tale Phone: (02) 339 8111 economically, their ongoing survival. Trust President: Robyn Williams ripples in thesoil and scarred hills in­ On page 312, Robyn Williams looks Museum Director: Desmond Griffin dicate soil erosion is an urgent prob­ at farming failures. lem. Perhaps we simply started on the EDITOR It made me wonder if there was wrong footing. Our bicentennial Fiona Doig something fundamentally wrong article, Foods of the First Fleet, page SCIENTIFIC EDITOR Georgina Hickey, B.Sc. with our approach to agriculture­ 292, shows the kind of tunnel vision CIRCULATION surely we shouldn't be destroying the British suffered on arrival. Many John McIntosh the land that makes production of starved, for they sought foodplants ART DIRECTION food possible in the first place. Are comparable to English garden var­ Steve Costello our livestock and crops really suit­ ieties, unaware of the plentiful deli­ TYPESETTING able for Australian conditions-or cacies enjoyed by the Aborigines. Love Computer Typesetting Ply Ltd are they simplya hang-over from our But has our approach changed? I FILM WORK European heritage? Why are we so think not. What chance do our native South Sea International Press Ltd repulsed by the thought of farming plants have if research scientists see PRINTING (and eating) our native animals like some as unsightly weeds? (See RodenPrint Ply Ltd ADVERTISING kangaroos, lizards and crocodiles? Forum, page 306.) Perhaps now is the Jean Barnet The only barrier appears to be our time to take a fresh look at where we (02) 939 6263 own gastronomic attitudes. (I re­ are; to step outside what we already (02) 339 8234 cently tasted crocodile meat. It is de­ know and act according to what our licious.) Economically it makes land is telling us. Before it is too late. SUBSCRIPTIONS Annual subscription (4 issues) sense, as we have the world market -Fiona Doig, Editor Within Australia SA 16.00 Other Countries $A20.00 I,f,.-: .•� \,·. . ·'\\�·, ... /·. '• ·/./.' ,_ I! .. I . 'i Contents Two-year subscription (8 issues) / / :f . , Within Australia $A30.00 /! i - \ . '1 ((1 • \. / Foods of the First Fleet: Convict Other Countries SA36.00 I-· ' ·-' ' ' 'I 292 ' Food plants of Old Sydney Town \ .. .---1• '- .· : 'l \_ . ' For renewal or new subscription please • , : ' . , I ,I ; • '\ j / Tim Low forward credit card authority or cheque I • ""; •• , ;�· ' .,( . d 1' , ;, i_ Fire-birds of the Top End made payable to: • _. , ·, , \ · y I • 298 The Australian Museum ··/\•1 .- \ Richard Braithwaite P.O. Box A285 Sydney South '. . ,. . . ·, ' and John Estbergs N.S.W. 2000, Australia _., . l \ ',. ' 2� A Spine-bending Story 303 Subscribers from other countries please William Gladstone note th.at money must be paid in In Praise of Mud 322 Australian currency. Alan Jones All material appearing in Australian Natural History is copyright. Australian Ammonites 332 Reproduction in whole or in part is not Ken McNamara permitted without written authorisation from the Editor. FORUM Opinions expressed by the authors are The Nurseryman's Role in 306 their own and do not necessarily Greening Australia represent the policies or views of the Peter Bindon Australian Museum. The Editor welcomes articles or PHOTOART photographs in any field of Australian Colourful Crustaceans 308 natural history. Jim Lowry Published 1987 RARE & ENDANGERED ISSN-0004-9840 Giant Gippsland Earthworm 320 Georgina Hickey WILD FOODS The Language of Fruits Australian Natural History is audited 328 by the Audit Bureau of Circulations Tim Low REGULAR FEATURES Letters Front Cover 290 Robyn Williams From Hunter's Voyage (1793) held in 312 the Mitchell Library. Discover how the Poster Article 313 First Fleeters struggled to survive in Old Books 314 Sydney Town (p. 292). Quips, Quotes & Curios 317 Vincent Serventy 330 AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 289 LETTERS Flipper, Skippy and the Sex Pistols

The Dolphin Dilemma Our local butcher sells con­ spent the week before. Yet Mawalan Marika, shortly tainers of diced kangaroo all along, there they were­ before his death in 1969, At last a sensible well­ meat as pet food. This meat those sexual deviants­ said to his son Wandjuk: balanced, non-hysterical is lean, and very cheap­ shooting sex pistols at each Take my stick article about dolphins in about one quarter the cost other! How could I have Take my word captivity (ANH vol. 22, no. of lean beef, its only draw­ missed such intriguing be­ Take my energy 3, p. 128). back being the occasional haviour? Take my courage I have spent many hours piece of meat dyed blue to With my curiosity One day the Balanda with captive dolphins and it indicate its source. This dye whetted, I went out to the they will come is my belief that their lot is is harmless, although I feed garden after the next rain. And destroy our land not as detrimental as the these pieces to the cat The first two snails I came But I'm not going to see Georges Report claims. rather than eat them myself. across were joined fast. What will happen High standards should be Kangaroo meat tastes With a small amount of So you will have to set regarding the land­ slightly stronger than beef, pleasure, keeping in mind stand tall based habitats for captive and is ideal for curries, stews that perhaps there would To talk for our land dolphins. Perhaps taking and Chinese cooking. Last be a few lesssnails in future For our children them from the wild should week I used it in Hungarian to destroy my garden, I For your children's be banned, eventually goulash with excellent re­ gently pulled them apart. children. causing all captive dolphins sults. I have spoken to a vet Their penes were well en­ Wandjuk did indeed to be born in captivity. But who assured me that, pro­ twined and the tip of each stand tall. He played a siw to close downthe dolphina­ vided the meat is well was swollen. There was a nificant role in negotiations riums and release the cap­ cooked, there is no risk of soft popping noise when with the bauxite-mining tive animals into the wild, bacterial or parasitic infec­ they were finally separated. company Nabalco, worked where they would no doubt tion, even though kangaroo I thought if I looked very to obtain copyright protec­ suffer and die, would be a meatworks do not, at pre­ hard I must be able to finda tion for Aboriginal artists, cruel and extremely sent, match abattoir stan­ dart. And sure enough I did. and acted as Ambassador thoughtless act. dards. Embedded about two milli­ for his people throughout Better to worry about the Overgrazing and soil metres in one of the snails Australia and overseas. He thousands of dolphins and compaction by cattle is an was a white spear, about a was a highly skilled tra­ sea lions killed each year by environmental issue as im­ centimetre long-just as ditional musician and bark careless fishermen. This portant as rainforest preser­ described and illustrated in painter, who believed in would be far more ben­ vation, and the conser­ the article. I was thrilled, but sharing his knowledge with eficial to the animals' future vation movement needs to recalled blushing slightly the wider community. survival than closing the act fast. I congratulate Dr when I realised what gave Wandjuk had a close as­ dolphinariums. Grigg for his timely focus on me the thrill. I had experi­ sociation with the Aus­ Thankyou, Laura Mum­ this critical issue. enced the sense of dis­ tralian Museum and for aw, for a fine, well­ -Tim low covery that I can only im­ some years worked with the researched article. Brisbane, Qld agine a scientist would Anthropology staff, docu­ -Valerie Taylor when discovering a new menting over 100 eastern Sydney, NSW species. It just goes to show Arnhem Land bark paint­ Snail Mail that there is truth in the ings held at the Museum. adage "look and you shall He said of his work there: Eat More ('roo) Meat! I thought that Georgina find". Hickey's QQC article on -Lisa Brooks "I am Wandjuk. I am telling May I commend Gordon the courtship behaviour of Mosman, NSW these stories, from the art­ Grigg on his excellent garden snails (ANH vol. 22, ists, the men who are in article (ANH vol. 22, no. 5, no. 6, p. 215) was absolutely charge of paintings and cer­ p. 204) advocating the ex­ amazing! Many times after Tribute to Wandjuk emonies. I am an artist too. ploitation of kangaroo the rain I've gone outside to Marika, OBE I'm translating from my own meat. As a botanist fre­ masochistically count those language into English, so quently visiting areas seemingly passive, mind­ Wandjuk Marika, c. everyone can read and grazed by cattle, I am all too less munchers of my prized 1936-1987, was ritual understand the stories . .. aware of the devastation garden specimens. How­ leader of the Riradjingu Some are special stories, wrought by these hard­ ever, despite the fact that people, and was from the very sacred and secret-I hoofed animals. Our natu­ they are pests, I've always Dua Moiety. He passed can't tell you everything. ral grasslands are being ir­ considered snails as being away suddenly in Darwin But I am telling you just a revocably degraded largely 'nice' animals-they just go hospital, after a short illness little bit, so you can know because of a cultural pro­ along with their own busi­ in June 1987. He had been about our culture, the hibition against eating ness, quietly and slowly, ne­ living with his family at country and the dreaming kangaroo meat. I for one am gating any horticultural Yelangbara, near Yirrkala, of our tribes." putting my house in order. labours that have been eastern Arn hemLand. Wandjuk Marika was also 290 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 0 "'< 3 z w f-­ v, > One of Wandjuk's bark paintings depicts a whale, mirinunu. In accordance with Aboriginal custom, we are unable to publish a picture of Wandjuk. a Founding Member of the Western Australia, where seum for one of his close The withdrawal of the Aboriginal Arts Board of the many men had travelled family members to wear at teaching of Creationism in Australia Council, from great distances to put their the funeral ceremonies. Silk our schools would be a 1973-1975, and was a dis­ case for Board support be­ flowers were also sent to great mistake. Evolution is tinguished Board Chairman fore the members. decorate the bark enclosure an integral part of the pre­ from 1976-1979. Working As Ambassador for his where his body will lie. sent curriculum; therefore, for the Board was no easy people, Wandjuk rep­ -Kate Kahn in order to give a well­ task, as he had to act as a resented them at the South Austtalian Museum rounded, balanced edu­ bridge between two Pacific Festival of Arts, cation, is it not essential to cultures-that of the Rotorua, New Zealand and Not a Case for provide the other view of Balanda (white man) in the the American Bicentennial Confusion the Earth's origin? Surely south with its constant Celebrations in the USA. He that is the aim of education. travel and its endless bu­ had an infectious sense of In response to the article Confusion should not arise reaucracy, and that of his re­ humour and enjoyed life to on Creationism by Michael if it is emphasised that the sponsibility as ritual leader its full. Wandjuk said: Archer (ANH vol. 22, no. 4, two views are quite incom­ of the Riradjingu in the p. 160), I hope that your patible. To give only one Yirrkala region of north-east "My own people, the Rira­ magazine is sufficiently ob­ side of the argument would Arnhem Land. dj ingu, are descended from jective as to give the other be, in many respects, similar There is an instant range the great Djankawu who side of the argument. Whilst to the type of society de­ of memories of Mr Chair­ came from the island of not attempting to denigrate scribed in George Orwell's man Wandjuk Marika, play­ Baralku far across the an otherwise excellent pub­ 7984. ing yidaki (didjeridu) in a sea . ..I am the man de­ lication, I feel that some bal­ Although I would like to cold Moscow street with a scended from the ance is needed, for it must discuss in greater detail fur hat pulled down to keep Djankawu, the man himself, be remembered that evol­ many points in the article, I him warm; welcoming del­ seven, eight generations ution is only a theory. No ul­ shall be content with egates to the UNESCO ago." timate proof exists; indeed, merely reiterating that a bal­ Conference on 'Preserving there are very many faults in ance is needed. As a tertiary Indigenous Cultures: a New The spirit of Wandjuk evolution. Therefore, any science student, and Cre­ Role for Museums', held in Marika has returned to reasonably objective scien­ ationist, I see this every Adelaide in 1978; or Baralku. tist would admit that it is day. chairing an Aboriginal Arts As is customary, a length only a theory, and cannot -Mat Vanderklift Board meeting in Derby, of cloth was sent by the Mu- be proven. Monbulk, Vic. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 291 Grey Saltbush has very tasty leaves much appreciated by early colonists in New South Wales. This is almost certainly the "sage" listed by one of the First Fleetoffi­ cers.

Convict Foodplants of OldSydney Town

From Phillip's Voyage (1790) held in the Mitchell Library. By TIM LOW

292

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Native Cherry was probably one of the edible "cherries" mentioned by Governor Phillip. This plant later be­ came famous as one of the 'topsy turvy plantsof Down Under'-the little cherry has its seed on the outside.

wo hundred years ago Captain Arthur Phillip landed at Port Jackson and founded the col­ Tony of New South Wales. His settle­ ment devastated the local Aboriginal tribe, in spite of his kindly overtures. Phillip hoped to bestow upon the "natives" the gift of agriculture, noting earnestly in his diary that "to put into the hands of men, ready to perish for one half of the year with hunger, the means of procuring con­ stant and abundant provisions, must be to confer upon them benefits of the highest value and importance". New Zealand Spinach was almost certainly the spinach harvested by the first Sydney But Phillip was wrong. The Abor­ colonists. Joseph Banks introduced this plant to England, and may have informed igines were not hungry, his own men Governor Phillip of its usefulness. were. Agriculture, that "means of procuring constant and abundant tures, although living side by side, provisions", failed dismally on Syd­ were using quite different resources. ney's infertile soils. English supply The aloof Englishmen could find ships came late, and ravenous con­ almost nothing in the forest that victs and soldiers were forced to for­ looked edible and assumed that the age like Aborigines, plucking at natives lived on starvation's edge for leaves and berries to supplement much of the year. In fact, the forests dwindling rations. around Sydney conceal dozens of But the plants sought out by the edible plants and animals, and the colonists were not traditional Abor­ Aborigines would have lived a com­ iginal foods. Due to a gulf in cultural fortable existence. Starchy root-like outlook and techniques, the two cul- stems of Bracken (Pteridium

AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 293 esculentum) were probably a reliable winter staple when fish were scarce. But the colonists, too civilised to learn from savages, sought out plants in the image of English vegetables and dabbled hopefully with cures for scurvy. Scurvy Cures Eighteenth century officials knew that certain foods called anti­ scorbutics would cure scurvy, a dis­ ease we now attribute to vitamin C deficiency. There was no way then to detect an antiscorbutic, except by testing its effects through time, and the colony's surgeons made specu­ lative judgments on what would work. Two plants were deemed effi­ Currant Bush fruits saved the lives of scurvy-stricken convicts in Sydney in the 1780s. cacious, and these figured promi­ The fruits were later sold in markets in George Street, mainly for use in jams and nently in the life of the colony. jellies. Aborigines gathered the fruits in wooden bowls. Currant Bush (Leptomeria acida) was no doubt chosen because its small green fruits taste much like limes, a recommended naval anti­ scorbutic. The fruits are gathered from a broom-like shrub common on the sandstone ridges about Sydney. The 'currants' (no relation) yield modest amounts of vitamin C-about 20 milligrams per 100 grams, compared with 50 milligrams per 100 grams in oranges. Four cupfuls of fruit daily would be needed to cure scurvy, an amount that would rarely have been available. Nonetheless, Currant Bush probably saved a number of lives. The human cargo aboard the Nep­ tune, a convict hulk that limped into Sydney in 1790, was lucky to arrive while the currants were still in season. Conditions aboard the Nep­ tune had been appalling, and 164 convicts perished on board. The Neptune was privately contracted, and its owners had profiteered by setting rations at starvation levels. It was said that deaths among the con­ victs in irons were concealed so that others could share their rations­ until the stench of the corpse alerted the officers. Once on land the pitiful survivors were restored with special bread rations and supplies of the "acid berry of the country", as Judge Advocate Collins described the currants. The other scurvy cure of the col­ ony was the Native Sarsaparilla vine (Smilax glycophylla), known then as 'Sweet Tea'. Soldiers and convicts Native Sarsaparilla was so intensively harvested as an antiscorbutic that it became trooped into the dark forests to scarce in the forests about Sydney. The vine is easily identified by its leathery leaves gather its sweet-tasting leaves, from with three longitudinal veins. The black berries were not used; they are distasteful but which a bitter-sweet tea was made. appear to be edible. So important was Native Sarsa- 294 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 parilla that the English risked death The "samphire" of Bradley and from hostile Aborigines to obtain it. Worgan is the easiest plant to ident­ But it was probably useless. Native ify. It is Sarcocornia quinqueflora, Sarsaparilla leaves have not been Australian Samphire, a small salt­ tested for vitamins, but the green marsh herb very similar to European berries are known to contain a mere Samphire (5. stricta) which the Eng­ six milligrams of vitamin C per 100 lish used at that time as a pickle. grams. At this rate thousands upon The "parsley" and "celery" of thousands of leaves would be Collins and Bradley are two varieties needed daily to allay just one of Sea Celery (Apium prostratum)­ person's scurvy. And Native Sarsapa­ one a wispy form that grows in shady rilla is not a leafy or abundant vine. swamp margins, the other a broad­ We may wonder why the sur­ leaved form of open dunes. This geons placed so much faith in an un­ herb, common along coasts in tem­ known and probably useless vine. I perate Australia, found its way into believe that the bitter-sweet taste the cooking pots of a number of early provides the clue. In 1788 this odd voyagers. Captain Cook served it up f­ combination of flavours would have to cure scurvy, presumably at Botany z < seemed propitious. Bitterness was Bay, and the French botanist Labil­ Cl then considered medicinal by doc­ lardiere dined upon it in Tasmania in 0 0 tors using bitter Willow and Cin­ 1792. Sea Celery is closely related to V'>� chona barks to treat fevers. (Willow culinary Celery (A. graveolens), and w"' the two are difficult to distinguish � bark later became the source of as­ < pirin, and Cinchona of quinine.) when growing wild. I The "spinach" was almost cer­ Wild Vegetables tainly New Zealand Spinach (Tetra­ Australian Samphire was recognised by The banishment of scurvy was gonia tetragonioides), a plant made the English colonists for its similarity to one priority of the colony; a supply of famous by Joseph Banks, who drew the edible samphire of England. They vegetables another. The first veg­ its attention to the British House of used it successfully as a vegetable. etable farms using imported seeds proved failures, although fertile land was eventually found at Parramatta. In the meantime, parties of convicts were sent into the woods to scour for berries and leaves. The journals of several of the officers list wild veg­ etables of this time. David Collins noted that "wild celery, spinach and parsley fortu­ nately grew in abundance about the settlement: those who were in health, as well as the sick, were very glad to introduce them into their messes". Lieutenant William Bradley listed "wild spinage, samphire & parsley & small quantity of sorel & wild celery, all of which with the leaves of several kinds of bushes were used by us for want of better vegetables which were not yet sup­ plied from the Gardens". Another of­ ficer (anonymous) wrote that "Parsley, balm, a sort of sage, and other European herbs, were found of natural growth". And the surgeon George B. Worgan listed "Balm, Parsley, Samphire, Sorrel, & a kind of Spinnage, but all indifferent of kind". These lists make for fascinating reading, for it is possible to identify most of the plants involved, given a knowledge of the present Sydney flora. Two points become obvious. Most if not all of the plants come from seashores; and the plants were not traditional Aboriginal foods. Sea Celery has juicy leaves and stems tastingslightly of culinary Celery. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 295 Commons in 1 779 when the colonis­ ation of Australia came under con­ sideration. New Zealand Spinach grows on the shores of Australia, New Zealand, China and South Am­ erica, but was first eaten by Cook and Banks in New Zealand, hence its name. Banks considered the leaves to "eat as well as spinage", and he introduced the plant to Europe where it was grown as a summer spinach last century. The "sort of sage" can only be Grey Saltbush (Atriplex cinerea), a seashore shrub with edible leaves of the same colour, size and shape as English Sage (Salvia officinalis), although it is unrelated. Grey Salt­ bush grows in the same places as Australian Samphire, Sea Celery and New Zealand Spinach, and all of these were no doubt collected by the convicts on the same outings. The "balm" and "sorel" I cannot identify with certainty, although the latter is probably a native wood­ sorrel ( Oxa/isspecies}, a small herb of forests and beaches with small sour­ tasting leaves. Captain Phillip's colony had over a thousand hungry mouths to feed and, not surprisingly, stocks of these wild vegetables became scarce. For­ aging parties roamed as far as Botany The Sandpaper Fig grew in the centre of Sydney in the 18th century where its fruits Bay, where they risked violence from were probably used as food by the officers and convicts (and certainly by the Aborigines). the Aborigines. Yet the wild greens, although important, do not seem to are too salty to eat raw. australis). The fig is probably Port have been popular among the offi­ Halophytes thrive on saline soils Jackson Fig (Ficus rubiginosa), or cers, judging by the comments in where they absorb enough salt to possibly Sandpaper Fig (F. coronata), their journals. The convicts were no render them distasteful to most and the "cherries" of Phillip are doubt less fussy, and perhaps over­ plant-eaters. Plants of other habitats probably Native Cherry (Exocarpos indulgent, as suggested by a com­ use other means to deter plant­ cupressiformis) first mentioned ment in Collins' journal: "One poor eaters-they produce hard leaves specifically in The History of New [convict) woman about this time containing distasteful tannins, essen­ South Wales in 1801, and the killed herself by over-loading her tial oils, or poisonous alkaloids. Sub­ Magenta Lillypilly (Syzgium stomach with flour and greens which stances like these are not removed paniculatum), discovered by Joseph she had made into a mess." by boiling and the leaves of forest­ Banks at Botany Bay. Worgan also But to the Aborigines, these growing plants are rarely edible. This mentions "a Shrub bearing a fruit like plants were probably not foods at all. explains why the plants of seashores a Sloe"-probably the Native Plum They do not appear on recent or his­ were so important to the foundling (Podocarpus spinulosus). torical Aboriginal food lists from east­ colony. Common Appleberry or Dump­ ern and southern Australia. Indeed, ling (Billardiera scandens) was cer­ the historian Daniel Mann, in 1811, First Fleet Fruits tainly among the first of the berries to wrote that Botany Bay greens (Grey Wild leaves (and the fruits of be used, for it is mentioned as edible Saltbush) "are esteemed a very good Currant Bush) are the foods most in an English plant book (A Specimen dish by the Europeans, but despised mentioned in the early journals, but of the Botany of New Holland) writ­ by the natives". there are passing references to other ten by James E. Smith in 1793, only I think I know why. The wild bush foods, mainly fruits. Unlike the five years after the colony's greens eaten by the English (except sweet tea and the seashore leaves, founding. perhaps the "sorel") were halo­ these fruits would have been Abor­ phytes-plants that store salt in their iginal foods. Poisonings tissues. This salt leaches out during Unfortunately they are difficult Sampling wild plants is not as boiling, producing a tender and suc­ to identify. Governor Phillip men­ risky as most people think, and mis­ culent vegetable. But traditional tions a "small wild fig, and several haps among the Europeans were Aborigines had no cooking pots and cherries", and surgeon Worgan re­ few. One convict was poisoned by no way to boil foods. They would cords a fig and berries (plus the inner cycad seeds (Macrozamia species), have scorned the halophytes, which shoot of the Cabbage Palm, Livistona which were eaten by Aborigines only

296 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 Governor Phillip was poisoned by the seeds of the Beach Bean, which he boiled up as a vegetable. The well-boiled seeds are, however, safe to eat, and are cooked as porridge in Indonesia, where this beach creeper also grows. outer suburbs, where the food plants of the convicts can still be found. Native Sarsaparilla vines still twine along shaded gullies; Currant Bushes bear fruit on the ridges in autumn; and New Zealand Spinach thrives on coastal cliffs beneath runoff from houses and drains. These plants are our history, no less than Cadman's Cottage or Fort Denison. In their cycles of growth and fruiting a part of our convict past lives on.• References Anonymous, 1789. An Authentic Journalof the Expedition under Commo­ dore Phillip to Botany Bay. Forster: Lon­ don. p. 20. Bradley, W., 1969. A Voyage to New Common Appleberry was eaten during the first years of convict settlement at Sydney. South Wales: The Journal of Lieutenant The small green berries have a sweet apple flavour. William Bradley RN of HMS Sirius. Ure Phillip and White probably Smith: Sydney. after careful preparation. And Collins, D., 1798. An Account of the Governor Phillip and Surgeon Gen­ nibbled on these beans prior to boil­ English Colony in New South Wales. eral John White were poisoned by ing them, for the cooked beans are Cadell & Davies: London. p. 90. the Beach Bean (Canavalia rosea), as known to be edible-Captain Cook Low, T., 1988. Wild Food Plants of White's 1790 journal recalls: ate them at Endeavour River and I Australia. Angus & Robertson: Sydney. "As we proceeded along a sandy have tried them a number of times Mann, D.D., 1811. The Present Pic­ beach, we gathered some beans, without mishap. ture of New South Wales. Booth: Lon­ which grew on a small creeping sub­ Two hundred years have passed don. p. 51. stance not unlike a vine. They were since the founding of Sydney and Phillip, A., 1789. The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay. well tasted, and very similar to the botanically much has changed. Gone are the beaches and forests of the Stockdale: London. English long-pod bean. At the place White, J., 1790. Journal of a Voyage where we halted, we had them inner suburbs; the coasts have be­ to New South Wales.Debrett: London. boiled and we all eat very heartily of come infested with weeds; and Bot­ p. 200. them. Half an hour later, the any Bay is now an industrial Worgan, G.B., 1978.Journal ofa First governor and I were seized with a wasteland. Fleet Surgeon. Library Council of New violent vomiting." But hardy forests still linger in the South Wales: Sydney. pp. 11-12.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 297

By RICHARD BRAITHWAITE and JOHN ESTBERGS CSIRO, DIVISION OF WILDLIFE AND RANGELANDS RESEARCH, DARWIN

ach year a myriad of grassfires follows the profuse growth of E the wet season. The high fre­ quency of fires in the Top End has been implicated in the decline of various animal species. However, the long fire season from April to De­ cember provides a range of burning conditions that creates a wide variety of habitats favoured by different species, particularly sedentary ani­ mals like small skinks. Eighty-five per cent of woodland in Kakadu National Park is burnt an­ nually while the open forest is most commonly burnt in two out of three years (48 per cent). These habitats together occupy 60 per cent of the park. Other less flammable habitats like wet forest, monsoon forest, ri­ parian woodland, �etland and rocky escarpment experience a substan­ spectacularly hawk around the cur­ Local Aboriginal people believe tially lower frequency of fires, a situ­ tain of flame preying on grasshop­ the Black Kite actually sets fires by ation more similar to that of southern pers, cockroaches and other small carrying burning sticks from fires to Australia. It is the high-frequency fire fleeing animals. They hunt so close new locations and dropping them regimes of the open forest and to the flame that younger, inexperi­ into dry grass and setting it alight. woodland that provide many special enced individuals are sometimes While we have seen birds occasion­ but very temporary habitats for mo­ singed as they pursue prey. The dark ally pick up small smouldering sticks, bile species of birds. The fires are so smoke of a fast-moving fire is visible they usually quickly drop them. They common for so much of the year that on the horizon, perhaps 20 kilo­ are likely to have accidentally picked the creation of new habitat is occur­ metres away. As in other parts of the up sticks while stooping for small ring almost continuously. world's tropics, large numbers of fleeing prey close to the fire. Most ephemeral of these habi­ Black Kites aggregate around fires, Other raptors, including Black­ tats is the fire itself. Brown and Black often travelling long distances. They shouldered Kites (£/anus notatus), Falcons (Falco berigora and F. sub­ roost in the trees amid the Australian Kestrels (Falco cen­ niger) perch in trees immediately in still-smouldering vegetation. The chroides), Black-breasted Buzzards front of the fire and hunt the grass­ next morning, they may search for (Hamirostra me/anosternon) and hoppers, lizards and small mammals carrion if the fire has been severe, Spotted Harriers ( Circus assimilis), that try to escape it. Whistling Kites rejoin the fire if it still has a strongly attend fires but are much less com­ (Haliastur sphenurus), and particu­ burning front, or soar the thermals mon. Torresian Crows (Corvus orru) larly Black Kites (Milvus migrans), and search for a new fire. and Australian Magpie-larks ( Graf- USE OF FIRE AND SHORT TERM RECOVERY ST AGES BY BIRDS

w BIRD SPECIES ..: HOT i.: ASH COLD BLACK SUCKERS GRASS Black Kite Woodswallows ------Tree Martin ] •._ Pied Butcherbird - Grey Butcherbird Blue-winged Kookaburra Red-backed Kingfisher ------Forest Kingfisher Torresian Crow -

Whistling Kite Black Falcon -----�------Brown Falcon J

Owls Nightjars ------Australian Magpie-lark J Straw-necked Ibis J ------· Red-tailed ------Black Cockatoo J Partridge Pigeon J

Little Corella 1 Northern Rosella ------Galah Quails ] 1-3 mins 1-3 days 1-3 weeks 3-4 weeks 4 weeks and over APPROXIMATE TIME SINCE ARRIVAL OF FIRE Jina cyanoleuca) can be seen fora­ Brown Falcons, owls and nightjars ging in the burnt area immediately have been observed at times, utilis­ behind thP fire front. Tree Martins ing these stages by foraging on vul­ ( Hirundo nigricans), Black-faced nerable invertebrates and small Woodswdllows (Artamus cinereus) vertebrates. and Little Woodswallows (A. minor) Red-tailed Black Cockatoos are sometimes seen foraging at can­ ( Calyptorhynchus magnificus) and opy height above the fire, while Partridge Pigeons (Petrophassa swifts forage much higher again. All smithir) are also observed in these these aerial-foraging species are pre­ early post-fire days. However, they sumably feeding on fleeing insects are the first of the animals that feed that have been caught in updrafts on the vegetation of the changing from the fire. This only happens with habitat. They forage on seeds that are very hot fires, which occur on sites more easily detected or have fallen with dense annual Sorghum grass to the ground as a result of the fire. under dry and windy conditions, Many of the birds associated usually in the mid to late dry season. with fires and the immediate post­ The raptors often remain in the fire recovery are black, pied, or have vicinity after the fire has passed, some red plumage. This has lead to feeding on the bodies of animals fire-related myths in many indigen­ killed or made vulnerable by the fire. ous cultures, including those of Animals are mainly killed by very hot many parts of Australia. In such fires such as frequently occur during myths, individual species were often August to October. However, many originally white and achieved black, Lizard-eaters, such as this Blue-winged prey species are temporarily nar­ pied or red colouration in the pro­ Kookaburra, utilise burnt areas in cotised by the enhanced carbon cess of stealing fire from some deity preference to unburnt areas of their ter­ monoxide and carbon dioxide and or in fiery punishment for such ac­ ritories for catching prey. low oxygen levels, and most species tions. Whatever the origins, these are disoriented by the changes to the colourations offer some camouflage habitat. The changed appearance for ground-foraging birds. and odour of habitat, plus new distri­ However, the black, white and V> bution of resources and dangers, red colours of the landscape disap­ LU ....J greatly increase the vulnerability of pear as the days pass. In the weeks 0 a, after the fire, resprouting of the veg­ prey species. Other predatory ""LU species exploit the two to three days etation progressively occurs-first ., I- of the 'hot ash' phase and the sub­ the palms and cycads, then the � sequent two weeks of the 'cold woody dicots such as eucalypts, and A road sign south of Darwin calls forpro­ black' phase after the smouldering finally grasses and herbs. The speed tection of the Frill-necked Lizard against has stopped but before vegetative and degree to which this occurs de­ fires. sprouting has begun. pend on the reserves of these peren­ Grey and Pied Butcherbirds nial plants, the available soil mois­ ( Cracticus torquatus and C. nig­ ture and immediate atmospheric rogularis), Straw-necked Ibis moisture. Thus this vegetative regen­ (Threskiornis spinicollis), Black­ eration will usually be slowest in faced Cuckoo-shrikes (Coracina August to October, the period after novaehollandiae), Australian Mag­ the annual drying out of the soil and pie-larks, Torresian Cr ows, Black and vegetation, but before the early rains

Cryptoblepharus plagiocephalus skinks killed during a fire are tasty morsels for a range of post-fire scavengers.

of the next wet season. However, some sites have moisture at any time because they receive water from LU deep springs and seeps. The 'green 0.. pick' that follows fires is highly nu­ V>() . ::) tritious, sometimes with four times < the protein content of other avail­ ""o' ""LU able vegetation at that time of year. A LU"" number of bird species utilise this LL ....J phase in a variety of ways . ::) � While the main beneficiaries of i. the tender perennial grass shoots are < LU mammals such as Antilopine Kanga­ Agile wallabies utilise the highly nutritious 'green pick' that grows after a fire. roos (Macropus antilopinus) and

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 301 The Cave of Fire: An Aboriginal Myth The eagle, Wildu, furious with his nephews, soon made plans for revenge. From the summit of a high mountain, Wildu could see the birds and animals dancing to celebrate his death. The crow and the magpie stood out from the grey-coated animals, be­ cause, in those early days, both of those birds had glossy­ white plumage. Now Wildu, knowing of a cave in a group of boulders not far from the corroboree ground, estimated that a sud­ den squall of rain would drive all the performers into the cave for shelter. So the eagle asked his wives, the kestrels, to go into the air again and flap their wings, this time to draw Little Woodswal/ows often forage at canopy height above a fire. Here they are en­ up a heavy storm of rain from gaged in an early morning preening session. the south. Agile Wallabies (M. agilis), birds also larks, Red-backed Kingfishers and a Everything happened as benefit. Straw-necked Ibis come in few Whistling Kites) migrate deep Wildu had planned. When again and feed on invertebrates that into the arid lands to the south where the rain started to pour down, have responded to the vegetative fires continue to occur. However, the performers rushed to the changes. The granivorous fires are much less frequent in the cave. The animals went in species-Little Corellas (Cacatua arid lands and most foraging by these first, then the magpie, and fi­ sanguinea), orthern Rosellas migrants is not associated with fires nally the crow, their bodies (Platycercus venustus), Galahs (C. but with the more open ground veg­ almost blocking the entrance. roseicapilla) and quails-can be etation and scavenging opportun­ This suited the purpose of the seen feeding on the ground during ities around waterholes. During the eagle very well. Quickly, he this regenerative phase. Lizard- wet season, the ground vegetation and his wives covered the eating species like the Blue-winged for some species is too dense in the opening with a huge pile of Kookaburra (Dace/a leachii), Top End. grass and dead branches, and Red-backed Kingfisher (Halcyon In the wet-dry tropics, the pro­ set them on fire. pyrrhopygia), Forest Kingfisher (H. vision of fires by national park man­ When the fire died away, macleayit) and Torresian Crow are agement throughout the fire season it was found that the generally sedentary with established from April to December would en­ wallabies, bandicoots and territories. However, they too utilise hance the abundance of the species other creatures had escaped burnt areas in preference to unburnt that utilise the fires and the phases in unmarked. But the crow and parts of their territories because of the short-term regeneration of the the magpie were not so fortu­ the greater accessibility of their lizard vegetation as the surviving individ­ nate; the glossy plumage of prey. ual plants resprout. The utilisation of the crow, who was nearest to Throughout the couple of these brief phases of minutes, days the fire, was scorched com­ months after a fire, the accessibility and weeks contrasts with that of the pletely black, while that of the and quality of the food resources for long-term successional changes of magpie, being further from a range of bird species are enhanced. years following a fire in temperate or the fire, was scorched only in Part of the attraction of these re- arid Australia. In the non-tropical parts. cently burnt areas is undoubtedly areas, it is usual for a series of animal And, the aborigines ex­ the security from mammalian and species to sequentially occupy the plain, that is the reason why all reptilian predators for these ground habitats serially created by the slowly the crows are black, and the birds feeding in the open burnt regenerating vegetation over many magpies black and white. ground layer. It is clear that a series of years. In contrast, it is only possible From The Dawn of Time by fires throughout the fire season is for highly mobile species in a high­ Ainslie Roberts and Charles P. utilised by these bird species. During frequency fire regime, as is corn­ Mountford, Rigby, Adelaide, the wet season, a number of the monly found in the wet-dry tropics, 1969, p.28. species (Black Kites, Black and to specialise on the ephemeral set of Brown Falcons, Australian Magpie- phases we describe.• 302 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 zI.U

V'>2 0

lJ:s � < ....,:::; A 3: �-BE STORY By WILLIAM GLADSTONE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

rown of Thorns Starfish structural adaptations. They invest (Acanthaster planci) have even more energy in improving their plagued parts of the Great Bar­ offsprings' chances of survival, as a Crier Reef for many years. For this way of safeguarding their own gen­ reason, these multi-armed and spiny etic record in evolutionary history. starfish, previously known only by Many species lay eggs in carefully echinoderm taxonomists, have be­ prepared nests and stand guard until come part of public and scientific the young hatch (this form of parental consciousness in Australia. Yet, in care is most elaborate among fishes spite of the publicity and some re­ that incubate the eggs in their mouth cent research, much of their natural or inside a pouch on the male's history is still unknown. I would like belly). Others disperse huge num­ to share a unique observation of the bers of eggs into currents, which spawning behaviour of the Crown of carry them away from the reefs to the Thorns in the hope of solving one open sea where there are relatively more mystery about this curious fewer predators; here they grow, re­ animal. turning sometime later to spend their Coral reefs are threatening en­ adult life on the reef. vironments. Predators are abundant, Crown of Thorns have also ranging from passive waiting corals, adapted to the threat of predation to worms with mucous nets, to the and the need to ensure the survival of most active piscivores (fish-eaters). the greatest number of offspring. A The reef's inhabitants spend much of Crown of Thorns needs four to six their time avoiding and deterring hours to evert its stomach over a predators through behavioural and coral and digest the living polyps; it is

Photo at left shows a close-up of Crown of Thorn's primary aboral spines at the mo­ ment of initial sperm release. As soon as sperm is released (right), the primary aboral spines bend. The white streaks are sperm.

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 303 u.J z 0 I­ V) :sa (.J <� __,::::; � The orange areas at the tips of the pri­ mary aboral spines are the sites for manufactureof a potent toxin. immobile and exposed for all of this time. An impressive armour of poisonous spines, together with noc­ turnal activity, reduce the chances of predation. The entire body of a Crown of Thorns is covered by up to 8,000 spines. The spines on the upper surface of the body are known as primary aboral spines and are the most impressive: they grow to almost 30 millimetres and taper to a triangu­ lar spear-like tip. The skin covering

them produces a potent toxin. The

AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 305 resulted in widespread erosion of the denuded pastures. This example of mismanagement and lack of under­ standing is one among many that has led to the degeneration of much of Australia's landscape. We now need a concerted effort by both individ­ uals and governments to redress some of the imbalance that has ac­ cumulated through years of abuse THE and neglect. In this quest to right past wrongs, we must beware of over-reaction. It NURSERYMAN'S is, for example, unrealistic to suggest that all grazing should be stopped on our rangelands. What we must do is to balance our demands for ROLE IN rangeland products with our desire to restore ecosystems. Presumably, Aborigines managed these same GREENING rangelands in a manner that supplied both the resources they required and a landscape that supported their AUSTRALIA chosen way of life. We can do the same. Individuals must take up this challenge, discarding apathy and By PETER BINDON complacency. We cannot leave the WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM important task of greening Australia to a handful of enthusiastic organis­ ations, or to the government. Just as humans can cause mass­ ive detrimental environmental change, so too can they be respon­ oday approximately 28 mil­ of great interest, because each sible for beneficial alterations in the " lion hectares of woodland change to the environment generally natural world. Urban dwellers can communities in eastern Aus­ has a corresponding human re­ make radical changes to their im­ traliaT are shrub infested to varying sponse, and the study of these mediate environment, just as readily degrees. The shrub species are en­ human reactions excites my atten­ as those who enjoy spacious country demic and occur within their natural tion. living. Home gardeners collectively range." In recent Earth history we find plant hundreds of thousands of that humans, far from being innocent plants each year. Some individuals In a continent not noted for bril­ bystanders during environmental have even achieved this acting liant greenery but more for its turmoil, have often been the in­ alone: in a few decades of hard work, browns, yellows, olive greens and a itiators of change. In eastern Aus­ Elzeard Bouffier, living in a barren formidable red heart, and where tralia, both the so-called original part of south-eastern France, man­ every tree, every shrub and each grassy woodlands and the shrub lands aged single-handedly to re-establish blade of grass is precious, what could now developing, are products of forests in a valley previously devas­ have prompted this statement from a human enterprise. Archaeological tated by charcoal burners. CSIRO scientist?' How is it that, at a evidence reveals that by about But what to plant, and where? time when we are being encouraged 50,000 years ago Aborigines were Plant richly, using a wide range of to green Australia with massive tree burning shrublands to encourage the plants that suit your location, and if plantings, endemic shrubs occurring growth of grasses. With the arrival of you wish, a blend of natives and within their natural range can, some­ white pastoralists in the same areas, exotics. Read something about the what emotively, be considered an in­ the burning was discontinued. Abor­ plants you choose, to avoid produc­ festation, as if they were unwanted iginal land management ceased and ing a chaotic landscape of many weeds? Ironically, a recent and the non-burn policies designed to water-hungry, exotic plants in inap­ unusually rapid change has occurred protect the introduced stock encour­ propriate locations. With regard to in the floral composition of some aged the re-establishment of un­ native plants, it is important to iden­ grassy woodlands, causing them to wanted shrubs to the detriment of tify the origin of each specific clone; revert to shrublands. As an archaeol­ the desired grasses. Meanwhile, we now realise that higher survival ogist, I find these ecological changes overstocking and poor management rates occur with seedlings raised 306 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 from seed collected in the area being unimaginative application of plants. growing shelter, they are decorative replanted. This is most important for Disregarding the major difference and are relatively easy to remove. In ecosystem renewal in metropolitan between re-building an ecosystem fact they are an ideal group to use areas where food cycles of insects, and simplistic tree-planting, some­ while other slower-growing genera reptiles, birds and mammals have one has unloaded a heap of gum establish beneath their cover. The been interrupted by a complete lack trees and a few shrubs, planted them local spokesman who refused to con­ of proper food plant species. in a regimented pattern, and installed sider their use on the grounds that Public awareness of appropriate they would all die in ten years, had uses for specific plants is still at a low completely misunderstood the role level. I suspect that most gardeners that these plants can play in re­ obtain information about plants "terminally-ignorant establishing ecosystems. The very solely from the printed labels at­ local government reason for using them had eluded tached to them in the nursery. With a those who should have been provid­ few exceptions, there is little more bodies... persist in ing examples of efficient yet aes­ information available in nurseries planting forest giants thetic plant-use for the rest of the about plants you buy and, proudly beneath power lines, in community. and expectantly, take to your little unsightly pruning for the Wouldn't it be nice to have a lot patcJ:1. There must be thousands of of understanding, some environ­ disillusioned gardeners around sake of pruning, and in mental conscience, and a little im­ whose plants have suffered con­ removing nutrient-rich agination blended with the prin­ tinued failure through too liqle leaf litter." ciples of good landscaping, and the knowledge. At the Perth Garden results applied to our public areas? Week in March 1987, public re­ We need to consider the re­ sponse to various talks indicated that establishment of whole plant sys­ there is a genuine thirst for know­ trickle irrigation. In many countries tems rather than the plant-sprinkle ledge about planting and maintaining this so-called wasteland is too concept so often seen in such places. Australian native flora in suburban precious to treat in such a manner. Rather than just considering this, let's gardens. There are many sources of Food crops would take the place of act on it.• free literature that nurserymen could these native plantings. Fortunately, 1 Hodgkinson, K.C., 1982. Fire Ecology or' Shrub­ obtain and distribute, enhancing our economy is not yet in such dire infested Arid Lands. In Land Resources Manage­ their own images and, at the same straits, and we can afford the luxury ment, Divisional Report from the CS/RO. Division time, disseminating worthwhile and of having decorative species in place of Land Management: Wembly, WA. relevant information. Some local of those with economic use. How­ shires and State government depart­ ever, it is time that we made these ments have suitable material on sub­ areas living corridors for the move­ urban gardening, conserving water in ment of birds and insects by planting the garden and the like, as do Com­ a rich mixture of native plants of all monwealth agencies and non­ types and sizes, which will look at­ government organisations such as tractive, provide food for native Greening Australia. species and screen zones of devel­ Lists of suitable species, culti­ opment. Sadly, after 200 years of liv­ vation notes and suggestions for ing with our native flora, there is still planning small domestic landscapes little understanding by Australians, will all assist the home gardener's ef­ particularly by public agencies,of the forts to green Australia and will potential of our floral resources. All ultimately filter through to our too often it is just their suitability as terminally-ignorant local govern­ landscaping subjects or their use as ment bodies, which persist in plant­ land-stabilising and reclamation ing forest giants beneath power lines, agents that is recognised. There is in unsightly pruning for the sake of almost no recognition of the food re­ pruning, and in removing nutrient­ sources, nor the medicinal potential, rich leaf litter. locked within our native flora. We can make use of those scarce While discussing the decorative lands that, having sufficient natural and practical aspects of planting a rainfall, are capable of growing trees. shelter-belt to surround a northern But how can we achieve this? town in Western Australia, horrified Only recently have we begun to opposition was encountered when it plant trees and shrubs along highway was suggested that acaciasbe used in edges, freeway median strips, railway the initial plantings. Now, acacias easements, parks and other strips of have a short but vigorous life. They public land. But what we see is just an fix nitrogen in the soil, provide quick- AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 307

ROBYN WILLIAMS

Our Greatest Mistake? farmed here for 50 years" I was told in northern New South Wales. "But he hasn't. He's just farmed for one Dis­ year, 50 times!" Even after three or aredcover M. Diamond, writing in 19 years, and that most of these four years of drought, Warwick will J magazine (May 1987) put it people had died as a result of malnu­ hang on, in case there's one good most starkly: "The worst mistake trition and hard labour. year. But these hard times can lead to in the history of the human race", he One can perhaps forgive our greater pressure on the land in a vain railed, "in many ways a catastrophe ancient ancestors for such alleged attempt to make economic returns. from which we have never re­ foolishness. Afterall, how were they Now a combination of droughts covered." to know? It was an experiment. They and economic disaster have finally And what was this historic blun­ were trying to feed themselves more removed many families from the der? Why, agriculture! "With efficiently. Did they realise that the properties that can no longer pay. agriculture came the gross social and penalties could be so severe? Perhaps we should take this histori­ sexual inequality, the disease and Our own misuse of agriculture, cal accident, brought about by the despotism, that curse our on the other hand, is not forgiveable. crash in commodity prices, to think existence." We are not attempting to provide for again about our own agricultural Jared Diamond is professor of the world's starving people. There is, practice. Scientists such as Dr Dean physiology at the University of in fact, a vast oversupply of things to Graetz of the CSIRO have pleaded California Medical School, Los An­ eat. The European Economic Com­ for that. Over the past 200 years geles. And he's not the only scientist munity last year produced an excess there has been a holocaust spreading to see agriculture as a blight. of agricultural products worth across the Australian landscape. Without agriculture, humans had $US10.8 billion! It was either stored Salt is poisoning areas where lives that were by no means as 'nasty, or dumped. The cost of running the once the water was sweet. (In West­ brutish and short' as legend would EEC's refrigerators alone, to store the ern Australia the water from the Swan have it. There was, in many places, a oversupply of dairy produce before it River could, last century, be used for rich variety of foods. By taking what is thrown down oldper mineshafts,hour! boilers, so soft was it. Now it's so salty was available, or even using 'slash comes to $US63,000 it practically comes out of the tap in and burn techniques', the natural en­ Subsidies to the farmers of lumps.) Salinity is increased by clear­ vironment was little affected and Europe, the United States and Japan ing trees, and also intensive irri­ could recover quickly from people's are creating a monstrous imbalance gation. The water table rises as a exploitation. There was less depen­ in the food supply. Farmers in poor consequence, bringing up salt de­ dence on fixed territories and there­ countries are unable to get a fair price posited millions of years ago in sea fore less inclination to defend defi­ for their wares and there is a need to floors now submerged. nite borders. Warfare, accordingly, grow cash crops, rather than food Clearing combined with culti­ was minimal. As people moved crops, to service foreign debts. The vation also removes plants that bind about in small bands, the tasks had to economies of those countries are in the soil. This can then be washed or be shared: there was less rigid div­ tatters. Meanwhile, where short­ blown away. Remember that awful ision of labour between men and term profit can be gained, new fields cloud of dust that covered the whole women. But when monocultures are being created by smashing down of the Melbourne sky earlier this dec­ such as wheat and potatoes were forests. This land may last a few ade? That was once topsoil. And as a favoured, there was social stratifi­ seasons before erosion, salination, substantial proportion of Australia cation, populations increased, leaching or breakdown of soil struc­ has a very thin layer of topsoil, we ground was cleared more and more ture makes it useless. can't afford to lose it through poor for fields, and life became precari­ In Australia we have wrecked farm management. ous. If the single crop failed, the vast regions by poor farming Thus in Australia we are particu­ people were in terrible trouble. methods. No less a figure than Mal­ larly vulnerable. And so too are our Pests, which were once low in num­ colm Fraser, once prime-minister of neighbours in the tropics-in Africa bers in wild circumstances, became Australia and himself a grazier, told and in the Amazon-whereknowthe clearing superabundant as their potential vic­ me that misuse of the land is the continues apace. While we tims (our crops) became almost un­ single most important threat to this causes of various forms of land degra­ limited in supply. nation's environment. Sir Mark dation and have a good understand­ People also became less healthy. Oliphant, one of our greatest scien­ ing of the means of preventingwill them, Professor Diamond cites a report by tists, has said the same. I have been to the missing factor is the to im­ Dr George Armelagos of the Univer­ parts of Australia that once sup­ plement the appropriate manage­ sity of Massachusetts, who com­ ported strong stands of vegetation ment methods. If we are not to in­ pared human skeletal remains from and, within them, huge varieties of dulge in humanity's 'Second the United States before and after the fauna. Now the land is as flat and hard Greatest Mistake' the destruction advent of intensive maize farming atc\ as a city car park. must stop. Afterall, it is not for food. It around ADl 150. He concluded th t And still too many of our farmers is for something much more ephem­ life expectancy decreased from 26 to won't learn. "Warwick reckons he's eral and tawdry: money.•

312 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 POSTER Lemuroid Ringtail Possum

he Lemuroid Ringtail Possum, Hemibelideus lemuroides, is T one of three unique ringtails liv­ ing in the rainforests of northern Queensland. The Lemuroid, mean­ ing lemur-like, is the only member of its genus and was named because of its resemblance to one of the Malagasyan true lemurs. It lives in the high canopy where it leaps from tree to tree: from the end of one branch to the outermost leaves and twigs of the next. It is the crashing sound of their landing, limbs outspread, that signals the beginning of the night's activities. It has a rudimentary gliding mem­ brane so it is no surprise that its closest relative is the Greater Glider, a relationship reinforced by the possums'brilliant yellow eyeshine in a spotlight. Diet of the lemuroids consists of about 90 per cent leaves, with the leaves of the laurels and the green fruit of the Native Sarsaparilla being favourite food items. Lemuroids live in pairs. One young a year is born and it remains with the parents until the next young emerges from the pouch between October and April. When disturbed at night they often huddle together in a tight ball of brown fur with eyes, ears and tails positioned in the most unlikely place, like a Picasso painting of the treetops. The family nucleus shares a den and up to eight individ­ uals may congregate in a favoured feeding tree. On the crests of the ranges it attains densities three or four times that of other ringtails, but is also the most sensitive to disturb­ ance of its habitat. Its reliance on tree holes for dens, a diet that tends to favour trees of the mature forest, and its preference for the high can­ opy may make it more vulnerable to f­z < large-scale forest disturbance, and it V) disappears entirely from rainforest z zu.J patches less than about 100 hectares Cl in size. �u.J Two discrete populations occur, c,:: Clz the largest is restricted to elevations < above 450 metres between Ingham and Cairns, and the smaller above populations. On the Carbine Table­ had a long history of isolation on the 1,000 metres on the Carbine Table­ land, where the animal shown here summit of the Mt Carbine Table­ land west of Mossman. They have was photographed, the proportion of lands. This unique collection of been separated, probably for thou­ whites is very high, possibly as a re­ plants and animals is of inestimable sands of years, by a SO-kilometre low sult of genetic drift throughlong iso­ value that could be threatened by section of the coastal range. Fur lation. It is symbolic ofa group of ani­ the intrusive disturbance of log­ colour is generally a greyish brown mals and plants, which includessev­ ging.• with a rusty white variety in both eral frogs and a blue crayfish, that has -John Winter AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 313 BOOK REVIEWS Sea, Shore, Mangroves and More

Raymond outlines the re­ larvae?" Unwilling to make excursion into the book, cent history of Crown of unqualified predictions, one will come to realise the Thorns' outbreaks world­ and with few research re­ significance and appropri­ wide, and the responses of sults to draw upon, most of ateness of this brief title. governments and scientists. the defence sound uncon­ Niles Eldredge, co-author In particular, Raymond cerned and unconvincing. of the theory of punctuated compares the fortunes of Raymond might have in­ equilibria, puts forward in two early protagonists on tended this to draw atten­ this book a synthesis of his both sides of the Pacific: Dr tion to the lack of research and others' ideas on the Robert Endean (Australia) results but his own stance evolution of life from 3.5 and Dr Richard Chesher would appear less biased if billion years ago to the Starfish Wars (USA). Both predicted the equal pressure had been present. Robert Raymond. ultimate destruction of applied on both sides of the It is refreshing to see a MacMillan, Melbourne, coral reefs if the starfish courtroom. In particular, work of this type written by 1986, xii+ 21Bpp. $24.95. were not contained. The the Great Barrier Reef Mar­ an invertebrate palaeontol­ governments of both ine Park Authority is ogist, since such a large "The Crown of Thorns is countries responded severely dealt with. proportion of life's history not destroying the reef", differently to their pleas but Raymond supports involves invertebrates, announced the Premier of both scientists, particularly Endean's prediction that which today still make up Queensland, Joh Bjelke Endean, were widely criti­ the Crown of Thorns is a by far the biggest slice of Petersen, to a crowded cised on their alarmist serious threat to the reef that cake called life. Even press conference in Sep­ stances by the marine sci­ and should be stopped; he so he does not exclude ver­ tember 1969. The Premier ence community. Endean's is undecided about the tebrates, since without was commenting on Dr role is followed throughout causes of theoutbreaks. His them the story would be far Robert Endean's Crown of the book. concern sounds more pol­ from complete, and he Thorns Starfish report, Acts One to Three are a itical than sincere in the face tackles them more than which had been prepared very readable and generally of his final words that only adequately. for the Queensland Gov­ objective synthesis of a reefs of "particular value or Eldredge, not unexpec­ ernment and which failed to mass of historical and bio­ interest" shou Id be pro­ tedly, emphasises the epi­ be released for almost 18 logical data. Act Four of tected, and "... the fate of sodic nature of evolution months (the report took two Starfish Wars is largely a the Great Barrier Reef is too and the overwhelming im­ years to prepare and con­ transcript of the supporting important to be left to the portance of extinction in cluded that the starfish was television documentary and scientists". Starfish Wars is a producing the opportun­ a serious threat to the Great is Raymond's account of the very interesting book. Rec­ ities for the rapid bursts of Barrier Reef). In trying to current situation. Raymond ommended. expansion and re­ make this distancing stance reports it like a courtroom -William Gladstone adaptation that are the es­ seem credible, the Premier drama with 'prosecution' sence of evolution. He referred to additional ex­ (Endean and some tourist justifiably claims that it is pert advice he had operators) and 'defence' only through extinction received. His source was a (many of Australia's tropical that the world has reached bizarre, back-room briefing marine scientists and ad­ where it is today. just one hour before the ministrators). On the whole the book is press conference where, Raymond, however, is an easy-to-read, lucid ac­ along with some of his min­ less than an unbiased arbi­ count of Earth's history. isters, he had been re­ ter. His questions to Eldredge gets his point assured by underwater film­ the prosecution are across smoothly but ap­ maker Ben Cropp that "the undemanding and often pears in some instances to starfish is probably helping rhetorical, for example assume the reader has rather than hindering the "What do you think can be some prior knowledge of growth of corals ... the done now, if anything? the subject. Crown ofThorns prunes the ...Where is this going to Life Pulse. Episodes The book is well pre­ staghorn to give it a firmer leave Australia in the eyes of from the Story of the sented in hard cover, with a foundation". the rest of the world?" Fossil Record glossary and index. It is Robert Raymond's Star­ Raymond demands more Niles Eldredge. Facts on simply illustrated in black fish Wars chronicles this in­ than opinions from the de­ File Publications, 1987, and white with photo­ cident and many others in fence, for example 246 pp. $US19.95 (approx. graphs and line drawings. what is, for two thirds of its "... what are the figures for $A35.00). The most obvious and length, a fascinating ac­ the number of reefs that glaring mistake occurs with count of the history of the have been damaged by the The title Life Pulse must the transposed captions for Crown of Thorns' contro­ starfish? ... What about the at first have the reader figures 6 and 7, as well as versy. In three acts effects of predators on the puzzled but, after a short the accompanying photos

314 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 being incorrectly oriented. value as places to live and why we cannot afford to Although not a mistake that play, to practise sacrifice their long-term would be noticed by the mariculture or to dispose of benefits for short-term layman, it is an embarrass­ trash, garbage and indus­ gains, you must read this ing one for the author, an trial wastes. book. It is the most com­ invertebrate palaeontolo­ Australia is rich in man­ prehensive account of the gist. groves. Thirty species of ecology and biology of Apart from numerous ty­ trees and shrubs, including mangroves available. pographical errors, little a palm, grow as mangroves Although the authors use fault can be found with the along the Australian coast. information from other text. It is written for a The greatest number of continents where neces­ worldwide audience but, species occur in the tropics sary, emphasis has been understandably, has a slight Ecology of Mangroves but one species, the Grey placed on Australian North American bias. Being Mangrove (A vicennia ma­ studies. The book is also Patricia Hutchings and an Australian geologist rina), occurs around the en­ well written and easy to Peter Saenger. University there is just one point in the tire coastline. With nearly read in leisurely moments. of Queensland Press, St text about which I must 1.2 million hectares of My copy has already been Lucia, 1987, 388 pp. take the author to task. mangroves, Australia is pirated for use in at least $34.95. Eldredge, in his chapter third only to Brazil and one college essay and I im­ "Life in Palaeozoic Seas", Mangroves are among Indonesia in the extent of agine this book will be used claims that hardly a trace of the world's most pro­ its mangrove forests. by students throughout limestone is found in the ductive but least under­ Australia's wealth of man­ Australia for years to Upper Silurian and Lower stood and appreciated groves is explained by its come. Devonian rocks of ecosystems. Mangroves, warm climate, extensive The Ecology of Man­ Gondwana. He claims this and the salt marshes and northern estuaries, and by groves is not of restricted is because the Gondwanan sea grass beds that are often its historical position as part interest. As a review of continent, during these associated with them, pro­ of the centre of world man­ mangrove ecology and bi­ times, was not within the vide a major part of the en­ grove evolution. ology, it will be useful for tropical zone. Yet there are ergy used by other estuar­ Of all countries with ex­ students and mangrove bi­ significant Upper Silurian­ ine and near-shore organ­ tensive mangrove forests, ologists throughout the Lower Devonian deposits isms for growth and repro­ Australia is the least popu­ world. As a source of infor­ of limestone, packed with duction. This is energy that lated. As is the case with mation, vital to the battle to corals and other reef­ humans ultimately harvest Australia's rainforests, this protect and manage man­ forming invertebrates, in as fish, oysters, crabs and places a special responsi­ grove and estuarine eastern Australia. The most prawns. The relationships bility on Australians. Aus­ ecosystems, it will be a recent palaeogeographic between plant and animal, tralia is a wealthy country. source book for reconstructions show that a mangrove and human are With its well-educated conservationists, fisheries large part of the present well established and pro­ population and technical biologists and concerned Australian continent was in vide a sound base on which expertise and scientific town planners wherever the tropical zone at that to manage and conserve knowledge, Australia is one governments or devel­ time. Even the map at the estuarine ecosystems. Yet place where it should be opers forget their responsi­ beginning of the chapter human societies persist in possible to protect, con­ bilities to the future and shows eastern Australia ignoring or even rejecting serve and manage man­ base their decisions on well within the tropics. these links. The problem is groves for the long-term short-term gain. Pat However, this point should that mangrove forests oc­ benefit of society. Yet there Hutchings and Peter not detract from the overall cupy some very valuable or is little evidence that we are Saenger are tobe congratu­ reliability of .the book. potentially valuable real es­ prepared to do this. Few lated for a superb effort. Finally, this book is in­ tate. Worldwide they are mangroves are included in I wish I could be so com­ deed a welcome addition under threat to provide national parks or marine re­ plimentary to the Univer­ to the ever-increasing col­ quick profits or simply liv­ serves and large areas, par­ sity of Queensland Press. lection of literature on fos­ ing space for a rapidly ticularly in southern Aus­ For a book of this impor­ sils and the evolution of growing and voracious tralia, have already been tance, it has been cheaply life. I believe the reader will human population. cleared or otherwise van­ produced yet highly not be disappointed with Mangroves are tidal for­ dalised by an uncaring bu­ priced. I have no quarrel this book and, having read ests. They grow in estuaries reaucracy. Other large with the use of inexpensive it, will have a far greater or on sheltered coasts areas are under threat in paper and bindings, if the understanding of evolution where they are flooded the interest of jobs and objective is to place a book and palaeontology. At daily by tides and protected profits. within reach of students $35.00 it is moderately from strong currents, wind To understand the im­ and others traditionally priced. and waves. These are the portance of mangrove short of the 'hard and -Robert Jones very places that people ecosystems and to know readies', but there is noex- AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 315 cuse for poor quality and duction, the first important none of the indigenous widely acknowledged as high prices. Australian chapter discusses the dis­ ones. The consequence of the 'front-runner' on such publishers need to under­ tribution of shorebirds in this is that "it is notpossible matters. The plates in stand that their responsi­ Australia, giving emphasis to apply the internationally Shorebirds in Australia fall bility goes beyond printing to the three major regions accepted criterion of a far short of the exacting and profits. They have a re­ in which waders regularly wetland being of inter­ standards of those in sponsibility to make infor­ occur: the north-western national significance if it Hayman et al. There are, for mation available at a cost coast between Broome and holds more than one per example, no illustrations of that people can afford. My Port Hedland; the coast of cent of the population of a birds in flight. only hope is that people north-eastern Arnhem species in a migratory My other quibble is that will look beyond the pres­ Land and the Gulf of 'flyway' or biogeographical more emphasis should entation of The Ecology of Carpentaria; and the south­ region". have been put on the Mangroves and read its eastern coast and lakes be­ The species accounts are waders of the major areas word and adopt its mess­ tween Eyre Peninsula and embellished with 16 full­ studied during the survey. age. These are worth the Corner Inlet. It is suggested page colour plates, but the More comprehensive de­ cost. that about two million method used to caption scriptions of these habitats -Harry Recher waders migrate to Australia them is, to saythe least, irri­ and the ways they are used from their arctic breeding tating. In addition several by shorebirds would surely Shorebirds in grounds. This chapter also species are inexplicably have been possible and of Australia includes useful general de­ consigned to mono­ lasting value. Unfortun­ Text by Brett A. Lane, scriptions of coastal and in­ chrome. This niggardly de­ ately, this topic is given illustrations by Jeff N. land shorebird habitats and cision was presumably dic­ short shrift in a 13-page Davies. Nelson Publishers, the influence on them of tated by the publishers for chapter, mostly consisting Melbourne, 1987, 187 pp. factors such as wave action, there can be no good of tables. Finally, there is a $49.95. climate, tides, rainfall and reason to ostracise in this chapter which reviews the like. There follows an manner the seven species some of the problems con­ This book is based on re­ excellent short chapter on concerned. cerning hunting, disturb­ sults from a national survey feeding behaviour contrib­ I question the value of ance, habitat destruction, organised by the Royal uted by Peter Dann. The much of the text in these pollution and the future of Australasian Ornithologists next chapter concentrates species accounts and the shorebirds in Australia. Union between 1981 and on the analysis of migratory usefulness of the accom­ Shorebirds is generously 1985. The purpose of this movements, tracing the panying plates. Far better illustrated with line draw­ study was to determine the origins of the migrants that and more reliable infor­ ings, maps, diagrams and distribution, abundance visit Australia and describ­ mation on field identifi­ several black and white and migration routes of ing briefly the various cation can be found in the photographs. The book in­ shorebirds in Australia. methods used to reveal recent book by Hayman et cludes an extensive bibli­ 'Shorebirds' refers to the their movement patterns. al. (Shorebirds-an ldenti­ ography and a modest wading birds which include All of the first part of the fica tion Guide to the index. the thick-knees (Bur­ book takes up a mere 35 Waders of the World, -Peter Fullagar hinidae), painted snipe pages. Croom Helm, London, (Rostratulidae), oyster­ Now follows, to my 1986), a book that is now catchers (Haemato­ mind, the most unsatisfac­ podidae), lapwings and tory section: a species by plovers (Charadriidae), species account occupying stilts and avocets (Recur­ 114 pages. There is a rather virostridae), sandpipers, superficial explanation of phalaropes, snipes, god­ the way the RAOU study wits, curlews and allies was organised and the (Scolopacidae) and pratin­ methods used to analyse All these books are available coles (Glarididae). Oddly the counts. Regrettably, in­ the family Jacanidae is land distribution is poorly from theAustralian Museum Shop omitted save for a passing covered and therefore located in the Museum at mention on page 16. most of the resident waders This impressive array of do not receive sufficient at­ 6-8 College St, Sydney. waders adds up to no less tention. The author con­ Phone: (02) 339-8350. than 71 species for Aus­ cludes that it is not possible tralia, which is almost at present to estimate the exactly one third of all rec­ population size in Australia ognised species of waders of most of the migratory on a world listing. species and, by implication Following a brief intro- from the methods adopted,

316 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 QUIPS, QUOTES & CURIOS

joins the trunk (Biol. f. Linn. other 21, 15 were found Industrial Melanism: Not a Soc. 30: 31-44, 1987). Part just below a branch-trunk Black and White Case of the problem stems from join, four on the underside the fact that Peppered of branches and two Britain's Peppered Moth have been developed to Moths are elusive in the unexposed (behind foliage (Biston betularia) is prob­ predict future frequencies wild and are rarely found at on trunks). Although moths ably one of the most often­ of the melanic form. But rest. However, of the 25 have been found exposed quoted, textbook ex­ the observed phenotypic noted by Majerus since on tree trunks, this does not amples of evolution data do not fit the predic­ 1964, only four were found appear to be their primary through natural selection. tions. In particular, there exposed on trunks. Of the resting site. When this is The story goes something are more melanic moths in like this: at first there were rural areas than themodels These pictures demonstrate how light and dark-coloured moths light-coloured moths that allow. It seems then that are well camouflaged on trees in unpolluted and polluted rested during the day on other non-visual selective woods, respectively. lichen-encrusted tree factors (that is, selection trunks, well camouflaged unrelated to visual pre­ from predatory birds. With dation by birds) are in­ the rise in urbanisation and volved. Indeed, this would the industrial revolution in occur if the moths do not northern Europe, the tree rest in a way that directly trunks of industrial areas exposes them to pred­ were blackened and mu­ ators. tant dark forms became Recently, Rory Howlett better hidden. Birds picked and Michael Majerus, from off the lighter, typical forms the University of Cam­ and so natural selection bridge, have suggested that favoured the dark, melanic the moths don't in fact rest on the exposed surfaces of forms. Melanie forms be­ <<.U came more frequent in in­ tree trunks as the story 0"" dustrial areas and lighter goes, but instead prefer to < z forms in cleaner, rural rest in more hidden areas, 0 Vl such as beneath a branch, < areas. And now that the air � is cleaner, following the en­ or in the shaded area just -: actment of anti-pollution beneath where a branch and smoke-control legis­ lation in the 1960s and '70s, melanic frequencies have declined in industrial areas. The first melanic moth was discovered in 1848 near Manchester, but at the time its significance wasn't appreciated. The failure to follow the early rise in fre­ quency of the dark­ coloured form was prob­ ably one of the great lost opportunities in science. But the current reversal in morph frequencies has provided a second oppor­ tunity. Using co-efficients of vis­ ual selection based on the < relative fitnesses of the <.U ""0 forms and on the assump­ < tion that the moths habitu­ z· 0 ally rested on approp­ Vl < riately-coloured tree � trunks, computer models -!

AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 317 Come and see 'em at the

australian taken into account, it may the light-coloured moth help explain the discrep­ and seven per cent for the ancies between the model­ dark. Therefore, given a predicted frequencies and straight choice between those observed. black and white, both museum But this idea is not new. should choose black. Re­ The late Bernard Kettle­ peating Kettlewell's exper­ The Discovery Room well-the man who, in the iment, Howlett failed to Our hands-on room for chil­ 1950s, was responsible for obtain the same results. In­ dren and their parents is open much of the inspirational stead, as he and Majerus every weekend and during work on industrial melan­ had hypothesised, he school holidays from 1 0am- ism in the Peppered found that both forms pre­ 4pm. There are computer Moth-wrote in 1958 that ferred to settle on black. games, wave tanks, Ian­ the species' normal resting The preference of the mel­ position is "beneath the gauge-learning modules and an ic form was slightly larger bough of trees, less greater than that of thetypi­ lots more fun things to do. commonly on the trunks" cal form, but the difference Characters in Crystal Landscapes (The Entomologist91: 214- was not significant. How­ A fascinating exhibition of crystalline pho­ 24). Yet he continued to lett and Majerus do not tography by Jim Frazier and Densey Clyne conduct his experiments offer any explanation for will be on display in the Long Gallery of the with the moths resting on the difference in results. Museum until the end of February. It fea­ tree trunks. It seems They do, however, point tures dramatic colour photographs of crys­ strange that he didn't take out that there have, in fact, heed of his own obser­ tal formations under microscopes and influ­ been no field observations vation. that show moths pick enced by coloured lighting and dyes. According to Kettlewell, appropriately-coloured Guided Tours moths assess their optimal backgrounds, and in the 'Rogues and Scientists' is resting site by visually com­ wild there may be ad­ a history walk that takes paring their own colour to ditional components other you behind the scenes at that of the substrate than visual for choosing the Museum. We look at (Nature, Land. 175: 943, rest sites-tactile, for ex­ amazing tales of conflict 1955). In one of his classic ample. It appears that site and controversy. Free experiments, in which typi­ selection is more complex ca I and melanic moths guided tours of the than at first thought. were given the choice of To investigate how dif­ Museum's highlights are resting on equal areas of ferent resting positions also available every day. black and white card, might affect differential Phone 339 8326. Kettlewell showed that bird predation, Howlett Aboriginal Australia typical forms preferred to and Majerus conducted a This gallery looks at Aborigi­ settle on white, and mel­ pilot experiment in which nal life, past and present, anic forms on black. But they placed light and dark Authentic paintings tell the Howlett and Majerus point forms in polluted and story of the 'Wandjina' and out that the wings of the unpolluted woods, either the 'Rainbow Serpent'. Hear light-coloured form are exposed on tree trunks or partially translucent so, in their traditional songs, watch just below the junction of terms of the light reflected branch and trunk. Not a video on the Aboriginal from them, they are more unexpectedly, the birds people and explore an like black than white. They selected more light forms in archaeological dig. measured the reflectance polluted woods and more of the wings of a typical and dark forms in unpolluted melanic form. Each woods. This bias applied to Open Tuesday-Sunday & holidays measurement was made moths in both resting pos­ with the moth in contact itions, although the num­ 10am-5pm, Mondays noon-Spm. Phone with backgrounds of ber of moths taken from the (02) 339 8111 for details of temporary varying degrees of reflec­ trunks was significantly exhibitions. tance-100 per cent greater than from the hid­ (white) through to five per den position. More signifi­ cent (near black). The opti­ cant, however, was the mum resting site in terms of finding that, in both lo­ the background reflec­ cations, the dark forms 6-8 College St. Sydney tance was 30 per cent for were better hidden at the

318 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 Compiled by Georgina Hickey

branch joint than the light were altruistically des­ moths; and most significant troying their common was that this bias was enemy (Trans. N. Y. State greatest for melanic moths Agric. Soc. 16: 315-490). in unpolluted woods. He appropriately named It seems then that the the bot C. emasculator. melanic form is even more For the next 124 years it advantaged than the typi­ remained established cal light-coloured form in dogma that botflies emas­ polluted areas, and at less culated their male hosts of a disadvantage in through total consumption unpolluted areas, than pre­ of the testes, yet no clear­ viously supposed. Revised cut evidence had ever co-efficients of selection, been provided. 'Romantic' based on the moths' pre­ though this idea seems, ferred hidden resting sites two American scientists, (as opposed to resting ex­ Robert Timm and Richard posed on tree trunks), will Lee, have once and for all have the effect of increas­ disproved the castration ing the predicted frequen­ concept U. Med. Entomol. cies of melanic moths in 18: 333-36, 1981; Evol­ rural areas, thus resolving ution 36: 416-17, 1982). the discrepancies between They experimentally in­ model-predicted and ob­ fected the groin area served morph frequencies. of Eastern Chipmunks Evolutionary biologists ( Tamias striatus) with C. have generally regarded emasculator and found no the story of industrial mel­ destruction of testicular tis­ an ism in the Peppered sue. The larvae were only Moth as one ofelegant sim­ found in the subcutaneous plicity, thus making it one tissue and never in the of the most often-cited underlying muscle. cases for the illustration of Field observations of evolution through natural chipmunks showed little selection. But it is now clear overlap in the time of re­ that a variety of factors production (spring) and other than differential botfly infestations (mid to crypsis and visual selection late summer). In the non­ influence melanic frequen­ breeding season (that is, at cies. And it emphasises the time of most infec­ that, as is true with most tions), the male chip­ biological systems, the real munks' testes are normally story is far more compli­ reduced and ascended­ An Eastern Chipmunk. cated than at first thought. tucked up 'out of the way' -C.H. into the abdomen. The was not visible. A botfly apparently, a major factor testes of some of these nat­ larva was found on the right in botfly parasitism and this A Right Balls Up? urally infected chipmunks side of the scrotum. Super­ case is considered rare. were examined; they ap­ ficial examination would Although botfly larvae In 1857, Asa Fitch de­ peared normal and thus suggest that the larva have been known to scribed a North American undamaged. Again the lar­ had consumed this testis. physiologically affect their species of botfly (genus vae were only found under Closer examination, how­ hosts, which may or may Cuterebra) that supposedly the skin and not in the ever, showed that the right not affect fertility, the long­ castrated its mammalian underlying tissue of the testis was present but had held tenet of the bots' hosts. Apparently squirrels scrotum. been slightly displaced by emasculatory powers is un­ had been observed "seiz­ Additional observations the larva. Both testes were founded. What still in­ ing and biting out the tes­ of a White-footed Mouse identically proportioned, trigues me, however, is just ticles of their comrades" (Peromyscus leucopus) re­ of the same weight, and what were those squirrels and, as the botfly larvae vealed an enlarged left tes­ produced viable sperm. up to in those North Ameri­ had sometimes been found ticle, such as is typical of Whether or not undes­ can woods, over a century in the scrotum, Fitch con­ mice in breeding con­ cended testes affect fer­ ago? cluded that the squirrels dition, but the right one tility, this condition is not, -C.H. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 319 . . ' Giant Gippsland Earthwo ,' RA.,,,� ,, - RE-� •. �;--.,.;.,_.:.,'A,x & .... '�.,-::., END.., '.� ...-..::� .... {..- � ANGERED• , __. ,,·-�,.. \�-�� .:;;:;.j. Lii� ...w,,:"i,.. -"<. ,,-;r;-..:;.�-�<-A_,�.:�·�·,"M"':�•'A,-....�f��-<-d:f�·· ;�

ippslanders have something of the burrows is about 25 milli­ on the skin, was good for to boast about, for they share metres. They swallow the soil in front rheumatism. their land with the largest of them and absorb the nutrients The most obvious way to detect earthwormG in the world. The Giant from it. Some reports suggest that these worms is the gurgling, sucking Gippsland Earthworm, Megasco/ides they cast the undigested component noise made (similar to when the plug australis, which was first described of this soil at the surface of the is pulled in a bathtub) when one by Frederick McCoy in 1878, has ground (as opposed to other worms walks on top of their burrows, par­ been recorded reaching lengths of that let it block the burrow), although ticularly when the soil is wet. The up to three metres. Lengths of one to others claim that these casts are the worms tend to stay close to the sur­ two metres, however, are more the result of yabbies. face in winter, when the soil is wet, norm, with diameters of between 23 When held in the hand, the and retreat deeper into the soil in and 35 millimetres. earthworm jets out a milky fluid from summer, sometimes up to two The species is unique to the its dorsal pores. The purpose of this metres deep. Many people claim that Gippsland region of southern Vic­ fluid is probably to moisten and lubri­ disturbing the surface of the ground toria, its restricted distribution form­ cate the walls of the burrow so that by digging or ploughing, and flooding ing a rough triangle between the hilly passage through it is made easier. or water-logging, induces the worms areas of the western Strzelecki Some of the Aboriginal natives to come to the surface. Ranges in South Gippsland and the claimed that the fluid, when rubbed Because of their underground undulating country around Warragul habit, the worms are difficult to to the north and Leongatha to the DISTRIBUTION study. A lot of the knowledge about south-east. It is particularly prevalent the habits and natural history of the on the Bass River flats stretching Giant Gippsland Earthworm thus de­ from Bass to Poowong. Damp, rives from local or anecdotal infor­ organic-rich soils are favoured in mation. No detailed reports on their areas of well-drained, sloping coun­ reproduction have been published in try with high winter rainfalls. the scientific literature, but they do The Giant Gippsland Earthworm lay greenish, translucent, sausage­ is also one of the few species of like egg capsules that measure be­ earthworms to build permanent bur­ tween 50 and 75 centimetres long. row systems. The average diameter They have a stalk at each end and Gippsland Region contain one embryo surrounded by a Frazor Hercus, a lab technician from milky fluid. Freshly-laid capsules Monash University, encounters a Giant Gippsland Earthworm. have been observed in early winter

V, u:) u.,"' "'I 0 N

u..�

The egg capsule of the Giant Gippsland Earthworm.

320 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 I lrm i

-FLIGHT­ THROUGH THE SPECTACULAR LAND•OF•THE DREAMTIME 14 DAYS

FROM SYDNEY TO: Flinders Ranges (S.A.) - Coober Pedy - Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Olgas - sz Alice Springs - West and East Kimberley Regions (W.A.) Nc3 >­ Broome -Ord River Scheme z 0 Bathurst Island (Timar Sea) I-- Darwin - Katherine Gorge The unique worm museum at Bass is in the shape of a four-metre-highand 100-metre- Kakadu National Park - Arnhem long worm. Land Region - Gulf of Carpentaria and, when mature and brown, they is 164 hectares on the extreme west­ - Carnarvon National Park (Qld) - hatch in late winter and early spring ern boundary of the Giant Gippsland Sydney. when the ground is wet. Earthworm's range. If future land is to The worms emit a smell resem­ be nominated for nature conser­ bling creosote (coal-tar) and have vation in the area, it should be closer We are looking for a small group been reported as being repulsive, to the centre of the worm's for this unique flight into remote live or dead, to domestic fowls. Per­ distribution. areas. Aircraft: comfortable, haps it is the smell that offends them, To commemorate the Giant modern, turbo-charged Navajo although Kookaburras and magpies Gippsland Earthworm, two local Chieftains. have been seen eating them. One businessmen have built an enor­ rather stupefied Kookaburra was ap­ mous worm museum at Bass, South parently 'rescued' when it appeared Gippsland, in the shape of a four­ flightless with ten centimetres of metre-high and 100-metre-long Departure dates for 1988: worm hanging from its mouth. Thirty­ worm. The first of its kind, this worm May 7, June 18, July 23, six hours elapsed before the Kooka­ museum includes displays ranging burra could fly again. Whether it had from live worms of various species to August 13, September 17. simply over-eaten or the worm con­ a simulated walk through the intes­ tained some toxic substance is tines of a Giant Gippsland Earth­ unknown. worm complete with sound effects. The Giant Gippsland Earthworm A documentary film, showing where INQUIRIES AS SOON AS PRACTICABLE was listed in 1984 by the I UCN as one and how the Giant Gippsland Earth­ Please phone or write to: of the world's ten most endangered worms are found, can also be seen FLIGHT THROUGH THE species. Some people believe that there. SPECTACULAR LAND OF ploughing and the application of The people of the Gippsland superphosphate diminish popu­ area are truly proud of their giant THE DREAMTIME PTY. LTD. lations, but most people are of the earthworm and will ensure that all Level 59 MLC Centre opinion that the worm is still locally measures to keep it there will be Martin Place, Sydney 2000. very common. undertaken.• Phone: (02) 260 0602 The only area set aside for nature -Georgina Hickey 24 hours a day - 7 days a week conservation in the Gippsland region Australian Museum AUSTRALIAN ATURAL HISTORY 321

The mud-dwelling Red-fingered Mangrove Crab (Sesarma erythrodactyla) amongst the aerial roots (pneumatophores) of mangrove trees. In Praise of

By ALLAN JONES AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM as anything had a worse press than mud? The dictionary tells us that mud is worthless or H polluting. Bad ideas, coffee or music are sometimes described as muddy. Mental confusion is a muddle. Staid people are stick-in-the-muds. Mud slows you down, stains your clothes and obscures your boundaries. In short, mud represents unrelieved bad news. With such received wisdom, why write in praise of mud? V> u.Jz Q z :s< An alpine lake in the South Island of New Zealand. Fine clay particles that remain in suspension impart a turquoise hue to the water by scattering light.

Firstly, its political importance is particles are so small that, when and water, these nutrients enable enormous. Politicians love to sling washed into still alpine lakes, they plants such as reeds, seagrasses, mud and the stickier species of mud remain in suspension, and by scatter­ mangroves and diatoms to grow can win or lose elections. More ing light, impart a turquoise hue to quickly. The bacteria enhance pro­ seriously, however, mud simply can­ the water. ductivity by decomposing organic not be ignored; not just because it The chemical and mineralogical matter thus making nutrients avail­ exists in vast amounts and is widely composition of sediments varies able for further plant growth. distributed, but also because mud widely and is closely related to grain As a place to live, mud presents has human uses rangingfrom food to size. Mud, for example, is more com­ some problems. In particular, very architecture, supports highly pro­ plex than sand with more alumina, fluid mud has low density, is physi­ ductive ecosystems and has psycho­ iron oxides and potash, and less sil­ cally unstable and contains little dis­ logical significance. Even more basic, ica. Silt differs from clay by having solved oxygen, the last caused by some scientists think that life began more quartz and less hydrous alu­ biological and chemical decompo­ in clay (a component of mud) rather minium silicate, which carries an sition of organic material. In these than the sea. Consequently, mud's electrical charge. This charge causes conditions, where an organism could appalling public image derives from a clay particles to be oriented so that, easily be smothered or sink, connec­ limited and biased view of its role in when lubricated by water, the fam­ tion with the aerated sediment sur­ both human and natural en­ iliar plasticity of wet clay occurs. face is necessary for survival. Evol­ vironments. Another consequence of the small utionary adaptations of animals to size of mud particles is that they have such an environment include a re­ What is Mud? a large surface area in proportion to duction in density to promote flo­ Mud is a varied and complex their volume, an attribute that pro­ tation (for example, the delicate bi­ substance and has several definitions motes the biological productivity of valve mollusc Theora fragilisL depending on context. In common muddy ecosystems. 'snowshoe' adaptations to increase parlance, it is wet, soft, earthy matter the supporting surface area (the or mire. More formally, mud consists Mud Ecosystems mudskippers), and an increased ca­ of silt and clay-fine sediment par­ The productivity of some mud­ pacity for respiratory exchange via ticles of diameters less than 62.5 based ecosystems is higher than extensive gill systems or thin skin microns (0.0625 millimetres). Larger intensively-managed farmland. This with surface blood capillaries (some particles are called sand, gravel or is caused by several factors acting in polychaete and oligochaete worms, boulders. Measuring the particle size concert. Tiny particles have a rela­ insect larvae and the mudskippers). of muds is done by timing the rate of tively large surface area and some are Furthermore, the burrowing mud settling in water-the underlying electrically charged. These attributes prawns (yabbies) in the genera principle (Stokes' Law) dictates that cause nutrients and bacteria to ad­ Cal/ianassa and Upogebia are be­ the smaller clay particles settle more sorb on the particles' surfaces. haviourally or physiologically slowly than the larger silt ones. Clay Together with an abundance of light adapted to thelow oxygen tension of 324 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 the water in their burrows. Some species, for example, simply venti­ late their burrows more vigorously, while others reduce their metab­ olism or have a blood pigment (hae­ mocyanin) with an extremely high af­ finity for oxygen. Some mud-dwelling plants have also evolved special structures to en­ hance oxygen uptake. For example, Grey Mangroves (Avicennia marina) have spiky aerial pneumatophores that have many small openings called lenticels. Gaseous exchange occurs through these lenticels and oxygen is transferred to the roots for respiration. Although muddy habitats sup­ port relatively few species, those present may exist in astronomical numbers. Microscopic organisms such as bacteria are astonishingly abundant (up to 1 x 1010 cells per gram of sediment), while larger or­ Fighting mudskippers use their ventral fins to help them move over their muddy terri­ ganisms such as worms, crustaceans tory. Shown here are Boleophthalmus sp. from the Northern Territory. and molluscs may exist in tens of thousands per cubic metre. Many of predatory fish. Some of these species spawn but spends most of its adult these larger species live in protective filter their food from the water while life in estuaries. Consequently, the burrows or tubes when adult. Some, most eat the muddy sediment di­ muddy wetland areas are essential such as the snapping shrimp rectly, digesting either organic de­ for these and other fisheries. Alpheus euphrosyne and the yabby tritus or microbes attached to the Human Uses Callianassa australiensis, rarely leave particles. their burrows and their house­ Mobile animals such as prawns Food and shelter are basic re­ cleaning activities send turbid clouds (Penaeus plebejus and Metapenaeus quirements of humans. Surprisingly into the water column. In contrast, mac/eay,) depend on these pro­ enough, mud contributes to both. mangrove crabs (Sesarma ductive mud ecosystems for food Not only are muddy soils highly pro­ erythrodactyla and Heloeci us and shelter during their juvenile ductive as farmland, and muddy cordiformis) spend the low-tide stages, although the adults are peats good fertilisers, but some period foraging for food or in court­ subsequently caught many kilo­ peoples actually eat mud, a practice ship, and only retire to their burrows metres away. The succulent mud called geophagy or pica (from the when high tide brings the threat of crab Scylla serrata migrates to sea to Latin for 'magpie' -a bird that col-

u.J 0..

V)6 :) < " z' 0 V) I- � a:, 0"' :E < J: � \.J Hippos are not the only animals that wallow in glorious mud. This Elephant Seal cow (Mirounga leonina) seems to be enjoying her- self on Macquarie Island,as does this woman in the Adelaide River, Northern Territory. AUSTRALIA NATURAL HISTORY 325 u.., Cl.

V,i5 <:) z' 0 � u..,°' co °'0 <� I: � lJ An example of mud architecture in New Mexico. Mud houses birds as well as humans. These are White­ winged Chough chicks (Corcorax melanoramphos).

lects strange articles). Some ex­ wounds. Finally, pregnant women amples include the following: in the sometimes experience cravings for a 19th century, Persians considered wide range of substances, which in­ clays a delicacy and could discrimi­ clude not only exotic or sweet nate among various kinds. Geophagy foods, but also coal, pencil shavings was also widespread in Indonesia and clay! However, blood tests re­ and Oceania where mud served as veal no mineral deficiencies or other food or a food substitute, as medi­ nutritional disorders in these women cine, as a source of enjoyment and as and, instead, psychiatrists offer vari­ a part of 'oath-swearing' ceremonies. ous explanations for pregnancy Edible clays came in many colours cravings in general. and were sometimes roasted or fried Mud contributes even more and sold in markets. Eating the clay strongly to our need for shelter. That was believed to cure diarrhoea, beri­ highly esteemed and zealously de­ beri and syphilis, and to facilitate fended roof over our heads is often conception and childbirth. It was supported by bricks made even reported to have been habit­ predominantly of clay. More ancient forming. Arnhem Land Aborigines and imaginative than the clay brick is today still eat earth for both food and the traditional desert mud architec­ medicine. Red termite mounds con­ ture, which houses one quarter of the tain protein, and white clay is a treat­ world's population in the desert belt The ancient art of pottery combines ment for stomach upsets. Red earth is from north-western India to Mexico. beauty with utility. also applied to external sores and When properly treated, sun-dried 326 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 mud becomes a versatile building material. Unlike concrete, mud insu­ Origin of Life in Clay replaced by complex poly­ lates effectively against the substan­ merised organic enzymes in the tial day-night desert temperature Most scientists believe that form of proteins and nucleic changes that occur in the absence of life, as we know it, arose acids. clouds and humidity. Some desert spontaneously on planet A more extreme (and much­ buildings exceed 400 years in age Earth-it was not created by criticised) view of the role of clay and their beauty and utility has war­ supernatural forces or trans­ is that clay minerals were the ranted exhibitions at major mu­ ported here from extraterrestrial main materials comprising the seums. To some westerners, it is be­ sources. Another common belief earliest "low-tech" organisms yond belief that the monumental is that there was a pre-vital and that the organic soup mol­ Great Mosque of Djenne in Mali chemical evolution of organic ecules played little part at the (West Africa) could be built of mud. molecules such as amino acids, very beginning. The main pro­ For millenia, clay has been used sugars and lipids, which com­ ponent of this view, A.G. Cairns­ by humans for sculpture and pottery. prised a primordial marine or­ Smith wrote in 1982: "Often the These arts are possible because clay ganic soup. These molecules clay minerals that are produced becomes plastic when wet, rigid then became organised into from weathering solutions seem when dried, and vitrified when fired multi-molecular, self-replicating to organise themselves fortui­ at high temperatures. The combi­ organisms subject to mutation tously, in a rough and ready way, nation of utility and beauty has given and evolution by natural selec­ into the kinds of things that might rise to a booming ceramics industry. tion. be needed in a primitive organ­ Because this industry is so ancient, However, differences of ism" (Genetic Takeover and the pottery artefacts contribute to the re­ opinion exist as to how these Mineral Origins of Life, construction of past civilisations by molecules became sufficiently Cambridge University Press, p. archaeologists who also uncovered concentrated and their chemical 4). Membranes, catalysts and such wonders as the armies of reactions catalysed to produce primitive genes would all be terracotta soldiers guarding the life. While some believe that made of clay. The inorganic tombs of Chinese emperors. these processes occurred un­ components of these structures Another ancient use of mud­ aided in the 'soup', others be­ were then progressively re­ based products involves body paint­ lieve that the charged particles in placed by organic molecules ing, which has spiritual or mythologi­ clays enabled the molecules to with "genetic takeover" a cen­ cal sigificance for many indigenous become concentrated by ad­ tral concept. In other words, clay peoples. For example, the Australian sorption. Furthermore, clay par­ formed the "scaffolding" that Aborigines use yellow, brown and ticles were abundant and may permitted the construction of red ochres, which are a mixture of also have acted as catalysts in the "proper organisms". Perhaps we clay and hydrated iron oxide, to great earliest organisms before being really are common clay after all? effect. More frivolous perhaps is the modern cosmetics industry where fine, creamy mud is used for facial mud-packs, which are claimed to re­ sonal images, soap, washing ma­ However, alternative psycho­ vitalise skin by regeneration of the chines and dry-cleaning services. logical approaches exist. They em­ epidermis. Sterilised reconstituted Furthermore, various psychological brace the fact that we are not really mud is now used because micro­ ambiguities or confusions also ob­ separate entities at all. Rather, we are organisms in natural mud can cause scure our edges and we 'muddle' constantly exchanging energy and infections or allergies. How para­ through. This is why, in the moral materials with our life-supporting en­ doxical it is that the much-reviled context, we think of certain jokes or vironment. Various disciplines or mud can produce a much-desired minds as being dirty. Rigid rules are therapies such as Buddhism or shining new countenance! And all it designed to eliminate such Jungian analysis seek to remove the takes is a couple of hours and a wallet ambiguities but may well have the boundary between the total organ­ lightened by about $60. opposite effect. ism and the environment. Such ap­ Other industries that benefit We also demand that external proaches would not only encourage from mud are tourism and entertain­ entities be clearly differentiated and us to treat our life-supporting ment. Rotorua in New Zealand is pigeonholed. We ignore the ecosystem more sympathetically, but blessed with hot mud springs, which 'muddied' margins of so many also to welcome a little mud as a form dazzling sinuous patterns, and phenomena in the natural world by connecting agent between per­ mud wrestling is enjoying quite a erecting artificially-sharp classifi­ ceived self and our surroundings. boom in the United States. cations. In reality, it is even difficult to In conclusion, it seems, we have distinguish between living and non­ much to praise mud for. It is an ex­ Psychology of Mud living things. For example, how do tremely valuable resource, it plays Western society has emphasised we classify a crystallised virus? Is physicochemical and biological roles the importance of the individual and planet Earth itself a living being? of sufficient importance for entire our isolation from nature. This iso­ Marketers are aware of this desire for scientific symposia and numerous lation is totally false, of course, but cleanliness and distinctiveness and books to be devoted to it, and it can mud and dirt in general threaten this they hypersanitise appearances. be perceived as a symbol of connec­ cherished separateness. Cleanliness Hence, the Western mud phobia is tion with our environment. Besides, has become a vital part of a myth that well and truly accommodated by our how would kids make mud-pies if it is necessary to the producers of per- economic system. wasn't for mud?• AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 327 AUSTRALIAN WILD FOODS by Tim Low . . The Language of Fruits ,�_ , ·j_.. ·'"-,.;r... ' . •. _·

: he fruits of the forest speak to Over millions of years, fruits / me. In their curves and colours, have evolved close bonds with the in their succulence and animals best suited to disperse their Tseediness, is the language of evol- \ seeds. It is this intimate relationship - ution writ large. Show me a wild fruit that can be read into the fruits of the "·, and I will tell you its story. forest. The key to understanding any Take Red-jacket or Hairy Birds' fruit is its seed. Don't be fooled by Eye, for example. seedless bananas and grapes-these Red-jacket (Alectryon tomen­ are tricks of modern horticulture. The tosus) is a small tree of rainforest . seed is every fruit's raison d'etre. The edges in eastern Australia. Its fruits .\ flesh is but a bait to lure some animal leave no doubt when they are ready ..::. ',.•!. . - �·.·. · . . to swallow the seed, which is then to be eaten-the furry capsules burst ,..t _;, ..· ...;'}>f,(. ·� .. dropped far away to begin life anew. open to flaunt the scarlet pulp partly ' Some animals are good at surrounding a shiny black seed. Birds spreading seeds, others are not. like bright colours, and especially red �. "-·,, �. -· '·.. ·. Birds, for example, usually swallow with black. The bead of sweet pulp is I ... fruits whole and tend to scatter seeds Native Guava or Bolwarra is a common miles away. But mammals such as Red-jacket fruits are about a centimetre rainforest shrub found from Gippsland rats like to chew the seeds and feed long. The tree is found in Queensland to northern Queensland. The fruitsripen beneath the plant: they are poor and New South Wales rainforests, south in winter. dispersers. to the Hunter River.

328 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 bite-size for a silver-eye or small Southern Kangaroo Apples (5. designed for large birds (now ex­ honeyeater, although it is also at­ laciniatum) do the same thing. These tinct?) has been hastily modified for tractive to larger birds. burst berries make it easier for small something smaller. Taste a Red-jacket fruit and you birds like silver-eyes to pick at pieces The fruits of Red-jacket, Native will be struck by its astringency-the of their flesh. They can be spotted Guava and the kangaroo apples are tannins in the pulp dry and pucker from afar and so birds waste little edible and worth trying when next the mouth and tongue. This probably time perusing the whole crop. you're in the bush. Spare a thought deters birds from eating too many at But I feel vaguely dissatisfied by for their form and function, and then once; instead the crop is shared and this arrangement. The fruits split consider all the other forest fruits. the seeds spread more evenly. unevenly, asymmetrically, and to They too are beckoning the animals Some botanists postulate that human eyes look damaged. The of their choice, calling out in a sym­ this kind of arillate fruit structure-a bursting of the berries looks sus­ phony of colours, shapes and scents layer of red enclosing a black piciously like some evolutionary that we are only beginning to under­ seed-is typical of the primeval fruit. afterthought, as if a food originally stand.• There are certainly many primitive trees around the world with similar fruits, especially in the family Sapindaceae to which the Red-jacket belongs. But I suspect the design of the Native Guava or Bolwarra (Eupomatia laurina) fruit is older. Native Guava is among the most primitive of all flowering plants-it is one of those 'ancient' rainforest species for which Australia has be­ come world-famous. Its fruits ripen green and fall to the ground, where they advertise their presence by emitting a fragrant smell. What eats them? Certainly not birds, which de­ pend on colour not smell to find their food. (Most birds lack the sense of smell.) The Native Guava seeds are distasteful to bite into-to encour­ age toothy animals to swallow them whole. The Native Guava fruit tells me it is designed for a colour-blind, ground-dwelling rainforest animal with nose and teeth. This identikit fits pademelons and bandicoots, and almost fits rainforest dragons and large skinks. Given the Native Guava's great antiquity, is it possible we have here a reptile-dispersed fruit, designed originally to appeal to small rainforest dinosaurs? Another plant that fascinates me is the Mountain Kangaroo Apple (So/anum linearifolium), a droopy shrub of cool forests in New South Wales and eastern Victoria. Its ber­ ries are designed for birds-note their sublime colours and elusive positioning on slender twigs beyond the reach of most mammals. What makes these berries interesting is their disconcerting habit of splitting open when ripe-like over-ripe, Berries of the Mountain Kangaroo Apple are 1.5-2 centimetres long and taste over-handled tomatoes. Berries of sickly-sweet. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 329 FROM THE JOURNAL

A Tall Story

I will never forget a bush camp in the undulating Karri country of south-western Western Australia some 30 years ago. The glow from the campfire lit up the boles of the Karri trees that soared into the dark­ '" ness above. We could just glimpse the stars through the breaks in the canopy. Next morning, as I lay in my sleeping bag surrounded by a wall of trunks that reached towards the leafy roof, I had a feeling of both awe and excitement, the kind one has on the rare occasions when overwhelmed by beauty. I have felt it among sea bird colon­ ies on the Abrolhos Islands, on sight­ ing a group of grey kangaroos in the late afternoon light along a river bank, and at Coventry Cathedral in England. Yet there can be no finer cathedral than that of forests, such as the Karri and Moutain Ash or the Californian Redwood forests of North America. Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) is one of our botanical giants, since it can reach a height of 85 metres. One, cut more than 60 years ago, took nine hours to fell. Four metres above the ground it had a diameter of nearly three metres. The total weight of the measured logs was more than 120 tonnes with another 50 or more tonnes being left behind as roots, base and branches. The name diversicolor is a tribute to the fact that it sheds the outer bark-covering annually in thick plates. The new bark of bright yel­ lowish orange contrasts with the white of the old bark, giving the tree a mottled appearance. Water is the limiting factor for Karri growth. The trees are restricted to the south-western corner of West- /: ern Australia where, in addition to z w the wet winters, the mild summers &: � also provide falls of 25 millimetres a � month, making the annual total rain- u fall more than 1,000 millimetres. � On the other side of the conti- 8 nent, this time in the mountain coun- b try, the king of all hardwoods resides. l This is the Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus A Karri tree being felled the old way. First a scarf was cut in one side with an axe in the regnans). The tree grows particularly direction in which the tree was planned to fall. Then, with a crosscut saw, a back cut well in valleys where it has deep soil was made until the weight of the trunk brought the giant crashing to the ground. and shelter, and on the mainland it is

330 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 found in the higher country of east­ leaf factories above. I also wondered The tallest Manna Gum in Australia (90.5 ern Victoria, with an outlier in the if any of our plant-eating marsupials metres) is one of fourManna Gums pro­ Otways south-west of Melbourne. It make the long climb to the top to tected at Evercreech, Tasmania. is also found in Tasmania where it is feed on the leaves. ("' /"(f'(j usually called Swamp Gum and It is sad to realise that, both in the sometimes Stringy Bark, while the west and the east, clear-felling is timber is marketed as Tasmanian or threatening many magnificent groves Australian Oak. of tall trees. Such felling can be seen At present the tallest individuals as analogous to dredging in the sea. known are in the Styx Valley in The operator sifts through the ma­ southern Tasmania. As a concession terial, picks out the items needed, from Australian Newsprint Mills Lim­ and discards the rest. Sometimes the ited, these trees have been set aside clear-felled areas are left to grow and, in a gentleman's agreement with back naturally after a burn and some­ the Tasmanian Government, pro­ times seedlings are planted. How­ tected from logging. A total of 25 ever, usually only the commercially­ hectares was set aside in 1957 and important tree species are encour­ 1960. One individual measures aged to re-grow, thus reducing tree 98.75 metres and nearby is a grove of diversity. Resources, such as hollows 12 trees all more than 90 metres high. and certain foods vital for the exis­ Although the world's tallest tree is a tence of many animals, also disap­ Californian Redwood (Sequoia pear when mature trees are felled. semperviren s)-a conifer that Surely the emphasis should be on measures 112.11 metres-we can maintaining forests as closely as poss­ claim to have the world's tallest hard­ ible to their natural state.• wood or, alternatively, the world's tallest flowering plant. Conservationists consider that the southern forests of Tasmania, which are now under threat from log­ ging, may be hosts to taller trees, possibly even taller than the Californian Redwoods. Magnificent though the Styx Valley Mountain Ash are, they are almost unknown to the tourists who visit Tasmania. To see This giant Mountain Ash is the tallest the world's tallest hardwoods, I had living tree so far found in Australia. to first obtain a permit and then drive from Maydena, near Hobart, for half an hour over a treacherously­ potholed dirt road. Any caring gov­ ernment would bring such groves of giants under national park or other safe reserve status. With suitable management plans, developed with the best botanical advice available, such groves would become the star attractions of a State that depends so much on its tourist trade. The Forestry Commission of Tas­ mania has in fact reserved a small grove of Manna Gums (Eucalyptus viminalis) at Evercreech in north­ eastern Tasmania. Here are four trees more than 70 metres high. One reaches 90.5 metres, making it the tallest Manna Gum in Australia. When I walked through this grove I marvelled at the biological engin­ eering that enables them to lift all the Some Karri forest still survives on private property. It is now under threat from the necessary minerals and water to the woodchippers. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 331 By KEN McNAMARA WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM bout 65 million years ago, at the close of the Cretaceous three groups, which have internal Period, one of the most cata­ and often only remnant shells, clysmicA events ever to occur on Earth ammonites, like Nautilus, possessed wiped out many groups of animals, a chambered shell made of calcium both land-dwelling and marine. The carbonate. Although the soft parts of cause of this mass extinction is still the ammonite animals have never not well understood. Recent dis­ been found, the close similarity of cussion on its likely cause has fo­ ammonite shells to those of Nautilus cused on the theory that an enor­ makes it likely that they were occu­ mous extra-terrestrial body, such as a pied by a similar, squid-like animal. It comet or an asteroid, crashed into would have lived in the largest, out­ the Earth. But scores of other sugges­ ermost chamber of the shell (the tions for the extinctions have also body chamber), which opened to the been made. The most favoured of outside. Connecting the many inner these concern the effects of lowered chambers of the rest of the shell (the sea levels, which severely restricted phragmocone) was a narrow tube, habitats, and relatively sudden called a siphuncle, which runs close changes in climate. to the surface of the shell. In Nautilus On land the most spectacular de­ the siphuncle passes through the mise was that of the dinosaurs, re­ centre of each chamber wall and its mains of which in Australia have function is to transfer liquid between been found in Queensland, New chambers in order to adjust the South Wales, Victoria and SouthAus­ buoyancy of the shell. In Nautilus the tralia. The dinosaurs' marine cross-walls or septa are simple, contemporaries-the dolphin-like gently-curved structures but in ichthyosaurs, the long-necked ammonites they were often incred­ plesiosaurs and the fearsome marine ibly convoluted. lizards, the mosasaurs-also became Despite these differences, the extinct. These creatures had all once majority of ammonites had a shell roamed the seas around Australia. similar in form to that of the But perhaps the largest of the marine nautiluses, being tightly coiled, with groups to be exterminated were the later whorls in contact with the ammonites. earlier-formed inner whorls. How­ Although relatively little studied ever, unlike the nautiluses, which in Australia, fossilised shells of have smooth shells, many ammonites have been collected in all ammonites had strongly ornamented States except Victoria and Tasmania. shells. Some had curving radial ribs Their closest living counterparts are that were often studded with the pearly nautiluses (Nautilus spp.). tubercles or even spines. Four species exist in the Inda-Pacific, Although ammonites lived from one of which occurs in waters off the the beginning of the Triassic Period Australian coast. The living (215 million years ago), most Aus­ nautiluses provide the modern ana­ tralian ammonites range in age from logue for interpreting the mode of life 65-110 million years and occur in the of the extinct ammonites. Nautilids Great Artesian Basin. lnAustralia,Jur­ themselves have an even longer his­ assic ammonites (205-135 million tory than the ammonites, and their years old) are only found in abun- < fossils are found in most Australian dance inland from Geraldton in � deposits that contain ammonites. Western Australia, and younger � Ammonites and nautilids both ammonites (about 65 million years � belong in the Cephalopoda, a group old) are well represented in another � of molluscs that includes octopus, area in Western Australia, discussed � squids and cuttlefishes. Unlike these later.

Fontannesia was a tightly-coiled Jurassic (205- t 35 million years old) ammonite found near Geraldton, Western Australia. Unlike many of the heteromorph (loosely­ coiled) ammonites, this animal was probably an active swimmer. Myloceras was a heteromorph ammonite, and may have led a somewhat sedentary life. This specimen was found in a 100-million-year-old deposit near Tambo, Queensland.

332 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88

In sediments 100-110 million such as Myloceras and Labeceras, slightly smaller heteromorph years old, extending from the began life as normally coiled ammonites Myloceras and southern part of Cape York Penin­ ammonites, but as they approached Labeceras, which replaced the larger sula, down through Hughenden, maturity the shell progressively grew forms about 10 million years later, Longreach and Roma, across to the away from the inner whorls, before had a similarly wide distribution. But northern part of South Australia, finally recurving in a strong hook. it must be remembered that at this large and quite unusual ammonites What this meant for the stability of time the continents were not in the have been found. This region rep­ the shell and mode of life of the am­ positions they occupy today. The resents the near-shore environment monite is not clear. Tightly coiled southern continents were all close to of a great sea that once covered ammonites were thought to have one another and the breakup of the much of present-day western been active swimmers, darting great landmass of Gondwana had Queensland, northern South Aus­ through the water, like many modern only just got underway. By the time tralia and the southern part of the cephalopods, by means of sudden the last ammonites were swimming Northern Territory. expulsions of water through a in the southern oceans 65 million In these warm, shallow seas the siphon. Some of the loosely-coiled years ago, South America, Africa, marine life was prolific and often heteromorph ammonites, on the Madagascar and India had split apart large. In Queensland and South Aus­ other hand, had shells that indicate as separate units, and Australia re­ tralia, remains of large ichthyosaurs the animals may have led a more sed­ mained attached to Antarctica along and plesiosaurs, along with the entary life; for example, some its southern coast. Even so, represen­ fossilised remains of large fish, have formed spiral shells, mimicking snail tatives of these last ammonites, been found. Some of the ammonites shells. Other heteromorphs, how­ found in north-western Australia, were also large, reaching almost one ever, had straight shells and may show remarkable similarities to am­ metre in diameter. These large have been more active swimmers. mon ite faunas from all these ammonites, and some of the smaller Large heteromorph ammonites southern continents, and even ones, form a particular subgroup of such as Tropaeum and Australiceras, beyond. the ammonites, known as which lived about 110 million years In the dry country of north-wes­ 'heteromorph' ammonites. The shell ago, were wide ranging and have tern Australia, patches of sedimen­ was loosely rather than tightly coiled, been found as far apart as Argentina, tary rock-testimony to periods of with the inner and outer whorls often South Africa, Madagascar, relatively high sea level-fringe the not in contact. Some smaller forms, Antarctica, India and Australia. The margins of the ancient Pilbara and

Largest Australian his camel, Constable Jury saw Ammonite in a nearby dry creek bed what The story behind the dis­ he thought was a car tyre. covery of the largest Aus­ What an abandoned car tyre tralian ammonite (recounted should be doing in such deso­ by Hans Mincham in his late country in the 1920s in­ Vanished Giants of Australia, trigued him. Walking over to 1966) reveals some of the at­ satisfy his curiosity he realised tributes necessary in making that the 'tyre' was in fact made important scientific discover­ out of rock. He removed a ies: serendipity and dog­ small piece and took it back to gedness, in this case quite Oodnadatta with him. After literally-in the form of an having been sent to the South emaciated dog. Australian Museum, the piece The finder of this one­ of rock was recognised as metre-diameter monster shell being part of a very large am­ was a policeman named Con­ monite. Professor Walter stable Jury who was based at Howchin, who identified the Oodnadatta in South Aus­ specimen, wrote to Jury, en­ tralia. Jury set off one day in couraging him to return to the 1923 to search for a reported site to collect the entire speci­ lost person. A lone, hungry men. He duly obeyed and, dog had staggered into a after a 150-kilometre camel nearby station, suggesting that ride, managed to relocate the � its owner might be stranded ammonite. It was dug out in 1 out in dry country. While pieces and shipped off to the < Constable Jury found no sign Museum in Adelaide. After zu � of any living soul, what he did having put the pieces back U,Jz find made his trek worth­ together, Howchin recog­ � \ while. nised the ammonite as a new Cast of Australia's largest ammonite, Tropaeum When close to Lake species and named it imperator, froma 110-million-year- old deposit Cadibarrawirracanna, and Tropaeum imperator-truly in South Australia. from the high vantage point of an imperial ammonite.

334 VOL. 22 0. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 Yilgarn blocks. In one of these areas the transition from the Mesozoic to the Cainozoic Eras, which occurred 65 million years ago, can be seen. The change from one to the other is as sudden as it is startling, in terms of the change in fossils. The last metre or so of sediment deposited at the "'< < end of the Mesozoic (Age of Dino­ � saurs) is a veritable graveyard of fos­ < zu sils, particularly molluscs. Predomi­ � nant amongst these are the z ""...., ammonites. Although these ammonites are generally smaller than their older counterparts found in � < other parts of Australia, the deposit � probably represents the world's < zu richest assembly of the very last � ammonites to exist, covering almost ....,z the entire range of possible shell "" shapes. Some shells are small, fat and smooth; others are narrow and sharply-ribbed, or large and coarsely­ ribbed with big tubercles; some are tightly coiled, while others are more loosely coiled. Heteromorphs occur in great abundance. Their shells range from helically-spired to open triangular to trombone-shaped, while the common Eubaculites has a compressed, straight shell. There is no sign here of a gradual demise in shell types before the big extinction. On the contrary, the range of shell shapes is about as great "'< as that which occurred at any other <� < time during the 150-million-year � <� £ traded widely as charms and specialised shell shapes, suggesting A 19th century snal

336 VOL. 22 NO. 7, SUMMER 1987-88 Wildlife

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