Musical Instruments Yuèqì 乐 器
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◀ Music, Traditional Comprehensive index starts in volume 5, page 2667. Musical Instruments Yuèqì 乐 器 Chinese musical instruments have been evolv- still used in Confucian ceremonies. These instruments ing since the first millenniabce , when instru- are sets of tuned idiophones (instruments whose sound ments of “eight sounds” were developed and is produced by vibrations of the material of the instru- categorized according to their material com- ment); they are made of stone and bronze, respectively, and are mounted on wooded frames. The character for position. International contact led to adop- music, 乐 yueh, is derived from an ancient representation tion and adaptation of instruments developed of these instruments. A much softer ancient instrument, elsewhere. In the modern era Chinese music incorporates both Western and traditional A man plays a pan pipe in a park. Photo by Chinese instrumentation. Berkshire Publishing. hina’s musical instruments have evolved in ways that express China’s aesthetic connections with the beauty and power of nature. While tradi- tional instruments have sometimes been associated with specific regions and ethnicities within China, they have also been an important component of an emerging na- tional musical identity, usually grounded in elements shared by groups within China’s Han majority. Earliest Instruments Both literary and archeological records reveal the im- portance of musical instruments from the very begin- ning of Chinese civilization. Literary records credited the legendary first emperors with the invention of vari- ous instruments, and some of the earliest, including the bianqing 编磬 (suspended stones) and bianzhong 编钟 (suspended bells), were used in court rituals. Both are 1534 www.berkshirepublishing.com © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC C Musical Instruments n Yuèqì n 乐器 1535 be an essential vehicle for personal aesthetic refinement. Another zither, the harp-like zheng 箏, which has strings suspended on moveable bridges, evolved somewhat later, and formed the prototype for the Japanese koto and other East Asian instruments. Instruments of “Eight Sounds” During the time of the Zhou dynasty (1045– 256 bce), instruments were classified according to their material composition and associated sound qualities. These cat- egories, known as bayin 八音 (eight sounds), included the following: silk, bamboo, stone, wood, metal, clay, gourd, and skin. Through correlative cosmology, these categories were connected with the primary directions and seasons of the year. Court rituals were supposed to harmonize the earthly realm with the cosmos, and of- ficials took responsibility to see that instruments were tuned properly for this purpose. Thesheng 笙, an ancient mouth organ, was used to represent the gourd category because of its gourd resonating chamber, although its sound pipes were made of bamboo. Thesheng, a distant instrumental relative of the Western pipe organ, is still in use today, although modern instruments have sound chambers made of other materials. While prehistoric flutes made of bone have been found by archeologists, bamboo flutes flourished throughout most of recorded history, and are used extensively in regional ensemble music. The most popular bamboo flutes today are the dizi 笛子, a transverse flute, and the xiao 箫, a vertical flute. The softer and more stationary instruments were used for indoor music, while louder and more mobile percus- sion and wind instruments were used outdoors, origi- nally for processions. These indoor and outdoor ensemble traditions evolved in diverse regional styles. The softer The pipa 琵琶, a Chinese lute-like instrument. ensemble traditions are often referred to generically as Photo by Anna Myers. sizhu (silk and bamboo), borrowing two of the ancient “eight sound” categories to emphasize the importance of stringed instruments and flutes, even though the en- the guqin 古琴, a bridgeless zither, was favored by Con- sembles may include other kinds of instruments. The out- fucius, who admired its subtle qualities. Over centuries, door ensembles include many kinds of drums and often an extensive written body of solos was developed for this include the piercing sound of the suona 嗩吶, a double instrument, which well-educated scholars considered to reed instrument related to the Indian shenai and Western www.berkshirepublishing.com © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC 1536 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China 宝 库 山 中 华 全 书 The shorter, fatter flute is a dizi 笛子. The longer, thinner flute with a notch on one end (also of darker wood) is a xiao 箫. The wooden fish (also called a “temple block” by West- ern musicians) is a muyu 木鱼. Photo by Anna Myers. oboe. A generic term for these louder ensembles is gu- International Influences chui (“drums and winds,” although some ensembles may include other kinds of instruments). Along with a great As China’s borders expanded, contact with Central Asian variety of drums, which formed the “skin” category of the and other cultures along the Silk Roads led to musical “eight sounds,” numerous bells, cymbals, and gongs were exchanges, and plucked lutes entered China during the developed. Han dynasty (206 bce– 2 2 0 ce). Central Asian and Indian A musician playing the zheng. Photo by Paul and Bernice Noll, www. paulnoll.com.” www.berkshirepublishing.com © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC Musical Instruments n Yuèqì n 乐器 1537 A gathering of musicians in a public park in Xin- zheng. An appreciative crowd has gathered to listen. Photo by Dot Gar- low, courtesy of Paul and Bernice Noll, www. paulnoll.com plucked lutes influenced the development of the Chinese instruments became important in regional ensemble pipa 琵琶 and ruan 阮. and dramatic music. The last imported instrument to Centuries later, during another phase of increased be widely adopted during the dynastic period was the international contact during the Mongol period [Yuan yangqin 扬琴, a hammered dulcimer derived from Cen- dynasty (1279– 1368)], the bowed lutes were introduced, tral Asian instruments such as the santur. Theyangqin en- and the two-string fiddle, the erhu 二胡, and related tered China during the Ming dynasty (1368– 1644), and A close up of some of the musicians in the park in Xinzheng. Photo by Dot Garlow, courtesy of Paul and Bernice Noll, www.paulnoll.com www.berkshirepublishing.com © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC 1538 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China 宝 库 山 中 华 全 书 despite being called “the foreign instrument,” its distinc- instruments. The cellist Yo-Yo Ma, inspired by earlier tive articulation became part of many ensemble genres. periods of contact between civilizations, established the Indigenous instruments continued to evolve as well, and Silk Road Project, led concerts worldwide and commis- special gongs were developed to accent the libretti of re- sioned many new works in blended musical styles and gional opera genres with rising and falling pitches. instrumentation. Chinese traditional instruments, re- flecting several millennia of culture, form a significant part of the global orchestra. Twentieth and Early John MYERS Twenty- First Centuries In the twentieth century, the bowed instruments of the Further Reading huqin family were expanded to facilitate large ensembles, DeWoskin, K. G. (1982). A song for one or two: Music and roughly paralleling the string section of the Western or- the concept of art in early China. Ann Arbor: Center for chestra. Originally based on arrangements of traditional Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. “silk and bamboo” repertoire primarily from southern re- Kouwenhoven, F. (1994). Tan Dun. New York: Schirmer. gions, the inclusion of regional chamber music in a more Liang Mingyue. (1985). Music of the billion: An intro- nationalized style was centered in urban communities duction to Chinese musical culture. New York: Hein- and paralleled the practice of Western music. The tra- richshofen. ditional genres continued to flourish in diasporic com- Mackerras, C. P. (1972). The rise of the Peking Opera, 1770– munities as well as within China. Traditional Chinese 1870: Social aspects of the theatre in Manchu China. Ox- instruments were also combined with Western instru- ford, U.K.: Clarendon Press. Melvin, S., & Cai Jingdong. (2004). Rhapsody in red: How ments in concerti and symphonic works. During the classical music became Chinese. New York: Algora. Cultural Revolution (1966– 1976), Chinese instruments Thrasher, A. R. (2000).Chinese musical instruments. New were used in the eight revolutionary operas, although York and Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. use of the guqin with its elite associations, and other in- Wong Shengmiao, Samuel. (2005). ‘QI’—An instrumental struments associated with religious ritual, was discour- guide to the Chinese orchestra. Singapore: Teng. aged. After the end of the Cultural Revolution, modern Yang Yinliu. (1981). Zhongguo gu dai yin yue shi gao [His- composers such as Tan Dun continued to experiment torical study of ancient Chinese music]. Beijing: Peo- with combinations of Chinese traditional and Western ple’s Music Publications. N ▶ www.berkshirepublishing.com © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC.