Unit 3: Imperialism Formation of New European Nations Italy At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 Italy was divided. Austria annexed part of Italy and the rest of the country was fragmented into states controlled by Austria or ruled by monarchs.
Italian nationalism became a strong force in Italy in the early 1800s due to a revival in Italian traditions.
The nationalist movement had goals of liberation from monarchy and the unification of Italy. The nationalist movement became known as Risorgimento (meaning resurgence).
In 1848 revolutions were unsuccessful except in Sardinia which remained independent. Still, Italian patriots agreed their chief aim was the unification of Italy; they disagreed though on how to achieve this goal.
Liberals wanted to create an Italian republic while other groups wanted a constitutional monarchy under King
Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia.
In Sardinia, the chief minister, not the king, governed the nation. The premier in Sardinia was Count
Camillo Cavour. He disliked absolutism and admired the British parliamentary government. He wanted a united Italy under the rule of Sardinia. Cavour brought prominence to Sardinia when the region fought with Great Britain and France in the Crimean War.
In 1860, the Italian peninsula became a target for the “Red Shirts” who also wanted a united Italy. With financial assistance from Cavour, the Red Shirts led a number of successful revolutions in Italy. The Red Shirts and Cavour soon met and, for the sake of Italian unification, they agreed to support the establishment of the kingdom of Italy under the rule of Victor Emmanuel II. Unification was completed when Italy gained additional regions in the Seven Weeks’ War in 1866. During the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon II was forced to leave Rome where the city joined Italy and became the capital.
Germany
For a number of years, Germany was a patchwork of independent states, each with its own laws, currency, and rulers. In the late 1800s, Prussia took the lead in uniting these states. From 1806-1812,
1 Napoleon dominated Prussia. Napoleon’s rule stimulated German nationalism and now Germans appreciated their language, past, and traditions. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna led to the creation of the
German Confederation. Prussia was the strongest of the German states.
In 1848, uprisings and nationalism in Germany called for liberal reforms. Demands of liberals for a representative government failed. In 1861, William I became King of Prussia, and appointed Bismarck as
Prussia’s chancellor. Bismarck believed in the Prussian destiny to lead the German people to unification at any cost. He was willing to use trickery, bribery, or military force to fulfill this destiny. He hated democracy and the liberals and idealists, calling them “…talkers and not people of action.” Bismarck said that the German policy of unification could be carried out not by “speeches and majorities…but [only through] iron and blood.”
In 1866, Bismarck moved to drive Austria out of the German Confederation in the Seven Weeks
War. Prussia took advantage of modern technology and defeated Austria in seven weeks. At the Treaty of
Prague, Austria agreed to the dissolution of the German Confederation and surrendered territory to Prussia.
Germany now united under Prussian rule.
On January 18, 1871, representatives of the allied German states met at Versailles to formally unify
Germany. From the palace, they issued an official proclamation declaring the formation of the German
Empire which included all of the German states except Austria. The former capital of Prussia, Berlin, became the capital of Germany. King William I of Prussia was proclaimed emperor of Germany. He appointed Bismarck as the new nation’s chancellor. Bismarck became known as the Iron Chancellor because of “iron and blood” policy. Despite his “iron and blood” policy, Bismarck is forced to accept a constitution with a representative form of government (republic).
Bismarck wanted transform Germany into an industrial power. Under Bismarck’s leadership, the government helped industry in many ways. Consequently, industrialization came later in Germany than Great
Britain and France proving to be an advantage for the German nation.
2 In 1888, William I died. Shortly after in 1890, his grandson, William II, came to power. William II thought Bismarck was too powerful and forced the chancellor to resign. With Bismarck gone, William II set out to expand Germany’s colonial empire. He was obsessed with making Germany a world power. William
II increased the size of Germany’s army and navy (militarism) creating an “arms race” and “naval race”
(militarism) with Great Britain. Furthermore, William II created alliances with Germany’s neighbors making Germany stronger than ever before.
France
After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, monarchs ruled France until a series of Socialist Revolutions in 1848. Riots and revolts soon led to the establishment of a Second French Republic with an elected president the same year. In December 1848, voters elected the nephew of Napoleon, Louis Napoleon, as the
President of the French Republic. Louis Napoleon wanted to follow in the footsteps of his uncle so in 1852
Louis Napoleon held a plebiscite for another French Constitution containing liberal ideas. However, votes were manipulated and Louis Napoleon, supported by the army, won consent to take the title Emperor
Napoleon III. France came under a new style of absolutism.
Napoleon III soon tried to win glory and power through war abroad. His first choice was the weakening Ottoman Empire. Napoleon III took a firm stance against Russia in the Crimean territory of
Russia. The French emperor formed an alliance with Great Britain and the Ottoman Turks to defeat
Russia in 1854.
By opposing German unification, Napoleon III hoped to regain support of the French people who distrusted Prussia. In 1870, the French Legislature, controlled by Napoleon III, declared war on Germany. The act started the Franco-Prussian War. France suffered disastrous defeats and Napoleon III was captured by
German forces. The French Legislature declared an end to the Second Republic and establishment of the Third
Republic. The new government tried to defend France but Paris fell to the Prussians in 1871 signifying the end of the war.
3 The terms of the treaty forced France to up the territories of Alsace and Lorraine on the French-German border.
Russia
By the mid-1800s, Russia had the largest territory and population of any European nation.
However, Russia remained weak and industrial development, unlike the west, lagged in Russia. Most of
Russia’s natural resources were underdeveloped and its ports were blocked by ice for much of the year. In addition, exits from the seas were controlled by other countries.
Consequently, Russia was almost entirely landlocked. In the 1850’s Russia’s geographical situation led to attempts to gain access to warm water ports in the Mediterranean Sea, particularly through the
Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. Russian control of the Crimean would give the nation access to a warm water port connected to the Mediterranean. The Crimean War between Russia and the French and
English allies over port access soon began. Russia is unsuccessful in the attempt to control the Crimean.
Even though the Russian Czar (king) was an autocrat (someone who holds absolute power), liberalism and nationalism (conquered groups disliked Russian control) appealed to Russian ethnic minorities. The conflicts within Russia lead to disunity among the Russian people. The government severely repressed revolutionary leaders, maintaining an autocracy. Conquered groups were dissatisfied with Russian rule.
Austria-Hungary
Austria was a traditional European power and a multi-national empire. Nationalist revolts in
Europe eventually spread to Austria and Hungary. In 1848, clashes between nationalists and the Austrian government led to the abdication of the Austrian ruler Ferdinand and the 18 year old Francis Joseph I as
Austria’s new king. With Russian assistance, Austria successfully defeated the revolutionaries.
For almost 20 years, Austria managed to keep liberalism and nationalism from becoming major issues.
However, after Austria’s defeat by Prussia in 1866, Hungarians began to demand more freedom. Austria solved this problem in 1867 by forming the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary). Hungarians now shared
4 power with the Austrians. Francis Joseph I became Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary with each region having its own parliament.
Great Britain
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain making her the first nation to “industrialize.”
Industrialization gave Britain a huge advantage globally because it made Britain rich and powerful (land
(natural resources), labor (workers), and capitol (money)).
Several other factors explained why Great Britain had a global advantage. Because of Britain’s naval dominance and economic power, the nation had the world’s largest empire, ruling one-fourth of the earth’s territory. Additional trade opportunities existed in many other parts of the world which could be reached by the British navy and merchant fleet. Britain’s main concern became protecting the British
Empire and developing global trade. The British government, determined to achieve its trade goals, protected the balance of power (maintaining equilibrium in international politics) on the European continent.
American Foreign Policy Before 1900
As the industrial might of the U.S. accelerated in the late 1800s, American businesses looked abroad for profits. American foreign policy was based on three perceptions:
1) President George Washington recommended in his Farewell Address to the nation that the U.S. does
not get entangled in foreign affairs and it does not make permanent alliances (1796).
2) President James Monroe proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 that asserted the western
Hemisphere was not to be further colonized by European countries, and the U.S. would not interfere in
existing Western Hemisphere colonies of Europe. Also the U.S. would stay out of the affairs of Europe.
3) The concept of Manifest Destiny – the ‘obvious’ right to expand the nation from ocean to ocean.
All of the above perceptions developed into the nationally beloved policy of isolation that became threatened as the U.S. moved toward a more active role on the world stage at the turn of the century. 5 Rise of Imperialism
The leading powers of Europe and Japan had already embraced the benefits of imperialistic policies while the U.S. concealed itself behind the Monroe Doctrine. The ‘powers’ competed for colonies and spheres of influence in Africa, Asia, and among the Pacific Islands.
If the U.S. embarked on a foreign policy of Imperialism, the economic reasons were self explanatory.
• Cheap raw materials
• Markets for manufactured goods. America produced more than it could consume.
“We must have more customers to absorb the excessive production of our mills”
“It is absolutely necessary in view of our increasing productive capacity…we must have a
place to dump our surplus, which otherwise will constantly depress prices and compel the
shutting down of our mills…changing our profits to losses”
• U.S. workers and farmers convinced business and political leaders to expand to new markets.
• Expansion of foreign trade.
• Large profits at minimal risk
In the late 1800s Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, leader of a growing group of American expansionists, said “whether they will or not, Americans must now begin to look outward. The growing production of the country requires it.”
Mahan further advocated Imperialism in his book, The Influence of Sea Power upon History. He argued that control of the seas was necessary for world dominance. He asserted that no nation could be a
first class power without freedom of the seas during peace time and control of the seas during wartime .
6 Mahan’s philosophy stimulated the great naval race among the great powers at the turn of the century that contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
As a proponent of United States military and industrial power, Mahan specifically advocated the U.S. address three issues:
• The development of a large world class steel navy (the world was in transition from wooden ships to
steel at this time)
• Coaling stations strategically located as a means of extending the range of warships
• The construction of a middle-American canal for the purpose of a much shorter trade and military
route between the east and west coast.
Justifications for Imperialism
Justifications for imperialism were entrenched in two social motives:
1) Christianity and its Great Commission to spread and Christianize the ‘savages of the world gave
imperialism its moral tone as missionary zeal (dominated by women) spread ahead of imperial
occupation.
2) Social Darwinism – Social Darwinists argued that the ‘American democratic system of government
was the world’s ‘fittest’ and it was destined to spread to every land on the earth’s surface.” Social
Darwinist fully believed in the superiority of their government, culture and race. (survival of the
fittest)
Rudyard Kipling THE WHITE MAN’S BURDEN
“Take up the white man’s burden Send forth the best ye breed -- Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives needs 7 To wait in heavy harness On fluttered folk and wild- Your new caught sullen peoples Half-devil and half-child”
U.S. Imperial Efforts
America’s first imperial efforts focused on opportunities in the Far East and the Pacific.
• In the 1850s the U.S. forced the opening of the bamboo door when Commodore Perry signed a trade
agreement with Japan
• In 1867, Secretary of State William Seward was scoffed for his ridiculous purchase of Alaska for 7
million dollars. Seward’s folly was later a serious piece of real estate because of its abundance of
natural resources.
o “…a barren, worthless, God-forsaken region.” o “…walrus-covered icebergs.”
• In 1899, American acquired part of the Samoan islands and a major harbor, Pago-Pago. In a true
definition of ‘Gun Boat Diplomacy,” war almost broke out between U.S. and Germany over the
islands – ( a typhoon wrecked the ships of both countries, giving time for the ‘real’ diplomats to
come up with the solution to divide the island group)
• Smaller islands were claimed by the U.S. because other countries deemed them irrelevant such as:
Midway Island annexed in 1867
Wake Island annexed in 1898
A major island group in the Pacific included Hawaii. American influence in the Hawaiian island group steadily increased. Steps toward the acquisition of Hawaii by the U.S. included:
8 o Imiola Church – first built in the late 1820s. The descendents of U.S. missionaries
dominated the sugar industry and exports to the U.S. by the latter half of the 1800s. Hawaii
became a U. S. Protectorate in 1849 by virtue of economic treaties. o 1886- 400 American businessmen formed a secret league with the goal of overthrowing
the Monarch and persuading the U.S. to annex Hawaii o 1887-U.S. established a naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. o In the early 1890s, Queen Liliuokalani, a determined nationalist inherited the throne of
Hawaii. She organized a “Hawaii for Hawaiians movement” to try to eliminate
American influence in Hawaii’s government and industry. Sanford Dole (fruit baron) and
other businessmen had other ideas. o American businessmen seized government buildings and staged a coup d’état in 1893 and
ousted Queen Liliuokalani. A provisional government was established under President
Sanford Dole. The provisional government immediately requested annexation by the U.S. o Sanford Dole proclaims the Republic of Hawaii in 1894 and immediately requested
annexation by the United States. o Sanford Ballard Dole proclaims the Republic of Hawaii in 1894. o President Cleveland refused to annex Hawaii, believing that ‘ethnic’ Hawaiians were against
annexation. After four more years of debate, Congress annexed the island group in 1898 at
the outbreak of the Spanish American War. o In summary, economic self interest and the expansion of U.S. power in the Pacific led to the
annexation of Hawaii in 1898. Hawaii became the 50th state in 1959.
9 In 1899, America acquired part of the Samoan Islands and a major harbor, Pago-Pago. In a true definition of ‘Gun Boat Diplomacy,” war almost broke out between U.S. and Germany over the islands –
(a typhoon wrecked the ships of both countries, giving time for the ‘real’ diplomats to come up with the solution to divide the island group)
Smaller islands were claimed by the U.S. because other countries deemed them irrelevant such as:
Midway Island annexed in 1867 and Wake Island annexed in 1898.
Imperialism in Latin America
At the turn of the century, United States foreign policy rotated between Latin America and the Far East
Pacific rim. That policy historically became more defined as imperialistic relations with Latin America became more estranged.
As we already know, relations between the U.S. and Latin America were relatively good because the
Monroe Doctrine protected the young Latin nations from their European parents after they revolted and several achieved independence in the 1820s. In 1889, the Pan American Union was organized by secretary of state
James Blaine to promote international cooperation between the American republics.
Relations between Latin America and the U.S. began to deteriorate in 1895 as a result of the British Guiana and Venezuela Boundary dispute. The boundary dispute between a European colony and an independent
Latin American country must fall under the jurisdiction of the Monroe Doctrine according to U.S. secretary of state, Richard Olney.
“Today the U.S. is practically sovereign on this continent and its fiat is law upon the subjects to which it
confines its interposition . . .”
With these words, the U.S., through the Olney Corollary or interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine, infuriated most Latin American countries by claiming their sovereignty and proclaiming that they are subject to the authority of the U.S. 10 The British and Venezuela government settled their dispute by international arbitration. Within a week of the settlement another ‘can of worms’ was opened in Latin America. Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to
Cuba to assume his new position as governor of the Spanish colony.
The United States and the Spanish American War 1898
Before the beginning of revolutionary activities in Cuba, U.S. business interests made substantial profits through investment in the Cuban sugar market. Profits fell to near zero when the Cubans expanded their revolutionary activities. President McKinley was slow in moving toward intervention but U.S. public sympathy leaned toward intervention on behalf of the Cubans who were fighting for liberty and democracy.
Causes of the Spanish American War
1) Cuban Revolution
• General Weyler was sent to Cuba (1868) to suppress the activities of Cuban revolutionaries who
launched an independence movement against Spain. Cuba and Puerto Rico were the last remnants
of the former Spanish Empire in the Western hemisphere and Spain was determined to hold on to
them.
• Weyler imprisoned thousands of farmers in concentration camps (which leads to Yellow
Journalism) to limit supplies to the rebels. Up to 200,000 Cubans died of starvation and disease in
the camps.
2) Yellow Journalism
Yellow Journalism presents little or no legitimate, well researched news; instead, it uses eye- catching headlines to sell more newspapers. Characteristics include exaggerations, sensationalism, un-named sources, and self-promotion.
11 Moral outrage about the camps grew with every publication of American newspapers. William
Randolph Hearst, publisher of the New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, targeted General Weyler as ‘the butcher’ for his atrocities against the Cuban people.
The fierce circulation war between the two newspapers fueled public outrage at Spain. Hearst and
Pulitzer cranked up their presses and their yellow journalistic sensationalized headlines did not miss a story coming out of Cuba. They fed the public appetite. The newspapers believed that if the U.S. did not come to
Cuba’s aid in their quest for independence, they could actually make it happen.
As evidence of media power to bring about the war was an exchange of telegrams between Hearst and American artist Frederic Remington. Hearst hired Remington to go to Cuba and document the atrocities of the Spanish regime and the ‘upcoming’ war. Remington wired Hearst and reported that ‘there will be no war.’ Hearst responded by saying, ‘you furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war.’
3) DeLome Letter
Causes to support Cuban nationalism and independence were mounting up. Then Hearst’s New York
Journal played a trump card and printed the ‘DeLome Letter.’
The Spanish Minister in Washington wrote a personal letter to a friend in Cuba. The private letter called
President McKinley a ‘small-time politician’ and a ‘bidder for the admiration of the crowd.’ A clear personal insult to the president, but never intended to be presented to the American public . . . until it was stolen . . . and published in the New York Journal . . . under the headline: “The Worst to the U.S. in its
History”
4) USS Maine
After the publication of the DeLome Letter, things could not be worse for Spain . . . that is until the U.S.S.
Maine blew up.
12 Early in 1898 President McKinley ordered the Maine to Havana Harbor to protect American citizens in case of the outbreak of war. The Battleship Maine mysteriously blew up, killing all 160 American Sailors on board.
Historians have long held that the Spanish government would not have been foolish enough to commit an act of such magnitude that it would guarantee American troops pouring into Cuba. So in a classic case of “…who done it…,” evidence was presented to the American people via yellow journalistic headlines and the clamor for war was sealed.
The reasons that the U.S. should declare war on Spain on behalf of Cuba were now overwhelming.
• The collapse of the Cuban economy
• The Spanish atrocities against the Cuban people
• The influence of yellow journalism
• The DeLome Letter
• The blowing up of the U.S.S. Maine
• The outrage of the American people
Events deteriorated quickly –
• McKinley attempted to slow the shouts for war. (He experienced the ‘dead piled high’ during the Civil
War and was not in favor of jingoistic war carnage)
• Business interest in the U.S. opposed intervention – even though Cuban trade with Cuba dropped to
zero, trade with Spain was still brisk
• The Spanish government yielded and ordered its troops to cease all hostilities against the Cuban people
13 • All was to no avail – McKinley reluctantly asked Congress for a declaration of war against Spain in
April 1898 and Congress, quick to satisfy their constituents, declared war. Senator Henry Teller was
able to attach an amendment to the war declaration disclaiming any intention of adding Cuban
territory to the U.S. Congress did not want to ‘look’ imperialistic.
“The Splendid Little War”
Just five days after congress declared war and issued the attached Teller amendment to the war resolution. Under Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt orchestrated the war strategy when war seemed inevitable. He ordered the U.S. Navy, under the command of Commodore George Dewey to the
Philippines. At the Philippines, Commodore Dewey destroyed the ten ship Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
Most Americans could not find the Philippines on a map. (President McKinley confessed that he could not)
To assure Roosevelt’s strategy and to cement Dewey’s defeat of Spain, the U.S. military leaders brought the exiled Filipino patriot Emilio Aguinaldo back into the country to stir up a nationalist uprising against the occupying Spaniards. Aguinaldo came because he thought the Americans favored an independent
Philippines after the defeat of the Spanish. It remains a matter of historical dispute what deal was made between Aguinaldo and the United States on the future of the Philippines.
The war in Cuba lasted just long enough to elevate Theodore Roosevelt to the status of bona fide war hero. After the success of the U.S. Navy in the Philippines, Roosevelt resigned his Navy post and formed the
Rough Riders. Teddy Roosevelt led Rough Riders charged up San Juan Hill and contributed to the surrender of Santiago, the Cuban Capita. The Spanish in Cuba surrendered and a few days later, other U.S. troops liberated (occupied) Spanish owned Puerto Rico.
More than 5,000 Americans died as a result of the conflict but fewer than 400 fell in combat. The others were mostly victims of yellow fever, typhoid, and other diseases.
14 NOTE: Dr. Walter Reed discovered that the mosquito was the carrier of yellow fever and General
William Gorgas developed techniques that eradicated the mosquito such as oil smothering. Later he is accredited with controlling the mosquito problem during the construction of the Panama Canal.
Treaty of Paris 1898
In the spring of 1898 the war had begun and in August it ended. The results of the war had immediate benefits.
Property wise, the U.S. gained
• Puerto Rico • Guam • Philippines • Another benefit was, in the world’s eyes, the U.S. had become a world power. The U.S. also paid $20 million dollars for the Philippines
The U.S. did not get Cuba! The previously added amendment to the war resolution, the Teller
Amendment, guaranteed respect for Cuba’s new found independence and sovereignty. But the U.S. felt the need to make Cuba’s independence conditional. To do so, the Teller amendment was replaced with the Platt
Amendment of 1901.
The Platt Amendment restricted Cuba's sovereignty under certain conditions and gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs if Cuba put its own country as risk of excessive debt or other circumstances. The Platt amendment also allowed the U.S. to maintain a port for a naval base at
Guantanamo Bay.
Filipino-American War
15 The U.S. entered the Spanish American War to liberate Cuba from an abusive power located thousands of miles away. The U.S. gave Spain $20 million dollars for their claims to the Philippines. The liberation of the Philippines was given . . . wrong answer!
Aguinaldo and the Filipino revolutionaries viewed the U.S. as liberators. At the White House
President McKinley was struggling with his conscience over the future of the Philippines. He came to the below realization:
“When I next realized that the Philippines had dropped into our laps I confess I did not know what to do with them . . . I walked the floor of the White House night after night until midnight; and I am not ashamed to tell you, gentlemen, that I went down on my knees and prayed Almighty God for light and guidance more than one night.
And one night late it came to me this way – I don’t know how it was, but it came:
1) we could not give them back to Spain – that would be cowardly and dishonorable;
2) we could not turn them over to France and Germany – our commercial rivals in the Orient that would be bad business and discreditable;
3) that we could not leave them to themselves; they were unfit for self-government; they would soon have anarchy and misrule becoming worse than under Spain’s rule
4) that there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, uplift and civilize and Christianize them, and by God’s grade do the very best we could by them.”
The decision was made. McKinley decided to keep the Philippines and Aguinaldo against another foreign power located thousands of miles away – the United States. The war with the Philippines lasted seven years and lost 4000 American lives . . . not to mention 20,000 Filipino casualties.
Rise of Anti-Imperialism
16 Expansionists praised McKinley’s decision for investing in new markets for American industry, but
Anti-Imperialist elements became more vocal with every yellow journalistic headline applauding the U.S. effort to ‘civilize’ those that were considered ‘half-devil and half-child.’
• Mark Twain said, “The United States had the banner of the Prince of Peace in one hand and its loot
basket and its butcher knife in the other.” “Much as we abhor the ‘criminal aggression’ in the
Philippines, greatly as we regret that the blood of the Filipinos is on American hands, we more deeply
resent the betrayal of American institutions at home. The real firing line is not in the suburbs of
Manila. The foe is of our own household. The attempt of 1861 was to divide the country. That of
1899 is to destroy its fundamental principles and noble ideals”
Andrew Carnegie challenged McKinley’s decision by saying “we will be forced to govern them . . . which means that they will yield us nothing. Certainly they will be grievous drain upon revenue if we consider the enormous army and navy which we shall be forced maintain upon their account.”
The Anti-Imperialists were soon drowned out by the cries of empire. In the case of the Philippines, it was clearly evident that the American public sided with the imperialist whom believed the below justification for the U.S. to acquire the Philippines.
• Social Darwinist, and their emphasis on survival of the fittest and Anglo-Saxon race superiority
• Missionary zeal and Christian doctrines of expansionism
• The belief in the American Democratic system of government
• The economics of new markets and profits for the American Industrial complex
American Imperialism in the Pacific
17 With the acquisitions of a developing Pacific Empire, Guam, Wake, Samoan Islands, Hawaii, Philippines, and others, the U.S. interest in China became a matter of international diplomacy.
The major powers of Europe, Britain, France, and Germany already staked claims (spheres of influence) in China. Russia and Japan joined with their ‘spheres-of-influence’ overlapping in China’s northern province of Manchuria.
The U.S. realized the economic value of staking a claim in the world’s largest exploitable market.
McKinley knew to join other powers in the dismemberment of China would be politically impossible because it would create another battle between American imperialists and Anti-Imperialists elements.
Secretary of state, John Hay, used clever diplomacy to address the economic interest of the U.S. in
China. To American economic interest, Hay’s initiative acquired access to a single sphere of foreign influence for all nations involved. In a series of ‘open door notes’ sent to the ‘powers’ he asked them to respect the trading rights of all countries. In a remarkable triumph of international diplomacy, he accepted their noncommittal answers to his notes as a ‘yes’ or acceptance of his ‘Open Door Policy.’ The new policy gave equal access to trade in China and guaranteed China would not be taken over by any one foreign power.
The Open Door Policy was quickly put to the test. Not by the powers but by Chinese Nationalist. The
Chinese government had been weakened by years of internal conflict and external exploitation. It could not prevent the ‘rape’ of the powers.
A Chinese nationalist group, the ‘Boxers,” launched the so called Boxer Rebellion. They ousted foreign interests by force and death from the China capital of Peking. The Boxers targeted mostly
Chinese converted Christians and their missionary advocates. The ‘siege’ of Peking was put down by the powers including a force form the United States. China was forced to pay millions in damages.
Not everyone agreed with American foreign policy in China. The Anti-Imperialist Mark Twain said: 18 • China never wanted foreigners any more than foreigners wanted Chinamen, and on this
question I am with the Boxers every time. The Boxer is a patriot. He loves his country
better than he does the countries of other people. I wish him success. The Boxer believes
in driving us out of his country. I am a Boxer too, for I believe in driving him out of our
country.
With the acquisition of a small but significant empire under his belt, McKinley was reelected in 1900 and assassinated shortly afterwards. Teddy Roosevelt went from assistant secretary of the Navy, Rough
Rider, hero of San Juan Hill, governor of New York, Vice President . . . and now President of the United
States.
Under Roosevelt, Hay’s Open Door Policy was put to the test again when a quarrel broke out over
Russian and Japanese claims to Manchuria in their Sphere of Influence. The Russo Japanese War of
1905 was a bloody mess leaving over two hundred thousand dead. The Japanese soundly defeated Russia, surprising the powers because this was the first time a European power was defeated by an Asian power.
To bring closure to the conflict, both sides agreed to a United States/ Teddy Roosevelt mediation to negotiate treaty conditions. It was negotiated at Portsmouth New Hampshire. The treaty was unpopular in
Japan, straining foreign relations between the two countries. However, Roosevelt managed to invoke the
Open Door policy and prevent either side from annexing China’s Manchuria. For his efforts, Teddy
Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize.
Roosevelt did send a fleet of warships around the world to demonstrate U.S. naval power. He especially wanted the Japanese to realize the might of the U.S. when the ‘Great White Fleet’ sailed into
Tokyo Harbor . . . but he knew the Open Door Policy was a ‘paper tiger.’
American Imperialism in Latin America
19 By the turn of the century, Latin American countries often found themselves in debt to European powers. President Roosevelt began to swing his big stick (U.S. gunboats) to address the issue. With Hay’s
Open Door policy firmly in effect in Asia, it was time to address the ‘chronic wrongdoing’ of irresponsible
Latin governments.
Venezuela and the Dominican Republic failed to pay their debts and Germany, England, and
France who demanded payment to the point of military attacking the violators. The intervention of European powers in the affairs of Western Hemisphere countries is a clear violation of the Monroe Doctrine – but
Roosevelt also clearly understood that Latin American countries should not be allowed to escape their obligations, especially not by hiding behind the Monroe Doctrine.
Roosevelt proposed his remedy in a speech to Congress, 1904.
‘Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized
society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in
the Western hemisphere the adherence of the U.S. to the Monroe Doctrine may force the U.S.,
however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an
international police power.’
The Roosevelt Corollary or amendment to the Monroe Doctrine:
• Reasserted the U.S. commitment of the Monroe Doctrine
• Implied that the U.S. would intervene in the affairs of Western Hemisphere nations to prevent
European nations from doing so.
• Implied that the U.S. would act as an international police power to collect the unpaid Latin debt to
pay off its European creditors.
20 Under the Roosevelt Corollary, Roosevelt and future presidents intervened in several Latin American countries around the Caribbean Rim to put their countries finances in order. The policy worked admirably but caused a great deal of resentment in the region.
Roosevelt had other reasons to issue the corollary and bring stability to the Caribbean Rim. He was going to build a canal. Roosevelt, a disciple of Mahan and a participant in the Spanish American War, witnessed the two month voyage of the USS Oregon around South America to Santiago. Whether the need to move war ships from coast to coast or the need to reduce travel time for the transportation of goods, Roosevelt was going to build a canal.
Building a Middle America canal began by nullifying the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain. This 1850 treaty barred the U.S. from building a Middle America canal on its own. The Clayton Treaty was replaced with the Hay-Pouncefote Treaty of 1901 that gave the U.S. consent to build a unilateral canal, ‘free and open to the vessels of commerce and war to all nations.’
Two sites for a Middle America canal were considered, across Nicaragua or Panama. “Lake Nicaragua” made that location attractive; a shorter route made Panama attractive. Roosevelt chose Panama . . . and . . .
Colombia owned Panama.
In 1903, the U.S. negotiated a treaty with Colombia for rights to build a canal across Panama. The same canal construction location was formally owned by a French company who failed at the project. The
Colombia Senate rejected the treaty in hopes of prying more money out of the deal. Roosevelt grew impatient. Egged on by a French engineer Philippe Bunau-Varilla, it looked as if the only remedy would be to support a revolution that broke Panama away from Colombia. Bunau-Varilla rallied the Panamanian rebels to stage a revolt at Colon. The U.S. sent some warships to intimidate Colombia.
Analyze the Political Cartoon “The News Reaches Bogota”
• Title
21 • Identify man with the shovel.
• Purpose of the Gun Boats?
• Why is Roosevelt shoveling dirt on Bogota?
• What were the condition(s) of the ‘new treaty’ flag/
• What is the main idea of the cartoon?
With the signing of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1904, Roosevelt had his canal location. The swing of
Roosevelt’s Big Stick bred more resentment and fear as American hegemony in the Caribbean expanded.
Canal Facts:
• Construction began in 1904 and ended in 1914
• The Panama Canal is a marvel of the modern world, built by incorporating the Lock System
Technology in its constructions
• Roosevelt appointed George Washington Goethals as chief engineer over the Panama project
• 6,000 workers lost their lives during the construction
• Colonel William Gorgas placed his same successful mosquito program that was used in Cuba in
Panama
Some in the United States opposed Teddy Roosevelt’s policy in Panama. His opponents did not like his methods for acquiring the Canal Zone. William Randolph Hearst commented: “Besides being a rough- riding assault upon another republic over the shattered wreckage of international law . . ., it is a quite unexampled instance of foul play in American politics.”
22 Two years after leaving office, T. Roosevelt said: “If I had followed traditional, conservative methods I would have submitted a dignified State paper of probably 200 pages to Congress and the debates on it would have been going on yet; but I took the canal zone and let Congress debate; and while the debate goes on the canal does also.” In recognition of the illegal means used to acquire the Canal Zone, Congress voted to pay $25 million to Colombia in 1921, 2 years after TR’s death.
Teddy Roosevelt was followed in office in 1908 by his secretary of War, William Howard Taft. Under
Taft, the Roosevelt Corollary continued to evolve from the original Monroe Doctrine to more intervention in Latin America. To identify the expansion of Roosevelt’s Corollary or a new direction for the Monroe
Doctrine President Taft addressed Congress.
In his speech, Taft said:
“This policy has been characterized as substituting dollars for bullets. It is one that appeals to idealistic humanitarian sentiments and it is sound policy to legitimate commercial aims.”
Taft claimed that U.S. interest under his administration shifted from a ‘warlike and political policy’ to a
‘peaceful and economic policy.’
• Made Humanitarians and Capitalists happy
• Shift from warlike/political policy to peaceful/economic policy
• U.S. allowed its banks and businesses to flex its power in Latin and Asian countries
• Guaranteed U.S. economic and strategic interests
23 In other words, Taft claimed that U.S. interest under his administration shifted from a “…warlike and political policy…” to a “…peaceful and economic policy….” The policy switch made humanitarians and capitalists happy. It allowed U.S. banks and business corporations to flex their power in Latin and Asian countries. The policy also guaranteed U.S. economic and strategic interest in a region. Critics call Taft’s definition of substituting dollars for bullets, “Dollar Diplomacy.”
An example of Dollar Diplomacy in action was in Nicaragua in 1909. A threatened revolution, if successful, would stop payment on a large U.S. loan to the weak government. A new government would feel no obligation to pay the loan. The U.S. helped crush the revolution – needless to say, the ghost of the “Big Stick
Policy” still had influence.
President Taft was a one termer and he was replaced in the historical election of 1912 by Democrat
Woodrow Wilson. His interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine allowed intervention in Latin America. His foreign policy in Latin America became known as Moral or Missionary Diplomacy. Moral Diplomacy was
Wilson’s belief that exporting democracy, capitalism, and Christian values was the best way to promote stability and progress (as well as American markets) in the world.
For Moral Diplomacy to work, foreign countries had to accept American style democracy and capitalism and try to ‘graft’ those concepts into their own conditions – a near impossibility. But Wilson was assured his new policy tone, denouncing Dollar Diplomacy, would be accepted by those countries who dealt with the U.S. The most serious example of Moral Diplomacy occurred in Mexico.
In 1911, a new president, Francisco Madero, began a progressive movement in Mexico. He was a weak administrator and conditions deteriorated rapidly. In the weakened economic state, Madero was murdered and governmental power was seized, economic stability returned and most governments recognized the new government of General Victoriano Huerta . . . but not Wilson! “I will not recognize a government of butchers!”
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