A SUPPLEMENTARY BOOK OF CHINESE

FOR THE SUZUKI STUDENT

D.M.A. DOCUMENT

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Nicole Marie Charles, M.Mus.

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2010

D.M.A. Document Committee:

Professor Katherine Borst Jones, Advisor

Professor James Hill

Professor Udo Will

Copyright by

Nicole Marie Charles

2010

i. ABSTRACT

Created by Toshio Takahashi and Shinichi Suzuki, Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 contains a variety of music for the beginner flutist. Children‘s , , and romantic and from , France, America, and Germany provide beautiful tunes for the students to learn. Furthermore, beautiful sound is taught through tonalization, and beautiful character through strong relationships among the parent, teacher, and child.

Having taught Suzuki flute classes at the Ohio Contemporary Chinese School

(OCCS) since 2003, I‘ve had the opportunity to learn about the beautiful .

But I have found that many children of Chinese descent have very little exposure to traditional Chinese music and children‘s songs. Due to historical patterns in of disposing or recycling music, many of their parents do not know many Chinese songs (at least those without political undertones). The itself does not contain any

Chinese songs.

The purpose of this document is to provide a supplementary book of Chinese flute music for my students at the OCCS, one tailored to coincide with the pedagogical points of Suzuki Flute School Volume 1. Not only will this supplementary book provide a unique genre of music for my students, but it will also aim to preserve and promote traditional Chinese music within the Chinese-American culture. ii

Dedication

This document is dedicated to those who nurture first and teach second.

My life wouldn‘t be the same without .

iii

Acknowledgments

My husband, you have given me so much support. You have been there every step of the way, moving away from all your friends and family to come to Ohio, and never complained once. I am beyond lucky to have you in my life. Mrs. Jones, you are the reason I came to OSU. You inspire me every day to be a better teacher, performer, leader, and warrior. Thank you for letting me make my own mistakes and being there to guide me down the right path. I give many thanks to Professor Will for taking the time to teach me about the and Chinese music, and to help me form my ideas for my book. I am still not that great at the dizi, but I will keep practicing! Thanks also to my committee members Professor Haddock, Professor Hill, and Dr. Atkinson for guiding me throughout the years. I would also like to thank Dr. Takeaki Miyamae for his continuous support of my ideas and Suzuki training: you have taught me so much and I am so grateful to be able to call you my friend. To Max , you gave me the chance to teach when no one else gave me the time of day. Sundays are my favorite days thanks to you. Lan Bloch,

Henry , and all other OCCS administrators who have helped along the way—I am so grateful for your support in times of need. Susan Davis, you inspired me to teach and

iv you are one of the most loving people I know. Ted Richardson, my high school director, you were like a Dad to me. Mrs. Bilyeu, I can‘t believe what you had to put up with during our lessons—you came into my life at just the right moment. Dr. Terry

Austin, I would not be here unless you had shown faith in my audition for Governor‘s

School. My world changed forever that day! Dr. Guerard, a copy of my diploma will be in the mail shortly! To all of my students and parents, especially those who have helped me with this journey: Ma Yun, Jack and his family, Zhang, Yan Zhou, and Ming

Yu. I know there are so many more, thank you all so much. Special thanks to Mitch

Imhoff and Uncle Bobby for your help in this endeavor with proofreading, and Ian and Fanghong Yu for your translating (often last minute!) abilities. To my friends Kim,

Jenny, Suzanne, and Jason….thanks for being a part of my life. Finally, thanks to my parents and siblings—you all had to hear some good flute days and some not-so-good flute days at one point or another…your love is with me always.

v

VITA

March 21, 1979 ...... Born----Monroeville, Pennsylvania

May, 2001 ...... B.M. Flute Performance, Virginia

Commonwealth University

June, 2004…………………………………...M.M. Flute Performance, The Ohio State

University

July 2003 ...... Suzuki Certification Book 1

August 2004 ...... Suzuki Certification Book 2

2004---Present ...... Suzuki Flute Class Teacher,

Ohio Contemporary Chinese School

July 2005 ...... Suzuki Certification Book 3

July 2006 ...... Suzuki Certification Book 5

2008---Present………………………………Applied Flute Teacher,

Muskingum University

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Dedication ...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv VITA ...... vi List of Tables ...... x List of Figures ......

CHAPTERS

CHAPTER 1: THE OHIO CONTEMPORARY CHINESE SCHOOL (OCCS) AND MY SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENTS ...... 1

CHAPTER 2: CHINESE ...... 5 I. Legendary Period, ca. 27th-21st Centuries B.C...... 5 II. Xia Dynasty, ca. 21st-16th Centuries B.C...... 9 III.The Beginning of Chinese Music: ca. 16th-11th Centuries B.C. 10 IV. and the Warring States, 1075-256 B.C...... 12 V. Dynasty, 221-207 B.C. and Dynasty, 206 B.C.- 220 A.D...... 15 VI. China‘s Dark Ages: (220-265 A.D.), Dynasty (265-420 A.D.), and Northern-Southern Dynasty (420-589 A.D.) ...... 18 VII. Reunification: Dynasty (581-618 A.D.), (618-907 A.D.) . 21 VIII. Dynasties (960-1279 A.D.), The Rise of the , and the (1271-1368 A.D.) ...... 24

vii

IX. The Last Golden Age: The (1368-1644 A.D.) and (1644-1911 A.D.) ...... 27 X. The Republican Period (1912-Present) ...... 30 XI. Modern China ...... 33

CHAPTER 3: CHINESE WIND INSTRUMENTS ...... 35 I. Air Reeds ...... 36 II. Reeds ...... 46 III. Free Reeds ...... 51

CHAPTER 4: THE DIZI ...... 56 I. Function ...... 56 II. Performance Practice ...... 59

CHAPTER 5: BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: A BRIEF SUZUKI FLUTE SCHOOL VOLUME 1 OVERVIEW, CORRESPONDING SUPPLEMENTARY CHARTS, AND FINDING CHINESE SONGS ...... 63 I. A Brief Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Overview ...... 63 Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Chart Analysis ...... 68 Chinese Supplementary Book Chart Analysis ...... 69 II. Finding the Chinese Songs ...... 70

CHAPTER 6: CHINESE SONGS FOR THE SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENT ...... 75

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………103

viii

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 105

INTERNET RESOURCES ...... 108

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Correlations of Instruments with Environment ...... 14

Table 5.1 Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Chart Analysis ...... 68

Table 5.2 Chinese Supplementary Selections Chart Analysis ...... 69

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Excavated bone , Province, c. 7,000-9,000 years old ...... 37

Figure 3.2 Bangdi, the qudi, and the large dizi ...... 39

Figure 3.3 Village (4700-3600 B.C.) ...... 40

Figure 3.4 6th century pai from a tomb in Xichuan ...... 43

Figure 3.5 Marquis ‘s pai xiao ...... 44

Figure 3.6 various xiao ...... 45

Figure 3.7 Bili ...... 46

Figure 3.8 Guanzi...... 47

Figure 3.9 Qing Dynasty ...... 49

Figure 3.10 Tang Dynasty ...... 51

Figure 3.11 ...... 54

Figure 3.12 ...... 55

Figure 6.1 Cover ...... 76

Figure 6.2 Table of Contents ...... 77

Figure 6.3 Introduction, Page 1 ...... 78

Figure 6.4 Introduction, Page 2 ...... 79

Figure 6.5 China‘s Music History, Page 3 ...... 80

Figure 6.6 China‘s Music History, Page 4 ...... 81 xi

Figure 6.7 China‘s Music History, Page 5 ...... 82

Figure 6.8 China‘s Music History, Page 6 ...... 83

Figure 6.9 China‘s Music History, Page 7 ...... 84

Figure 6.10 China‘s Music History, Page 8 ...... 85

Figure 6.11 China‘s Music History, Page 9 ...... 86

Figure 6.12 The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music, Page 10 ...... 87

Figure 6.13 Little Duckie and I Have a Pair of Little Hands, Page 11 ...... 88

Figure 6.14 Going to School and Guessing Game, Page 12 ...... 89

Figure 6.15 Little Donkey, Page 13 ...... 90

Figure 6.16 Find a Friend and Throw a Handkerchief, Page 14 ...... 91

Figure 6.17 Little Rabbit and Embroidered Purse, Page 15 ...... 92

Figure 6.18 Mom is the Best!, Page 16 ...... 93

Figure 6.19 Purple Flute, Page 17 ...... 94

Figure 6.20 In the Silver Moonlight and In the Land That is Far Away, Page 18 ...... 95

Figure 6.21 Wa Ha Ha!, Page 19 ...... 96

Figure 6.22 Jasmine Flower, Page 20 ...... 97

Figure 6.23 Mud Doll, Page 21 ...... 98

Figure 6.24 The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms, Page 22 ...... 99

Figure 6.25 Purple Bamboo , Page 23 ...... 100

Figure 6.26 Purple Bamboo Melody (cont‘d), Page 24 ...... 101 xii

Figure 6.27 Goodbye!, Page 25 ...... 102

xiii

CHAPTER ONE

THE OHIO CONTEMPORARY CHINESE SCHOOL (OCCS)

AND MY SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENTS

For fifteen years, the Ohio Contemporary Chinese School (OCCS) has been a center of education for the mainland Chinese community in the Columbus metropolitan area. The OCCS is actually a culmination of many different ideas and hopes beyond the average language class. While providing quality instruction in language and

Simplified Chinese, it also instills and aims to preserve a sense of culture and community.1

The OCCS was founded by a group of parents who wanted to educate their children in and culture. More and more Chinese mainlanders were immigrating to the Columbus area but there was no place for their children to learn

Simplified Chinese writing. During the summer of 1994, Jim Wang and Aiping Shao invited friends to their home to discuss the possibility of establishing a Chinese school in

1 Jason Ma, interview by author, Worthington, OH, March 8, 2009. 1

Columbus for this ever-increasing need. From there began a whirlwind of activity to push forward and put plans into motion.2

The most powerful tool the founders of the OCCS had in creating a successful school was the models of well-established Chinese schools and communities around the country. Beginning in the 1980‘s the U.S. saw a surge in people from mainland Chinese coming to live in the U.S. Larger cities like , , D.C., and Detroit already had Chinese schools established and provided models for the future OCCS. In 1995 the first nationwide Chinese School Association in the U.S. was founded and its conference was held in Columbus. Teachers from all over the country came to exchange ideas in building a successful Chinese school and community. Questions on curriculum support from the community, teachers, tuition, and most importantly, how to get a non-profit status was addressed.

Attaining the non-profit status required the OCCS to be run by volunteers. For that reason, there have been many challenges in maintaining and furthering growth. Most difficulties came from a financial standpoint: since the school was new, the state would not grant money. In fact, no money has ever been received from the government.

Obviously, a tuition-based school was the only sure course of action. Secondly, securing a location was (and is to this day) a challenge. The first location, near the Lincoln

Towers at OSU, was great from the vantage point that it was free. However, there was no

2 Ibid. 2 room for growth and the building itself was not child-friendly. A move to Dominion

Middle School and eventually to North High School temporarily relieved this problem.

The OCCS moved out of the Columbus district and into Worthington via Perry

Elementary school in 2006. Since 2007, the OCCS is located at Worthington Kilbourne

High School, which offers a cafeteria, many classrooms, gymnasium, and auditorium for special events.3

Fall 2009 began my sixth year as the OCCS flute teacher. In 2003 I was looking for a place to hold some Suzuki classes as my apartment was ill-equipped for large numbers of students. I contacted numerous churches and Sunday schools and finally talked with Max Xu, the principal of the OCCS at the time and the only person who replied to me. I set up in the cafeteria during registration and played duets with a high school student. My first class had about twenty-two students. Although the class size was initially a little intimidating, I really found a place that I loved. We played at all the school functions, where I was first introduced to various types of Chinese performances.

After a few years, I began to wonder if programming only Suzuki repertoire fit into the festivities. Thus began a quest to find a few short tunes for the children to perform in addition to their Suzuki studies. However, I had no idea that it would be so difficult to find simple Chinese children‘s songs. I asked all the parents, but only one at the time could help. I then taught Find a Friend to all the students, but I was still puzzled

3 Ibid. 3 as to why none of the other parents could recollect any traditional Chinese songs. In fact, it seemed that many of the parents had no desire to teach their children songs. Furthermore, I really did not understand why the Suzuki method had not a single

Chinese tune. To be fair, Dr. Suzuki was not an ethnomusicologist so it is understandable that not every world culture can be represented in the Suzuki Method. How naïve I felt after researching World War II!

After making a decision to base this document on finding acceptable Chinese tunes to supplement Suzuki Flute School Volume 1, I sent out an email to all of the parents at the OCCS. This time, more parents responded. I began to understand how the

Cultural Revolution played a part in so many lives, for many of the songs emailed to me had political implications (I decided not to include them). Also, some of the songs had

Chinese verses but Western tunes (for example, ―Two Tigers‖ is to the tune ―Frère

Jacques‖). With the remaining titles, I began searching for the tunes on recordings and

YouTube to find the most basic structure possible for my beginner flute students.

The more I realized how recent history played a part in erasing a beautiful part of the Chinese culture, the more I wanted to find songs for the children. Many of my students are first generation Chinese Americans and speak both Chinese and English.

Their parents tell me often of how they want their children to appreciate what they have in America but to never forget where they came from. Even though it is a small gesture, it is my hope to preserve a small part of a vastly rich culture. 4

CHAPTER TWO

CHINESE MUSIC HISTORY

I. Legendary Period, ca. 27th-21st Centuries B.C.

The time before the Xia dynasty (c. 21ST-16th Centuries B.C.) is shrouded in mythology. Scholars and commoners alike argue about the authenticity of the alleged rulers of this Legendary Period, who were first documented in the Zhou dynasty4. ,

Nüwa, Shennong, Huangdi, Yao, and Shun are to this day commonly known among the

Chinese as ancient progenitors of their country. These rulers of ancient China have been associated with folk tales but have also been identified on archeological artifacts of ancient China.5

Legend or not, their stories pervaded musical history and were most influential in creating an autocratically hierarchical culture. For thousands of years, Chinese society was based upon mythical ancient rulers who were believed to be gods. Gods could not be

4 Mingyue , Music of the Billion: An Introduction to Chinese Musical Culture (New York: Heinrichshofen Edition, 1985), 34. 5 Ibid, 35. 5 questioned-- rulings from heaven could not be challenged within the realm of humans.

Emperors continued to take on a god-like status throughout the dynasties, developing doctrines and rituals (which included music) to ensure the continuity of their power and legacy.6 In order to avoid reprisals from those still loyal to a previous emperor, stories of mythological ancient rulers were simply reinterpreted to suit the needs of the current emperor, which is most likely what the Zhou scholars did. Throughout Chinese history, what remained the same was that these reinterpretations were sacred and absolute.7 The stories of the legendary rulers were thus not so much folk tales as they were a means to unify the people of China under one ruler.

The Legendary Period is said to begin with Fuxi, who was responsible for the invention of the long qin and and the vessel flute xun8, as well as ―writing, marriage, sacrifices for the spirits of the sky and the earth, the calendar, music and laws.‖9 A great hunter, Fuxi taught the people how to hunt and prepare food. This preparation included his hunting/ song, jiabian, to give thanks to the hunting god.10

Nüwa complemented Fuxi, although there is much debate as to whether she did so as a sibling or wife (or both). Together they formed the balancing act of the yin and .

Nüwa created the shenghuang, and gave instructions to a

6 John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman, China: A New History (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 28. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 Marco Moretti, China: The Kingdom of the (Indonesia: Barnes and Noble, 2007), 24. 10 Liang, 36. 6 historical/mythological figure named Lady O to make an ancient flute called a .11 Shennong was the successor to Fuxi, and was the god of agriculture. He was credited for the creation of ―medicine, markets, and…..war.‖12 He also taught mankind the dance songs of agriculture, including one by the name of Fengnian (Harvesting

Year). The instruments Shennong invented were the (a instrument) and tugu

().13

Huangdi, the , is said to be the human descendant of Shennong.

He ruled from 2699-2599 B.C. and was highly regarded by the people for many centuries afterward. He is considered to be the progenitor of the Hans ethnic group, and ―[D]uring his reign the first house was said to have been built, -like stones to have been used as a weapon, not to mention the invention of other civilizing instruments – the carriage, calendar, and written language.‖14

Understanding the importance and influence of music, Huangdi sent his music official Lin Lun to travel west in search of standard pitches. According to the Chun Qiu, an ancient Chinese text, Lin Lun ―traveled westwards from the Ta Xia to the north side of the K‘un Lun range and gathered bamboo from the valleys. He selected hollow tubes of uniform and cut a length of three chun (1/3 decimeter) and nine fen (1/3 centimeter)

11 Ibid, 36. 12 Moretti, 24. 13 Liang, 36. 14 Ibid, 37. 7 between the two joints to make a for the tone of the Yellow , or huangzhong. Then he cut twelve other tubes and fixed their pitches according to the of the Feng birds.‖15

These twelve pitches eventually became known as Lülü, ―twelve pitches within an octave based on the fundamental huangzhong pitch.‖16 This standardization of music distinguished Huangdi‘s empire, and was very helpful in his establishment of military music called Duzhang.17 In order to exude strength through his music, he made modifications to the and zithers in such a way that they produced more sound.18

It is important to note that the Yellow Bell was not only used as a reference pitch in music but also as reference for volume and weight measure, and was, therefore, central to government control over trade, commerce, and taxation. It was believed that the proper calculation of the Yellow Bell would result in a harmonious way of life for the ruler and his subjects. In fact, each dynasty had its own measurement for the Yellow

Bell. This continuous recalculation provided reasons as to why the previous dynasties failed: their Yellow Bell calculation was not correct and therefore any rulings or decisions based upon this measurement would be faulty.

15 T.C. and Robert Mok, Jade Flute: The Story of Chinese Music (New York: Schocken Books, 1985), 23. 16 Liang, 37. 17 Ibid, 38. 18 Ibid, 39. 8

Yao and Shun were two of the five kings who came after Huangdi to have a musical impact on Chinese history. The dazhang, a ritual dance, was composed by Yao specifically for the heaven and earth ceremony. Shun played the qin and was said to be the first for solos on this instrument. His best known work was Nanfeng

(South Wind) for the qin.19

II. Xia Dynasty, ca. 21st-16th Centuries B.C.

The Xia dynasty was only recently acknowledged as a part of ancient Chinese history, when in 1978 the Administration of Cultural Relics found enough archeological evidence to determine its authenticity. Its first leader was Emperor Yu, who was the first emperor to successfully use and develop irrigation systems. In celebration of this achievement, the Da Xia (Grand Xia) was composed in honor of this new-found method to cultivate the land. The dancing and music described in the Da Xia were passed down throughout many generations and were documented in Zhou dynasty ritual books. Based on texts from the ―Rites of Zhou‖ and ―Records of Rites,‖ we now know that panpipes and some 64 dancers were used in this celebration.20

The son of Emperor Yu was named , and he is actually regarded as a mythological character who was said to love music. After a few visits to heaven, he

19 Ibid. 20 Liang, 41. 9 memorized Nine Songs, or Jiuge/Jiubian. Upon returning to Earth, he instructed his subordinates on how to play his own version of this song, calling it Nine Shao

(Jiushao).21 This song was used as music for dance and ―included women holding onto oxen tails while dancing to the accompaniment of a children‘s .‖22

Beyond the time of the first emperor, the amount of ritual music activity was either in decline or not documented in any way, though the court‘s entertainment music was documented. It was said that Emperor Jie had a tendency to overindulge in riches, which led to his own demise: ―The Yaotai palace, a ‗playground‘ for Jie and his royal ministers, contained beautiful ladies, wine, , and dancers.‖23 It was also speculated that he had at his command 30,000 female musicians for his own entertainment.24

III. The Beginning of Chinese Music: Shang Dynasty ca. 16th-11th Centuries B.C.

Ritual music pervaded into the Shang period, and with it a template for Chinese court music for centuries to come. Shamans or shamanesses were regarded very highly and were in charge of acting as mediums between the supernatural and humans. As a means of this communication, shamans and shamanesses invoked words, danced, and

21 Ibid. 22 Liang, 42. 23 Ibid. 24 Lai/Mok, 15. 10 played musical instruments. These rituals were often tied to procuring fertility, whether in regard to rain for the fields, more livestock, or the legacy of human offspring.25 The rain dance was the most prevalent pictograph found in oracle script,26 but shamans also

―chased evil spirits away, carried out spells, [and] foretold the future.‖27 In fact, religion was an integral part of the Shang dynasty and its government. The king himself had his own religious rituals, for which he was responsible in addition to other duties. His own officials consisted of generals and shamans alike.28

Oracle bone inscription is the earliest evidence of developed writing in China.

Scapulimancy was practiced by shamans by heating animal bones and deciphering what the resulting cracks meant. Once the messages from these cracks were read by the shaman they would write the meaning on the bones.29 writings pertaining to musical instruments found included: ―yo (panpipes), yen (long end-blown ), he (small mouth organ), yue (), qing (stone chime), [and] (drum).‖ Ideas about the possible construction and implementation of these ancient instruments can be inferred through examining these ideographic and pictographic scriptures.30

25 Moretti, 24. 26 Liang, 49. 27 Moretti, 24. 28 Conrad Schirokauer, A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers,1989), 18. 29Fairbank/Goldman, 34. 30 Liang, 48. 11

The latter part of the Shang dynasty is also known as the Age in China.

Metallic musical instruments, including and other percussion-type instruments, were found at many excavations. Also, tools made of metal helped to create other instruments with more precision, for example, the shaping of and xun.31 Overall, this provided a means of standardizing pitches. It was not uncommon for bells to be made in sets of three, ―implying the intervals of major second and major and minor thirds, the foundation of the .‖32

IV. Zhou Dynasty and the Warring States (1075-256 B.C.)

The Zhou dynasty was the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history. This period of continual conquest led to a quickly apparent need for overall control of these new vast lands. Rather than the respective emperors having direct involvement over the governance of far away territories, special officials (family members, friends) were sent to rule these areas.33 The role of the court shamans became worldlier. They not only maintained shamanistic practices of ceremonies and rituals, but ―developed rules or propriety and complex court practices of ceremonies and rituals.‖34

31 Lai/Mok, 18. 32 Ibid, 20. 33 Schirokauer, 21. 34 Liang, 52. 12

There were four main distinctions of ritual music used in the Zhou court: sacrificial, banquet, grand archery, and processional music. Sacrificial music typically started out instrumental, then shifted to song, and ended with dancing.35 Banquet music indicated social status and provided behavior guidelines at important functions, such as when to toast.36 Archery ceremonies used music to reveal who could keep his aim with the , demonstrating ―the proper coordination of the archery movements.‖37

Processional music was usually loud in nature because it could serve as ―both as escort type as well as a military band.‖38 The bells and percussion were used in this kind of music to portray the strength of the person or army it accompanied.39

The beliefs and principles in which musicians sought to educate the nobles were based on cosmological conceptions of .40 The notion of yin and yang dates back to ancient times of China—they are believed to be interconnected, yet opposing, forces. Yin represents the female as ―dark, passive, and weak.‖41 Yang represents the male as ―bright, active, and strong.‖42 Although yin and yang could not survive without each other, yang (male) was naturally the dominant of the two. 43 The cosmological

35 Ibid, 57. 36 Ibid, 60. 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid, 61. 39 Ibid, 61. 40 Ibid, 63. 41 Fairbank/Goodman, 19. 42 Ibid 43 Ibid 13 principle of yin and yang not only provided hierarchical structure for humans but also for nature. The relationship between sound and nature was fundamental in music, and was reflected in bayin (the ―eight tones‖) and musical tonality structures (the number eight, considered to be a lucky number, held much importance in the Chinese culture). The bayin were metal, stone, skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, , and earth.44 By using these different instruments at different times of the year, one could become one with nature

(Table 2.1).45

Table 2.1 Correlations of Instruments with Environment 46 8ayinClassification Direction" Season Main Instruments Events Sounded when the commander I. Metal West Autumn Bell-Chime orders his troops to retire

2. Stone Northwest Autumn to Winter Stone-Chime

3. Skin North Winter Drum Performed in solemn ceremony

4. Gourd Northeast Winter to Spring Mouth Organ Performed when planting trees and crops 5. Bamboo East Spring Flute, Pipe

6. Wood Southeast Spring to Summer Wooden Tiger

Performed when silk-worms are 7. Silk South Summer Zither fattening and spinning their cocoons 8. Earth Southeast Summer to Autumn Vessel Flute

" May indicate wind direction and/or the setting for the performance.

Liang also quotes Yueji, a book reading the wisdom of : ―Great music shares the principles of harmony with the universe; through the principles of harmony [acoustic

44 Alan Thrasher, Chinese Musical Instruments (Hong : Oxford University Press, 2001), 10. 45 Liang, 64. 46 Ibid, 64. 14 phenomenon], order is restored in the physical world, and through the principles of distinction, we are enabled to offer sacrifices to Heaven and earth.‖ 47

Beyond the court, little is known about the exact of the common folk.

However, the Book of Songs, a collection of selected by Confucius, provides evidence of outside the court. Confucius used these psalm-like texts in his teachings as behavior models for the powerful leaders, although did not become widely popular until after his death. These poems are an invaluable source of

Chinese culture as they were written from 1000-600 B.C.48 However, the melodies to the poems were lost by the .49

V. (221-207 B.C.) and Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.)

The brief Qin dynasty began an empire with a different kind of unification. The government was centralized within a break-down of its land into smaller territories. To further strengthen the growing sense of bureaucratic government, hereditary ascension to power was no more, although use was found for former nobles who demonstrated military prowess.50 Language, weights, measures, and roads were standardized to join the people of the vast land of China.51

47 Ibid, 61. 48 Schirokauer, 39. 49 Ibid, 22. 50 Ibid, 21. 51 Ibid., 51. 15

Via the Qin Dynasty‘s division of China into multiple states, a wide array of ideas flourished at the same time. Perhaps this dynasty‘s reign was so brief because the lack of order in these divergent ideas and states created an opportune time for war: ―Such a massive unification and restructuring was bound to evoke bitter hostility.‖52 Another factor in the fall of the empire was the means used to control the people. Order was kept throughout China by means of legal reforms, proposed and implemented by advisor

Shang Yang. Yang insisted that rewards and punishments be carried out quickly and, for the latter, brutally. This implementation of quick judgment imprinted on the general population more as a deterrent than an incentive. Combined with exorbitant taxation, the people could offer no more and the empire quickly fell to its demise.53

The Han dynasty, lasting 405 years, developed the imperialist government set in motion by the Qin dynasty. Where the Qin failed at finding the means to rule the people without depleting them, the Han divided the bureaucracies into smaller areas in which to govern.54 Taxes were not as high. A class system reflected the commercial benefits of imperialism; the upper echelon was not necessarily royalty but, rather, merchants.55 This designation of social order gave musicians more opportunities to perform not only in official gatherings, but for social entertainment. During this prosperous time, cities

52 Ibid, 54. 53 Fairbank and Goldman, 57. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid, 60. 16 flourished and gave way to the rise of the merchant class. The need for ritual/ceremonial music diminished as music thrived in settings of entertainment and enjoyment.56

Trade flourished in the Han dynasty as roadways and canals became more interconnected. The , in particular, allowed travel from and

Central Asia. Cultures from the remote areas of China slowly began to influence the Han through the assimilation of tribal and Buddhist influence. Many new instruments were introduced at this time, including the dizi flute, , .57

One of the most popular kinds of urban music created in the Han dynasty was called Harmonious Song, or xianghe ge and qingshang yue (pure music). Xianghe ge was particularly popular in North China, especially among the merchant class.58 With roots in the countryside, this music became very popular in the cities and was comprised of an assortment of solo voice, wind, and string instruments. The structure of xianghe ge music evolved from ―sonorous harmony between solo voice and instruments‖ to song cycle form.59

Most unfortunately, the first Qin emperor destroyed all literature in order ―to have the literally begin with his reign.‖60 Confucianism proliferated in the

Han dynasty and with it a need for the rulers to have a ―daily regimen of ceremonies and

56 Liang, 78. 57 Thrasher, 39. 58 Thrasher, 43. 59 Liang, 80. 60 Ibid, 79. 17 rites.‖61 This lack of information during the Han dynasty led to the creation of the Music

Bureau, or . Music was needed for official ceremonies and entertainment purposes, so the Yuefu acquired this through ―1) collecting folk and country songs including texts,

2) setting new and appropriate texts to existing folk tunes, 3) setting new or rearranged tunes to existing texts, and 4) planning the music performances for the court.‖62 The

Yuefu created guchui and hengchui band music. Guchui was intended for processions and was usually comprised of percussion and bells accompanying and .

Hengchui was more for social and entertainment purposes, although it was also

―identified with the cavalry.‖63 Hengchui typically used the drum, gu, and jiao.

VI. China’s Dark Ages: Three Kingdoms (220-265 A.D.), (265-420

A.D.), and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 A.D.)

Ironically, all the smaller territories created in the Han dynasty easily took power when trouble arose in the court. ―Weakness at the center came from many causes: the succession of ineffectual Han emperors, their domination by the empress‘s family, usurpation of power by eunuchs, and many other factional rivalries at the court.‖64 The lack of central government resulted in hundreds of years of continual divergence,

61 Fairbanks and Goldman, 62. 62 Liang, 79. 63 Ibid, 81. 64Fairbanks and Goldman, 72. 18 beginning with the Three Kingdoms, from 220-265 A.D. Three separate dynasties existed simultaneously: in the kingdom, in the Han kingdom, and in the Wei kingdom.65

In 265 the Wei kingdom fell, and thus began the Jin dynasty (265-420). Tribes in the north used the weakness of the broken empire to attack it continually.66 Indigenous

Chinese were scattered, but many took refuge in South and West China. Survivors of the

Jin Empire relocated and reassembled in Jiankang and it became the new Jin capital.67

From about 316-589 China saw nomads rule the north with sixteen different kingdoms

(the south had six).68 With a lack of centered Chinese Han culture in North China,

Buddhism thrived. The during this period reflected the assimilations of the myriads of cultures.69

Through this assimilation, different styles of music and different instruments were seen in China. With the moving of the north gentry class to the south came qingshang, which was essentially xianghe ge but was the culmination of the northern and southern styles. Qingshang was to be the only music to remain from the Han dynasty during this move south.70 Southern music, although nonextant, suggested a theme and

65 Liang, 86. 66 Ibid. 67 China Scientific Book Service Co.Ltd, “The History of the Jin Dynasty,‖ China Scientific Book Services, , http://www.hceis.com/ChinaBasic/History/Jin4%20dynasty%20history.htm. 68 Schirokauer, 82. 69 Liang, 87. 70 Ibid, 89. 19 variations style of music called . Wu song was divided into six sections, or liubian. In the province, fisherman songs told tales of life and love called xiqu.

Though only the text remains, they are thought to have been in .71

Numerous new instruments were introduced in this period. From India came the and two different types of : the quxiang pipa which had four strings and a bent neck, and the five string wuxiang pipa. Tribes in the north introduced the bili, , and the .72

Most interestingly, during this time period large ensembles were not popular, perhaps due to the collapse of many royal and court families. Instead, small ensembles thrived, and the emergence of the solo performer (particularly on the qin) brought many new compositions and performers into popularity.73 From wu music silk and bamboo ensembles grew; the Prime Minister of the Jin dynasty, Xie An, was supposedly an active silk and bamboo himself. He was instrumental in promoting music-- particularly after the victory at the Fei River battle.74 Some of the oldest Chinese music notations of Qin music are said to be from this time period according to Youlan, a

71 Liang, 90. 72 Ibid. 73 Ibid. 74Shen Sinyan, ―Xie An the Prime Minister: Master of Silk and Bamboo Music,‖ Chinese Music, 29(4) (2006): 66. 20 manuscript actually from the Tang dynasty, but said to be a copy of a manuscript from

550 A.D.75

VII. Reunification: (581-618 A.D.) and Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.)

During his brief rule, Emperor Wen reunified China under one government to mark the beginning of the Sui Dynasty. Reuniting China was no small task, but Wen‘s strength was his ability to assimilate the myriad of cultures that, after hundreds of years of disunity, made up China. Although he was a Buddhist, for example, he integrated

Daoist and Confucian rituals in his court.76 Unlike previous emperors, he sought any remaining literature of previous dynasties and by doing so saved a part of the Han culture.77 Furthermore, guidelines were set for the bureaucracies, which helped to prevent favoritism when making appointments. This in turn strengthened the relationship of the provinces to the central government. But the Sui‘s open-mindedness equaled their greed for more land. The military could only be spread so thin before the downfall of the empire became imminent.78

The Tang dynasty lasted over three hundred years and was a celebration of the various cultures that had intermingled through war and trade in the Dark Ages. With

75 Liang, 91. 76 Schirokauer, 102. 77 Yan Ma, Chinese Emperors: From the Xia Dynasty to the Fall of the Qing Dynasty (New York: Falls River Press, 2009), 105. 78 Schirokauer, 103. 21 strong footholds left by the Sui, the Tang dynasty catapulted forward with more improvements to the bureaucracies, food storage, and education, using a continued mix of

Confucianism, Daoism, and .79 Music of the court reflected this diversity and featured stylized foreign music, or huyue. Huyue could reflect music from other countries such as India and . However, it could also reflect minority regions of

China.80 In fact, the emperor employed full from ―Indo-China, Korea, ,

Bokhara, , Samarkand and Turfan.‖81

In the early Tang dynasty this music, along with Chinese music, was divided into ten categories known as the shibu ji (ten sections of skill). Official court entertainment music was comprised of ―ensembles from India, Korea, Samarkand, Kashgar, and other areas of , together with indigenous Han Chinese ensembles.‖82 Ceremonial music was referred to as qingshang yue, and court social music was called yanyue

(banquet music).83 Ironically, the classification of shibu ji was done away with as the non-native Chinese music was assimilated into the culture. Standing or sitting music became the two main categories.84

79 Ibid, 105. 80 Ibid, 107. 81 Sheila Melvin and Jindong , Rhapsody in Red: How Western Became Chinese. (New York: Algora Publishing, 2004), 56. 82 Thrasher, 47. 83 Ibid, 48. 84 Liang, 99. 22

Music and the arts in general prospered on many levels: in performance troupes that were hired as residents and teachers in the courts, in the first Chinese music academy-- Liyuan, or -- and even in the style of the daqu, which was ―a grand-scale presentation of instrumental music, song and dance.‖85 Outside of the court, quzi, or short song, were popular vocal songs.86 Buddhist monks used bianwen (modified literature), which were poems sung in a Sprechstimme style accompanied by a clapper. 87

The Tang dynasty also saw the predecessors to Chinese : comedy-style short stories called chanjun and said to employ music and dancing.88

It is important to note that the effects of Confucianism distinguished the literati as a separate kind of musicians. Although most would like to be considered professional musicians to indicate a high level of performance capabilities, the literati preferred the amateur classification. The amateur classification signified one‘s membership with the upper class educated gentlemen, or ―the top rank in society in accordance with Confucian ideology….[P]rofessional musicians were considered low class because they provided service-oriented activities for social functions or entertainment.‖89 Men in power, in accordance with Confucian principles, had to maintain an emotional distance from music,

85 Ibid, 97. 86 Ibid, 102. 87 Ibid, 103. 88 Ibid, 106. 89 Frederick Lau, Music in China: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 23. 23 for it was one of the most important means of governing the commoners. Because music can have such a powerful affect, it was up to the government to protect the people.90

Musical manuscripts found from 933 A.D. possibly reveal tonalities employed by

Chinese musicians of the late Tang dynasty. Upon deciphering the notation, many scholars consider the music of the Tang dynasty to sound very foreign in comparison to what we consider Chinese today. In fact, other music notation discoveries suggest a greater overall influence of West Asia and the Middle East.91

VIII. Song Dynasties (960-1279 A.D.), The Rise of the Mongols, and the Yuan

Dynasty (1271-1368 A.D.)

The end of the Tang came with the aristocracy‘s fall from power and a rise in military independence from the central government.92 The basic means of living became extremely difficult, thus producing gang-like warfare. This brief period was called the

Five Dynasties and ended with the defeat of the warlords by the Song imperial army. 93

The began its reign in 960 A.D. in North China. During this period trade (including naval trade) and commercialism thrived again. The value of education became more important than the class of the family one was born into—greater emphasis

90 Jeannette L. Faurot. ―Music and Nature in Ancient Chinese Thought,‖ Chinese Music 21(1) (1998): 7. 91 Liang, 111. 92 Fairbank and Goldman, 85. 93 Ibid, 87. 24 was being put on examination results than completely on one‘s lineage.94 The printing press and the growth of various industries led to a more urbanized China. Perhaps because of this urbanization, ―things we in the modern era consider to be traditionally

Chinese in the arts and literature were either related to or rooted in the Song traditions.‖95

The tribes surrounding China were areas of unrest. The Mongols eventually defeated the Song, which was the first time China was overtaken by foreigners. Genghis

Khan united the tribes, which took ―great determination, political skill, knowledge of men, [and] a manifest ability to lead…ruthlessness, drive, military skill, and personal courage.‖96 The start of the Yuan dynasty began with Khan, and developed further under the ruling of two of his sons.97

Musical called (variety musical ) were a small reprieve from the overbearing Mongols who took over every aspect of the government. Influenced mainly by Taoist ideas, zaju was comprised of four acts and had five characters: ―(a) a leading male role who was the sole singer in the cast, (b) a supporting male role, (c) a painted face, comic role, (d) an official, and () a musician who provided simple instrumental accompaniment on flute and drum.‖98 Northern zaju was particularly successful. Many scholars were not able to flee south during the Mongolian invasion.

94 Ibid, 94. 95 Liang, 116. 96 Schirokauer, 215. 97 Ibid. 98 Liang, 123. 25

Their higher level of education led to ―tightly plotted stories [that] were executed through a precise, demanding, and beautiful format.‖99 Like southern zaju, northern zaju used the aforementioned roles, make-up, and costumes. However, the same person could change characters between acts, so short scenes called wedges were added to allow the performer time to change character. Zaju actors and actresses became famous as this type of drama became popular all across China.100

Vocal music of the Song and Yuan dynasties was some of the most among the people. were irregular meter poems initially set to preexisting melodies, but eventually led to newly composed melodies. Art songs called xiaoling (short song) and changzhuan (drum song) were also very popular. Xiaoling was based on poetry and was often performed in taoshu, or song cycles. Changzhuan brought the verses to life by switching between ―metered and free rhythmic sections.‖101 Minority narrative songs were very popular and were often accompanied by the , ―the predecessor of huquin [sic].‖102 However, little is documented about Yuan court music. In 1370, the book Standard History of the Yuan was written. It mentions several kinds of music,

99 Siu Wang-Nui with Peter Lovrick, : Images and Stories (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997), 7. 100 Ibid, 7. 101 Ibid, 118. 102 Du Yaxiong and Mingdao, ―Music of Minorities in China: A Panoramic View of the Musical System,‖ Chinese Music 16(3) (June 1993): 35. 26 including ―state sacrificial music, banquet music, secular ceremonial music, military music, recreational music and other genres.‖103

IX. The Last Golden Age: The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) and Qing Dynasty

(1644-1911 A.D.)

A peasant uprising led by Yuanzhang usurped the Mongolian government in

1368, signaling the start of the Ming dynasty. After years of being ruled by a repressive foreign government, the spirit of Chinese nationalism ran high. The importance of education reached a pinnacle, and it was made more readily accessible to the poor and rich alike. Urbanization spread quickly as new territories were established and more and more people settled into the countryside. Regional music styles, particularly between the

North and the South, became prevalent.104

Royalty of the Ming dynasty loved dramatic works of the theatre. drama used poems, dialogue, and music—sometimes over the course of several days! The original music for chuanqi did not survive; however, music (water polishing music) was created by Wei Liangfu over the course of a decade and became an identifiable feature of chuanqi drama.105 Kunshan proved to have a ―delicate, languorous

103 Joseph S.C. Lam, ―There is No Music in Chinese Music History: Five Court Tunes from the Yuan Dynasty (AD 1271-1368),‖ Journal of the Royal Musical Association 119(2) (1994): 169. 104 Liang, 128. 105 WangNgai/Lovrick, 8. 27 quality [that] was the perfect vehicle for the poetry and high literary standards.‖ 106 The combination of chuanqi and kunshan created the national style of opera, which is known in modern times. Perhaps the most well-known style of Chinese opera is . Peking opera was an instant success, as it was made for the general public as opposed to the literati class of Kunqu opera.107 It is recognized today as a national style.108

When Peking fell in 1644 ―the aid of the Manchus was solicited.‖109 The Qing dynasty was China‘s final dynasty of imperialism. Although once again led by a foreign government, Chinese nationalism pervaded. Even as the Manchurian government imposed restrictive rules on the content of the Kun , e.g., ―dramatic works based on emperors, queens, and loyalist sages were prohibited and punishable by a hundred strokes,‖ authors, , and audiences rebelled (and were punished accordingly).110

Although the spirit of nationalism on one hand preserved and created music, the music of previous time periods was destroyed. Any music that was found to have non-Chinese roots was considered unpatriotic. This diminished a vastly varied repertoire down to tonalities of mainly a pentatonic nature.111

106 Ibid. 107 Ibid, 9. 108 Ibid, 10. 109 Liang, 129. 110 Ibid, 133. 111 Ibid, 134. 28

Qing court music was ironically more Chinese-based than Manchu. The Manchus kept the tradition of using Chinese ritual music as a way to appease their Chinese subjects. But it was under Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799) that the Quanshu was completed: a revision of its 1713 version and an additional 120 volumes were added to this Chinese .112 The finished product contained ―36,000 volumes of four sections of Classics, History, Philosophy, and Literature.‖113 Also included were volumes with information on various types of ritual and secular music.114 The encyclopedia was revered so greatly that ―over 150,000 copies of what were thought to be anti-Qing books were destroyed forever.‖115

Despite the great amount of music lost due to a musical ethnic cleansing, opera, solo qin music, and folk music was quite popular. This may have been due to yaji

(refined gathering), private social events held by the literati class.116 Actually, most extant qin music is from this time period, because the yaji printed a great deal of qin music: ―together with hand-copied manuscripts and examples from other sources, some

150 volumes comprising about 3000 pieces of music in have been handed down.‖117 In addition, since the printing press was well established, many qin treatises

(more than 100, in fact) were published and readily accessible to the overall educated

112 Keith Pratt, ―Change and Continuity in Qing Court Music,‖ Chime Journal 7 (1993): 90. 113 Yan, 174. 114 Pratt, 91. 115 Yan, 175. 116 Thrasher, 30. 117 Lai/Mok, 105. 29 public.118 Urban style folk music was incredibly popular as a result in the rise of the literati class. It was not unusual to hear performance troupes performing narrative poems in and outdoors. Marketplaces used troupes to help advertise their products, and the wealthy would have their own private performances.119

X. The Republican Period (1912-1949)

In the latter part of the Qing dynasty came external influences the likes of which

China had not seen before. The world of the West influenced China more now than any other time, as Great Britain dominated the seas.120 Russia and Japan began to push trade at the borders.121 The opium war hit the Chinese both by sea and through the rampant drugging of the people. A brief restoration of the Qing dynasty brought a short relief, but

China was ultimately left vulnerable to the rest of the world.122

After two thousand years of imperialism, the Republic of China was founded in

1912. This quick deviation from rule by emperor, although made with good intentions, caused utter chaos among the various factions of China. Young scholars, many of whom were musicians, went overseas to receive a Western-based education.123 At first, many of these musicians, who were not taught in ancient Chinese practice, reflected an overall

118 Liang, 131. 119 Ibid, 132. 120 Schirokauer, 387. 121 Ibid, 396. 122 Ibid, 448. 123 Liang, 136. 30

Western performance style even though they would use well-known Chinese tunes in their performances. European-type music schools sprung up in China. Songs composed in a Western style were used in the public school systems to induce revolutionary democratic attitudes. Instrumental music became more soloistic, especially on the qin, pipa, and , yet another Western influence.124 However, there were other means of preserving what was known as traditional Chinese music. Many publications on Chinese musical history were produced. 125 Folk and narrative songs were incredibly popular across China, whether used in a Westernized version or in the working fields.126

The Nationalist Army and the Communists both had in common a desire to relieve China of the crushing weight of Russia, and ultimately, Japan. However, the

Communists‘ armies were instrumental in eradicating the Japanese forces. With Mao

Zedong as their leader, communism won the hearts of the commoners and the Nationalist party broke apart. Mao announced the founding of the People‘s Republic of China on

October 1st, 1949.127

If the period from 1912-1949 was thought to be a period of Western influence,

1949-1976 was a completely opposite ideology. Between the Great Leap Forward and the , Mao led the communist party to force a great deal of change in a

124 Ibid, 148. 125 Ibid, 137. 126 Ibid, 140. 127 Moretti, 49. 31 short amount of time.128 During the Cultural Revolution, Mao‘s stressed the importance of an equal-class society. Music of the literate was banned. Mao believed that music was only meant to serve the people, saying: ―In the world today all culture, all literature and art belong to definite classes and are geared to definite political lines. There is in fact no such thing as art for art‘s sake, art that stands above classes, art that is detached from or independent of politics.‖129 Any kind of music that did not fit with his ideology was not allowed. Representing the long-oppressed lower class, folk musicians suddenly found themselves rise to a higher status as the government called upon them to revive older

Chinese folk music. Mao found a way to promote his ideas easily to the vast amount of common people who could not read or write: while professional folk musicians were sought and traditional music gathered, under the direction of the government, musicians were required to use their knowledge and skills to create communist propaganda music.

As in dynasties long before this time period, ancient melodies were fitted with new to help promote the new rulers.

Musicians who did not serve the political agenda were treated terribly. For example, three of China‘s most famous pianists, Ts‘ong (b. 1934),130 Yin Chengzong

128 Ibid, 50. 129 Zedong, Quotations from Chairman , (: China Book and Periodicals, Inc., 1990), 299. 130 Martha L. F. Argerich, ―Fou Ts'ong, ,‖ http://chinese.s463.sureserver.com/contents/archives/past_event14.htm. 32

(b.1941),131 and Liu Shikun (b. 1939),132 ―suffered imprisonment or exile, and each has endured bitter public excoriation for his political ties.‖133 Talent did not prevent even the most successful musicians from escaping the effects of the Cultural Revolution. But luckily, many (including the three aforementioned pianists) went on to great success when they left China.

XI. Modern China

The opening of China‘s economic doors in the 1980‘s led to inevitable but incredibly quick changes in China. China has become an economic force to be reckoned with and is a world leader in trade and industry. At first, it seemed traditional music was forgotten as music of the West pervaded into Chinese music by way of western classical and pop culture. However, now it is apparent that traditional and contemporary music

(whether classical or pop) coexist, perhaps indicating a successful acceptance of the old with the new.

Today, many types of music make up China‘s music. Folk music in the form of vocal and instrumental genres can still be heard in tea houses, street performances, and in sacred rituals (funerals, weddings, etc). Opera, especially Peking and Kun, are readily

131 ―Biography,‖ Chengzong Yin pianist, http://www.yinchengzong.com/media/bio_english.html. 132 Committee Member, Artistic Advisory Committee,―Liu Shikun Concert Pianist Maestro,‖ National Centre For The Performing Arts,http://www.chncpa.org/n457779/n457899/n458424/n458725/620372.html. 133 Richard Curt Kraus, and Politics in China: Middle Class Ambitions and the Struggle Over Western Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 192. 33 identifiable as Chinese music by foreigners. National orchestras and solo performers combine western and (often modified) eastern instruments and styles to perform traditional Chinese melodies. The music of China, which had been primarily made to serve political ambitions during the Cultural Revolution, now conveys many expressions with messages that reach beyond China. For example, traditional music is even combined with rock ‗n roll instruments. To those outside of China, this music is considered Chinese--but it is a far cry from the qin-playing Confucian monk sitting alongside the riverbank.

At the cost of losing invaluable pieces of history, what remains constant is the

‗getting rid of the old to make way for the new‘ ideology (―the old‖ being most often in reference to the immediate-past dynasty). Old thoughts, customs, and stories were constantly being reinterpreted to validate the new policies. This method of reinterpretation provided the means to maintain an autocratic society. For better or worse, it is this constant adaptation, however, that identifies Chinese music: the assimilation of new instruments, songs, and melodies into an already vast wealth of culture.

34

CHAPTER THREE

CHINESE WIND INSTRUMENTS

With one of the most ancient and eclectic cultures in the world, China has a rich musical history. Instruments thousands of years old have been excavated in various regions across the country, many of which are surprisingly similar to their modern counterparts. These findings suggest similarities, even across many centuries, among the diverse ethnic groups and tribes, both in terms of instrument construction and performance: a shared musical culture links the old world to the new.

Wind instruments, particularly the flute (or derivations thereof), are some of the oldest extant instruments. Perhaps it is in the simplicity of the construction, the bond between man and nature, or the perceived vocal characteristics (whether human or otherwise) that has left the design of Chinese wind instruments relatively unchanged. Of course, as Western influence took hold the function of the instruments became more diversified. It is not uncommon, for instance, to see a dizi as part of a seemingly Western style today. But the instruments‘ construction and timbral qualities have

35 remained basically consistent, and continue to assimilate (and be assimilated to) old and new music alike.

Chinese wind instruments can be distinguished by many different characteristics, including the bayin classification mentioned in the previous chapter. The bayin classification categorizes each instrument by the material out of which the instruments were constructed. Rather than focusing on the instrument material, three categories will be used here based on how the sound is specifically activated by air (since they all fall under the category of wind instruments). The three categories are: air reeds (blowing across an opening to activate the sound), reeds (using a reed directly to make a sound), and free reeds (blowing into a that activates a reed within the instrument).

This chapter will provide a basic summary of instrument construction, sound, and implementation of these instruments.

I. Air Reeds

Transverse flutes

In the family, the is the oldest, dating before the 7th century

B.C. (Figure 3.1). It was typically made of bamboo, although bone chi have been excavated. Typically, five finger holes formed a straight line, 90 degrees from the mouth hole. There was one additional hole for air to vent, as the natural nodes in the bamboo

36 prevented air from escaping from the ends of the instrument. Evidence suggests that the chi was held with both palms toward the body.134

Figure 3.1 Excavated bone flutes, Henan Province, c. 7,000-9,000 years old.135

The chi is very similar to the modern dizi, which was first known as the di. The di, which became more prevalent in the Han dynasty, was stopped only at one end. It is speculated that the chi was held to the right and the di to the left.136 Two other factors tie these two particular flutes together: ―the old Chinese pronunciations of these names are

134 Liang, 268. 135 Spencer Harrington, ―Oldest Musical Instruments Still Play a Tune,‖ Archaeology, http://www.archaeology.org/9911/newsbriefs/flute.html. 136Yuan Yuan Lee and Sin-yan , Chinese Musical Instruments (Chicago: Chinese Music Society of North America, 1999), 66. 37 similar,‖137 and the fingering holes were also constructed in a similar manner. ―On

Marquis Yi‘s chi, the section where the fingering holes are placed was skinned and leveled to a narrow strip, a feature also found in di flutes recovered from Han dynasty contexts.‖138 Both flutes were used in court and ritual music.

The modern di, or dizi, separates itself from the other because it is constructed with a special membrane hole, the mo kong. When the mo kong is covered with dimo paper it produces a distinct buzzing sound.139 It is fixed to the instrument with water soluble glue over a hole halfway between the hole (chui kong) and the first finger hole. Before the glue is dry, the dimo paper must be adjusted in such a way that wrinkles are created over the membrane hole. The wrinkles must be perpendicular to the length of the flute. Getting just the right amount of wrinkles can affect the tone dramatically and is required to ensure even sonority in all the registers.140

Dizi can be made of many different materials, including jade, bone, and, most commonly, bamboo. Bamboo is an ideal material, as it is affordable, readily available, and very resonant. Although bamboo is a very sturdy material, like any wood it is affected by temperature and humidity fluctuations. In order to prevent splitting, bamboo flutes are bound with thread, and it is common to see bone caps on each end of the dizi.

137 Jenny F.So, Music in the Age of Confucius (Washington D.C.: University of Washington Press, 2000), 92. 138 Ibid. 139 Rick Wilson, ―Chinese Flutes,‖ Rick Wilson's Historical Flutes Page, http://www.oldflutes.com/. 140 Alan R Thrasher, Chinese Musical Instruments (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2000), 96. 38

The thread wrapping and bone caps function both as protection and decoration. There are also 2-4 holes at the end of the flute which define the acoustic length and where it is possible to hang a decorative tassel.141 Most traditional dizi have six finger holes, as did some of the ancient di.

There are three basic types of dizi: the bangdi, qudi, and the most recent addition, the large dizi (Figure 3.2). The qudi dates back to the Ming Dynasty and gained much popularity in Kunqu opera. In construction, it remains unchanged and on average is about 50cm long. It has a range of about two octaves. The bangdi is also used in bangzi opera but is shorter in length, about 40cm long. It is mainly associated with the highly decorated music of northern China. The large dizi can start at 70 cm and is used in contemporary Chinese music. The large dizi can also have one additional finger hole for the right hand pinky finger.142

Figure 3.2: From bottom to top: the bangdi, the qudi, and the large dizi143

141 Ibid. 142 Chen-Gia Tsai, The Chinese Membrane Flute (dizi: Physics and Perception of its Tones), (Berlin: Humboldt University, 2003), 13. 143 Ibid. 39

Vessel flutes

Of all the Chinese musical instruments, the xun is the most ancient (Figure 3.3).

Neolithic findings date back to the Xia dynasty, specifically from the Yangshao and

Longshan cultures. Before 5000-4000 B.C., the Yangshao and Longshan cultures settled in the south eastern bend of the Yellow River. Excavations from the Yangshao culture yielded many vessel flutes in various shapes and sizes. These xun had 1-4 finger holes, and one mouth hole. There were also two vessel flutes found from Xinchun in Wanquan of province that played thirds: one played C#3 and E6, and the other played E5,

B5, and D6. None of the excavated flutes were decorated, so it is believed that these particular xun were not intended for sacred use.144

Figure 3.3: Banpo Village Xun (4700-3600 B.C.)145

144 Liang, 46. 145 ―Chinese Instruments,‖ http://chineseinstruments.org.

40

Xun flutes of the Shang dynasty, however, revealed taotie designs: ―a highly stylized representation of a monster-like animal with facial characteristics split into two symmetrical halves, featuring exaggerated eyes, geometric horns, jaw with fangs, and other artistic stylizations.‖146 Use of taotie designs demonstrated the relationship with nature, as many of the taotie represented animals. The Shang dynasty xun had as many as five finger holes.147

The xun is the only extant instrument from the Zhou ―clay‖ classification of the eight tone instruments. Clay, or earth, is often associated with fertility. Hence, according to the Eyra (considered the first Chinese dictionary) of the 3rd century B.C.,148 both the small and large xun are said to be shaped like chicken and goose eggs, respectively.

These xun were cited as having 5 finger holes, but by the 18th century A.D., the number of finger holes could be 6 or more.149 During this period, the xun was used not only for temple music but also for archery ceremonies.150

Vertical Flutes

Chinese panpipes have gone by several names throughout Chinese history. In ancient times they were known as yue. Early pictorial evidence from Shang dynasty bone

146 Thrasher, 3. 147 Ibid, 14. 148 Ulrich Theobald, ―, The Eyra Dictionary,‖ , http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Classics/.html. 149 Thrasher, 14. 150 Liang, 61. 41 inscriptions reveal that yue were represented as a symbol with two pipes.151 Preceding the Tang dynasty, the instrument was called the xiao. To avoid confusion with the vertical xiao, the name was again changed to pai xiao (row flute) by the 12th century

A.D.152

The oldest pai xiao was found at Baoxiangsi, Guangshan, Henan Province.

Actually, only four pipes were found, so there is some speculation as to whether or not they were actually intended for use as a pai xiao. These four pipes date from before 638

B.C. More readily identifiable pai xiao was found in a Chu tomb in Xiasi, Xichuan, dating to the late 6th century B.C. (Figure 3.4). They are a set of thirteen pipes, arranged from smallest to largest. This of pipes evolved into a more symmetrical wing-like structure by the 10th-14th centuries, perhaps because of the pai xiao’s sound was said to be similar to that of birds. The pai xiao is often associated with the phoenix and the dragon.153

151 Thrasher, 5. 152 Ibid, 21. 153 Thrasher,22. 42

Figure 3.4: 6th century pai xiao from a Chu tomb in Xichuan154

Two pai xiao were found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of at Leigudum,

Suizhou, Hubei Province (Figure 3.5). Dating to approximately 433 B.C., both instruments have thirteen stopped pipes. They are arranged from largest to smallest and tied together with bamboo.155 The edges are not beveled, indicating that slower melodies were intended since faster melodies required a beveled edge.

154 http://chineseinstruments.org 155 So, 94. 43

Figure 3.5: Marquis Yi’s pai xiao156

In the Qin and Han dynasties, pan flutes were used alongside the jia in drum and percussion marching and processional band music.157 This military music, known as gu chui, was comprised of the pai xiao, drums, bells, and transverse flute.158 By the Song

Dynasty, the pai xiao ―was mainly used in court music.‖159

The xiao emerged during the Zhou dynasty, and is cited both in the Zhouli as ―di‖ and in the Han poem Changdi , or ―long poem.‖ 160 It was also referred to as the chiba,

156 http://chineseinstrument.org 157 Liang, 81. 158 So, 94. 159 Ibid, 95. 160 Thrasher, 36. 44 although on the southeastern coast of China it is still referred to this name, along with dong xiao. The chiba is essentially the precursor to the Japanese .161

For evidence that the xiao has indeed been in existence for some time, an

Akaiydian Buddhist temple contains celestial musicians holding instruments, including the xiao. This particular temple was destroyed in both the 8th and (after being rebuilt) 9th centuries and was rebuilt again in the 14th century.162 The xiao was also a common chamber ensemble member in the courts of the Ming and Qing dynasty, specifically in shifan luogo (ten kinds of and drums) in the south province 163 and sizhu ensembles.164 It has also been used in Kunqu orchestral music since the Ming dynasty.165

The xiao is typically pitched a 4th or 5th lower than the dizi. Thrasher states three types of xiao. The Zizhu xiao is used in sizhu music, the dongxiao is used in

Minnan music, and the Yuping xiao is used in the Yuping region in the province

(Figure 3.6).166

Figure 3.6: various xiao167

161 Ibid, 37. 162 Ibid, 52. 163 Ibid, 55. 164 Ibid, 68. 165 Shen, 29. 166 Thrasher, 68. 167 http://www.oldflutes.com/. 45

II. Reeds

The bili (lit., wicker ) (Figure 3.7) is a flute introduced by

Northwest Chinese ethnic tribes during the Jin dynasty (265-420 A.D.).168 It typically has seven fingerholes and is usually capped with metal to prevent splitting. The body is made of bamboo and the reed is made from soft cane. The soft cane allows the performer great flexibility in tone and range, but it can take years of practice to gain good control of both elements.169 The reed is unflattened and broad, almost an inch wide and up to three inches long, giving the bili a very loud dynamic quality.170

Figure 3.7: Bili171

Buddhist ensembles before the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.) included the bili. It was also featured in court ensembles as a leading instrument during this time.172 Today the bili is mainly found in villages of Southern China.173

168 Liang, 90. 169 R. Raine-Reusch, ―Guanzi and Bili,‖ World Instrument Gallery, http://asza.com/iguan.shtml. 170 Shen, 71. 171 http://asza.com/iguan.shtml 172 Thrasher, 45. 173 http://asza.com/iguan.shtml 46

The bili is not as common today as the guanzi (lit., small pipe), both of which share a range of about two and a half octaves.174 Almost identical in construction, the guanzi is made from hardwood cylindrical tube, usually rosewood. The exact size varies from region to region, but like the bili, it is decorated on the ends with metal. However, the reed is usually made of hard cane, giving it a very loud sound.175

The guanzi (Figure 3.8) became more prevalent during the Ming and Qing dynasties. It is pictured in the paintings ―Morning at the Han Palace‖ and ―Returning to the Palace.‖176 During the Ming dynasty, it was used in Xi’an guyue, or Xi’an drum music and was reminiscent of Tang court music (banquet music). It was also used in military processions.177

Figure 3.8 Guanzi

The central province uses the guanzi in yinyue chuida type music along with the dizi, sheng, yunluo, and percussion.178 Near , the guanzi is used in

174 Liang, 268. 175 Ibid. 176 Thrasher, 53. 177 Ibid, 56. 178 Ibid, 77. 47

―sheng-guan ensembles‖ called ―music associations.‖179 ―During the performance, [the ensemble members] usually wear colorful robes (a sign of ritual importance)…it must be remembered that the guanzi (historically known as bili) was an instrument of great significance in imperial court music of the Tang dynasty.‖180

Several types of guanzi exist in Chinese orchestras. The xiaoguan is the smallest guanzi. It is the member of the family and is reserved for soloistic phrases.

Used extensively in shengguan music, the zhongguan is lower than the xianguan by a fourth. The daguan is the alto voice and pitched in the key of D.181

The suona is a double reed instrument (Figure 3.9). It is most distinguishable by its flared metal bell at the end. With Arabic and Central Asian roots (where it was called a and suernai, respectively), it was in use in China by the Ming dynasty.182 Like most traditional instruments, the size and length also vary from region to region, although the bore remains conical. A small straw double reed is used for a mouthpiece, which has a circular plate for the mouth the rest on. Typically the suona has seven fingerholes with one thumbhole.183 It is held vertically and had a range of two octaves.184

179 Ibid, 78. 180 Ibid. 181 Lee/Shen, 53. 182 Thrasher, 55. 183 Moule, 87. 184 Liang, 270. 48

Figure 3.9: Qing Dynasty Suona185

The suona is a newer part of the chuida ensembles and today is used in both processions and as accompaniment to the vocal lines in Chinese opera. Chuida means blowing-hitting, or wind and percussion. Chuida ensembles feature loud wind instruments accompanied by percussion. The projecting quality of the suona makes it a perfect fit as a lead instrument in chuida. It is also often featured as a leading instrument at funerals or zodiac celebrations.186

The chuida is a very common ensemble of North China, although it is found in many parts of China. The suona is actually used as a lead instrument most in the province of Shangdong. In fact, the Shangdong area holds the suona in high standing,

185 http://chineseintruments.org 186 Thrasher, 55. 49 where it has its own repertoire.187 Here chuida music is known as guchui.188 There are actually two types of guichui music: chu (rough/loud) and xi (refined, soft). The former is heard at outside events, while the latter is suited for indoor performances. The suona, with its distinct piercing quality, leads the chu. The xi is led by the dizi or sheng.189 The suona is also a typical lead instrument in daluogu (great gong-drum) music,190 shifan qing luogo,191 and in Peking opera to help convey outside festivities.192 It is also used in opera.193

Overall, the suona is actually considered a lower-class instrument, perhaps mainly because it is a newer member of the guida. Ironically, even though it is often considered lower-class, it is more commonly played than the honorable guanzi. Because it is such a popular instrument, it is known by many other names throughout China, including dadi and labu.194

187 Ibid, 87. 188 Ibid, 76. 189 Liang, 217. 190 Thrasher, 76. 191 Liang, 224. 192 Ibid, 155. 193 Lau, 67. 194 Thrasher, 79. 50

III. Free Reeds

Figure 3.10: Tang Dynasty Sheng55

The sheng (Figure 3.10) is a mouth organ dating back some 3000 years to the

Shang dynasty, as revealed by extant oracle bone scripts.195 Legend has it that the goddess Nüwa is responsible for the invention of the sheng and other aerophonic chest- like open instruments. The sheng has also been associated with the phoenix, resembling both the perceived mythological bird and the sound it could make.196

It was first seen as the hulu sheng, or gourd sheng, in the tribes of Southwest

China. Gourds were molded by being placed in a container at a young age. As it grew, it

195 So, 96. 196 Liang, 36. 51 took a more tubular form, although the lower part was still round. This shaping of the instrument prevented any unwanted leaks, although holes were cut into the rounded section to allow placement of the bamboo pipes.197 This use of gourds was in use throughout the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. By the 4th century A.D., wood blow pipes replaced the gourd molding, although the body of the gourd was still used for the chamber. The bonus of this construction was that the makers did not have to wait for the gourd to grow in the molding.

Completely wooden shengs were eventually constructed in the same century, and it is not uncommon to see gourd and wood (or combinations thereof) today.198 Metal was eventually used in the latest centuries B.C., but was not a popular option until recent times. Not only are the wind chests now made of metal, but the reeds within the instruments are as well.199

The earlier sheng of the Zhou dynasty arranged the bamboo pipes in two rows, giving it a wing-like appearance, and had anywhere from 13-23 pipes.200 Each pipe had a reed at its lower end that was inserted into the base (wind chamber), which was usually made from a gourd or wood. A pipe extended from the base, serving as the blowpipe and mouthpiece. Interestingly enough, the ancient sheng’s mouthpiece was much longer than

197 So, 96. 198 Ibid. 199 Shen, 152. 200 Liang, 70. 52 the modern sheng, and it is speculated this allowed ―court officials [to] see the attractive faces of female musician.‖201

Nowadays it is usually held to the right and ―the performer‘s right index finger

[is] inserted through the gap in the pipe circle to activate two inner fingerholes.‖202 It is played by both inhaling and exhaling,203 and provides sustained multi-tone harmony in ensembles. The ability to provide continuous harmony within an ensemble was and still is crucial when the instrumentation can change frequently.204

In the Zhou court, it could serve as banquet interlude music,205 and among aristocracy, it was also used in archery music.206 It also had a place in ritual music, whether ―state sacrificial music, ancestral shrine ritual music, [or] Confucian ceremonial music that [was] developed to honor Confucius after his death.‖207 The sheng was also featured in Ming dynasty court and processional music, shifan luogo, and Xi’an guyue.208

During the Qin dynasty rise of urban music, it was accompaniment for xianghege song cycle music.209 Today it plays a lead role in sizhu, chuida, Jiangnan, and yinyue types of

201 Thrasher, 37. 202 Ibid, 38. 203 Ibid, 74. 204 Shen, 152. 205 Liang, 60. 206 Ibid, 61. 207 Lan, 119. 208 Thrasher, 69. 209 Liang, 80 53 music,210 accompanies Kun opera vocal lines,211 and is a regular member of the .212

The bawu is a relatively new addition to the Chinese orchestra (Figure 3.11).213

Making its orchestral debut in the 1960‘s in Southern China, it is speculated to originate from the Province. A small rectangular box holds a copper reed which the performer covers entirely with the mouth. Unlike the other free reeds, it can only be played through exhaling.214 Typically, the bawu has 6 finger holes and one thumb hole and is constructed with two pieces of bamboo.215 The range is about an octave, and the sound is not unlike a .

Figure 3.11: Bawu216

Also speculated to have originated in the Yunnan Province (possibly first within the Dai tribe), the hulusi is played by many tribes in (Figure 3.12). Three pipes are inserted into a gourd, two of which act as drones. If the drone pipes are of different length, harmony can be created. Inside the pipes are metal reeds. The range of

210 Thrasher, 69. 211 Liang, 240. 212 Lau, 38. 213 http://www.asza.com/ 214 Ibid. 215 Pat Missin, ―Bawu,‖ patmissin.com, http://www.patmissin.com/history/bawu.html. 216 Ibid 54 this instrument is approximately a ninth. The center pipe has 6 finger holes with one thumb hole.217

Figure 3.12: Hulusi218

217 Ibid. 218 Ibid. 55

CHAPTER FOUR

THE DIZI

I. Function

The dizi has always been a very affordable instrument available to the general public, so it comes as no surprise that it is still a popular folk tune instrument. The dizi also found its way into the hands of professional musicians, including those in theatrical and instrumental ensembles. Ceremonies and rituals also called for the use of the dizi.219

The music of China varies dramatically in its performance style from region to region. Liang states, ―Each dialectic linguistic area possesses its own style of music-the style being heavily influenced by linguistic speech tonal patterns.‖220 Although there are linguistic variations of seemingly similar tunes, there are also commonalities in the function and implementation of the music. Influences from poetry and stories lend a programmatic quality to Chinese music in general; for instance, the title of each song

219 Mei Pa , The Yellow Bell (Baldwin: Barberry Hill, 1934), 37. 220 Liang, 20. 56 conveys a specific emotion. Given these qualities, the dizi was popularly used to perform folk music for personal and social entertainment purposes.221

Perhaps one of the most influential genres that led to the rise in the dizi’s popularity was Kunqu opera, which eventually outgrew its regional classification to become a national style. Easily projecting through the percussion, the dizi not only accompanied but also accentuated the vocal lines, which came to be a defining feature of the southern dizi performance style.222 In Kunqu opera, Thrasher maintains, the dizi ―is the principal accompanying instrument, for two reasons: its tone, due to the attached vibrating membrane is bright, clear, and easy to follow, and, because of the fixed position of the finger holes and pitches, a tuning standard is established for all instrumentalists and singers.‖223 Dizi use spread to other opera styles during the Ming dynasty; for example, in opera, ―The chorus was discarded but flute accompaniment was adopted.‖224

In the 1950‘s, the northern style of playing adapted to the political reformations of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Once living a life of poverty, professional dizi players were now called to government service. In exchange for a stable income and elevated social status these musicians were led by the State to create National

221 Ibid, 18. 222 Ibid, 21. 223 Thrasher, 106. 224 Ngai, 21. 57

Music. Two of the most famous dizi players during this time were Feng Zicun (1904-

1987) and Chun-ling (b.1921).225 Feng, attributed with a northern style of playing, began learning the dizi when he was 11 years old. For six years he traveled with his brothers in Northern China and ―became a master of the styles of music of Hebei, , and Neimeng.‖226 Lu‘s experience with Jiangnan sizhu music imbued him with a southern style of playing.227

Although both Feng and Lu had distinct personal styles they seemed to have no problem conforming to standards that would be more readily transmitted for ―mass consumption.‖228 The ultimate style of the music depended on what the government needed to convey to the general public at any given time. This new traditional music could include influences from ―national minorities, regional folksongs, European classical music, folksongs from other cultures, and sometimes even .‖229 Although traditional repertoire was the basis of the dizi National Music, Western techniques and forms were also implemented. Eventually these songs steered away from ancient traditional stories and incorporated revolutionary and patriotic themes. As the Western techniques in dizi performance became more commonplace, dizi performers created new

225 Frederick Lau, ―Forever Red: The Invention of the Solo Dizi Music in Post-1949 China,‖ British Journal of 5 (1996): 119. 226 Shao , ―Listening to Lu Chun-Ling and Remembering Feng Zi-cun: Reflections on Chinese Music in the 20th Century,‖ Chinese Music 22(2) (1999): 30. 227 Ibid. 228 Lau, Red 119. 229 Ibid, 123. 58 interpretations, new techniques, and new repertoires. When surveying over 400 dizi pieces, Frederick Lau found only about 15% of the music was traditional Chinese music.230

II. Performance Practice

With my limited personal experience playing the dizi, I can honestly say that it was a physically easy transition from the technique of the silver modern flute. However,

I know that the music I play sounds more American-Chinese than Chinese. Learning the language, taking dizi lessons from a dizi master, and spending consistent time in the

Chinese culture would be necessary in attaining an authentic approach to the art of the dizi.

Before explaining the various techniques I have learned from Dr. Udo Will, I can share my experience as a beginner American dizi player. As a modern flute performer and student, there has been a great deal of emphasis on me as the individual. How well can I emotionally interpret the music of the composer with every technical detail in place? I feel this is a very different way of being part of the music in comparison to that of a Chinese perspective, in which the emphasis is placed on the greater whole than that of the individual. For instance, I could talk about how my breath on the silver modern

230 Frederick Lau, ―Individuality and political discourse in solo dizi compositions,‖ Asian Music 27(1) (1996): 145. 59 flute must be done in a way so that I can physically meet the endurance and musical demands within the phrases of any piece. However, in a more Chinese view, my breath is only a part of the air which supports all walks of life: it is everywhere, where my own being is not. Take a look at any traditional Chinese painting or picture and you will most likely see a huge sky, smaller landscape, and smaller still, humans. So although I have found it quite interesting to learn of various dizi techniques and styles, when I perform on the dizi I am thinking of how my playing fits in with the larger picture. To be clear, I do not feel meaningless in the grand context; rather, I feel comforted to know that I am part of something much bigger than myself.

For traditional dizi performers, there are actually no specific names for various techniques. A traditional approach to learning the dizi would find most of the students learning by ear (notes are only written out to jog the memory). In dizi playing there is much improvisation because embellishments are an integral part of the performance of

Chinese music. 231 There are some basic embellishments that can be found across the various regions of China. These embellishments originate from the fact that the tongue is rarely used to articulate the music--finger articulations are used instead. Perhaps this is due in part to treating the breath as a natural, uninterrupted part of the phrase. This is not unlike the Japanese shakuhachi playing, described by Kiester as ―a physical, acoustical manifestation of the privileging of the spirituality of ―natural sound‖ over music.

231 Chao, 17. 60

―Correct‖ intonation and standardization imply an idea of refinement that is opposed to the romantic idea notion of naturalness.‖232

The use of finger articulations is especially important in traditional southern style of playing. When the performer comes across repeated notes of the same pitch, articulation is achieved through the use of ―, trills, repeated end notes, or end note decorations.‖233 Below is a list of these common embellishments (based on

Western interpretation).

1. : Can come from below or above the main note as a single or multiple appoggiatura. Appoggiaturas precede the main note.

2. Trills: Can start on the main note or above, depending on the context.

3. Repeated end notes: As long as the last note heard is the main note, repeated end- notes can come from above or below the main note.

4. End note: A ghost-like, unaccented note accomplished with precise timing in lifting or dropping two or more fingers while blowing with a sudden (but small) burst of air. If notated, it is indicated with an upward/downward curved line from the main note.

The northern style of dizi performance can incorporate the aforementioned southern style performances practices. However, a wide variety of articulation by use of the tongue is widely accepted, including single, double, and triple . ,

232 Jay Kiester, ―The Shakuhachi as Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,‖ Asian Music, 35(2) (Spring-Summer, 2004): 111. 233 Tsai, 17. 61 key slaps, percussive notes, , and flutter-tonguing are some other modern techniques used.234

234 Ibid, 18. 62

CHAPTER FIVE

BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER:

A BRIEF SUZUKI FLUTE SCHOOL VOLUME 1 OVERVIEW, CORRESPONDING

SUPPLEMENTARY CHARTS, AND FINDING CHINESE SONGS

I. A Brief Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Overview

How does one teach a four year old how to play the ? The Suzuki method began the day Dr. Shinichi Suzuki was faced with this particular situation. Suzuki had no experience teaching a child so young—a child who had yet to attend primary school, read his first book, or write his first sentence. Yet Suzuki realized that before any level of aptitude was achieved academically, all children were exceptional students from birth: all children had the capacity to master their complex native languages. With constant interaction and feedback from supportive parents, family, and friends children were able to not only learn how to speak but how to communicate. Suzuki was convinced that if all children could master their own native languages, every child was born with the ability to grow and learn if taught in a nurturing environment. By teaching his youngest students in the same manner in which language is acquired, Suzuki created what he called the 63 mother-tongue method. In short, children do not learn how to spell before they talk; nor do they talk in monotone drones before learning inflections. Suzuki successfully applied this theory to his young violin students and later taught this method to flutist Toshio

Takahashi. Together they developed the Suzuki method for flute.

There are three main components to the Suzuki method. First, the use of recordings within the Suzuki method, combined with the development of tonalization, allows the student to hear and recognize superior performances of the easiest of folk songs. Furthermore, a Suzuki certified teacher knows exactly how to interpret and teach each song. And finally, the success of the method is attributed to the partnership of the student, teacher, and parent. The overall theme: a person of excellent character will be able to produce beautiful music.

Perhaps most vital to the successful progression of the Suzuki student is the relentless emphasis of excellent posture, sound, and character. If a student at a young age develops great sound, posture, and positive attitude, and if goals are maintained and modified as needed, the possibilities are unlimited. It is not enough to get most of the notes with correct articulation or even all the right notes with terrible posture. And it is certainly not enough to just own the materials. Stickers are meaningless if the student does not trust that the teacher has her best interests at heart. The student who learns to love learning will adapt the quickest and can progress at an alarming rate.

64

Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 is the most important book in the method, for it provides a strong foundation for excellent flute playing. It is comprised of various folk songs, exercises for technique and tone (including a small excerpt from ‘s

De La Sonorité235), and some baroque selections. Most of the information provided in the chart analyses is common knowledge to me as an active Suzuki teacher. However, historical reference information about the songs themselves is for the most part omitted from Suzuki Flute School Volume 1; I felt it necessary to provide this information as part of the analysis. Some of the tunes are common knowledge to many people: Mary Had a

Little Lamb is an American Nursery rhyme, Fireflies is a Japanese children‘s song,

Kagome Kagome is a Japanese children‘s game.

The updated Suzuki Piano School literature contains more reference information, where I found that Cuckoo and Lightly Row are German children‘s songs and Honeybee is a Bohemian folk song.236 Most music students have studied the music of .S. Bach

(1685-1750) in great detail but cannot recall the precise derivation of the work, which is also included in the piano method. The first minuet in Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 by

J.S. Bach is from Minuet III from in G minor, BWV 822, the second from

235 Marcel Moyse, De La Sonorité (Paris:Alphonse Leduc,1934), 6. 236Shinichi Suzuki, Suzuki Piano School Volume 1 New International Edition (USA: Summy-Birchard, Inc., 2008 ), 7. 65

Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach, BWV Anh.114, the third from Notebook for Anna

Magdelena Bach, BWV Anh. 116.237

Information about the remaining songs was found elsewhere. Twinkle, Twinkle

Little Star is based on a French nursery rhyme.238 Although Suzuki Flute School Volume

1 lists J. Ghys is listed as the composer for Amaryllis, it omits that it is an arrangement of a French air239 as well as Ghys‘ dates (1801-1848).240 Long, Long Ago is listed in Suzuki

Piano School Volume 1 as composed by T.H. Bayly (1797-1839),241 and further research revealed it is a 19th century American popular song.242 Lullaby is by

(1797-1828) from D. 498, Op. 98 No. 2.243 Moon Over the Ruined Castle was composed in 1901 by R. Taki (1879-1903) and was based on a poem by H. Kitahara (1885-1942).244

237 Shinichi Suzuki, Suzuki Piano School Volume 2 New International Edition (USA: Summy-Birchard, Inc., 2008 ), 3. 238Katrien Vander Straeten, ―Dutch Twinkle Twinkle Little Star,‖ Suite 101.com, http://customsholidays.suite101.com/article.cfm/not_so_innocent_nursery_rhymes. 239 Hazel Gertrude Kinscella, Music and Romance (Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing), 263. 240 Naxos, ―Jospeh Gyhs,‖ Naxos The World‘s Leading Classical Music Label, http://www.naxos.com/person/Joseph_Ghys/63282.htm. 241Suzuki, Suzuki Piano School Volume 1, 7. 242 Lesley Nelson-Burn, ―Long Long Ago,‖ Folk Music of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and America, http://www.contemplator.com/folk.html. 243 Wiegenlied ("Schlafe, schlafe, holder süsser Knabe"), song for voice & piano ("Mille Cherubini in Coro"), D. 498 (Op. 98/2), Answers.com. Classical Work Reviews, All Media Guide, http://www.answers.com/topic/wiegenlied-schlafe-schlafe-holder-s-sser-knabe-song-for-voice-piano-mille- cherubini-in-coro-d-498-op-98-2. 244 Yukiko Kawahara, ―Koojoo notsuki (Moon Over the Ruined Castle),‖ Social and Cultural History of Japan Through , http://74.125.93.132/search?q=cache:VHFobqvfPhoJ:bulldog2.redlands.edu/dept/AsianStudiesDept/music_ ed/castle.htm+Moon+OVer+Ruined+Castle+Taki&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us. 66

The book ends with Bourrée by Handel (1685-1759) from in G Major, Op.1 No.5

HWV 363b.245

The subsequent sections contain outlines of Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 and the coinciding supplementary selections; these selections can be used outside of the Suzuki method but are meant to coincide with the teaching points in Suzuki Flute School Volume

1. The purpose behind the supplementary book is twofold: the songs are meant to reinforce the teaching points Suzuki Flute School Volume 1, and also to expose the students to the music of the Chinese culture. Regardless of what song is being learned, however, the ideas and principles of the Suzuki method always remain with the students.

245 George Frederick Handel, ―Bourrée,‖ from Sonata in G Major, Op.1 No.5 HWV 363b in Handel Barenreiter Urtext 11 for Flute, page 28, (Kassel: Germany, 1995). 67

Table 5.1: Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Chart Analysis

Section Form Meter Key Range Articulation Technical Challenges Low Range E1 to C2 Tongued, Balance while playing C2, sound production while Rats in the Rice: Preparatory Exercise AB 4/4 CM tonguing, especially in Mary Had a Little Lamb: American Nursery ABAC 4/4 FM lowest notes Rhyme Fireflies: Japanese Children‘s song ABBA 4/4 am Kagome: Japanese Children‘s game ABCDEF 4/4 am Cuckoo: German Children‘s song AABA 3/4 FM Lightly Row: German Children‘s song AABA 2/2 FM

Middle Range Part 1 C2 to C3 Tongued, Embouchure adjustment to staccato, middle range, open throat, Twinkle Preparatory Study AB 4/4 CM E to D and D to C Twinkle Theme and Variations: French ABA 4/4 CM combinations, longer Nursery Rhyme, arr. Takahashi/Suzuki phrases (breathing), Amaryllis: Old French Air, arr. Ghys ABAB 4/4 CM introduction to Allegro(c.a. 1930): Plateau piece composed by AABA 4/4 CM terms/symbols: i.e., Dr. Suzuki , ritard, repeat Honeybee: Bohemian Folk Song ABA 2/4 FM dots, ties

Middle Range Part 2 C2 to C3 Tongued, slur Breathing and long and legato phrases, executing fast Slur and Legato exercise AA 4/4 CM finger transitions under Long, Long Ago(1833): 19th century American AABA 4/4 CM the slur, various slur popular song by T.H. Bayly (1797-1839) combinations, soft phrase Lullaby (1816): Lied by F. Schubert (1797- AABA 4/4 CM endings, tuning while 1828) from D.498 Opus 98 No. 2 playing soft Moon Over the Ruined Castle (1901): AABA 4/4 dm Popular Japanese song by R. Taki (1879-1903) based on poem by H. Kitahara (1885-1942) Minuet (1702-1705): Minuet III from Overture AAB (½A) B In G minor, BVW 822 composed by J.S. Bach (½A), (a.k.a. 3/4 GM (1685-1750). rounded binary) Tonalization: Tone Exercises from excerpts of NA NA C1 to D3 Various Dynamic contrast, Marcel Moyse‘s De La Sonarité, section one color/tuning with C#2, bell technique/vocal techniques combined with various articulations and dynamics, flexibility throughout range

Introduction to scales and and C#1 to Various introduction, their respective context within Minuet and D3 endurance, faster Bourrée styles: technique (tonguing and fingering), supporting Minuet (1725): From Notebook for Anna AAB (½A) B 3/4 GM higher registers Magdalena Bach (1725), BWV Anh. 114. (½A), (a.k.a. throughout longer phrases Composed by J.S. Bach (1685-1750). rounded binary) Minuet (1725): From Notebook for Anna AAB (½A) B 3/4 GM Magdalena Bach, BWV Anh. 116 (½A), (a.k.a. Composed by J.S. Bach (1685-1750). rounded binary)

Bourrée (c.a. 1711-1716): From Sonata in G AABB 4/4 GM Major, Opus 1 No. 5 HWV 363b. Composed by G. F. Handel (1685-1759).

68

Table 5.2: Chinese Supplementary Selections Chart Analysis

Section Form Meter Key Range Articulation Technical Challenges Low Range E1 to Tongued, Balance while playing D2 staccato C2, sound production Little Duckie: Children‘s song AABC 4/4 FM while tonguing, I Have a Pair of Little Hands: Children‘s ABC 2/4 FM especially in lowest song notes

Middle Range Part 1 C2 to Tongued, Embouchure C3 staccato, legato adjustment to middle Going to School: Children‘s Song AABC 2/4 GM range, open throat, E Guessing Game: Chinese Children‘s game ABCD 2/4 CM to D and D to C Little Donkey: Children‘ Song ABAC 2/4 CM combinations, longer Find a Friend: Chinese Children‘s song ABCD 2/4 CM phrases (breathing), introduction to terms/symbols: i.e., fermata, ritard, repeat dots, ties

Middle Range Part 2 C2 to Tongued, slur Breathing and long C3 and legato phrases, executing fast Throwing Handkerchief: Children‘s Game ABCD 2/4 FM finger transitions Little Rabbit: Children‘s song AB 4/4 GM under the slur, various Embroidered Purse: Shanxi Folk Song AB 2/4 FM pentatonic slur combinations, soft Mom is the Best!: Children‘s song AB 4/4 DM pentatonic phrase endings, tuning Purple : Lullaby ABCADD 2/4 DM while playing soft In the Silver Moonlight: Folk ABB 3/4 BbM Song In the Land that is Faraway: AB 4/4 dm Folk Song

Technical Development C#1 to Various Music theory D3 introduction, Wa Ha Ha: Uygur Folk Song AABB 2/4 cm endurance, faster Jasmine Flower: Hebei Folk Song ABCD 4/4 CM technique (tonguing Mud Doll: Children‘s Song AABA 2/4 dm and fingering), The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms: ABACD 2/4 em supporting higher Children‘s song registers throughout longer phrases

Chinese Performance Practice C1 to Various D3 Purple Bamboo: huju ABCDE 2/4 CM pentatonic

Techniques: Trills Grace Notes Repeated End Notes Ghost End Notes

69

II. Finding the Chinese Songs

Finding traditional Chinese songs-- whether children‘s or folk-- proved to be a learning process in itself. As stated in Chapter One, I began this quest by asking many of the Chinese parents what songs they recollected, and came up with the following list:

Children‘s Songs

Two Tigers Find a Friend Clap Hands Little Swallow Throwing Handkerchief Listening to Mom Talk About the Past I Love Beijing Tiananmen One Cent On Golden Mountain in Beijing Let‘s Row the Boat The Little Girl Who is Picking the Mushrooms Mom is the Best in the World Mud Doll

Folk Songs

Jasmine Flower

After looking for these tunes on YouTube, I found that Two Tigers is actually to the tune of Frere Jacques and Clap Hands is to the tune to If You’re Happy and You

Know it Clap Your Hands. I Love Beijing Tiananmen was used in the 2008 Olympics ceremonies, so I did not want to violate any potential copyright. I was not able to find several other songs, or as not sure if they were from the mainland, including Listening to 70

Mom Talk About the Past, One Cent, and On Golden Mountain in Beijing, and Let’s Row the Boat.

Although YouTube is banned in China, I used this website to help gauge the popularity of potential songs. Obviously, this popularity would reflect more of the

Chinese abroad community rather than the mainlanders'. In the end, however, I felt that these were the songs that Chinese-American parents remembered the most. The only alternative was to order untranslated Chinese songbooks and recordings, have a friend translate the lyrics, and then arrange/transcribe them for flute. Although acceptable from an academic perspective, I worried this method would only reflect a certain publishers viewpoint of what songs were truly popular. I needed to know that some part of the

Chinese community had a say in the selections. I later used all the Chinese songbooks and recordings I could get a hold of as a way to confirm my YouTube selections. That left the remaining songs from the OCCS parents to be considered for the final selections, overall not a very long list.

The parents didn‘t submit many folk songs (I had asked them more for children‘s songs), but I already had several in mind from my own experience playing and listening to some traditional melodies. For example, I knew that I wanted to use In the Land That is Far Away and Embroidered Purse. Jonathan Stock published Chinese Flute Solos in

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1994, which I have enjoyed playing through the years;246 I found many fine dizi performances of these pieces on YouTube and added Purple Bamboo Melody to my book. In addition, there are several volumes of Collections of Chinese Music for Flute by

Yue Xin.247 Stock‘s book is modeled after dizi performances for the modern flute, whereas Xin‘s books have a variety of old and new melodies with piano accompaniment.

The most popular tune that my Chinese friends recognized from Xin‘s book was In the

Silver Moonlight. I found Purple Bamboo Flute in China Sings: Folk Songs and

Fighting Songs of China by Liu Lina-Mo and Evelyn Modoi.248 All in all, there are plenty of recordings and online resources available for Chinese traditional music. With the folk songs it was more of a matter of finding tunes that would be appropriate for the students in Suzuki Flute School Volume 1, at least when taken down to the most basic melodies. Future books could always incorporate various dizi technique ornamentations.

Obviously, it was necessary to find more children‘s songs: songs that were limited in range, short in length, and that did not have any political implications. These were the types of songs I could arrange and modify to correlate with the teaching points of Suzuki

Flute School Volume 1. YouTube gave me a great start. Although Chinese music is never sung the same way twice I found versions of Guessing Game, Jasmine Flower, The

246 Jonathan Stock, Chinese Flute Solos (London: Schott, 1994), 2. 247 Yue Xin, Collection of Chinese Music for Flute (Beijing: People‘s Press, 2005), 5. 248 Evelyn Modoi and Liu Liang-Mo, China Sings: Folk-Songs and Fighting Songs of China, (New York: Carl Fischer, 1945), 12. 72

Little Girl Who is Picking Mushrooms, Mud Doll, Little Rabbit, Little Donkey, Purple

Bamboo Melody, Find a Friend, Embroidered Purse, In the Land That is Far Away,

Throwing Handkerchief, Going to School, and Wahaha, Mom is the Best, and In Silver

Moonlight. In many cases, it took time to ascertain the basic melodies, and to complicate matters even more, my spoken and written Chinese is not very strong. I used many online translators so that I could search for music more readily, but even so, it was quite time-consuming.

There are very few Chinese music books available with pinyin and English translations, and the ones that are available mainly contain folk songs. After months of searching, I finally found two out of print song books of Chinese children‘s music and folk music: Sing Chinese! Popular Children’s Songs & Lullabies249 and Sing Chinese II

China’s Best Folk Songs, 250 both compiled by Cindy Mao and Ma Baolin. Finding these books helped in more ways than one: I found two very simple tunes with which to open my book (Little Duckie and I Have a Pair of Little Hands), it confirmed that most of my selections were indeed popular enough to be included in the book, gave geographical origins of the YouTube selected songs, and the books also contained the pinyin with

English translations. Although I already asked several friends to help with translations of

249 Cindy Mao and Ma Baolin, Sing Chinese! Popular Children’s Songs & Lullabies, (San Francisco: China Books & Periodicals, Inc., 1996. 250 Cindy Mao and Ma Baolin, Sing Chinese II! China’s Best Folk Songs, (San Francisco: China Books & Periodicals, Inc., 1997.

73 several of the songs in my book, it was beneficial to compare how I lined up the pinyin in those particular music selections with the pinyin syllables in Mao and Baolin‘s . While my book is obviously for flute players and not meant to be a song book, the Suzuki method is based on language acquisition. I have my students write in any available lyrics for the songs in their Suzuki books. Besides, most of the OCCS students take a Chinese language class in addition to flute class. Although I found these books a little late in the process, and they did not contain all of the songs I used, they were an immense help for this English speaker! After my YouTube quest and finding the

Sing Chinese! books, it was much easier to find other Chinese recordings of my selections.

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CHAPTER SIX

CHINESE SONGS FOR THE SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENT

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Figure 6.1: Cover

Chinese Songs For the Suzuki Flute Student

Arranged by Nicole Charles

and

Narrated by Timmy the Cat

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Figure 6.2: Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 1 China‘s Musical History ...... 3 The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music! ...... 10 Little Duckie, Children’s Song ...... 11 I Have a Pair of Little Hands, Children’s Song ...... 11 Going to School, Children’s Song ...... 12 Guessing Game, Children’s Song/Game ...... 12 Little Donkey, Children’s Song ...... 13 Find a Friend, Children’s Song ...... 14 Throwing Handkerchief, Children’s Song/Game ...... 14 Little Rabbit, Children’s Song ...... 15 Embroidered Purse, Shanxi Folk Song ...... 15 Mom is the Best!, Children's Song ...... 16 Purple Bamboo Flute, Shandong Lullaby ...... 17 In the Silver Moonlight, Xinjiang Folk Song ...... 18 In the Land That is Far Away, Qinghai Folk Song ...... 18 Wa Ha Ha, Uygur Folk Song ...... 19 Jasmine Flower, Hebei Folk Song ...... 20 Mud Doll, Children’s Folk Song ...... 21 The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms, Children's Song ...... 22 Purple Bamboo Melody, Shanghai Huju Song ...... 23

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Figure 6.3: Introduction Page 1

1

Hello! My name is Timmy, and it is my job to be your guide through this book of Chinese music for the flute. I love talking about my travels to China

and my love of music. China has such a cool history and wonderful music. In the end, I hope that you will find some interesting information. Most of all, I really hope that you will find some music that you

love too!

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Figure 6.4: Introduction Page 2

2 The first thing I should tell you: China is a very, very big country with many different kinds of people. In fact, there are over 100 different kinds of languages used in China! Having so many different kinds of people, or ethnicities, in one country is a very good thing: it makes the Chinese culture rich with many traditions, customs, history—not to mention, music!

With so many people and such a long history, we are really lucky that some music from the past survived to this day. You see, during China‘s history there were many who came to power by destroying any evidence of the previous emperor. It‘s a little sad that so much history was lost, but that how things went during those days. This is why we cannot say for sure how old some Chinese songs really are--the original music may have been destroyed or simply never written down.

The Great Wall was a very exciting place to visit—I definitely got my exercise that day!

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Figure 6.5: China’s Music History, Page 3

China’s Music History 3

China‘s history is so long it had to be broken into time periods referred to as dynasties. To see some of the earliest recorded forms of Chinese music, we need to go back thousands of years to a time called the Xia dynasty (21st-16th centuries B.C.). The earliest documented Chinese music was believed to be used for rituals like celebrations and ceremonies. During the Xia dynasty, the leader of the people was named Emperor Yu. He did something that would help the for thousands of years! He developed an irrigation system so that the farmers could control the water to their fields—more food for everyone! To celebrate, they had a big party and special ceremonial music was composed called the Da Xia. Like the irrigation system, the Da Xia was passed to later generations.

That was some party!

We do know of other ways that really old music survived. During the Shang (16th-11th centuries B.C.) and Zhou (1075-256 B.C.) dynasties, bones were used to write down oracle scriptures. Some of the bones had old writing on it that referred to musical instruments. Also, archaeologists have found musical instruments during excavations from many time periods. Since these instruments have been kept safe for thousands of years, we are able to get an idea of what musical instruments sounded like long ago— although how and what they played is another story!

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Figure 6.6: China’s Music History, Page 4

4

The Zhou dynasty (1075-256 B.C.) was the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history. Many writings about music have survived from this time period. We know that as the Zhou court grew bigger the need for ceremonial music increased. There were four types of court music:

Ritual music was used for official Archery music was court ceremonies. timed to match the movements with the beats.

Banquet music accompanied special Processional music let dinners, like when to everyone know when toast. someone important was coming or going.

Are you going to eat that?

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Figure 6.7: China’s Music History, Page 5

5 The connection between nature and sound has always been very important to the Chinese. In fact, Zhou court musicians had very specific guidelines on what musical instruments to play and when to play them. They had eight different sound classifications, referred to as bayin, from

which to choose: metal, stone, skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, and earth.

Gourd: sheng

Bamboo: dizi Metal: bells

Stone: chimes Earth: xun

Wood: clappers Silk: qin Skin: drum

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Figure 6.8: China’s Music History, Page 6

6

The invention of the movable wooden type during the Song dynasty (960 A.D. – 1279 A.D.) was especially beneficial for transmitting music. More music was able to survive as more people were able to print, read, and remember to pass the music to the next generation in some way other than by ear. In fact, some of the Chinese folk music that we hear today is most likely from the Song dynasty.

Furthermore, the value of education increased exponentially during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368 A.D.–1911 A.D.). Since people were overall more educated, even when war forced people to move and leave their homes that they were still able to find happiness in music. Often, people in the upper class would hold private gatherings in which they would perform music for each other, especially on the qin.

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Figure 6.9: China’s Music History, Page 7

7

During the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.) folk music flourished with the rise in urbanization. Lots of different styles of music were brought together as villages were established. It was very common to hear music in the market. Different kinds of traveling performance troupes visited both the countryside and the major cities and combined all kinds of musical ideas and customs together with drama and music.

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Figure 6.10: China’s Music History, Page 8

8

China has always been influenced by many different cultures through trade from all over Asia. A new influence was added to the Chinese culture when trade was established between China and the West. Many Chinese decided to go overseas to Europe and America for an education. When these traveling students came home, they brought with them western style music. This was another way that the Chinese music absorbed another culture into its own. Although Chinese rulers and leaders eventually tried to banish any music that wasn‘t made strictly for political purposes, they were ultimately unsuccessful.

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Figure 6.11: China’s Music History, Page 9

9

Today in modern China, many different kinds of music exist. Folk, rock, classical, and pop music are just some of the kinds of music found in modern China. We are so lucky to have some of the old music to enjoy with the new music!

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Figure 6.12: The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music, Page 10

10 The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music for the Silver Flute!

The Chinese flute that most resembles the modern silver flute is the dizi. It is typically made of bamboo. The dizi has a special membrane hole, called mokong, that is covered with dimo paper. Dimo paper is made of really thin slices of bamboo. When applied just right, this dimo paper helps the dizi get a very distinct buzzing sound.

There are many different kinds of music in China—just think of how many people live in China (little more than a billion) and you can imagine the variety of music to which we could listen!

Each area of China has its own flavor of music and its own style. The dizi can play all kinds of music because, like all flutes, it is a very vocal instrument. In the next section you will get to try many different kinds of songs and even learn a little dizi technique—enjoy!

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Figure 6.13: Little Duckie and I Have a Pair of Little Hands, Page 11

11

Remember: Keep your fingers close to the keys when playing C‘s!

I Have a Pair of Little Hands Wŏ Yŏu Yī Shuāng Xiăo Xiăo Shŏu

Technique Challenge! Can you play C to D 10 times while keeping your fingers super close to the keys?

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Figure 6.14: Going to School and Guessing Game, Page 12

12

Watch out for those F sharps!

This game is just like rock, paper, scissors. The only difference is that you shout “scissors, stone, cloth!‖ instead.

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Figure 6.15: Little Donkey, Page 13

13

*Try to keep your throat open for the E‘s so they do not crack!

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Figure 6.16: Find a Friend and Throw a Handerkerchief, Page 14

14

This song is actually a game lie duck-duck-goose. Everyone sits in a circle facing each other while one person walks outside of the circle with a handkerchief. If the handkerchief is dropped behind you, you must pick it up and catch your friend before he sits down in his spot!

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Figure 6.17: Little Rabbit and Embroidered Purse, Page 15

Little Rabbit 15 Xiăo Tù

These two songs take a lot of breath control—so make sure to take in air all the way to your belly! Relax your shoulders, too!

Embroidered Purse Cì Xiù Qián Bāo

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Figure 6.18: Mom is the Best!, Page 16

16

Remember how to finger a High D? It‘s just like a ―G‖ but you keep your left index finger up! Easy!

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Figure 6.19: Purple Bamboo Flute, Page 17

17

So sleepy!

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Figure 6.20: In the Silver Moonlight and In the Land That is Far Away, Page 18

18

In the Land That is Far Away

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Figure 6.21: Wa Ha Ha!, Page 19

19

This is a great time to review all those 16ths notes in Twinkle Preparatory Study!

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Figure 6.22: Jasmine Flower, Page 20

20

This one is very tricky—you should be able to play Long, Long Ago, Lullaby, and Moon Over the Ruined Castle before trying this one!

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Figure 6.23: Mud Doll, Page 21

21

For these next two, you might want to review Bourrée first! Very lively!

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Figure 6.24: The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms, Page 22

22

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Figure 6.25: Purple Bamboo Melody, Page 23

23

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Figure 6.26: Purple Bamboo Melody (cont’d), Page 24 24

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Figure 6.27: Goodbye!, Page 25

25

Whew! I am exhausted! It seems we have come to the end of our adventure. I hope you had as much fun as I did!

Now it‘s your turn to share everything you have learned with all your friends and family. So many people would love to hear you play—and they will probably be very curious about the music they hear!

Just be sure to mention…. you heard it all from a really cute orange cat named Timmy!

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CONCLUSION

It is amazing after all the research done in creating this document that I find myself only on the tip of the iceberg. Although I have met the goal of writing a book for my Suzuki students, it is very clear that my Chinese studies will be a life-long passion.

This will be a different type of quest--not something done for a grade or a requirement, but to learn more about a culture I love and of which I feel a part in some way.

Each chapter of this document gives me more opportunities for more research. I would love to do more research and documentation about the growth and evolution of

Chinese schools in America. A trip to China would be an incredible journey. To see and be a part of the mainland culture even briefly—to visit historical sites, music schools, villages—it is an exciting prospect. Learning various Chinese instruments, studying with a dizi master, learning the language–these are all things I would be more than happy to include in my studies.

Perhaps this project will influence a future revision of the Suzuki to include a Chinese melody. Even adding one Chinese song would be incredible from a musical and cultural standpoint. In the meantime, having my own book will help immensely within my own studio.

My book itself will need to take on a different set of considerations if it is to be published: should I include music from , revolutionary tunes, and Cantonese 103 songs? Perhaps these will lead to other volumes. My gut says to stick to one theme for now, maybe even add a few more melodies along the way.

Perhaps knowing that the door has only been opened will make it easier to leave this document where it is now. It would be impossible to include every aspect of Chinese history, culture, and music in this one document. What I have learned about Chinese history, music, and most importantly, culture will surely continue to grow and be passed on to my students.

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