THE INFLUENCE OF CHINESE INSTRUMENTS ON THE VIOLIN: A PRACTICE

GUIDE OF THREE VIOLIN TECHNIQUES

Jie Gao, B.A, M.M.

Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS

August 2017

APPROVED:

Julia Bushkova, Major Professor Clay Couturiaux, Committee Member Susan Dubois, Committee Member Benjamin Brand, Director of Graduate Studies in the College of Music John W. Richmond, Dean of the College of Music Victor Prybutok, Dean of the Toulouse Graduate School Gao, Jie. The Influence of Chinese Instruments on the Violin: A Practice Guide of Three

Violin Techniques. Doctor of Musical Arts (Performance), August 2017, 46 pp., 6 tables, 9 examples, 13 exercises, bibliography, 66 titles.

Contemporary professional violinists face constant exposure to multicultural compositions. For best results, they should be able to understand, capture, and express the subtleties of different styles. The violin and its repertoire spread to China through European missionaries during the late seventeenth century and continued to be developed by Chinese scientists and musicians who studied abroad. During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries,

Chinese composers wrote many violin pieces inspired by the unique sounds of Chinese instruments. Additionally, Chinese music scholars wrote numerous essays to discuss the new

Chinese style. However, much of this research has been focused on the composers and the structures of the compositions rather than on the details of violin techniques necessary to play the repertoire. The techniques in Chinese violin compositions are unique and are influenced by the traditional instruments including string, wind, and percussion instruments. Furthermore, the style of such compositions is affected by the elements of Chinese culture, such as the language, the elite society and its poetic tradition, and historical legends and events. This dissertation provides examples of Chinese violin repertoire which demonstrate the principles of three main violin techniques in the Chinese style: slides, chords, and pizzicati. In order to help professional violinists better perform Chinese violin compositions, the dissertation also includes a number of exercises covering each technique above. Copyright 2017

by

Jie Gao

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Above all, I must express my sincerest gratitude and appreciation to my mentor, pedagogue, and adviser Julia Bushkova for her tireless dedication to my success as a violinist and teacher. I am thankful for the opportunity to study under her guidance and grateful for her pedagogical and editorial expertise. Professor Bushkova’s commitment to all her students is truly inspiring. In addition, I would like to thank my related-field professor, Dr. Clay Couturiaux, for his kindness, trust, and support. I would also like to thank my committee member Dr. Susan

Dubois who has shared her knowledge in music pedagogy research with me, providing countless valuable suggestions and spending hours on this project. Dr. Don Taylor has been of great help in academic writing research. I am thankful to Yuxin Mei, for helping me with her expertise in ethnomusicology research. Furthermore, I would like to thank composer Yang Baozhi who shared his compositional process with me. I thank my friends and colleagues, Holly Cassell,

Joseph Turner, Beixi Gao, Richard Xu, Lin Lu, and Hao Miao, whose friendship and constant availability have helped me to see this study to its completion. Finally, I would also like to thank my family for their unfailing support of my academic and musical goals over the years and for their constant encouragement, confidence, and belief in me.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

LIST OF TABLES ...... vi

LIST OF EXAMPLES ...... vii

LIST OF EXERCISES ...... viii

CHAPTER 1. THE VIOLIN IN CHINA ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Overview of the Violin in China ...... 3 Review of Literature ...... 7

CHAPTER 2. THE FEATURES OF CHINESE MUSIC TECHNIQUES ...... 10 Slides ...... 10 Chords ...... 15 Pizzicati ...... 18

CHAPTER 3. PRACTICE GUIDES AND EXERCISES ...... 23 Slides ...... 23 Chords ...... 26 Pizzicati ...... 28

CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSION...... 29

APPENDIX A. TRANSLATIONS OF ORIGINAL CHINESE NAMES ...... 30

APPENDIX B. THE MANUSCRIPT OF DIFFICULT ROADS ...... 36

APPENDIX C. THE MUSIC SCORE OF XIAOXIANG QIN SORROW ...... 38

APPENDIX D. THE VIOLIN PENTATONIC SCALES BY LIU ZHAO ...... 40

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 42

iv LIST OF TABLES

Page

1. Tone Categories ...... 11

A.1 Translations of the Titles of the Musical Works and Composers/Transcribers ...... 31

A.2 Translations of the Names of the Original Chinese Instruments ...... 31

A.3 Translations of Other Terms ...... 31

A.4 Translations of the Chinese Original References...... 33

A.5 Translations of the Treatises and Scores’ Original Chinese Titles ...... 35

v LIST OF EXAMPLES

Page

1. Chen Gang and He Zhenhao, The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto, mm. 20-22 ...... 12

2. Chen Gang and He Zhenhao, The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto, mm. 18-19 ...... 13

3. Yang Baozhi, Ambush from All (Ten) Sides mm. 27-30 ...... 13

4. The Beginning of The Moon over a Mountain Pass in Character-Tablature (top line) and Numbered Musical Notation (bottom line) ...... 15

5. The Beginning of Ambush from All (Ten) Sides for Pipa by Anonymous in Numbered Musical Notation ...... 17

6. Yang Baozhi, Ambush from All (Ten) Sides, mm. 1-5 ...... 18

7. The Pizzicato passage from The Sun Shines on Taxkorgan (Tashkurgan), mm.61-69 .....19

8. Dance of the Golden Snake by Nie Er, mm.56-61 ...... 21

9. Dance of the Golden Snake trans. Situ Huacheng, mm.46-51 ...... 22

vi LIST OF EXERCISES

Page

1. Preparation of the Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Second...... 24

2. Preparation of the Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Third ...... 24

3. The Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Second ...... 24

4. The Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Third ...... 24

5. Four Tones in Chinese ...... 25

6. One Sentence in Chinese ...... 25

7. The Overtone Slides ...... 26

8. Slides with Auxiliary Fingers ...... 26

9. Ricochet and Up-Bow Strokes on One Open String ...... 27

10. Ricochet Gradually Expanding to Chords on Open Strings ...... 27

11. Ricochet with Fingers and Left-Hand Pizzicato ...... 27

12. Pizzicato for The Sun Shines on Taxkorgan ...... 28

13. Pizzicato for the Dance of the Golden Snake ...... 28

vii CHAPTER 1

THE VIOLIN IN CHINA

Introduction

Over the last several hundred years, musicians from various countries and regions have played the violin and developed their specific violin techniques to play in a way that displays their cultural musical characteristics. For instance, ethnomusicologist Peter Cooke states that some British dance musicians, such as rebec-like lira players, added the violin to their own instruments and easily transferred the already established bowing and fingering techniques to the violin.1 The lira, or lira da braccio, a pear-shaped bowed instrument, was a 15th-century fiddle with three to five melody strings and two off-the-fingerboard drone strings. It was an Italian predecessor of the violin and was an instrument of choice for dance musicians. Gypsy singers and some epic singers in Southeastern Europe and Asia accompanied themselves on the violin using a technique which involved resting the violin low on the left arm so that they could sing while simultaneously playing the violin.2

Today, musicians around the world continue to apply their individual techniques to the violin.

Mariachi violinists, from the Latin American mariachi band, utilize varying vibrato techniques, slides, and occasional harmonics.3 Additionally, in India, musicians often use the violin as an alternative to traditional Indian string instruments. They hold the violin pointing downwards with the scroll at their left ankle which enables a freer left hand to employ wide shakes and slides, an ornamentation style known as gamakas.4 These examples prove that a global influence on the violin is undeniable.

1 Peter Cooke, “The Violin-Instrument of Four Continents,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Violin, ed. Robin Stowell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 234. The lira, or lira da braccio, a pear-shaped bowed instrument, was a 15th-century fiddle with three to five melody strings and two off-the-fingerboard drone strings. It was an Italian predecessor of the violin. 2 Ibid., 236. The term ‘epic’ has been used within European literary tradition to refer to works such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. 3 Ibid., 245. 4 The term “gamaka” means “ornamented note” in Sanskrit which is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism. Bruno Nettl, The Western impact on world music: change, adaptation, and survival (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985). 1 Human travel promoted the propagation of the violin over time. The violin gradually became popular in Europe at the end of the sixteenth century. From there, the violin spread further east with the

Arabic trade to Asia. In the seventeenth century, the Portuguese brought violins to Malaysia, Indonesia and India.5 In the late seventeenth century, European missionaries brought the violin to China. While cultural musical styles have developed across the world, as noted above, a violin tradition with its own techniques and stylistic characteristics began in China since traditional Chinese instrumental music influenced many Chinese violin compositions.6

Achieving authenticity in contemporary Chinese music is important because music carries cultural and historical information as well as speaks for itself. In order to play in an authentic manner, modern-day violinists need to be able to know the differences between the Western classical style and the Traditional Chinese style and achieve performing fluency in the latter. To reach this goal, specific technical exercises must be established.

This dissertation specifically addresses Chinese stylistic characteristics used in the contemporary Chinese violin repertoire as well as serves as a practical guide to present-day violinists who wish to perform these types of compositions. A number of exercises are included to demonstrate the principles of three main violin techniques that appear frequently in the violin music in the Chinese style: slides, chords, and pizzicati. These techniques are influenced not only by traditional Chinese bowed string instruments, but also by plucked string, wind, and percussion instruments.7

5 Cooke, “Four Continents,” 246-247. 6 Yi Huang, “The Performing Arts of Chinese Violin,” Writer Magazine 12 (2014): 199. 7 Qiannan Chong, “Treatise on The Violin Performance Techniques Borrowed and Absorbed from Traditional Chinese Instruments,” Music Space 24 (2015): 94. 2 Overview of the Violin in China

Most evidence indicates that the travel of European missionaries was a primary reason that the violin spread to China, but scholars argue as to who first brought the violin to China.8 Chinese musicologist Qian Renping stated that Joachim Bouvet (1656-1730), a French Catholic missionary, may have been the first person to bring the violin to China.9 One of the earliest records of the violin in

China found in The History of the Catholic Missionary During the Reign of Kangxi Emperor and

Qianlong Emperor by Bouvet who arrived in China in 1686. In Bouvet’s book, however, the author described Tomás Pereira (1645-1708), a Portuguese Jesuit missionary, who played a Chinese folk song on his violin for the Kangxi Emperor (1654-1722) in January of 1673.10 The emperor was impressed by Pereira’s playing and was amazed that he could play a Chinese folk song on the violin especially since it was Pereira’s first time in China.11 Hence, according to Bouvet’s account, Pereira was the first person who brought the violin to China, which had been thirteen years before Bouvet. Later, more

European missionaries came to China with violins. Some of them, such as Theodoricus Pedrini (1670-

1746) of Italy, Florian Bahr (1706-1771) of Germany, and Jean Joseph de Grammont (1736-1812) of

France, were employed as music teachers in the emperor’s palace.12

After foreign missionaries introduced the violin to the Chinese in the late seventeenth century, it was scientists, rather than musicians, who adopted, practiced, and popularized the violin in China. For example, Li Siguang (1889-1971) was a well-known Chinese geologist. In addition to discovering the fundamental theory of China’s geo-mechanics, he was an amateur violinist. In 1920, after he finished

8 Qiong Tang, “The Development of The Violin Music in China” (MA thes., Central Conservatory of Music, 1993). 9 For a better understanding, the Chinese names in the content are in the Traditional Chinese order, the family name being listed before the given name, however the footnotes still follow the Western tradition order, the given name being listed before the family name. 10 Zhenggen Li, “The Changing of Aesthetic Characteristics of the Violin Music in China,” The New Voice of Yue-fu (The Academic Periodical of Shenyang Conservatory of Music) 1 (2014): 222. 11 Lu An, “The Development of The Violin in China,” Xi Jiang Wen Yi, June 3, 2015, accessed October 11, 2016, http://qikan.com/brand/F5C938BB-7349-4975-B9B1-12E9B9EE8856. 12 Xuan Tang, “The Development of Chinese Violin Music After 1850: Synthesis of Western Compositional Style and Chinese Folk Tradition. the Art of Ah Bing, Tian-Hua Liu, and Si-Cong Ma” (DMA diss., University of Houston, 2007). 3 his study at the University of Birmingham, he took a short trip to Europe.13 When he traveled to Paris, he composed a piece for the violin inspired by a Chinese poem, Difficult Roads by the famous poet Li

Bai (701–762). The year 1920 became remarkable in the Chinese violin history because Difficult Roads was the earliest violin piece composed by a Chinese musician.14

Li Siguang’s Difficult Roads was not only one of the first Chinese violin compositions but also was one of the earliest attempts to combine Western classical music and Chinese culture. The piece is the most characteristic of the Western classical style with only the poem on which it is based on being

Chinese. The Western style is evident in the manuscript; the scales and sequences in the violin part are typical of the violin repertoire of the Western Classical tradition (see Appendix B, the manuscript of

Difficult Roads by Li Siguang).15 Difficult Roads is an excellent example that it is possible to combine

Western and Chinese elements for musical purposes.16

Like Li Siguang, Situ Mengyan (1888-1954) was also a scientist. He was the earliest person who designated the violin to represent Yue music, a local instrumental music tradition popular in southern China.17 In the early twentieth century, Situ studied at the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology and majored in mechanical engineering. Reportedly, while studying in Boston, he took violin lessons from a noted musician Eugen Gruenberg, a violin professor at the New England

Conservatory. Situ invented some new violin techniques such as specific bowings, fingerings, and sound effects on the violin to perform the Yue music in order to match its authentic sound. Most notably, Situ used the violin to record the famous Yue pieces, such as Yanzi Lou and Xiaoxiang Qin

13 Quan Yuan, “The History of Chinese violin compositions in the 20th century,” Henan Social Sciences 5 (2013):98. 14 Xiaoli Chen, “On Performing skills and characters of Chinese Violin Works,” Fujian Arts 5 (2009):51. 15 Li, “The Violin Music,” 222. The manuscript of Difficult Roads was found in the home of Youmei Xiao, a noted Chinese music educator and composer, also known as “the father of modern Chinese music education.” The score only contains the solo violin part. 16 Yuan, “The Violin Compositions,” 98. 17 The “yue” (粤) here refer to Cantonese language and area. Yuan, “The Violin Compositions,” 98. 4 Sorrow (see Appendix C, Xiaoxiang Qin Sorrow in Numbered Musical Notation). When recordings of these pieces were released, they instantaneously became bestsellers in China.18

In the late 1920s and into the 1930s, many Chinese musicians who had studied abroad came back to China and contributed to the development of violin performance in China. A few of these notable musicians were Huang Zi (1904-1938) who studied in the United States, and Xian Xinghai

(1905-1945) and Ma Sicong (1912-1987) both of whom studied in France. Ma is considered the founder of violin education in China. He was the first president and violin professor of the Central

Conservatory in China. According to the existing literature, Ma composed over twenty violin pieces and at least two concertos for the violin.19 Today, some of Ma’s compositions are still frequently performed in China. His most popular work is called A Tune of Homesickness, the second piece from his Inner Mongolia Suite, also called Suiyuan Suite. The main theme is based on a folk song from

Suiyuan, a historical province of China that now belongs to Inner Mongolia.20

It is important to note that during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), Western classical instruments were widely forbidden in mainland China. However, Jiang Qing, the wife of Chairman

Mao, quickly noticed the broad range and expressive sound quality of the violin. Consequently, she highly recommended using the violin instead of the erhu, a two-string traditional Chinese instrument, to accompany the Revolutionary Opera, a typical newly-composed Beijing opera used as political propaganda.21 As a result, the violin was permitted as an acceptable instrument after 1967 and continued to be used in the development of Chinese repertoire during the Cultural Revolution.22

18 Li, “The Violin Music,” 223-224. 19 Jianjun Liu and Jingwei Zhang, Chronicle of Ma Sisong (1912-1987) (Beijing: China Federation of Literary and Art Circles Publishing Corp, 2004). 20 Yuan, “The Violin Compositions,” 99. 21 The China revolutionary opera refers to the model operas (Chinese: 样板戏) planned and engineered during the Cultural Revolution by Jiang Qing, the wife of Chairman Mao Zedong. They were considered revolutionary and modern in terms of thematic and musical features when compared with traditional operas. 22 Li, “The Violin Music,” 230-31. 5 Since the mid-twentieth century, Chinese composers have written many violin pieces in the Chinese style. Most of them are based on a folk song or pentatonic melody with some Chinese elements. One outstanding example is The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto composed in 1958 by Chen Gang and He

Zhanhao. This piece is a single movement concerto written in a sonata form.23 Contemporary Chinese composers are still discovering new ways to combine Western and Chinese musical ideas. For instance,

Violin Concerto No. 1 composed by Guo Wenjing (b. 1956) combines twelve-tone serialism and elements from the traditional Chinese opera – more specifically, the Beijing and Sichuan operas. The most famous contemporary Chinese composer Tan Dun (b. 1957), composed a string quartet, Feng Ya

Song, that also combines materials from the Chinese opera, folk song, as well as music from the ancient

Chinese literati. The ancient literati were aristocratic scholar-gentlemen who belonged to a special class that was second only to the royal family.24 In music, the literati cultivated the art of composing and performing sophisticated music based on poetic or philosophical associations, which was typically played solo.25 Tan’s Feng Ya Song is named after Shijing, or the Book of Songs, which is a collection of three different types of songs (Feng, Ya, and Song) originating in the Shang dynasty (1600-1000

BC) and the early and middle Zhou period (ca. 1000 -221 BC).26 The above examples illustrate that over the years and with great effort by many pioneers, the violin became one of the major instruments in Chinese contemporary life.

While the violin literature was in the process of developing in China, musicians formed two different schools of thought in regards to writing music for the violin. One school advocated a complete replacement of a traditional string instrument, such as erhu, with the modern violin, which was seen as a superior instrument capable of expressing all the subtleties of the traditional Chinese music. The other

23 Siyuan Li, “Analyzing the Function of Sliding Notes in the Butterfly Lovers’ Violin Concerto,” Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 5 (2013): 79. 24 Yibing Zhuge, “Position and Spirit of Scholar-Bureaucrats in Song Dynasty,” Journal of Renmin University of China 15.1 (2001):107 25 Liu, Fang. “A Brief Introduction to Traditional Chinese Classical Music - The Differences and Common Ground between Classical (literati) and Folk Traditions from a Historical Perspective.” Last modified May 6, 2007. http://www.philmultic.com/English/Chinese_music.html. 26 Li, “The Violin Music,” 232. 6 recommended absorbing the Western musical style while retaining only some of the Chinese elements.

Situ was an advocate of the former. He wanted to simply substitute the violin for the erhu leaving the structure and accompaniment of the music essentially untouched.27 The opposition was led by Ma, who worked to keep the original Western composition structure while adding Chinese elements.28

However, both sides agreed to use Chinese elements in their compositions as doing so was the most natural way for Chinese composers to create music.

Review of Literature

In the Western world, several scholars have studied the violin’s role in China. In his book,

Great Masters of the Violin, musicologist and violinist Boris Schwarz reviewed the documentary film,

From Mao to Mozart: Isaac Stern in China. Schwarz was surprised by the amount of talent the young

Chinese musicians featured in the film possessed. Regarding the Chinese violinists who won the

Menuhin International Violin Competition in 1983, Schwarz stated, “each of them had a distinct personality.”29 In addition, Chinese scholars and students who studied overseas wrote several essays and dissertations in English. The article, “The Characteristics of the Violin Arts Developed in China,” was written by Cheng Shen. It describes the history of the Chinese violin development, the characteristics of Chinese music, and the influence of traditional Chinese instruments on Chinese violin music. Jiang Yuli’s The Chinese Violin Concerto: The Butterfly Lovers by He Zhanhao (1933) and

Chen Gang (1935) for Violin and Orchestra was a dissertation about the musical background of The

Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto that gave a number of brief examples of techniques used in the piece. A dissertation by Tang Xuan, The Development of Chinese Violin Music After 1850: Synthesis of Western

Compositional Style and Chinese Folk Tradition - the Art of Ah Bing, Tian-Hua Liu, and Si-Cong Ma

27 Li, “The Violin Music,” 223-224. 28 Yuan, “The Violin Compositions,” 98-99. 29 Boris Schwarz, Great Masters of the Violin: From Corelli and Vivaldi to Stern, Zukerman, and Perlman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 620. 7 focused on the three Chinese musicians and their compositions. These treatises provided a basic introduction to Chinese music and described traditional instruments as well as some pieces written for them.

Meanwhile, in mainland China, local scholars also wrote papers discussing the Chinese violin style. For instance, Cong Qiannan in the Treatise on the Violin Performance Techniques Borrowed and

Absorbed from Traditional Chinese Instruments claimed that traditional Chinese instruments influenced some modern-day violin techniques, giving short examples of such influences. The

Performing Arts of Chinese Violin by Huang Yi was another thesis that described some specific violin techniques. In the essay, The Changing of Aesthetic Characteristics of the Violin Music in China, Li

Zhenggen’s research focused on the Chinese distinct aesthetic characteristics. Conceiving of Chinese

School of the Violin and Thinking on Nationalization Issues by Zhao Chun concentrated on the emergence of the Chinese violin school and the nationalization of violin music in China. A journal article by Lu An, “The Development of the Violin in China,” discussed the history and development of the compositional style in Chinese violin repertoire.

Most research of violin performance practice and composition in China focuses on notable composers who have contributed to the development of Chinese violin music, such as Ma Sicong. The

Central Conservatory, one of the top music conservatories in China, established the “Ma Sicong

Research Association,” named after its first president. This association has published influential academic works, such as The Discussion of Ma Sicong, that analyze in detail the modernization,

Westernization, and nationalization of instrumentation in Ma’s compositions.30

Furthermore, there exist several books of violin scales and etudes that are based on Chinese tunes. Liu Zhao wrote a book on the violin pentatonic scales, published in 1998 (see Appendix D). In

30 Ma Sicong research association, ed., Discussion of Ma Sicong (Beijing: People's Music Publishing House, 1997), 1. 8 the preface to this publication, Sui Keqiang, one of the foremost violin professors in China, wrote that such scales are useful for violin training in Chinese style. Two examples of the folk-tune-based methods are The Violin Course of Chinese Works - as Suzuki Method by Liu Chao and 42 Violin Etudes in Chinese Tone by Zhang Qiang. However, these etudes are wholly based on Western classical violin tradition and lack a description of Chinese techniques necessary for playing the Chinese repertoire.

The exercises presented in this dissertation will provide the players with several techniques based on Traditional Chinese music that they can incorporate into their playing to perform in a more authentic manner.

9 CHAPTER 2

THE FEATURES OF CHINESE MUSIC TECHNIQUES

Two primary traditional methods of learning how to play Chinese music are oral teaching and using repertoire – rather than etudes and exercises – to teach techniques.31 These two methods have existed in China for thousands of years. On the other side, the Western method to learn techniques in classical music also incorporates scales, etudes, and other exercises, in addition to the repertoire. To make daily practice more efficient, contemporary Chinese instrumental musicians began to play scales and etudes in the Western classical tradition in order to focus on some specific technical challenges.

For instance, some erhu etudes are transcribed from violin method books such as Heinrich Ernst

Kayser’s 36 Elementary Progressive Studies, Op. 20.32 The exercises that I present in this document will continue in this vein but will include Chinese musical elements. Influenced by the great classical violin pedagogues, such as Ševčík and Schradieck, this research focuses on the technical and musical elements of slides, chords and pizzicati with suggested fingerings.

Slides

This paper will address the three most important Chinese-style slides: the rotating slide, the

“overtone slide” (flute air slide), and the slide with auxiliary fingers.33 The slide is a prominent special feature in traditional Chinese music because it imitates the way that people speak in the Chinese languages and imparts strong emotions. The official Chinese language, Mandarin, which is based on the Beijing dialect, has four tones plus one neutral tone as shown in Table 1.34 The same pronunciation

31 Piaomiao-sanren, Jun 19, 2012, “About ‘using repertoire to teach techniques’ in Guqin,” The Piaomiao-sanren Blog, October 30, 2016, http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4493e41701016fyr.html. 32 Zuyin Fan, “Do not Lose the Traditional Way to Teach Chinese Instruments,” China Arts News, October 23, 2013, accessed October 30, 2016, http://yule.sohu.com/20131023/n388748571.shtml. 33 Auxiliary fingers: a sliding technique, besides the main sliding finger, to slide also with one or two additional fingers. 34 The First National People 's Congress of the People' s Republic of China, Scheme of the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet (Beijing: Chinese Character Reform Committee,1958), 299. 10 of a word when used with different tones has different meanings depending on whether it is a flat tone, a slide from a lower to a higher pitch, a slide from a higher to a lower pitch, or a combination of pitch changes. Each pronunciation of Chinese characters can be spelled using the alphabet in a certain way.

This is known as the “pinyin” system.

Table 1: Tone Categories

Tone number 1 2 3 4 5

Description high rising low (dipping) falling neutral

Pitch level 55 35 214 51 -

Pinyin diacritic ā á ǎ à A

Tone name yīn píng yáng píng shǎng qù qīng sheng

（in Chinese） (阴平) （阳平） （赏） （去） （轻声）

By applying this tonal system to music, there are more possibilities in tonality that can make music more sensitive and nuanced.35 This is the reason Chinese violin compositions usually emphasize slides. For instance, the erhu’s slides are imitations of Chinese tones: sliding up emulates Tone 2, sliding down emulates Tone 4 (Table 1). Playing with the tonality of the Chinese language on the violin can help violinists to master Chinese-style slides. If one uses a notation to show the four tones, it may resemble Exercise 5 (page 25).

When musicians are familiar with the four tones, they can try to play a sentence. For example, if one wishes to say “it’s a nice day today” in Chinese, it will be: “今 (Tone 1: 55) 天 (Tone 1: 55) 天

(Tone 1: 55) 气 (Tone 4: 51) 很 (Tone 2: 35) 好 (Tone 3: 214)” as in Exercise 6 (page

25). The pitch levels are numbered for every character.

35 Fang Liu, “A Brief Introduction to Traditional Chinese Classical Music - The Differences and Common Ground between Classical (literati) and Folk Traditions from a Historical Perspective,” last modified May 6, 2007, http://www.philmultic.com/English/Chinese_music.html. 11

Exercise 6 is just one example; the player can “speak” any Chinese words or sentence with their violin. If the violinist does not know Chinese, s/he can play any combination of the four tones as an interesting game. The purpose of this training is to become familiar with the flexibility of slides in the

Chinese style. Once players can easily “speak Chinese” through their violins, their performance will become more expressive and authentic.

Although Western musicians may be familiar with the slides characteristic of Tones 2 and 4, the rotating slide that emulates Tone 3 is typically unfamiliar to them.36 A good example of the rotating slide is in The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto, measure 20 of the violin part (Example 1). The notes B to D and then back to B is an example of the rotating slide that is played with the same finger from one note to another note, up or down, and returning to the starting note. (Exercises 1-4, page 24) In Chinese violin pieces, the most frequently used slides are in the interval of a third, or, less frequently, in the interval of a second. For instance, in The Butterfly Lovers’ Violin Concerto, the slides in the interval of a third appear eighty-four times and the slides in the interval of a second appear only nine times throughout the piece.37

Example 1: Chen Gang and He Zhenhao, The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto, mm. 20-22

Some slides in this concerto are borrowed from Chinese wind instruments. For example, there are at least two types of slides for the Chinese bamboo flute: sliding with fingers or sliding with air

36 Jiashu Yan, “Analyzing the Function of Sliding Notes in Erhu Performance,” DAZHONG WENYI, 14 (2012): 25. 37 Siyuan Li, “Analyzing the Function of Sliding Notes in the Butterfly Lovers’ Violin Concerto,” Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition) 5 (2013): 75-79. 12 flow. The former occurs when performers change finger positions. The latter occurs when flute performers blow air differently to change the pitch.38 In Example 2, the player imitates a light air slide of the Chinese bamboo flute by sliding from F to A with the third finger. For clarity, this slide is named the “overtone slide” as it moves from a regular stopped note to a harmonic note.39 (Exercise 7, page

26) Aesthetically speaking, the spoken Chinese language often has the accent at the beginning of a sentence. Thus, sometimes the beginning of the slide needs to be emphasized by using a faster bow speed.

Example 2: Chen Gang and He Zhenhao, The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto, mm. 18-19

Slides can also imitate plucked-string instruments. In Example 3, measure 27 to 30 of Ambush from All (Ten) Sides, the player slides with auxiliary fingers to the D to imitate the sound of the pipa, a traditional Chinese plucked-string instrument which normally has four strings. In other words, one must slide up or down with extra neighboring fingers to make a special rich sound. (Exercise 8, page

26)

Example 3: Yang Baozhi, Ambush from All (Ten) Sides, mm. 27-30

38 “Chinese Bamboo flute Portamento,” Last modified October 30, 2014, http://baike.baidu.com/view/591625.htm. 39 The term “overtone slide” is created by the author.

13 Besides instruments being used as a medium to imitate the spoken language, other elements such as the elite society, or literati, and its poetic tradition also influenced Chinese music.40 The

Chinese literati dominated the government and local life until the end of the nineteenth century.41 The music that they composed is deeply related to ancient Chinese poetry, which was always sung. The instrument that belonged to the literati is called the qin; Chinese people now also call it the gu qin (gu meaning ancient). This notation of the qin, established 1500 years ago, is a unique form of tablature that is one of the oldest notations still in use today. This notation created by the Chinese literati uses modified Chinese characters to show the fingering, position, and playing techniques, and especially the details of each slide.42 Example 4 shows the beginning of The Moon over a Mountain Pass in qin character notation with the corresponding numbered musical notation because the numbered musical notation alone is incapable of capturing numerous complex slides.43 Slides are the most important stylistic feature of the qin music. The qin’s strings are very long and the distances between notes are far.

Consequently, the slides are often played by the same finger sliding along the strings to create musical expression.

40 Fang, “Chinese Classical Music.” 41 Peifeng Zhang, “Development and Idea Definition of the Ancient Chinese Term— Scholar-Bureaucrats,” Journal of Tianjin University (Social Sciences) 1 (2006). 42 Chow, “Twenty Chinese Instruments.” 43 “The Moon over a Mountain Pass,” last modified November 18, 2014, http://www.qupu123.com/qiyue/guzhengguqin/p187662.html. 14 Example 4: The Beginning of The Moon over a Mountain Pass in Character-Tablature (top line) and

Numbered Musical Notation (the middle line) with the original poem (bottom line)

Yang Baozhi transcribed The Moon over a Mountain Pass for the violin. As the qin’s slides are highly complicated to imitate on the violin, Yang suggests to listen to the qin music as much as possible in order to measure and evaluate the sliding speed and how far every slide should be for the violin version.

Chords

Similar to music in other cultures, traditional Chinese music often features revered local historic legends and events. Based on the real story of a famous Chinese hero, Ambush from All (Ten) Sides depicts the last battle of a prominent warlord from the late Qin dynasty, Xiang Yu (232–202 BC). In the battle of Gaixia, Xiang Yu was ambushed by his opponent Liu Bang (256 or 247–195 BC), the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty. After his defeat, Xiang Yu committed suicide. This piece was originally written for the pipa, but has since been adapted for the violin. The name pipa comes from the method that the musicians use to play the instrument. The word pi refers to the technique of

15 plucking strings outward with the right hand, and the word pa refers to the opposite motion.44 The earliest extant published score of this piece appeared in The Southern and Northern Styles Secret Pipa

Spectrum in 1819. Prior to this version, the piece was preserved by the oral tradition alone; it was updated and improved upon by many anonymous pipa masters from generation to generation through oral instruction.

The plucked chords at the beginning of Ambush from All (Ten) Sides narrate the two armies’ confrontation. The music portrays their efforts to accumulate strength for the battle.45 To play these chords and make them sound powerful and intense, pipa players use a technique called lun fu (the beginning of the first line in Example 5), followed by another technique called sao fu (the end of the last line in Example 5).46 Lun is an important right hand fingering technique for pipa, and can be found in almost any pipa music. It is similar to the guitar’s tremolo, in which each finger in turn plays a single note. Fu means to brush from left to right using the thumb to lead the hand forcefully and to pick four strings simultaneously. Lun fu combines both techniques in quick succession. Sao is the opposite of fu.

It means to sweep from right to left, using the index finger to lead the hand and to pluck all four strings at once. Sao fu is the combination of sao and fu. As an essential pipa technique, sao fu should be performed quickly, which produces an explosive and penetrating timbre.

Imitating the pipa’s lun fu technique on the violin is a multi-step process. Example 6 is the beginning of the violin score of the Ambush from All (Ten) Sides transcribed from the pipa version. The composer and transcriber, Yang Baozhi, suggests that the player use the ricochet technique to imitate lun and continue to play the chord strongly with a quick up-bow imitating fu to make them sound

44 Wayne Yunwei Chow, “Twenty Chinese instruments and Concerto East and West” (DMA diss., Louisiana State University, 1987). 45 Xiaoyan Xu, “Similarities and Differences between Famous Pipa Music ‘Ambush from All (ten) Sides’ and ‘King Chu Doffs His Armor,’” Journal of Literature and Art, August 29, 2016, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.chinawriter.com.cn/n1/2016/0829/c405175-28671766.html. 46 “Ambush from All (Ten) Sides,” last modified March 18, 2011, http://www.sooopu.com/html/117/117924.html. 16 powerful and intense. This bow stroke combines a down-bow ricochet followed by an up-bow stroke just like the pipa technique lun and fu. (Exercise 9-11, page 27)

Example 5: The Beginning of Ambush from All (Ten) Sides for Pipa by Anonymous in Numbered

Musical Notation47

47 This link is a simple explanation of how to read a numbered musical notation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbered_musical_notation. 17 Example 6: Yang Baozhi, Ambush from All (Ten) Sides, mm. 1-5

Pizzicati

Pizzicati in Chinese violin compositions are fairly diverse; in some cases, they imitate the sounds of plucked string instruments and in other cases, the sounds of certain wind and percussion instruments. The history of Chinese plucked string instruments, such as the pipa, encompasses a period of over two thousand years. In western China, there is also a popular lute-like plucked instrument called the dömbra, a two-string, long-necked lute of the Kazakhs of Central Asia.48 The Chinese

Kazakhs live in the Xinjiang province where the melody The Sun Shines on Taxkorgan (Tashkurgan) originates.49 In the score, the composer indicates that the violinist should play the pizzicato passages as

“dömbra-like.”50 (Example 7) In this piece, some editions suggest starting the pizzicato passage with a downward motion. In my opinion, however, the player should utilize a technique called “nail pizzicato” to create a more percussive sound.51 The violinist will use the nail of his or her thumb to start the first chord on an upward motion, which is then followed by a quick downward motion to make the overall sound more like an arpeggio. (Exercise 12, page 28) In addition, to make a special, “dömbra-like” sound, it should be played on the fingerboard.

48 Mark Slobin and Razia Sultanova, “Dömbra,” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed December 19, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/46911. 49 The Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County (sometimes spelled Tashkurgan or Tashkorgan) is a county of Kashgar Prefecture in western Xinjiang, China. 50 Chinese Musicians Association, ed., Chinese Violin Masterpieces:1949-1979 (Beijing: People's Music Publishing House, 1980). 51 The term “nail pizzicato” and its method of execution is created by Professor Julia Bushkova. 18 Example 7: The Pizzicato passage from The Sun Shines on Taxkorgan (Tashkurgan), mm. 61-69

Pizzicato portraying a percussion instrument is used in the Dance of the Golden Snake, a popular ensemble piece for traditional mixed Chinese instruments transcribed by Nie Er (1912-1935), the composer of the Chinese national anthem. The melody of Dance of the Golden Snake comes from a

Traditional Chinese instrumental piece called Dao Ba Ban. It is spirited and passionate with sonorous and powerful percussion instruments.52 Example 8 (mm. 56-59) is a transition between repetitions of different themes from the edition by Zhou Zhongkang. These four measures show that all instruments play the exact same rhythmic pattern. The passage consists of two measures of quarter notes followed by a measure of a dotted eighth note with a sixteenth note and two eighth notes. The phrase concludes with a measure that starts with an eighth note rest, is followed by another eighth note, and ends with a quarter note.

Example 9 (mm. 46-51) is a violin solo piece transcribed by Situ Huacheng, the son of Situ

Mengyan. In mm. 47-50, the pizzicato passage imitates the percussion section of the original Chinese ensemble part in Example 8, mm. 56-59. When one compares these two examples, it becomes clear that the rhythmic patterns in these two transitions are the same. Therefore, in these measures the violin and

52 Weiyi Wang, “Nie Er’s the Dance of the Golden Snake,” People’s Music, 1(2001): 20-22.

19 piano actually imitate the whole ensemble including winds and percussion. In example 8, the percussion instruments consist of drums, cymbals, and gongs. However, Dance of the Golden Snake originally comes from Dao Ba Ban and belongs to a typical southern Chinese instrumental music style called jiangnan sizhu that utilizes different percussion instruments. As some jiangnan sizhu percussion instruments are made from wood, such as muyu, rather than metal, the pizzicato passage here needs to have a wooden sound. There is no down or up motion mark in most of the editions. I suggest using the same manner and movement of the finger and hand as for the “nail pizzicato” passage in The Sun

Shines on Tashkurgan, but with only an upward motion and with the speed of the arpeggio being faster.

(Exercise 13, page 28)

20 Example 8: Dance of the Golden Snake by Nie Er, mm. 56-61

21 Example 9: Dance of the Golden Snake Trans. Situ Huacheng, mm. 46-51

22 CHAPTER 3

PRACTICE GUIDES AND EXERCISES

The following exercises are not only preparatory exercises to be used while a violinist begins to learn certain pieces such as The Butterfly Lovers’ Concerto and Ambush from All (Ten) Sides. They are also meant to be used in daily practice to adapt these familiar violin techniques to a new style.

Each exercise is short and can be repeated as many times as needed; it serves as a building block toward the final goal of a smoothly executed phrase.

Slides

Exercises 1- 4 are for the same finger sliding between the interval of a second and the interval of a third in preparation of executing the rotating slide. There are several steps for practicing the slide.

All fingers can be utilized except the fourth one (the little finger), which normally sounds weaker than the others and, thus, is unlikely to be used in a piece. Before sliding, a musician needs to find the correct intonation by playing the top line of fingering in Exercise 1. Once the intonation is stable and secure, the player can start practicing the slides with the same finger (the bottom line fingering). The finger should shift up (towards the player) and down (away from the player) on the fingerboard. The hand does not need to slide too far from the previous position, even when sliding the interval of a third.

In this way, after reaching the higher note, the finger will come back easily. During the slide, the finger needs to touch the string with more pressure than one would with a glissando in the Western style, but all joints should remain very loose.

It would be most useful to practice these exercises in two steps. First, repeat the top note of each measure to make a preparation space between the up slides and the down slides as indicated in Exercise

1 and Exercise 2. When the left hand adjusts to these types of slides and is sufficiently relaxed while playing, it is time to practice Exercise 3 and Exercise 4. After completing the exercises in the first 23 position, the player should practice executing Exercises 1- 4 on all strings and in various positions. At a later stage, it is not necessary to play the exercises at the precise pitches, as the rotating slide, just like its corresponding Tone 3, does not reach a specific pitch in its “dipping” phase.

Exercise 1: Preparation of the Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Second

Exercise 2: Preparation of the Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Third

Exercise 3: The Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Second

Exercise 4: The Rotating Slide in the Interval of a Third

24 Exercise 5: Four Tones in Chinese

Exercise 6: One Sentence in Chinese

Exercise 7 and 8 are to be used to develop and master the “overtone slide” and the slide with auxiliary fingers. The player should first practice the “overtone slide,” which is a more basic slide from a stopped note to a harmonic note. This type of a slide should sound similar to a very light Western violin portamento.53 There are two versions of the “overtone slide”: sliding with only one finger to the harmonic note and back to the stopped note, (Exercise 7, upper fingerings) and using any two fingers to perform the slide. (Exercise 7, bottom fingerings) In the first version, the goal is to achieve a very light sound imitating the air slide of the bamboo flute. The second version is performed by starting the bottom note with the lower finger and, in the process of the slide, lowering down the higher finger (the fourth finger) onto the string and finishing the slide on the higher finger, while lifting the second finger off for the harmonic to sound unobstructed. (Exercise 7, m. 1, bottom fingerings) It is important to achieve a very smooth and unnoticeable blending of the lowered higher finger to the bottom finger that has started the motion. After this slide has become secure, the auxiliary fingers should be added to it.

(Exercise 8) For the slide with auxiliary fingers, the three higher fingers should be kept very close to the string and, once the slide has commenced from the bottom stopped note, all fingers should be

53 Robin Stowell. "Portamento (ii)." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, accessed June 13, 2017, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/53856. Portamento: a sliding from one pitch to another without distinguishing any of the intervening notes. 25 lowered onto the string simultaneously and unnoticeably during the upward motion of the hand. At the very end of the slide, the auxiliary fingers should be lifted while leaving only the fourth finger on the harmonic note. (Exercise 8, m. 1) The “overtone slide” with auxiliary fingers will result in a somewhat thicker, weightier, sound of the slide, which is much closer to the sound of the pipa or the erhu than a regular Western portamento. It is recommended to practice various finger combinations, while using slurs, as indicated in Exercise 8. This exercise should first start on a downbow and then should repeat starting with an upbow. (Exercise 8, upper line bowings) After this, a player should remove the slurs and use separate bows (détaché) beginning with a downbow and then again beginning with an upbow.

(Exercise 8, bottom line bowings)

Exercise 7: The Overtone Slides

Exercise 8: Slides with Auxiliary Fingers

Chords

Exercise 9 presents a special combination of techniques that includes chords and ricochet bowing in order to imitate the sounds of plucked instruments. The first two measures of Exercise 9 have a three-beat rest after the initial note to allow the performer to prepare for the next measure. Later,

26 one can practice with a one-beat rest (Exercise 9, mm. 3-4) and eventually eliminate the rest. (Exercise

9, mm. 5-6) The violinist can initially practice this bow stroke on a single open string. The player should then practice on two, three, and four strings and play every chord very quickly so that all the strings ring at almost the same time to build power. (Exercise 10) After practicing on open strings, the player can add the left-hand fingering measure by measure on the same bow strokes. (Exercise 11)

Left-hand pizzicato has been added to make it sound more like the pipa. (Exercise 11, mm 3-4) The pizzicato may be played by the third finger and on the E string. The player should pluck the string at the end of the up-bow, so the pizzicato can be heard more clearly at the end of the chord.

Exercise 9: Ricochet and Up-Bow Strokes on One Open String

Exercise 10: Ricochet Gradually Expanding to Chords on Open Strings

Exercise 11: Ricochet with Fingers and Left-Hand Pizzicato

27 Pizzicati

Exercise 12 and Exercise 13 both use the “nail pizzicato” technique. Exercise 12 begins with the upward motion, and then the subsequent chords are played in both downward and upward motions. For the most authentic imitation of the dömbra sound, the “nail pizzicato” chords in this exercise need to be practiced on the fingerboard.

Exercise 13 requires the violinist to play with an upward motion only. If the player finds a chord difficult to execute with the left hand, s/he may practice the right-hand technique on open strings first and add the left-hand fingers later.

Exercise 12: Pizzicato for The Sun Shines on Taxkorgan

Exercise 13: Pizzicato for the Dance of the Golden Snake

28 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

When the violin arrived in China, musicians used it to both modernize their existing music and to Westernize the original Chinese compositions. One cannot say whether modernization or

Westernization may become more influential in the future, but it is certain that the violin carries through the new ideas.

The three violin techniques discussed in this dissertation, slides, chords, and pizzicati, appear in many Chinese violin compositions. The author of this document created exercises for practicing these techniques in a few representative compositions; similar concepts may be applied to a broader Chinese repertoire. There are many other types of special violin techniques used in modern-day Chinese compositions. The author believes that the information presented in this paper helps violinists find ways to practice technically challenging material of the contemporary Chinese repertoire more efficiently by creating their own exercises that combine the Western technical approach with the deeper understanding of Chinese musical heritage.

The examples in this document demonstrate that the violin, which has the capacity to merge various cultural and musical styles, is a cross-cultural vehicle. The musical flexibility and sonority of the violin allows it to be suitable for many styles in the hands of able musicians everywhere. This is the reason Peter Cooke claims that “no other musical instrument has until recent years been so widely used among all classes throughout the world as the violin.”54

54 Cooke, “Four Continents,” 234. 29

APPENDIX A

TRANSLATIONS OF ORIGINAL CHINESE NAMES BY THE AUTHOR

30 Table A.1: Translations of the Titles of the Musical Works and Composers/Transcribers

Title Composer/Trans. Title Composer/Trans. A Tune of Homesickness Ma, Sicong 思乡曲 马思聪 Suiyuan Suite/ Inner Mongolia Ma, Sicong 内蒙组曲/绥 马思聪 Suite 远组曲 The Sun Shines on Taxkorgan Chen, Gang 阳光照耀着喀 陈刚 (Tashkurgan) 什库尔干 Dance of the Golden Snake Nie, Er 金蛇狂舞 聂耳 Difficult Road Li, Siguang 行路难 李四光 The Moon over a Mountain Pass Yang, Baozhi 关山月 杨宝智 Ambush from All (Ten) Sides Yang, Baozhi 十面埋伏 杨宝智

Table A.2: Translations of the Names of the Original Chinese Instruments

Chinese Bamboo flute 竹笛 Dömbra 冬不拉 Erhu 二胡 Muyu 木鱼 Pipa 琵琶 Qin/Guqin 琴／古琴

Table A.3: Translations of Other Terms

Dao Ba Ban 倒八板 Feng, Ya, Song 风 雅 颂 Gaixia 垓下 Guo, Wenjing 郭文景 Han Dynasty 汉朝 Huang, Zi 黄自 Jiangnan Sizhu 江南丝竹 Kangxi 康熙

31 Li, Bai 李白 Liu, Bang 刘邦 Lun Fu 轮拂 Ma, Sicong 马思聪 Ma Sicong Research Association 马思聪研究会 Oral teaching to inspire deep understanding 口传心授 Pinyin 拼音 Qin Dynasty 秦朝 Qing Dynasty 清朝 Sao Fu 扫拂 Shang Dynasty 商 Shijing 诗经 Sichuan Opera 川剧 Situ, Huacheng 司徒华城 Situ, Mengyan 司徒梦岩 “Southern and Northern Styles Secret Pipa Spectrum” 《南北派秘本琵琶谱真传》 Tan, Dun 谭盾

The History of the Catholic Missionary During the Reign of 《清康乾两帝与天主教传教 Kangxi Emperor and Qianlong Emperor 史》 Using repertoire to teach techniques 以曲代功 Xian, Xinghai 冼星海 Xiang, Yu 项羽 Xiaoxiang Qin Sorrow 潇湘琴怨 Xiao, Youmei 萧友梅 Yan Zi Lou/Yin Chee Lau/The Swallow Building 燕子楼 Zhou Period 周 Zhou, Zhongkang 周仲康 Yue music 粤乐

32 Table A.4: Translations of the Chinese Original References

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Zhuge, Yibing. “Position and Spirit of Scholar- 诸葛忆兵. Bureaucrats in Song Dynasty.” Journal of Renmin 宋代士大夫与士大夫精神[J].中国人民 University of China 15.1 (2001):107-112. 大学学报, 2001(15.1):107-112.

Table A.5: Translations of the Treatises and Scores’ Original Chinese Titles

China Music Score Network. “Xiaoxiang Qin Sorrow.” 简谱粤曲《潇湘琴怨》谢杰裘记谱.中 Last modified December 10, 2016. 国曲谱网, 2010. http://www.qupu123.com/xiqu/qita/p23775.html. Chinese Musicians Association, ed. Chinese Violin 中国音乐家协会编辑部.小提琴曲选(19 Masterpieces:1949-1979. Beijing: People's 49-1979) [M].北京:中国音乐家协会, Music Publishing House, 1980. 1980. Liu, Chao. The Violin Course of Chinese Works as 刘朝.中国作品小提琴教程－铃木同步 Suzuki Method. Shanghai: Shanghai Music 学习[M].上海:上海音乐出版社, 2012. Publishing House, 2012. Liu, Zhao. The Violin Pentatonic Scales. Beijing: China 刘昭.小提琴五声音阶练习体系[M]. Youth Press,1998. 北京:中国青年出版社，1998. People's Music Publishing House, ed. Popular Violin 人民音乐出版社编辑部.通俗小提琴曲 Music Selection. Beijing: People's Music 选[M].北京:人民音乐出版社, 1995. Publishing House, 1995. Yang, Baozhi. The Violin Introduction and 杨宝智.小提琴入门与提高[M]. Improvement. Beijing: Blue Sky Press, 2003. 北京:蓝天出版社, 2003. Zhang, Qiang. 42 Violin Etudes in Chinese Tone. 张强.中国音调小提琴练习曲42首[M]. Guangzhou: World Book Publisher Guangdong 广州: 世界图书出版广东有限公司, LLC, 2012. 2012.

35

APPENDIX B

THE MANUSCRIPT OF DIFFICULT ROADS

36 The Manuscript of Difficult Roads by Li Siguang55

55 Renping Qian, Chinese violin music (Changsha: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2001),82.

37

APPENDIX C

THE MUSIC SCORE OF XIAOXIANG QIN SORROW

38 Xiaoxiang Qin Sorrow, Anonymous, in Numbered Musical Notation56

56 “Xiaoxiang Qin Sorrow,” last modified December 10, 2016, http://www.qupu123.com/xiqu/qita/p23775.html.

39

APPENDIX D

THE VIOLIN PENTATONIC SCALES BY LIU ZHAO

40 The Violin Pentatonic Scales Published in 1998 by Liu Zhao

41 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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46