Middle School Girls: Experiences in a Place-Based Education Science Classroom

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MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS: EXPERIENCES IN A PLACE-BASED EDUCATION SCIENCE CLASSROOM

By CHARLENE K. SHEA

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY Educational Leadership, Sport Studies, & Educational/Counseling Psychology

MAY 2016

To the Faculty of Washington State University:

The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of CHARLENE K. SHEA find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted.

______Richard D. Sawyer, Ed.D., Chair

______Paula Groves Price, Ph.D.

______Pamela Bettis, Ph.D.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There have been many trail angels that have blessed me as I have traveled this doctoral path. Without their support, encouragement, guidance and humor I would not have had the courage to complete this journey that began in my first Summer Institute in Pullman,

Washington. Dr. Richard Sawyer, who was instrumental in the start of the Educational

Leadership doctoral program (formally known as the Teacher Leadership Program) graciously agreed to serve as the chairperson of my committee. Dr. Sawyer’s energy, enthusiasm, knowledge, challenging questions and support provided the cheer-leader/gentle persuader/counter-balancer I needed to stay focused, driven, and open-minded as I explored my passion for improving middle school girls’ science education. I am so thankful to have had Dr.

Paula Groves Price as one of my first professors on this adventure. While I doubted my participation in a doctoral program, Dr. Groves Price’s reassuring smile and positive attitude provided the encouragement I needed to believe in myself as I ventured into the world of doctoral studies. Her inquisitive insights challenged me to dig deeply into the qualitative research process. On a hot summer July afternoon I had the opportunity to discuss my research plans with

Dr. Pam Bettis. From this conversation, I knew Dr. Bettis would be inspirational and intellectually challenge my thinking. Her depth of understanding of the complexities of middle school girls, along with her shoot-from-the-hip directness challenged and inspired me to view my research in new and improved dimensions. I must also thank Dr. Kristin Huggins, my qualitative research professor. Dr. Huggins’ tenacity for the details and her willingness to answer my limitless questions and challenge my thinking regarding qualitative research was inspiring. I am blessed to have had the opportunity to work with each of these amazing researchers and educators, and extend my deepest thanks to each of you. THANK YOU!

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The support from my employment trail angels has been incredible. I would like to thank

Mr. Mike Lane, my principal. Mr. Lane graciously supported a flexible team-teaching work schedule that provided the time necessary to leave my classroom to conduct this research. His

“we can make this work” attitude gave me the courage to reduce my work hours and pursue this phase of the doctorate degree process. Thank you to my teaching partner, Ms. Marcie Dahlin, and my guest teacher Ms. Julie Hildreth. Their willingness to step in and ensure that my students’ science education continued smoothly each Thursday and Friday during my research days significantly reduced stress and allowed me to devote the necessary time to this qualitative research. Their constant encouraging words and actions gave me energy to keep going. I am so thankful to my students and their parents, too many to individually name, who were consistent sources of positive support and encouragement. I am so grateful to each of these individuals; without their support and willingness to embrace flexibility I would not have had the courage to dedicate the time and energy necessary to gather my research data. THANK YOU!

Without the trail angels at my research site, Riverfront Academy, this document would not exist. I would like to thank the director, teacher, staff, students, parents, and staff at

Riverfront Academy. The gracious hospitality and welcoming atmosphere, along with the honesty, openness, and educational passion they shared with me throughout our hours together is inspiring and encouraging. I am a better educator, researcher, and person as a result of this amazing opportunity. THANK YOU!

Thanks also to the organizations that financially helped support my educational adventure: First Presbyterian Church, Vancouver WA., Rachel Royston Foundation, Vancouver

Public Schools, Vancouver Rotary Foundation, Delta Kappa Gamma, WSU College of

Education, Green Arnold Endowment Scholarship and Lawrence Peter Scholarship. What a

iv blessing it has been to know that people who may not even know me, believe in me and my research and are willing to encourage me by reducing the financial challenges of a doctoral education—THANK YOU!

Without the support of friends and family, especially my incredibly awesome husband

Jim Southwood, I would not have taken the first step on the doctoral path. To each of you, your patience and understanding each time I said “I’m sorry, I have research to do,” your continuous words of encouragement, your humor to reduce my frustrations, and your love and prayers kept me moving forward. I cannot adequately express the depth of my appreciation and gratitude. A simple THANK YOU seems insignificant for the amount of encouragement I have received. A frequently quoted African proverb states that it “takes a village to raise a child.” I would expand this quote by adding it takes a village to earn a doctoral degree. Each of you represents the reasons that I am forever blessed.

MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS: EXPERIENCES IN A PLACE-BASED EDUCATION SCIENCE CLASSROOM

Abstract by Charlene K. Shea, Ed.D. Washington State University May 2016

Chair: Richard D. Sawyer

The middle school years are a crucial time when girls’ science interest and participation decrease (Barton, Tan, O’Neill, Bautista-Guerra, & Brecklin, 2013). The purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of middle school girls and their teacher in an eighth grade place- based education (PBE) science classroom. PBE strives to increase student recognition of the importance of educational concepts by reducing the disconnection between education and community (Gruenewald, 2008; Smith, 2007; Sobel, 2004). The current study provides two unique voices-- the teacher and her students. I describe how this teacher and her students perceived PBE science instruction impacting the girls’ participation in science and their willingness to pursue advanced science classes and science careers. The data were collected during the last three months of the girls’ last year of middle school by utilizing observations, interviews, and artifacts of the teacher and her female students in their eighth grade PBE science class. The findings reveal how PBE strategies, including the co-creation of science curricular, can encourage girls’ willingness to participate in advanced science education and pursue science careers. The implications of these findings support the use of PBE curricular strategies to encourage middle school girls to participate in advanced science courses and science careers. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Research Problem Addressed by the Study ...... 7 Purpose of the Study ...... 8 Professional Significance ...... 9 Research Questions ...... 11 Conceptual Framework...... 12 Limitations of the Study...... 15 2. LITERATURE REVIEW...... 18 A Brief History of Science Education ...... 19 A Brief Review of PBE, TE, and CPP pedagogy ...... 22 Historical Background of Girls’ Science Education Experiences ...... 25 Teacher Impact on Girls’ Science Participation ...... 38 Place-based Education (PBE)...... 45 Social Justice and Place-based Education...... 53 Summary ...... 54 Conclusion ...... 59 3. RESEARCH METHOD...... 62 Researcher Positionality...... 62 Explanation for Qualitative Case Study Research ...... 65 vii

Selection of the Site ...... 69 Description of the Site ...... 70 Selection of the Participants...... 76 Description of the Teacher Participant ...... 77 Selection and Description of the Student Participants ...... 78 Data Collection ...... 80 Data Analysis ...... 93 Ethics...... 95 Trustworthiness ...... 96 4. FINDINGS ...... 101

Riverfront Academy ...... 101

Ms. Wanda...... 103

Effect of Teacher Instruction on Girls’ Classroom Experiences...... 104 Curriculum Flexibility and Exploration...... 105 Pedagogical Flexibility and Exploration...... 107 Educational Environment Flexibility and Exploration ...... 110 Effect of Teacher Instruction on Girls’ Science Participation and Career Pursuit...... 113

Creating Positive Science Self Image ...... 113 Creating Positive Support for Advanced Science Course Participation...... 121

Creating Positive Support for Science Career Pursuits...... 126 Middle School Girls’ Perceived Experiences Influence Science Participation...... 131

Previous Science Classroom Experience...... 132 Participation and the Classroom Environment ...... 136 Participation and Student/Teacher Interpersonal Interactions ...... 147

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Participation and Community Connections ...... 157

Middle School Girls’ Perceived Experiences Affect Course and Career Pursuits...... 167

Science Fun and Individual Curiosity...... 168 Confidence in Personal Ability...... 170 Science Knowledge as Valuable Commodity...... 172 Non-traditional Science Careers...... 174 Emerging Themes Impact Girls’ Future Science Participation ...... 174 Boys in Science Class...... 176 Future Marriage and Children ...... 180 Conclusion ...... 182 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, CONCLUSIONS ...... 183 Study Summary ...... 183 Summary of Findings...... 184 Discussion of Research Questions Findings ...... 185 Co-Creators of Educational Science Place: Ms. Wanda and Her Female Students...... 196 PBE and Girls’ Participation in Science Education and Careers...... 200

Limitations...... 202 Significance and Implications...... 203 Conclusion ...... 207 REFERENCES ...... 209 APPENDICES ...... 221 A. STUDENT DRAWING: PERCEPTION OF SCIENCE BEFORE PBE INSTRUCTION ...... 221

B. STUDENT DRAWING: PERCEPTION OF SCIENCE DURING PBE INSTRUCTION ...... 223

C. SHEA JOURNAL: PARTIAL NOTES ...... 224

D. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS: TEACHER...... 230

E. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS: STUDENTS...... 233

F. INFORMED CONSENT/ASSENT FORMS ...... 236

G. PARTIAL INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT ...... 247

H. PARTIAL CLASSROOM OBSERVATION TRANSCRIPT...... 249

I. PARTIAL COLOR-CODED CODING PROCESS...... 253

List of Tables 1. State* Department of Education School Profile ...... 74

2. Scale Scores and Performance Level ****/Smarter Science Grade 8 Test ...... 75

3. Summary Description of Student Participants ...... 78

List of Figures 1. Figure 1: Conceptual Framework...... 15

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Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to the middle school girls of today and tomorrow. I pray you have opportunities to learn with teachers, fellow students, and community and family members who will support and encourage you to see and experience the wonder and excitement of science. I hope those who inspire you will challenge you to pursue advanced science coursework and careers. I challenge you to accomplish more than you ever thought you could and to never settle for less than your best.

This dissertation is also dedicated to the students, educators, administrators, and researchers who are searching for ways to encourage girls to pursue science careers. I hope you have the courage to think outside the traditional educational classroom setting and teaching strategies. Challenge yourself to seek place-based learning opportunities that will support your students’ natural curiosities. Specifically to the educators who were not initially trained in science education but have been blessed with the opportunity to teach science, may this research inspire and encourage you as you grow in your confidence as science educators.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study We live in a society increasingly dominated by scientific and technological advancements. These advancements are happening at an unprecedented rate. Advanced scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical (S.T.E.M.) knowledge has become a mandate in order to compete in many aspects of daily life such as educational and career paths.

These changes are impacting the way teachers teach and students learn science. However, currently there are no published studies that address girls’ experiences in a place-based educational science classroom. This qualitative study examines, from middle school girls’ perceptions, their experiences with place-based education teaching strategies in science class. In addition I explore their willingness to continue in advanced science coursework in high school in pursuit of science-focused careers. In other words, I explore the experiences of a middle school teacher and her female students in a place-based education (PBE) school setting, and their perceptions of the impact of PBE on the girls’ participation in their science education. This research can contribute to current literature on girls’ science participation and provide a valuable voice to the female students who are currently the focus of society’s push to enter advanced science courses and S.T.E.M. careers.

Background

The significance of the gender gap in science achievement, science course enrollment, and science careers has been well documented in science education research literature (Aschbacher, Li, & Roth, 2010; Baker, 2002; Barton, Kang, Tan, O’Neill, Bautista-

Guerra, & Brecklin, 2013; Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Ivie, Czuiko, & Stowe,

2002; Jayaratne, Thomas, & Trautmann, 2003; Leaper, Garkas, & Brown, 2012; Sadler, Sonnert,

Hazari, & Tai, 2012). Lack of equal gender representation in academic and professional science

1 careers has resulted in concerns surrounding women’s economic equity and job quality, reduced national economic competitiveness, and a decrease in science understanding in people’s lives

(Aschbacker, et.al, 2010; Glynn, Brickman, Armstrong, & Taasoobshirazi, 2011). Decreases in girls’ motivation to participate in science course work begins during the middle school years,

(grades six through eight), and continues to decline throughout high school (Mattem & Schau,

2002; Sadler et al., 2012). Patrick, Panayota, and Samarapungavan (2009) suggest that science motivation strategies can be introduced in early education, specifically kindergarten through fifth grade, to help increase science interest in later school years. However, middle school years are a crucial time when girls’ science interest and participation decrease, even when academic science grades remain high (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001, Kesidou & Roseman, 2002).

The gender gap is attributed to girls’ loss of motivation to participate in science coursework. Researchers have suggested three factors that encourage girls to view a possible future in sciences. First, the girls’ work is recognized, supported, and leveraged toward expanded opportunities for engagement in science (Barton et al., 2013). Second, the girls’ science self- efficacy is promoted in meaningful ways both inside and outside the classroom (Britner, 2008;

Britner & Pajares, 2001). And third, the girls view scientific activities as congruent with their gendered identities and community connections (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001; Leaper et al., 2012).

This gap calls for research to explore female students’ perceptions of their experiences in middle school science. In other words, it asks us to explore the supports and hindrances from the perspective of middle school girls that impact their motivation to continue in advanced science coursework and the pursuit of science careers (Barton et al., 2013).

Historically, middle school girls have shown a decreased interest in science participation.

Researchers and teachers have tried various strategies to encourage increased participation. The

2 attempts to increase the number of women participating in higher education science courses have made minimal gains. Empirical research identifies three interconnected strategies that suggest ways in which girls may view a possible future in science. These strategies include: recognizing, supporting and leveraging work toward science engagement (Barton et al., 2013), developing strong science student self-efficacy (Britner, 2008), and viewing scientific activities congruent with community connections (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001; Jennings, Swidler, & Koliba, 2005;

Leaper et al., 2012; Semken & Freeman, 2008).

Girls and women have consistently been underrepresented in science majors, science degrees, and science professions (Greenfield, 1996; Jayaratne et al., 2002; Leaper et al., 2012;

Sadler et al., 2012). One determinant of this underrepresentation is teachers’ and counselors’ perceptions that middle and high school girls do not exhibit expected identities that attribute to membership in the science community and, therefore, are not supported and encouraged to pursue science course work and science careers (Barton et al., 2013; Brickhouse & Potter, 2001;

Leaper et al., 2012). Teachers are most encouraging to girls who “take on a more conventional good girl gender identity” (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001, p. 965). While girls who value the sciences believe they are highly capable of doing science and do not agree with gender stereotypical views of science, they are still influenced by cultural and gender stereotypes

(DeBecker & Nelson, 2000; Leaper et al., 2012). In other words, the girls are caught in a dilemma. On one hand, they are not encouraged to display an identity aligned with science. On the other hand, the girls are encouraged when they display stereotypical good girl student behaviors.

However, this role is counter to the development of a science identity that society is pushing girls to pursue. When teachers utilize teaching strategies that support girls’ connections

3 to science and teachers express the value of the girls’ work, girls become motivated to continue science participation and view themselves as having a future in science (Barton et al., 2013;

Brickhouse et al., 2001). Girls who actively participate in science workshops, after school programs, and demonstrate mastery of science coursework and field work, without their work being recognized, supported, and leveraged toward opportunities to expand science engagement, do not view themselves as having a future in science and drop out of science-related trajectories at a far higher rate than boys (Barton et al., 2013; Brickhouse et al, 2001; Britner, 2008).

Girls’ science identity is situated in multilayered spaces through interactions with others influencing their sense of science self-achievement (Barton et al., 2013; Sadler et al., 2012).

Teacher feedback, expectations, and encouragement are key influences on student attitude, motivation, and confidence. These teacher behaviors also influence the girls’ perception of competence and ability to learn and succeed in science course work and science professions

(Aschbacher et al., 2010). Increasing girls’ motivation for science participation includes the fact that “communicating with young women [and girls] that they can succeed in these [science] fields can have powerful consequences on their future [science] aspirations” (Britner, 2008, p.

967). Two factors impact self-efficacy and motivation to continue engagement in science coursework and science careers. The link between girls’ educational decisions to their expectations of science success and the value they ascribe to the opinions of others who encourage participation in science (Aschbacher et al., 2010; Brotman & Moore, 2008).

Women and girls who “persevered and succeeded in science-related fields [have] confidence in their [science] ability [and] strong science self-efficacy predicts science achievement” (Britner, 2008, p. 957). Programs designed to increase girls’ science self-efficacy and science motivation at various educational grade levels have resulted in a variety of methods

4 to encourage girls to voluntarily continue science education and pursue science specific careers

(Aschbacher et al., 2010; Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Jayaratne et al., 2003;

Mattem & Schau, 2002; Patrick et al., 2009). Some programs have focused on cultural and socioeconomic considerations in an attempt to tease out what methods are most beneficial to girls from specific social, economic, or cultural populations. Again, the results have provided a variety of methods to encourage girls’ science education participation and science career pursuits. These methods are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Improvement in girls’ science participation may be found in four integrated connections: interpretation of science mastery, vicarious science experiences, social persuasion, and physiological state. These are essential to encourage girls’ science self-efficacy (Britner, 2008).

Girls interpret their individual science activity accomplishment and use this evaluation to develop personal beliefs regarding their capability to successfully complete future tasks (Baram-

Tsabari & Yarden, 2010; Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Glynn et al., 2011). As female students watch others perform science tasks, they use the gathered information to evaluate their probability of success on the same task; girls who have limited prior experience or believe they possess decreased ability to accomplish the task have decreased self-efficacy

(Britner, 2008, DeBacker & Nelson, 2000; Leaper et al., 2012; Sadler et al., 2012).

Teachers who provide opportunities for interactive, cooperative, experiential, learn- focused lessons provide girls with strategies that are useful in learning science and increasing their participation and science self-efficacy in relation to science (Harwell, 2000). These opportunities are enhanced with the inclusion of mentor relationships. Mentors who regularly provide positive verbal and nonverbal judgments that nurture students’ beliefs in their capabilities, while ensuring continued success is attainable, have increased girls’ science self-

5 efficacy (Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Sadler et al.,

2012). The girls’ interpretation of their physiological state-- anxiety, stress, and enjoyment of previous experiences is instrumental in their self-evaluation of confidence. As girls consider or engage in new science lessons or activities, thus integrating all four informational sources, they create an independent level of self-efficacy (Britner, 2008). Science educators who are “aware of the [impact of] self-constraints …can help ensure that all girls with an interest in science are able to develop their talents and make a significant contribution” (Britner, 2008, p. 968).

Educators who provide experiences that support and encourage girls’ science participation through interconnections between the curriculum and the community increased self-efficacy and motivation to continue science learning and choose science careers (Howley, Howley, Camper &

Perko, 2011; Semken & Freeman, 2008).

John Dewey noted that “an experience arouses curiosity, strengthens initiative and sets up desires and purposes that are sufficiently intense to carry a person over dead places in the future…every experience is a moving force” (Dewey, 1938, p. 31). While Powers (2004) suggested that students demonstrated higher levels of academic engagement, enthusiasm for learning, caring, and recall of knowledge when they knew the information was connected to their community. Interest and motivation emerge from individuals’ reaction to the environment (Hidi

& Harackiewicz, 2000). Female students need opportunities for authentic learning experiences that connect them to their local community and promote community respect (Howley et al.,

2011; Oliver & Simpson, 1988). Place-based education utilizes the students’ community connections as the primary investigation source to increase motivational interest in learning (Hidi

& Harackiewicz, 2000; Howley et al., 2011; Powers, 2004; Semken & Freeman, 2008). Students involved in place-based education acquire “a strong sense of place” (Semken & Freeman, 2008,

6 p. 1043), which “promotes student understanding of the interdependence of their lives with those… in their communities” (Howley et al., 2011, p. 219).

Even with research supporting the use of place-based education to promote motivation, community connections, and the ability to support standards-based reform expectations, urban school districts are hesitant to encourage implementation of this educational method (Jennings et al., 2005). In order to encourage girls to pursue science course work and science careers, educators must be willing to embrace alternative teaching options tailored to girls’ science education and motivational needs (Barton et al., 2012; Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich,

2004; Howley et al., 2011; Jayaratne et al., 2002; Patrick et al., 2008; Semken & Freeman, 2008,

Tan & Barton, 2010). Place-based education “engages students while supporting authentic and meaningful learning to teach a wide range of subject matter using a motivating instructional strategy” (Jennings et al., 2005, p. 60) and “has been advocated for its relevance and potential to attract underrepresented groups to science” (Semken & Freeman 2008, p. 1042). A brief explanation of place-based education is the teachers’ utilization of the local community and environment as the foundation for real-world connections during teaching and student learning of math, science and other curricular subjects. Place-based education will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 2 of this study. As girls merge their social world and the science world for purposes other than simply completing a class assignment, they are able to develop a personal perception of the value of science in relation to their social status (Barton, Tan, & Rivert, 2008).

Research problem addressed by the study

The societal and individual benefits of encouraging girls to participate in advanced science classes and pursue science-specific careers are evident. Previous research has not centered on the perspectives of the teachers’ and students’ identification of successful strategies

7 for increasing girls’ participation in advanced science courses and pursuing science specific careers. Unlike the vast research identifying opportunities to encourage girls’ science participation, research on teacher and student identification of specific teaching strategies and designs that support girls’ connection to and motivation to participate in science is lacking.

Intentionally weaving girls’ needs for recognition, support, and leverage of their work with the development of a strong science self-efficacy through scientific activities and curriculum connections to their community may promote intentional gender-specific interactions that could increase girls’ science participation. Research centered on successful strategies is a first step in promoting the development of new teaching methodologies.

To begin development of new teaching methodologies suggests supporting teachers as they self-explore their practice by encouraging self- reflection on their experiences with adjusting teaching instruction to increase girls’ participation in science and how the teacher perceives these adjustments as influencing girls’ participation in their science class and in the motivation to continue in advanced science courses. In addition, in order to develop a more complete understanding, it is necessary to expand this exploration to include female student experiences and possibly future responses to the teachers’ methodologies. The problem investigated in this research is specifically the gap between promising PBE science teaching methods and the research on successful participation in advanced science courses and pursuing science-specific careers through the science education experiences of middle school girls.

Purpose of the study

The overall purpose of this study is to contribute to knowledge about the influence of teaching strategies in place-based education on middle school girls’ science class experiences.

The teachers and students in this study are from the same school. This school was chosen

8 because the entire school’s educational philosophy is grounded in PBE instruction. I chose eighth grade girls because they were transitioning into high school and had the opportunity to select their future science courses in relation to their consideration of a future career path.

In this study I explore how teachers in a PBE school perceive their teaching instruction impacting girls’ participation in science class and how female middle school students in a place- based education school experience science education. Furthermore, I explore how these experiences affect girls’ willingness to participate in advanced science classes and pursue science careers. As pressure intensifies on teachers to increase female students’ participation in advanced science classes and support females in science careers (Darling-Hammond, 2005), this research may help increase educators’ understanding of what middle school girls perceive as central to their willingness to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science careers.

Professional significance

First, this study seeks to contribute to the promotion of teaching strategies that encourage girls’ increased participation in science classes. Science educators who teach middle school girls experience unique challenges. At this age, girls are struggling with personal identity and confidence. Research has shown that at the elementary age, girls are as confident and participatory in science coursework as their male counterparts. However, once girls enter the middle school years, they begin to lose interest and decrease participation in science class. In this study I seek to examine ways that ultimately will provide teachers with strategies to encourage and promote girls’ participation in science. Additionally, and ideally, this research can aid teacher preparation programs by addressing teachers’ personal bias toward women in science careers and providing educational strategies that can equip future teachers with techniques that will support girls’ participation in advanced science courses and pursuit of science-based careers.

Second, this study seeks to contribute to the literature that promotes girls continued active participation and interest in advanced science coursework and thus increase their opportunities for economic equality. On a practical level, girls who participate in science classes learn how the world works through a scientific lens. This knowledge provides the girls with basic knowledge needed to independently and successfully address daily challenges related to household, mechanical, and electrical repair without consulting expensive repair experts. On an economic level, girls who do not engage in science careers increase society’s concerns surrounding economic equitability for women that include a lower standard of living and job quality.

Attaining advanced science degrees and science-based careers promotes girls’ obtaining a higher annual salary, resulting in an improved standard of living and job quality. (Aschbacker et. al,

2010; Glynn, Brickman, Armstrong, & Taasoobshirazi, 2011).

Third, and more generally, this study seeks to contribute to both the scientific world and general community by providing suggestions to help encourage and support girls’ participation in advanced science courses and careers. When the number of people entering science professions is primarily gender-specific, the occupations are limited by a decreased talent pool.

This can reduce engagement in the exploration of new viewpoints and expansion of existing knowledge. This limitation impacts both scientific and general communities’ opportunities for economic competitiveness. Examining how the middle school girls’ experiences in a PBE science classroom affect their willingness to continue advanced science learning, and pursue science careers, provides opportunities for the expansion of scientific exploration as well as local and global economic competitiveness.

Finally, the timing of this study is professionally significant given the increased political, industrial and institutional pressures on teachers to increase girls’ participation in science

10 coursework and careers. Currently, industrialized countries view the foundation for the success of future competiveness as hinging on a well-educated workforce that requires mandated improvement in science and mathematics education. To help meet some of these challenges, it is hoped that this study will inform the thinking of the participants, both teachers and students, as well as the fields of science teacher preparation and development. The questions in this study will ideally encourage teachers to reflect critically on their individual art of teaching in light of a specific teaching environment in relation to the place-based education class. Middle school girls in this study had the opportunity to voice their personal evaluation of their experiences in a place-based educational science class. They explored how their experiences in a PBE science class impacted their participation and influenced their willingness to participate in advanced science and consider pursing a science career. This study provides two unique voices-- the student and teacher evaluating the same science class from their individual experiences. This study has the potential to influence classroom teachers, girls’ career choices, teacher preparation programs, and both the scientific and general communities.

Research Questions

My research questions strive to explore the experiences of a middle school PBE science teacher and her eighth grade female students. I designed them to reflect the findings of previous research involving middle school girls and teachers as described in the literature, but they are specific to the place-based educational philosophy. The following research questions provide the frame for this study:

1. How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction in relation to girls’

experiences in their science class?

2. How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction influencing the participation

of girls in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers?

3. How do middle school girls perceive their experiences with PBE curriculum strategies

influencing their participation in science class?

4. How do girls participating in PBE middle school science perceive their experiences in a

PBE science class affecting their personal participation in advanced science coursework

and pursing science-focused careers?

Conceptual Framework

Miles and Huberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework as a set of assumptions, concepts, beliefs, theories, and expectations that have a relationship between each part of a system that is used to explain and support a researcher. In this section I provide a brief introduction to place-based education (PBE) and transformative education to show how these concepts interconnect to form the conceptual framework for the critical pedagogy of place I use in this research. A discussion of the history of science education and the pedagogy of place- based education appears within the literature review in Chapter 2.

Place-based education (PBE) is centered in local community values, issues, and resources integrated into the context of learning at all grade levels. School and community partnerships developed by school administrators, teachers, parents, and students create opportunities to increase both student achievement and the environmental, societal, and economical quality and vitality of the community (Powers, 2004). Teachers and students become co-creators of a curriculum that makes connections between activities both inside and beyond the classroom and student performance standards as prescribed by school districts, states, and/or national models

(Orr, 1994; Smith, 2002; Smith, 2007; Sobel, 2004). One essential component of place-based education is increasing student recognition of the importance of the educational concepts taught by reducing the disconnection between education and community as much as possible. The pedagogical focus of transformative education is slightly varied.

Transformative education moves away from traditional-based pedagogy and the decontextualization of science education. Teachers are mentors or facilitators rather than the primary source of curriculum. In this role, teachers are co-creators of learning interactions between students and the environment. Transformative education does not occur in a linear predetermined sequence. It is a dynamic process dependent on creative externalization of the unique experiences occurring within and outside the classroom (Coughlin & Kirch, 2010). One essential component of transformative education is the acquisition of knowledge that can change the students’ view of the world. This increased knowledge can be used to empower students both inside and outside the classroom (Coughlin & Kirch, 2010). Critical pedagogy of place incorporates the best of place-based education and transformation education pedagogies.

Critical pedagogy of place (CPP) challenges educators to expand their teaching theory, practice, and inquiry to include social and ecological contexts of others and self-inhabitance. It views the focus on teacher skill and student performance as inadequate. Additionally, community partnerships are viewed as not tied to core school curricula but as resources to help rethink the traditional classroom as the fundamental location of teaching and learning (Gruenewald, 2003).

CPP challenges teachers and students to reflect on their individual positionality while exploring the complexity of interrelationships between cultural and ecological environments. Teachers and students are encouraged to evaluate their relationships with each other and socio-ecological places. In other words, CPP encourages embracement of individual experience in connection

13 with others, the natural world, and the responsibility to conserve and restore our shared environment (Gruenewald, 2003). Place-based education, transformative education, and critical pedagogy of place encourage pedagogy that promotes utilization of student experiences of the world and community improvement.

Place-based education suggests a focus on pedagogy with interconnections between student, teacher, and community. Critical pedagogy of place’s foundational core is focused on a balance between community, environment, and experiential connections that includes a transformation of students’ social, political, and economic societal conditions. Transformative education suggests a move away from traditional pedagogy and decontextualized science while utilizing student experiences to guide nonlinear movement of curriculum and learning. Critical pedagogy of place’s blending of PBE and transformative education’s complementary components provides compatibility with the science concepts and inquiry practices advocated in the most recent changes in national and state standards.

In this research, I explore how a middle school science teacher and the eighth grade girls in her science class experience science teaching and learning in a school whose philosophical and educational foundation is in place-based education. This teacher incorporates the essence of critical pedagogy of place into her teaching practice. Additionally, I explore how this teacher as facilitator and mentor perceives her teaching affecting the experiences of the female students in the science classroom. This teacher strives to balance student learning experiences that have a balance between community and environmental connections, student-identified learning needs and opportunities for transformation of their social, economic, and science futures. Furthermore,

I explore girls’ experiences as co-creators of their science learning experience in the PBE classroom and how these experiences affect their willingness to participate in advanced science

14 classes and pursue science careers. Figure 1 summarizes place-based education and transformative education representation into the blended critical pedagogy of place.

Place-based Education: Critical Transformative Education Focus on community Pedagogy of Focus on moving away from interconnections that go Place: traditional-based pedagogy beyond predictable science Focus on balance and decontextualized science activity outcomes and student between teaching performance community, environment and experienced connections with transformation of social, political, and economic science conditions

Student Experience Co-creator/co-facilitator of science learning.

Partnerships Teachers as facilitator/mentor Between community, Co-create learning interactions businesses, teachers, parents, between student and environment students and school to co- acquiring information that create and support learning changes personal view of world opportunities and empowers action both inside and outside the classroom

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Limitations of the study

First, the availability of schools in the United States that have implemented placed-based education’s conceptual framework is limited. This form of education does not adhere to the traditional mainstream public educational practices found in the United States. In fact, most place-based educational schools are not public schools; rather they are charter schools. As a result, school site selection and sample size was a limitation to this study. This study involved

15 one public charter school (a detailed explanation is found in Chapter 3: Methods), the director of the school, the school’s one middle school science teacher, and her eleven eighth grade girls.

Therefore, this study will not provide enough data to globally generalize to all middle school teachers and female students in place-based education schools. However, the depth and richness of data and its analysis that has been obtained by focusing on one classroom teacher and her students provides the opportunity for increased understanding of how a PBE science classroom shapes the teacher’s and students’ science teaching and educational experiences.

Second, this study will be limited to interviews, observations, and reflections during a three- month time period for each teacher and female student. This study was conducted during the last three months of the school year (a detailed explanation is found in Chapter 3: Methods).

Therefore, this study provides a brief snapshot of the teaching strategies one teacher utilizes to promote girls’ participation in science as well as the students’ responses to those strategies. The students may have had differing responses if they had experienced additional interviews and reflections on a variety of lessons during a longer time period, but that is not provided in this study. Additional interviews and observations would provide data to increase support of the findings and research design thus strengthening data triangulation and trustworthiness. To address this limitation, member-checking was utilized with each student, teacher, and school director. This process required a second interview of equal length with the participants (refer to

Chapter 3: Methods).

Third, researcher bias is a limitation to this study. I am a middle school science teacher who passionately supports teaching strategies that promote and increase girls’ participation in science coursework and pursuing science careers. I utilize place-based education teaching strategies in my personal class and firmly support this practice as critically important to the

16 promotion of girls’ advancing participation in science. In light of pre-existing biases and opinions I bring to the research study, there is the potential risk that I will interpret the participant responses through rose-colored glasses. In order to promote trustworthiness, credibility and accuracy of this project, researcher check points were utilized to help assure that I remained conscious of my positionality and how it shapes the process in order to reduce personal bias that could influence the results of this study. To aid in decreasing personal biases, reflective journaling and peer and mentor member checking strategies were utilized (refer to Chapter 3:

Methods).

Chapter Two: Literature Review The research problem addressed in this study explores how middle school girls and their teachers perceive the girls’ experience in a place-based education science class. I have divided this literature review into five sections and examine:

1. A brief history of science education;

2. A brief history of place-based education pedagogy;

3. Historical and contemporary research concerns, implications, and findings regarding

girls’ experience and participation in advanced science classes and the pursuit of science

specific careers;

4. Classroom teachers’ instructional influence in encouraging girls to participate in

advanced science classes and science careers;

5. Place-based education and its impact on girls’ science education and science

participation.

Furthermore, I will provide a summary and conclusion of the literature review.

The first section presents an overview of the literature that provides a historical review of science education in the United States. This discussion focuses on providing foundational information on the evolution of science education. In addition, the purpose of this section is to provide a glimpse into the complexities of what has been viewed as good science education as it has evolved through time. As science educational standards have evolved the implications for science teaching have been altered and challenged.

The second section provides a brief review of the place-based education (PBE), transformative education (TE) and critical pedagogy of place (CPP) pedagogical frameworks that have moved educators into teaching the science curriculum through community connections and experiences that have challenge traditional science teaching methodologies. In addition, these

18 pedagogical frameworks have moved students into learning the science curriculum through experiences that challenge them to become more active creators of the curriculum rather than depending on curriculum developed by their teachers.

The third section presents an overview of the literature that provides a historical review of girls’ experiences in science classes. This discussion focuses on establishing the cornerstone of this research on the gender gap in science achievement, girls’ advanced science course participation, and their pursuit of science careers. In addition, the purpose of this section is to provide a review of the previous research regarding how girls experience science, participate in science and pursue science careers. This review supports the importance of further research, including this study, to explore teaching strategies that provide experiences that encourage girls to further their science education and pursue science careers.

The fourth section provides a review of how teachers impact the participation of girls in science at the academic and career level. The discussion examines how teachers’ interactions with female students impact the middle school girls’ view of science education and career selection. The purpose of this section is to explore how educators impact female students participation in science classes and science career selection.

The fifth section reviews place-based education. This review includes the historical evolution of place-based education and research addressing its impact on increased student participation in education. Following this section, I discuss social justice and place-based education then I conclude with a summary of the literature.

A Brief History of Science Education Traditional ideas revolving around what science is, who does science, and what science education entails have resulted in a stoic view of what “good” science education encompasses.

Researchers Barton and Yang (2000) have identified this view as the “culture of power” within

19 science education. In many science classrooms this culture is exhibited by teacher practices that include the following: Freire’s banking model of education that incorporates cookbook labs that require students to verify results of previous labs, vocabulary flash cards, lectures where teacher- directed delivery of information is utilized, disregard of students’ prior knowledge and ideas, and a focus on creating future scientists rather than viewing science as necessity for all students

(Freire, 2007). Carlone (2002) refers to this style of science education as “prototypical science.”

Prototypical science education has further resulted in a narrow view of who can successfully participate in science and, as such, reduces the number of students who actively participate in science (Brickhouse, 2001; Carlone, 1999; Eisenhart & Finkel, 1998).

For over fifty years, science educators have attempted to change the narrowing effects of traditional science through various reforms (Bybee, 1997; DeBoer, 1991). These science education reforms have been represented in the National Science Education Standards (National

Research Council [NRC], 1996). The cornerstone of these Standards was an emphasis on inquiry based science education that includes students developing their skills and the deeper understanding necessary to do scientific inquiry. These skills included: developing inquiry-based science questions; using evidence to develop, evaluate, and revise scientific explanations; and communicating their scientific explanations. The Standards-based curriculum promotes student inquiry through student posed questioning, evidence gathering, analysis, and communication through scientific explanation (NRC, 1996). Beginning in 2011, twenty-six states collaborated on the development of the Next Generation Science Standards [NGSS]. The purposes of the new standards included development of common science curricular mastery for science teaching in the United States and increasing interest in science to encourage students to choose a major in science and technology in college.

NGSS was designed to help students develop a deeper understanding of scientific core concepts and the scientific process, as well as an increased ability to evaluate scientific evidence.

Each school year, students may learn fewer topics but ideally will go into more depth on the specific topics presented. This provides opportunities for more emphasis on critical thinking and primary investigation. This case-study approach may include using a more holistic method of teaching as opposed to the traditional single subject (e.g., biology and chemistry as two separate classes) approach (The Next Generation Science Standards: Executive Summary. Next

Generation Science Standards. June 2013. Retrieved March 6, 2015). As of April 2015, there were twelve states that approved NGSS implementation to begin at varied times over the next four years. Washington State, which adopted the NGSS in 2013, has developed a four-year transition plan targeting the 2017-2018 school year as the year of full implementation. These standards are meant to help reduce and ultimately eliminate the academic achievement gap.

NGSS has three integrated dimensions based on the “Framework K-12 Science

Education” that was created by the National Research Council. The first dimension is core ideas which are specific content and subject areas; the second is science and engineering practices requiring students to understand methods of scientists and engineers; and the third is crosscutting concepts or the key underlying ideas that are common to a number of topics. NGSS presents equal emphasis on engineering design and scientific inquiry. It also aligns with

Common Core State Standards by grade and difficulty level describing student performance competency expectations in both science and engineering. Science content teaching is integrated with teaching practices of scientists and engineers. Historically, these content topics were taught separately. NGSS suggests integration of content and practice, providing students with opportunities to make sense of and apply the curriculum. The NGSS guidelines intend to aid

21 students’ development of deeper understanding of core scientific concepts, the scientific process of developing and testing ideas, and evaluation of scientific evidence, while reducing science ignorance and increasing student interest to encourage more students to choose science and technology college majors (NGSS, 2013).

A Brief Review of PBE, TE and CPP Pedagogy

Pedagogical frameworks that move teachers and students into participating in learning through why, how, and so what questions can create educational experiences that change personal views of the world and empower people to take action to improve their surroundings

(Buxton, 2010; Nieto & Bode, 2007). Buxton (2010) and Nieto & Bode (2007) refer to these as transformative experiences. Transformative education (T.E.) strives to move from the traditional teacher/student relationship, where the teacher is a facilitator, into the teacher who is a mentor, a critical friend, and an inquiring learner alongside the student. This requires learning opportunities that engage students and teachers both inside and outside the school building (Buxton, 2006;

Calabrese Barton, Drake, Perez, St. Louis, & George, 2004; Donovan, 2002). Place-based education (PBE) is grounded in local community values, issues, and resources integrated into the context of learning at all levels. Community and school partnerships provide PBE opportunities to increase student achievement and improve community environmental, social and economic quality and vitality (Powers, 2004). The foundation is the reduction of walls between schools and community to promote student and community learning and the interconnection that happens within many dimensions (Powers, 2004). Educators and students become creators of curricula rather than depending on curriculum developed by others and must be able to make the connection between unpredictable activities that go beyond the classroom and student

22 performance standards set by school districts, states, or national models (Orr, 1994; Smith, 2002;

Smith, 2007; Sobel, 2004). John Dewey pioneered this teaching methodology.

Dewey’s Chicago Lab School in the early 1900s is one of the earliest examples of place- based pedagogy in which the focus was on the interconnections between community members, local environment and authentic purpose (Buxton, 2010; Dewey, 1998; Harms & DePencier,

1996). Dewey suggested that through the eyes of a child, school can be viewed as a great waste because there is an inability to utilize outside-of-school experiences with in-school experiences; likewise, in-school experiences do not apply to daily life outside of school (Dewey, 1998).

Trying to eliminate the disconnection between community and education is the cornerstone of place-based education (PBE) with its goal to connect learning in local phenomena and students’ lived experiences. According to Smith (2002), PBE incorporates local cultural studies, nature studies, real-world problem solving, involvement in community processes, and internship and entrepreneurial opportunities. Students in place-based education classes experience higher engagement and achievement while they are encouraged to get outside of the classroom and take advantage of their own curiosity (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Howley et al.,

2011; Smith, 2002). Research by Aschbacher and Roth (2009) identified that girls who had participated in hands-on experiences in real science, and had opportunities to engage in doing work and interacting with scientists and community members in science, demonstrated increased science achievement and increased self-efficacy in science. On the opposite end of the spectrum, low-achieving girls were less likely to have participated in hands-on, community connected science experiences, resulting in reduced self-efficacy in science (Aschbacher & Roth, 2009).

Brickhouse and Potter (2001) have suggested that girls’ identities are influenced by experiences within the class and, in turn, that these identities affect motivation to participate in

23 science coursework. Girls who do not fit the traditional science mold (i.e., those with marginalized identities) experience minimal community membership in science class. This results in reduced motivation to participate in science coursework (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001).

Eisenart and Finkel (1998) suggested that different types of educational activities that support a broader meaning of science and the characteristics of a scientist transform girls’ science participation. The traditional science class is disconnected from the local community and tends to be encouraging to girls who take a more conventional gendered identity. Substantive changes in science pedagogy and curriculum must be made so girls see themselves as people who can and do learn science (Brickhouse, 2001; Carlone, 1999).

Carlone (2004) suggests that girls’ experiences with learning a science curriculum where emphasis is placed on empowering alternatives are dependent on the girls’ acceptance of learning in a non-typical science class, and how these experiences affect their identities as good students. In place-based education, students investigate local phenomena that directly relate to their lives (Smith, 2007). Students are encouraged to connect their experiences and place, and have opportunities to share their learning with supportive audiences (Smith, 2002). PBE provides girls with opportunities to retain personal identity and connect to their community resulting in an increase in participation in school science (Brickhouse and Potter, 2001).

PBE encourages students to develop a deeper understanding of their environmental context. However, it does not delve into the dynamics that determine who lives where and what resources are accessible. These connections are not neutral because they are frequently tied to racial, gender, ethnic, and class-based inequities (Mueller, 2008). Gruenewald’s (2003) critical pedagogy of place provides a connection between place-based education (whose foundation is in environmental education) and critical pedagogy (whose focus is on the unchaining possibilities

24 of education). Critical pedagogy of place (CPP) involves social and political decolonization and reinhabitation. Decolonization is recognizing a dominate culture’s social, political, and ecological way of thinking and then creating a personal point of view. Reinhabitation comes from the ecological component of place-based pedagogy, and concerns living in connection with environments and ecosystems that have been damaged by ecological misuse (Gruenewald,

2003). Place-based science education focuses on local and regional environments and advocates for its potential to encourage underrepresented groups to participate in science (Semken &

Freeman, 2008). A comprehensive discussion of PBE occurs later in this paper.

Historical background of girls’ science education experiences Girls’ experiences in science class have generally been discussed in terms of the gender gap. The lack of girls’ science achievement, participation in advanced science courses, and science careers has been increasingly documented in science education research literature

(Aschbacher, Li, & Roth, 2010; Barton, Kang, Tan, O’Neill, Bautista-Guerra, & Brecklin, 2013;

Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Jayaratne, Thomas, & Trautmann, 2003; Leaper,

Farkas, & Brown 2012; Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari, & Tai, 2012). An imbalance of gender representation in the sciences has resulted in concerns surrounding equity in economic opportunity for women that includes a higher standard of living and higher job quality, the ability to remain globally competitive due to a decreased pool of talent to provide new viewpoints in the teaching and practice of science, and a decrease in science understanding in people’s lives

(Aschbacker, et. al, 2010; Glynn, Brickman, Armstrong, & Taasoobshirazi, 2011). School age girls’ loss of participation in science coursework has contributed to this gender gap (Brickhouse

& Potter, 2001; DeBacker & Nelson, 2000; Mattem & Schau, 2002). Decreases in girls’ participation in science course work begins during the middle school years (grades six through eight) and continues to decline throughout high school (Mattem & Schau, 2002; Sadler, et al.,

2012). Patrick, Panayota, and Samarapungavan, (2009) suggest that science motivation strategies can be introduced in early education (kindergarten through fifth grade) to help increase science interest in later school years.

However, it is the middle school years that are the crucial time when girls’ science interest and participation decrease, even when academic science grades remain high (Brickhouse,

2001; Brickhouse & Potter, 2001; Tan & Barton, 2010). Brickhouse and Potter’s 2001 qualitative longitudinal study involved middle school working-class girls’ science experiences.

The focus was to understand how girls’ experienced science identity affected their success and engagement in science. The researchers collected data for more than three years using participant journals, focus group discussion transcripts, observations, field notes and annual interviews with girls, teachers and parents. They found that girls experienced identity marginalization in school science communities and their home communities as well. Girls who interacted with peers and adults on their own terms to aid in science success appeared to have more positive science experiences. However, girls who limited interactions to peers and adults who were more like themselves appeared to have fewer positive science experiences. This research suggested the importance of helping students retain an identity that is “desirable to them in their home communities yet is also able to work across boundaries of race, class and gender” as critical to increasing engagement in school science (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001, p. 978).

Despite significant efforts to decrease the gender gap, women continue to be underrepresented in many science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers and advanced college science courses. Women continue to represent the non-dominant population in science majors, earning science degrees, and science professionals (Jayaratne et al.,

2002). The popular pipeline metaphor has characterized the attrition of girls away from science

26 at critical points in their academic career and has prompted an increase in science programs at the critical transitional points in girls’ academic science education (Eccles, 1997; Jayaratne et al.,

2002; Kahle, 1996; Widnall, 1988). As noted by Jayaratne et al., (2002), there has not been significant follow up on evaluating the effectiveness of these programs. Their research on one summer-time science program aimed at increasing girls’ participation in science suggested the importance of formative evaluations that could identify potential problems in program design and discover better interventions. This research showed unintended interactions between program participants and program designers. Their findings showed that African American,

Native American and Latino participants had a lower level of self-concept and attitude toward science ability, interest, and enjoyment. The unintended interactions can affect girls’ science experiences and willingness to participate in additional science learning (Jayaratne et al., 2002).

While it is important to be aware and adjust programs that have unintended results, these findings need to be used to improve and should not restrict educators from seeking strategies to support girls’ participation and increasing positive experiences in sciences.

Educators who support and encourage girls’ science participation through interconnections between curriculum and community increase their motivation to continue science learning and science career choice (Howley, Howley, Camper, & Perko, 2011; Semken

& Freman, 2008). Place-based education (PBE) refers to educational programs that connect student learning about local community and social environments utilizing inquiry, environmental action and hands-on activities connected to a specific place (Sobel, 2004). Today’s traditional class system has not fully considered the impact of helping students contextualize their educational experience (Gruenewald, 2003). When students contextualize and connect what is being taught and learned to their lived experiences, student engagement in the learning process

27 increases (Gruenewald, 2003b; Orr, 2004; Powers, 2004). John Dewey noted that “[when] an experience arouses curiosity, strengthens initiative and sets up desires and purposes that are sufficiently intense to carry a person over dead places in the future…Every experience is a moving force” (Dewey, 1998, p. 31). Dewey (1998) encouraged educators to strive to create hands-on, inquiry-based activities.

Powers (2004) evaluated four place-based educational programs. Data was collected from

163 adults (teachers, administrators, program staff, and community members), 85 student interviews, and 41 field observations in order to evaluate program effectiveness for program development and internal growth as well as to identify techniques that could be implemented in other educational settings. Their findings suggest that girls demonstrated higher levels of academic engagement, enthusiasm for learning, caring, and recall of knowledge when they knew the information was connected to their community (Powers, 2004).

Motivating girls into science

There are several factors that contribute to gender discrepancy in science. These include girls’ negative attitude toward science, lack of female mentors to encourage girls, low self- esteem regarding ability to be successful or to see women as successful in science, and lack of family support encouraging success in science (Blue & Gann, 2008; Farenga & Joyce, 1998;

Jayaratne, et al, 2003; Leaper et al., 2012; McCrea, 2011). Research has shown that up until the fourth grade, typically around the age of eight years old, girls report having a high level of science enjoyment (Blue & Gann, 2008). Beginning the following year (fifth grade), and continuing as they mature in age, girls’ attitude toward science becomes more negative and their motivation to continue science coursework decreases (Blue & Gann, 2008; Farenga & Joyce,

1998). These studies found that academic success, economic level, or intellectual ability (gifted

28 or standard), did not have varying results on girls’ attitude toward science (Farenga & Joyce,

1998; Mattem & Schau, 2002; Oliver & Simpson, 1988).

Mattem and Schau (2002) studied the longitudinal relationships between attitudes and achievement in science. They suggest that in order for students to become science-literate adults, it is critical that they be motivated to do well in science as well as continue taking science electives once they are no longer mandated by high school graduation requirements. Mattem and

Schau (2002) also examined the pedagogical causal relationships between boys and girls in middle school science. Their findings suggest that the best-fitting science teaching strategies for girls was the worst-fitting model for boys and vice versa. Mattem and Schau (2002) suggest middle school girls’ achievement in science and attitude toward science are separate constructs.

As a result, more emphasis on developing positive attitudes toward science would not have a sizable effect on increased science achievement, and, likewise, an increase in science achievement does not have a sizable effect on girls’ attitudes toward science. These results led

Mattem and Schau (2002) to support teaching strategies for girls that focus on both science achievement and improved science attitudes. Farenga and Joyce’s 1998 study involving high- ability students suggests that student self-perceived science attitudes may be related to gender- role perceptions and girls’ belief of male dominance in the scientific field. These researchers suggest that teachers and parents who tailor science with gender-specific efforts increase science achievement and improved attitude toward science by parents and educators will improve girls’ motivation and self-esteem to participate in advanced science courses and ultimately work in science-focused careers (Blue & Gann, 2008; Leaper et al., 2012). Parents can provide encouragement in science related experiences and involve girls in informal science leisure activities such as computer games, visiting zoos, aquariums, and science museums (Farenga &

Joyce, 1998). The researchers advocate for educators to provide hands-on, inquiry-based science activities and assure that students have sufficient prior knowledge to understand, enjoy and grow from the science experience (Farenga & Joyce, 1998). Oliver and Simpson’s (1988) study evaluating science achievement included 5000 adolescent students between grades six through ten. Students were evaluated three times during the beginning, middle, and end of one school year. The goal was to examine student commitment and achievement in science in relation to individual, home and school influences. This study found that affective behaviors in the science classroom strongly related to achievement. In other words, achievement motivation and science self-concept was a powerful predictor of science achievement. Based on their findings, Oliver and Simpson (1988) suggested that the integration of science classroom structures that support girls should include motivating them to believe they can succeed in science. These beliefs then improve their personal science self-concept and may unobtrusively encourage girls to achieve at higher science levels. Other researchers have hypothesized that providing adolescent girls with female role models, who are engaged in science-specific careers, would help improve girls’ motivation and self-esteem to participate in advanced science courses and, ultimately, work in science-focused careers (Blue & Gann, 2008; Farenga & Joyce, 1998; Jayaratne et al., 2003).

Researchers have evaluated utilization of female mentors and role models who are actively participating in science specific careers as mentors to encourage and support positive motivational science attitudes within girls. For example, Jayaratne et al., (2003), examined a residential program that focused on enhancing the science interest and persistence of high- achieving eighth grade girls. Their study is noteworthy for its ethnic/gender-specific findings showing improved positive self-concept of science ability, interest, aspirations, and enjoyment of science in non-minority white middle and high school girls who participated in a science-focused

30 camp. However, minority African American, Latino, and Native American girl participants experienced the opposite results, showing a significantly greater decline in science self-concept.

It appeared the summer program had a positive effect for nonminority girls only (Jayaratne et al.,

2003).

A similar study focused on the personal and social interactions between fifth through ninth grade girls. The study examined how peers and scientists promote girls’ developing science identity during a science camp (Farland-Smith, 2012). The results indicated that the manner in which the scientists interacted with the participants contributed to the girls’ personal ideas of what a scientist was but also developed their personal science identity. This study supported the hypothesis that girls processed and incorporated the activities and relationships into their personal science identity (Farland-Smith, 2012). Interacting with the scientists provided the girls with the opportunity of seeing female adults having fun doing science and this could enhance middle school girls’ self-construction of their science identity (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001,

DeBacker & Nelson, 2000; Farland-Smith, 2012, Jayaratne et al., 2003; Mattem & Schau, 2002).

Middle school girls related most to scientists who were viewed as fun and humorous and shared stories of places, such as the ocean, where they had traveled while doing science work

(Farland-Smith, 2012). Listening to scientists’ stories provided opportunities for girls to internalize experiences and begin creating their own science-based future dreams (Farland-

Smith, 2012). The girls developed a viewpoint of science, positive or negative, that was based on the gender-specific relationships they experienced during science camp (Farland-Smith, 2012;

Jayaratne et al., 2003). The results suggest that negative science attitudes could be related to gender-role perceptions and belief of male dominance in the scientific field (Brickhouse &

Potter, 2001; Britner, 2008; Farland-Smith, 2012; Farenga & Joyce, 1998). An increased effort to

31 improve attitudes toward science may need to be tailored to gender and ethnicity in order to increase girls’ positive self-construction of their personalized science identity. (DeBacker &

Nelson, 2000; Farenga & Joyce, 1998; Patrick, Panayota, & Samarapungavan, 2009).

Brickhouse et al. (2000) suggest that in order for girls to learn science, they must develop a supportive science identity. This identity can be constructed by increasing girls’ connections with females who have positive science identities.

Social support for science predicted girls’ science motivation; specifically positive maternal and peer support resulted in their increased motivation for math and science (Leaper et al., 2012). Parents can encourage leisure interest in science by providing opportunities for informal science activities (visits to zoos or other science venues, and books, media, and computer software that have a science theme) (Aschbacher et al., 2010; Leaper et al., 2012).

Girls had a greater tendency to have strong math and science motivation if they experienced less conformity pressure from their parents, support for gender equality, and/or had been exposed to feminism (Leaper et al., 2012). For example, when parents, especially mothers, actively encourage their children (especially girls) in science activities, they help foster science enjoyment (Aschbacher et al., 2010; Farenga & Joyce, 1998).

Nancy Brickhouse, (2000) has identified the role feminist scholars in science education have played in girls’ science education. Feminist scholars have focused on the absence of girls in advanced science classes and careers, assuring girls’ access to equal opportunities to speak in class, work with equipment, and show their understanding, as well as providing gender-specific mentoring relationships and currently addressing gender specific science teaching strategies

(Brickhouse, 2000). Once exposure to feminist ideals, maternal support, female mentors, and

32 social supports was provided, the girls were willing to participate in science. However, three interconnected strategies are important to girls’ achievement in science:

1. recognizing, supporting, and leveraging work toward science participation,

2. developing a strong science self-efficacy, and

3. viewing scientific activities congruent with community connections

These strategies become dominant in encouraging girls’ participation in advanced science coursework and pursuing science-specific careers (Barton et al., 2013; Britner, 2008; Brickhouse

& Potter, 2001; Jennings, Swidler, & Koliba, 2005; Leaper et. al, 2012; Semken & Freeman,

2008).

Recognizing girls’ work impact on science participation experiences

Girls and women have consistently been underrepresented in science majors, science degrees, and science professions (Jayaratne et al., 2002, Leaper et al., 2012; Sadler et al., 2012).

According to the National Science Foundation, the US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor

Statistics, Women in the Labor Force Databook 2014, women made up 47% of the total US work force, yet were significantly underrepresented in science and engineering occupations. The following statistics demonstrate this claim:

1. 39% of chemists and material scientists are women.

2. 27.9% of environmental scientists and geoscientists are women.

3. 15.6% of chemical engineers are women.

4. 12.1% of civil engineers are women.

5. 8.3% of electrical and electronic engineers are women.

6. 17.2% of industrial engineers are women.

7. 7.2% of mechanical engineers are women.

Furthermore, the report indicates that in 2012 women received 57% of the bachelor’s degrees in all fields. However, only 11.2% earned BA degrees in science and engineering, only 8.2% earned master’s degrees in science and engineering, and only 4.1% earned doctoral degrees in science and engineering (NSF, 2015).

In 2013, Barton et. al. completed a three-year longitudinal ethnographic study focusing on the work identity of middle school-aged girls from non-dominant backgrounds as they participated in science-related activities at school, home and club-style events. Work identity was defined as “the actions that individuals take and the relationships they form…at any given moment and as constrained by the historical, cultural and social norms, rules and expectations…” (Barton et al., 2013, p.38). As a result of this study, researchers suggested that girls’ identity trajectories were a result of the opportunities and experiences they were able to participate in involving science “to the extent…[the] girls [were] able to construct hybridity between their school [and] out of school science experiences…and how those actions [were] legitimized by others” (Barton et al., 2013, p. 72).

One underrepresentation determinant is the perception by teachers’ and counselors’ that middle and high school girls do not exhibit expected identities that attribute to membership in the science community and, therefore, are not supported and encouraged to pursue science course work and science careers (Aschbacher et al., 2009; Barton et al., 2013; Brickhouse & Potter,

2001; Leaper et al., 2012). Female students reported that counselors’ referring to science as difficult and “not for everyone” resulted in the girls’ formulating the assumption that science was an elite subject, and that although they were interested in science, they did not have the skills to be successful in advanced science courses (Aschbacher et al., 2009, p. 571). Teachers are most encouraging to girls who “take on a more conventional good girl gender identity” (Brickhouse &

Potter, 2001, p. 965). While girls who value the sciences believe they are highly capable of doing science and do not agree with gender stereotypical views of science, they are still unknowingly influenced by cultural and gender stereotypes (DeBecker & Nelson, 2000; Leaper et al., 2012).

However, Leaper et al., discovered that the influence of gender stereotypes can be reduced when girls are “expose[d] to feminist and gender-egalitarian attitudes [which] may help to inoculate girls against sexist messages regarding women’s achievement in math and science” (p. 280).

When girls actively participate in science workshops and after-school programs then demonstrate science coursework and field work mastery without their work being recognized, supported, and leveraged toward opportunities to expand science engagement, their science identity is negatively affected. They do not view themselves as having a future in science and drop out of science-related trajectories at a far higher rate than boys (Brickhouse & Potter, 2001; Britner,

2008).

Girls’ science identity is situated in multilayered spaces through interactions with others influencing their sense of science achievement (Barton et al., 2013; Sadler et al., 2012). When girls participate in and experience strong support for science in varied communities—peers, parents, teachers, counselors, and mentors their science experiences and identities are positive and they persist in science courses (Aschbacher et al., 2009). These students reported that they had supportive parents, teachers, school staff, and community members who provided broad support and encouragement that contributed to their perseverance when facing science identity and coursework challenges (Aschbacher et al., 2009).

Teacher feedback, expectations and encouragement are key influences on science students’ experiences, attitude, motivation, confidence, and perception of competence to learn and succeed in science course work and science professions (Aschbacher et al., 2009).

Increasing girls’ motivation and positive experiences in science participation includes

“communicating with young women [and girls] that they can succeed in these [science] fields can have powerful consequences on their future [science] aspirations” (Britner, 2008, p. 967).

Other factors that influence girls’ positive science experiences are support from parents, peers, and access to community scientists and their work, which encourage a strong personal science identity of their science skills, abilities and future science success (Aschbacher et al., 2010).

Girls’ self-efficacy and motivation to participate in advanced science coursework and pursue science careers are impacted by linking their educational decisions to their expectations of science success and their ascribed value to the opinions of others who encourage their science participation. (Aschbacher et al., 2010).

Developing science self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is a girl’s belief in her ability to be successful in science (Britner, 2007).

Women and girls who “persevered and succeeded in science-related fields [have] confidence in their [science] ability…strong science self-efficacy predicts science achievement” (Britner, 2008, p. 957). Programs designed to increase girls’ science self-efficacy to improve science motivation at various educational grade levels have resulted in a variety of methods to encourage girls to voluntarily continue science education and pursue science-specific careers (Aschbacher et al.,

2010; Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Jayaratne et al., 2003; Mattem & Schau,

2002; Patrick et al., 2009). A qualitative longitudinal case-study by Fadigan and Hammrich

(2004) followed 152 high school girls who participated in a science program to determine how the program affected their educational and career choices in relation to their science identity through their experiences in the program. Their findings showed approximately 44% of the participants pursued a science related career and believed that the opportunity to talk with staff,

36 learn job skills, and have a safe facility all influenced their educational and career choices

(Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004).

Improvement in four integrated, self-constraining connections is essential to encourage girls’ science self-efficacy (Britner, 2008):

1. interpretation of science mastery,

2. vicarious science experiences,

3. social persuasion, and

4. physiological state.

The Next Generation Science Standards (National Research Council, 2012) focuses on supporting student development of deeper understanding and application of content through student practice and engagement in science. There is a reduced focus on acquiring content. The shift to more class time to test out ideas, think through problems and develop evidence-based claims may improve girls’ experiences in science and promote a self-described science identity

(Barton et al., 2013).

Girls interpret their individual science activity accomplishments. They use this interpretation to develop personal beliefs regarding their capability to successfully accomplish future science tasks (Britner, 2008). Mentors who regularly provide social persuasion through positive verbal and nonverbal judgments that nurture students’ beliefs in their capabilities while ensuring continued success is attainable have increased girls’ science self-efficacy (Britner,

2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004). Fadigan and Hammrich (2004) suggest “the number of science and math classes [is] important, [however] the level and quality of [the] courses…is related to [the girls’] feelings of competence…adding to a student’s confidence to pursue a

[science] career” (p. 855). The ability to interpret their physiological state—anxiety, stress, or

37 enjoyment of previous experiences is instrumental in the evaluation of confidence as girls consider or engage in new science lessons or activities thus, integrating all four informational sources to create an independent level of self-efficacy (Britner, 2008). Sadler et al., (2012) suggests that the critical time to develop positive science experiences and attitudes is prior to high school specifically at the middle school levels. To support this viewpoint, Hidi and

Harackiewicz, (2000) found that when educators provide ways to increase interest in specific academic content, intrinsic motivation levels can increase. Student intrinsic motivation increases through experiences that promote class enjoyment. This can increase girls’ willingness to participate in advanced sciences courses.

Additionally, as female students vicariously watch others perform science tasks, girls evaluate their probability of success on the same task. Girls who have limited prior experience, or believe they possess decreased ability to accomplish the task, have decreased self-efficacy

(Britner, 2008, DeBacker & Nelson, 2000; Leaper et al., 2012; Sadler et al., 2012). However,

Greenfield (1996) found that when girls had prior experience, they believed they were good in science and could accomplish the assigned science task.

Teacher impact on girls’ science participation

Teachers teach and students learn. Throughout time, this phrase has been used to summarize the relationship between students and teachers. In the next section I summarize the research that can be related to three interconnected concepts that suggest ways teachers could support students, especially girls, in science course work and eventually science careers. These concepts include the following: teacher epistemological beliefs impact on student participation, teacher activation of student prior knowledge to increase student participation, and teacher pedagogical training strategies to promote student science learning.

Teacher epistemological beliefs’ impact on student participation

One determinant of the underrepresentation of girls in science is teachers’ and counselors’ perception that middle and high school girls do not exhibit expected identities that are typically attributed to membership in the science community. The result is a process which discourages girls from pursuing science course work and science careers (Barton et al., 2013;

Brickhouse & Potter, 2001; Leaper et al., 2012). Historically, science teaching tends to fall into two distinct epistemologies: a constructivist epistemology and an empiricist epistemology.

Teachers who practice constructivist epistemology hold the view that students learn when they take an active role in constructing knowledge to understand science concepts. For example, learning constructivist teachers are aware that students develop science ideas that are inconsistent with orthodox science and acknowledge that learning and teaching science involves addressing students’ alternative ideas. Additionally, knowledge constructivist teachers focus on science as a way to develop theories that increase understanding of the world. In other words, the focus is on scientific revolutions and conceptual change (Hashweh, 1996).

On the other hand, teachers who practice empiricist epistemology hold the view that students learn when there is a focus on external reinforcement to understand science concepts and that students do not develop science ideas on their own (Hashweh, 1996). The learning empiricists focus on the external importance of science understanding. Teachers advocate that students are unaware of alternative science conceptions and advocate for neglecting students’ alternative conceptions if they exist. The knowledge empiricist view of science is to collect facts and scientific knowledge about the world through objective, permanent facts and discovery utilizing observations, the scientific method and the accumulated science knowledge without the conceptual change component (Hashweh, 1996)

These two epistemologies provide foundations that impact teacher self-efficacy. Teacher self-efficacy is the belief on the part of teachers that they can bring positive changes to student behavior and achievement (Hashweh, 1996). Teacher self-efficacy is impacted by these differing teaching epistemologies and can affect their belief in their ability to affect student performance.

This results in teachers not accepting responsibility for motivating student learning (Czerniak &

Chiarelott, 1990). Personal identity appears to affect epistemological beliefs. Research has shown male teachers were more traditional (empiricist) in both investigative practices and class culture than female and minority teachers who used more inquiry/investigative (constructivist) techniques (Supovitz & Turner, 2000).

Teachers increase girls’ motivation for science participation in a number of ways. First,

“communicating with young women [and girls] that they can succeed in these [science] fields can have powerful consequences on their future [science] aspirations” (Britner, 2008, p. 967).

For example, Britner (2008) identified social persuasions and physiological states that predicted girls’ science self-efficacy in Life Science classes. Participants in this study reported they were strongly influenced by female professors, researchers, and family members who encouraged and inspired them to continue science classes (Britner, 2008). Second, teachers can also link girls’ educational decisions to their expectations of science success and the value they ascribe to the opinions from others who encourage participation in science impacted self-efficacy and motivation to continue engagement in science coursework and science careers (Aschbacher et al.,

2010). When girls compared themselves to highly successful and brilliant scientists who appeared to have made few mistakes, such as Jane Goodall, they were less likely to have strong science self-efficacy to pursue science. However, girls who were made aware of how much trial and error and hard work was involved, and about scientists who struggled and later succeeded in

40 science, girls were more likely to view themselves as scientists and were motivated to continue in science courses (Britner, 2008). In order to encourage student engagement, teachers need to facilitate positive student academic science learner identities within the class (Reveles & Brown,

2008). Encouraging girls to recall prior knowledge and experiences in order to personalize science concepts has been found to increase students’ self-efficacy, participation and willingness to explore science classes and careers.

Teacher activation of student prior knowledge to increase participation

Students demonstrate higher levels of academic engagement, enthusiasm for learning, caring, and recall of knowledge when they know the information is connected to their community (Powers, 2004). This results in an increased emergence of interest and motivation from individual reaction to the environment (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). Place-based education

(PBE) is a contextual instructional method. Ideally, teachers assist students in creating connections to their own community. When teachers use the students’ community as the primary source to create connections, student motivational interest in learning is increased (Hidi &

Harackiewicz, 2000; Howley, Howley, Camper, & Perko, 2011; Powers, 2004; Semken &

Freeman, 2008). Place-based education creates “a strong sense of place” (Semken & Freeman,

2008, p. 1043), which “promotes student understanding of the interdependence of their lives with those… in their communities” (Howley et al., 2011, p. 219). Female students need opportunities for authentic learning experiences that connect them to their local community and promote community respect (Howley, et al., 2011). These opportunities may be present in school traditions such as annual field trips, community awareness projects such as food collection for local food banks, or culminating activities such as a Culture Fair in which students present their family heritage to community members. Authentic learning experiences may also happen in

41 short-term projects such as a journalism unit focusing on community events, or mapping an area to create a walking trail (Howley et al., 2011).

Educators who supported and encouraged girls’ science participation through interconnections between the curriculum and community increased self-efficacy and motivation to continue science learning and science career choice (Howley et al., 2011; Semken & Freeman,

2008). Howley, (2011) describe an island school in which students participated in several year- long authentic learning experiences. These included a recycling project, an electric vehicle project, and a boat-building project. These projects provided opportunities for connections between various curricula and community partnerships and values. The contextualization of instruction focuses students’ attention on the interrelationships between concepts, assists in knowledge organization and integration by engaging students in science concepts to find solutions to meaningful problems through multiple perspectives, provides opportunities to integrate new knowledge into their current schema in an applicable manner, supports connecting science concepts to other contexts, and engages students in the active use of the science concepts

(Rivert & Krajcik, 2007). Community partnerships present teachers and students with a variety of viewpoints and resources that increase their skills and knowledge base (Powers, 2004).

Additionally, contextualization of instruction through the inclusion of community partnerships may encourage students to find value in the curriculum which promotes participation, personal value in the experience, and the development of real-world skills (Powers, 2004).

A goal of Design-Based Science (DBS) instruction, another contextual teaching strategy, is to provide students with experiences that promote grappling with real-world problems that engage students, constructing new knowledge relevant to the presented problem (Fortus,

Dershimer, Krajcik, Marx, & Mamlok-Naaman, 2004). DBS, an extension of problem-based

42 instruction and learning (McComas, 2014), strives to aid students in the construction of scientific understanding and real-world problem solving skills by creating solutions to real-world problems

(Fortus et al., 2004). Design-Based Science instruction is characterized by: (a) student problem solving authentic tasks that require long-term planning rather than one class worksheet completion, (b) student-created artifacts to solve the presented problem rather than recalling how someone else solved the problem, (c) utilization of alternative assessments and computer-based technology rather than traditional true/false paper/pencil assessments, (d) student collaborative rather than isolated work, and (e) the teacher as facilitator and learner rather than as the only source of all knowledge (Fortus et al., 2004). An example of a DBS lesson is described by Fortus et al., (2004), in which students were given the challenge to design a battery that is more environmentally safe. Students learned about potential hazards of dealing with and disposing of toxic materials, what materials are used to construct batteries and the related health concerns, how batteries decay, electric circuits, and electrochemistry. Students work on this task in four stages: individual, pairs, groups, and whole class. The goal is to design the best alternative battery design to provide environmental safety. The teacher facilitates learning by providing critiques and questioning students’ understanding and rationale for their design at each stage

(Fortus et al., 2004). Contextual instruction can lead to personal and communal ownerships; both can be strong motivators for student engagement in science content (Fortus,et al., 2004; Hidi &

Harackiewicz, 2000; Howley et al., 2011; Powers, 2004; Rivert & Krajcik, 2007; Semken &

Freeman, 2008). Teacher beliefs and attitudes about how to teach science and how students learn are the cornerstone to determining effective instructional practices (Johnson & Fargo,

2010).

Pedagogical training strategies to promote student science learning

Women and girls who “persevered and succeeded in science-related fields [have] confidence in their [science] ability…[developing a] strong science self-efficacy predicts science achievement” (Britner, 2008, p. 957). Programs designed to increase girls’ science self-efficacy and motivation at various educational grade levels have resulted in a wide range of methods to encourage girls to voluntarily continue science education. Jayaratne et al., (2003) questioned participants in a two-week summer science program at three times: pre-program participation, one year post-program participation, and four years post program participation. Jayaratne et al.,

(2003) found that nonminority girls who participated in the summer science program had increased confidence and aspirations to continue in future science courses. McCrea (2011), identified that programs that included facilitators who were engaging, able to personally connect to the girls, and proficient in science increased girls’ science self-efficacy.

Additionally, increasing girls’ science self-efficacy may improve motivation to pursue science specific careers (Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich, 2004; Jayaratne et al., 2003;

Mattem & Schau, 2002; Patrick et al., 2009). Girls’ science experiences through interpersonal connections with others shapes science self-efficacy. Aschbacher et al., (2009) found that their study participants could link their positive experiences in science activities to their future careers and to the important teachers, school counselors, family members, and friends who encouraged them to explore science career paths. Effective science teacher training includes an awareness of how identity shapes performance and how the language of science can cause conflicts for minorities and hinder their learning (Brown, 2011).

Teachers who understand the connections between cultural affiliation, cultural conflict, and the interaction influence among science students can be positively affected science performance (Brown, 2011). Teachers recognizing cultural affiliation may promote girls’

44 science self-efficacy or distract from it. For example, girls from one background may be seen as intelligent when engaging in science, thus increasing science self-efficacy. However, girls from another background may be seen as betraying their culture by demonstrating the same behaviors thus decreasing science-self efficacy (Brown, 2011). Teachers who intentionally design instruction that immerses students in the opportunity to use science language in class may place students who refuse to participate due to cultural affiliation in a position of cultural conflict that may decrease science self-efficacy (Brown, 2011). The language of science may contribute to cultural conflict and student learning simply by the structure of science conversations. A participant in Brown’s study shared that she and her friends struggled to engage in science conversation because the book language was so different that it was hard to understand (Brown,

2011). Teachers who used pedagogy that introduces science using students’ everyday language practices and explicitly teaches students science language increased student understanding, positive experiences, and engagement of scientific concepts (Brown & Ryoo, 2007; Brown,

2011). On the other hand, educators who supported and encouraged girls’ science participation through interconnections between the curriculum and community increased self-efficacy and motivation to continue science learning and science career choice (Howley et al., 2011; Semken

& Freeman, 2008). The following will elaborate on these interconnections.

Place-based education (PBE)

Dewey supported the importance of teachers emphasizing the connection of inquiry- based activities to causality by expressing the need for “educative experiences [to] lead to an expanding world of [the] subject matter; [and] science…explores the significance of everyday experiences” (Dewey, 1938, p. 111). This may help assure that students have a high prior knowledge foundation to allow students to understand and grow from the experience (Dewey,

1938). Girls who participated in the Scientific Literacy Project (SLP) that emphasized integration of a sequence of science inquiry and of science literacy activities demonstrated greater confidence (self-efficacy), understanding, and liking of science as opposed to girls who participated in a regular science class (Patrick et al., 2008). Patrick et al. (2008) suggested that students who experience little or limited inquiry-based science curriculum in grades K-4, develop negative science attitudes. Changing negative attitudes may be difficult for these students even if they are introduced to inquiry-based instruction in later school years.

Incorporation of science and community connections is critical to increasing girls’ experiences and self-efficacy in science.

Science learning and place-based education

As suggested in the heading, PBE pedagogy promotes girls participation in learning science. Place-Based Education (PBE), a pedagogical strategy termed by The Orion Society in the early 1990s, is characterized by the focus of reintegration of the individual into her community while restoring connections to the person and the community (Sobel, 2005). Place- based education (PBE) is a fairly new term in the educational field; however, the idea of learning through localized surroundings and experience is older than formal schooling (Knapp, 2008).

The following terms have been used to describe varieties of place-based education: place- conscious learning, community-based learning, service-learning, outdoor education, environmental education, nature studies, real-world problem solving, and sustainable- development education, to name a few (Knapp, 2008; Theobald & Siskar, 2008). Knapp,

(2008), has noted that “from the late 1800s to the present time, several movements in schools have promoted the educational use of local areas as integral parts of the curriculum…the terminology illustrate[s] how educational movements take on various labels depending on who

46 conceives and writes about them” (Knapp, 2008, p. 6). Most of these varieties have philosophical roots from John Dewey, Aldo Leopold and Paulo Freire (Dewey, 1938; Orr, 2004; Smith, 2002).

However, each has unique nuances. For example, Environmental Education is typically taught in an organized sequence in traditional classrooms or in nature centers, museums, parks, or zoos, focusing on understanding how the environment works and how to keep it healthy (North

American Association for Environmental Education, 2015). Sustainable-development Education has four educational policy practices: (a) sustainability to people, communities and ecosystems;

(b) tenability, or working with integrity, respect, inclusiveness, and justice; (c) healthy, a viable system that nurturing healthy relationships; and (d) durable, the practice works well enough to repeat many times (Sterling, 2001). However, pedagogy referenced by place is generally referred to as Place-Based Education (PBE) (Theobald & Siskar, 2008). Place-Based Education is broadly defined in order to preserve its adaptability to individual communities. David Sobel offers this definition:

“Place-based education is the process of using the local community and

environment as a starting point to teach concepts in math, science…and other

subjects across the curriculum. Emphasizing hands-on, real-world learning

experiences…increases [student] academic achievement, stronger community ties,

appreciation for natural world and creates a heightened commitment to serving as

active, contributing citizens” (2005, p. 7).

Rural communities have had a long historic tradition of utilizing place-based education’s format due to a commitment to community connections for authentic student learning experiences and the need to conserve resources (Jennings et al., 2005; Theobald & Siskar, 2008).

For example, in the early 20th century, French educators would assign students the task of

47 collecting and analyzing information about their own villages then sharing their results with students in other parts of the country (Smith, 2002). PBE encourages and relies on community connections that support authentic learning experiences with a goal of developing connections between the living outside world and formal educational institutions (Gurenewald, 2003; Howley et al., 2011). One of the main goals of PBE is the expansion of learning opportunities between students, educators, and community members (Gruenewald, 2008).

Central to place-based education are five instructional foci: cultural studies, nature studies, real world problem solving, internships and entrepreneurial opportunities, and induction into community processes (Smith, 2002; Sobel, 2005). In Alaska, USA, Place-Based Education cultural practices included a collection of Native Alaskan cultural practice articles. In the 1970s

Georgia’s Foxfire project connected rural folkways and the Appalachian culture, thus becoming the cornerstone for the investigation and documentation of regional cultures throughout the country (Smith, 2002). Students can connect to their culture through researching and writing, creating, and performing a school play about their ancestors, as was done in Henderson,

Nebraska (Smith, 2002). Beginning with the known and expanding their knowledge, each of these examples identifies teachers and students investigating local cultural or historical events that directly connect to their families and themselves (Smith, 2002). Exploration of the natural world includes encouraging teachers and students to see the classroom as a space including but not limited to the traditional school building’s four walls. It involves validating students’ experiences and embedding learning within the world rather than separated from it. During the mid- 1990s, a middle school in Portland, Oregon created an environment in which local natural phenomena were the center of all curricula. Students learned about their local watershed, contributed to its restoration by designing gardens with native plants, maintained an extensive

48 recycling program, served meals at a homeless shelter, and served as reading tutors to local elementary students (Sobel, 2002). Exploring the natural world while making community connections resulted in students being highly engaged in their educational experiences as well as increased student achievement (Dewey, 1938; Sobel, 2002).

Bringing real-world problem solving into the PBE class involves student engagement in identifying school and community issues of interest. This type of problem solving extends the student beyond the traditional school setting and into her local neighborhood (Smith, 2002).

Students experience PBE curriculum integration that emphasizes project-based learning, student- teacher collaboration, and real world community connections (Sobel, 2002). In Parrish, Alabama, students discovered high concentrations of lead in the school and town water supply. Teachers developed a hands-on chemistry lesson that evolved into a two-year student learning opportunity about neurophysiology and learning disabilities, community politics and economics, as well as working with local county health officials, engineers, and biologists that lead to the town’s implementation of a new water system (Sobel, 2002). PBE provides opportunities to connect school learning to local occupations which may enrich the lives of students and community through employment internships. Smith, (2002), has suggested that students who are provided with vocation/community relationships can have an increased awareness of academic and employment possibilities. Students who are not academically successful or believe they are not able to attain jobs because of where they live or their low academic performance may participate in an internship program and discover that a desired career is within their reach if they decide to pursue it (Smith, 2002). Drawing students into the decision-making community process may be the most comprehensive component of Place-Based Education. Students who experience opportunities to share their insights, knowledge, and perspective on community events are

49 practicing skills needed to be active community members. (Smith, 2002; Sobel, 2002). Smith identifies a Boston high school class in which student activism resulted in air quality monitoring equipment being used in their community. The students gathered scientific data, mastered it, and then shared their findings with the school’s community neighbors, agency personnel, and local politicians. The students were learning the integral skills of balancing science and politics in order to serve their community (Smith, 2002).

Students demonstrated higher levels of academic engagement, enthusiasm for learning, caring, and recall of knowledge when they knew the information was connected to their community (Powers, 2004). Interest and motivation emerge from individuals’ reaction to the community environment (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). For example, middle school students in

Seaside, Oregon discovered that their peers spent the majority of over $300,000 annually on discretionary purchases outside their local community. In the hopes of making a community change, the students presented their findings to their local city council and asserted that in order to keep this money in the local community, the community needed to better understand the needs and desires of middle school students (Smith, 2002). Female students need opportunities for authentic learning experiences that connect them to their local community and promote community respect (Howley et al., 2011). Place-based education may connect students to their own community and may be the primary source to investigate as a means of increasing motivational interest in learning (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Howley et al., 2011; Powers,

2004; Semken & Freeman, 2008). Ideally, place-based education creates “a strong sense of place” (Semken & Freeman, 2008, p. 1043), which “promotes student understanding of the interdependence of their lives with those… in their communities” (Howley et al., 2011, p. 219).

Even with research support encouraging utilization of place-based education to promote

50 motivation, community connections, and the ability to support standards-based reform expectations, urban school districts are hesitant to encourage implementation of this educational method (Jennings et al., 2005). In order to encourage girls to pursue science course work and science careers, educators must be willing to embrace alternative teaching options tailored to girls’ science educational and motivational needs (Barton et al., 2013; Britner, 2008; Fadigan &

Hammrich, 2004; Howley et al., 2011; Jayaratne et al., 2002; Patrick et al., 2008; Semken &

Freeman, 2008). Place-based education may “[engage] students while supporting authentic and meaningful learning to teach a wide range of subject matter using a motivating instructional strategy” (Jennings et al., 2005, p. 60), and “has been advocated for its relevance and potential to attract underrepresented groups to science” (Semken & Freeman, 2008, p. 1042).

As mentioned earlier, a widely recognized value of place-based education is that it encourages students to work with community partners. It is thought that its process increases the probability that student projects will have community value which builds real world skills

(Powers, 2004). Educators utilizing place-based education teaching strategies report that their students have higher engagement levels due to the increased community involvement, multi- curriculum interconnections, and collaborative culture among students and teachers in their education (Howley et al., 2011; Powers, 2004). In addition to increased student engagement and enthusiasm for learning, research on place-based education programs has noted a decrease in student discipline and an increase in standardized test scores (Meichtry & Smith, 2007).

Critical thinking and place-based education

Nationally, in light of A Nation at Risk and the No Child Left Behind educational reform more and more states are adopting Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium and Next

Generation Science Standards (NGSS) standardized assessments that require more

51 interdisciplinary critical reasoning (Symcox, 2009). In 2015, twenty-two states, including

Washington, Oregon, California, Maine, Montana, and the US Virgin Islands, began participation in the Smarter Balanced Assessment. Twenty-six states collaborated on the development of the Next Generation Science Standards, and currently there are twelve states, including Washington, that have approved their implementation to begin at varied times over the next four years. These standards are meant to help reduce and ultimately eliminate the academic achievement gap. The federal law mandates how states should measure school success by subdividing student populations into thirty-seven subgroups including gender and ethnicity. The federal law further identifies specific punitive interventions for schools that fail to meet the prescribed school success criteria (Symcox, 2009).

Lieberman and Hoody (1998) suggest that using the environment as an integrated part of the curriculum can successfully close the achievement gap found within and between communities. For example, in order for students to think at even the most simplistic level about place, critical thinking skills are essential (Gruenewald, 2003). As previously discussed, in classes where place-based educational strategies are well established, students are challenged to investigate local issues, solving real community problems which advances the standardized curriculum to a new heightened inquiry level (Smith, 2007). Place-based education challenges students to critically think critically about their place and emphasizes its diversity (Gruenewald

& Smith, 2008). The process engages students in a sense of their own being and social capacity that can alter their neighborhood and community for the better (Greenwood, Manteaw, & Smith,

2009; Smith, 2007). Dewey suggests that “when education is based upon experience and educative experience is seen to be a social process, the situation changes radically” (Dewey,

1998, pg.67). Acknowledging the social construction of place does not eliminate the idea that

52 ecosystems and wildernesses have qualities that transcend the place-destructive behaviors of people; rather, it places the responsibility of place-making on humans (Gruenewald, 2003). As students learn about constructing their places and taking responsibility for their role as place- makers, they are able to establish their environmental responsibility (Gruenewald, 2003). Place- based education has been viewed as a resource to help schools reach their environmental education curricular goals and provide the foundation educators need to aid students’ holistic understanding of place (Baxton,2010; Knapp, 2005).

Social Justice and Place-based Education

Gruenewald and Smith (2008) suggest “place-based education…is more than a curricular reform; [it’s] another means to address the issues of equity and excellence that dominate discourse about American [education]” (p. 345). Discussions of place involve the diversity within the place which facilitates the equity conversation (Gruenewald, 2003). Researchers who study place acknowledge that understanding place is critical to studying our interconnections with each other and the communities around us (Gurenewald, 2003). However, there is not one single theory of place that can be used to inform educational studies (Gurenewald, 2003). This lack of clarity impacts discussion of place and social justice.

Traditional educational forums address social justice inequities by enforcing uniform standards and moving them into the center of mainstream society, which Gurenewald, (2003), suggests results in the marginalization of some groups. However, an opposing view suggests that developing a more just social relationship depends on supporting and encouraging those who are considered to be in the margins and to learning from these diverse populations (Gruenewald,

2003). From this point of view, eliminating the achievement gap could be viewed as ignoring the potential contributions from the marginalized group (Gruenewald, 2003). Girls are one of these

53 marginalized groups; science educators who are “aware of the [effects of] self-constraints…can help ensure that all girls with an interest in science are able to develop their talents and make a significant contribution” (Britner, 2008, p. 968). One goal of place-based education is to reverse the standardized and decontextualized learning by “encourage[ing] educators to include more local experience, inquiry, action and reflection in the practice of teaching and learning;” this may create a more humanizing and generative society through the identification of injustices and promotion of compassion at a local level (Gruenewald & Smith, 2009, p. 346). Smith (2002) states that the core value of place-based education is its ability “to strengthen children’s connections to others and to the regions they live [in]; enhances achievement and helps overcome alienation and isolation” (p. 594). Place-based education supports using local community as the cornerstone for curriculum development, students becoming creators of knowledge in which their questions help determine what is studied, community and school joining together to provide participatory learning opportunities that promote genuine praise and satisfaction, and teachers acting as educational guides to help students become effective learners

(Smith 2002). In the current research there is a dearth of gender specific analysis of place-based education’s impact on girls’ science class experiences and how these experiences affect their continued participation in advanced science coursework and the pursuit of science-focused careers.

Summary

The continuing problem of girls’ underrepresentation in science class has been well documented (Greenfield, 1996; Brickhouse & Potter, 2001; Britner, 2008; Fadigan & Hammrich,

2004; Leaper et al., 2012). Research suggests that a combination of social, community, and personal factors contribute to this problem and identify societal benefits from increasing girls’

54 motivation in science (Baker, 2002; Baram-Tsabari & Yarden, 2011; Britner & Pajares, 2001;

Brotman & Moore, 2008). The benefits range from those that are economic benefits from higher incomes within science careers, to remaining competitive in a global economy, to the entire societal benefits that are waiting to be discovered as girls realize their full potential (Ivie, Czujico

& Stowe, 2002; Leaper et al., 2012). Studies have identified a number of ways to motivate girls in science. These include providing girls with support, encouragement, and non-competitive community-focused science opportunities that promote girls’ motivation to participate in the science curriculum (Lau & Roeser, 2002; Leaper et al., 2012).

According to Britner (2007), girls’ self-efficacy has been a significant factor in motivation to continue in science coursework. Britner suggests girls need help in order to focus on and interpret their science successes. Helping girls realize they are competent by acknowledging and supporting successful science work can reduce science anxiety and increase science self-efficacy in order for them to continue participating in science coursework (Britner, 2007). Academically, girls and boys perform equally during adolescence; however, boys score higher than girls in personal beliefs about their ability in science and math (Leaper et al., 2012). To provide opportunities to assist girls’ recognition of personal success in science, teachers, fellow students, family, and community members can share acknowledgement with girls. Howley et al. (2011) identifies place-based education as a means of engaging students, teachers, and community members to appreciate and support the individual while connecting to the community at large.

This framework encourages positive relationships and connections to create a school culture invested in student inquiry and student success which can enhance girls’ self-efficacy in science

(Howley, et al, 2011). When students have opportunities to engage in experiences that confirm

55 individual and community connectedness, the school and self disconnection can be reduced, thus creating increased motivation to learn science content.

The findings from these studies suggest that motivating girls into participation in science classes is critical to decreasing the gender achievement gap in STEM careers. The research identifies the importance of reducing the girls’ negative attitude toward science and increasing female mentors and engaging scientists to encourage girls. Furthermore, studies suggest that low self-esteem regarding ability to be successful or to see women as successful in science, as well as a lack of family support encouraging success in science, can also affect girls’ participation and experience in science (Blue & Gann, 2008; Farenga & Joyce, 1998; Jayaratne et al, 2003; Leaper et al; 2012; McCrea, 2011). Increasing girls’ motivation in STEM can be a societal benefit by attaining increased gender equity in STEM-related fields, which in turn can decrease the gender inequality. Additionally, increasing girls’ participation in STEM-related occupations is considered critical for any nation to remain competitive in the global economy (Leaper et al.,

2012). More longitudinal studies are needed in order to fully understand and determine avenues that will help girls become more motivated to participate in STEM education and employment.

Identifying avenues to replicate the strategies and programs that are working to improve girls’ motivation is crucial to reducing motivational loss for STEM, especially in science education and careers. It is important to remember that without funding to develop these programs throughout the country, educators, scientists, and community members will need to cooperatively and creatively work together in order to provide opportunities for our future female scientists of the nation.

While the current research provides a solid foundation for the need to increase science participation by women and promote science intervention opportunities during girls’ middle

56 school years, gaps in the literature exist that provide opportunity for future research. Specifically, additional research is needed on the impact of early motivation intervention programs that promote girls’ science engagement. For example, only one research team, Patrick, Panayota, and

Samarapungavan, (2009), suggests that science motivation strategies can be introduced in early education to help increase girls’ science interest in later school years. Further research in this area could provide foundational implementation opportunities that can be built upon at the middle and high school levels to promote and encourage girls’ participation in science course work and to pursue science careers. The lack of empirical research on place-based education’s impact on increasing middle and high school age girls’ willingness to participate in advanced science coursework must be conducted (Powers, 2004). While there is research supporting increased participation in class work through place-based education and the development of community connections, there is no specific subject/gender connection research. Exploring the connection between place-based education, science, and middle school girls’ experiences could provide educators with additional strategies to increase girls’ participation in science coursework and the pursuit of science careers. Addressing these gaps is the focus of my research.

The strategies that promote girls’ participation in advanced science coursework, educators’ support of girls’ pursuit of advanced science coursework and science careers, and place-based education’s pedagogy are intertwined. While the research relating girls and science is much more developed as noted by the vast amount of empirical findings, place-based education researchers are consistently adding to this ever-growing body of knowledge.

Connections between these various PBE experts exist within the areas of social justice, community support and connections, and critical thinking founded from within personal experiences. The most significant is the focus on utilizing localness in problem-solving

57 pedagogy to support student participation in learning. Girls tend to be more willing to participate in science coursework when they view this work as valuable to themselves and the community.

The promotion of students developing relationships with the community while solving current localized problems utilizing interdisciplinary curricula that produce meaning has been shown to promote girls’ participation in science coursework. Place-based education encourages students to address community needs with sensitivity and openness. This philosophy must be demonstrated and communicated by the teachers. When teachers are open-minded, they provide students with opportunities to flourish; when teachers are closed-minded, students flounder and shut down.

Place-based education can give teachers the tools they need to encourage girls to participate in advanced science coursework and pursue science-related careers. Research that incorporates place-based education and girls’ experience in science coursework within a place-based educational class and pursuing science careers is an area that to date has not been explored.

However, there is a critical need for this research to be conducted. Both the scientific world and general community would benefit from an increase in girls’ participation in advanced science courses and careers. When the majority of people entering into the science profession are gender specific, the talent pool engaged in the exploration of new viewpoints and expansion of knowledge is limited. Girls need to know that their scientific participation and knowledge is valued, and that what they are learning has value, in order for them to want to participate in advanced coursework and pursue science careers. Place-based education appears to be a pedagogy that could support encouraging girls to participate in science coursework and science- based careers due to its focus on opportunities for community connections and contextualized education that provides relevance and personal value to science curricula, local neighborhoods, and our global society.

The implications of teachers’ attitudes and epistemological beliefs impact on girls’ science participation has also been well established. There is a solid foundation for the need of teacher preparation and professional development programs to incorporate strategies to increase students’ engagement in science. However, there are gaps that exist in the literature that provide opportunity for future research. Further research could provide foundational implementation opportunities that can be built upon by middle and high school level teachers to increase their teaching strategies to help promote and encourage girls’ participation in science course work and pursue science careers. There is research identifying teaching strategies and attitudes teachers need to embrace to encourage and support girls in science, but there is minimal research on the long-term effectiveness of these strategies. The majority of research does not specifically discuss the implications of specific teaching pedagogy and techniques on girls and science education beyond the short term. Do girls continue science coursework and enter into science specific careers as a result of these strategies? Researchers theoretically support this platform; however, there is a dearth of empirical data to support this position. Additionally, the lack of empirical research on place-based education’s impact on increasing middle and high school age girls’ willingness to engage in advanced science coursework must be addressed (Powers, 2004). While there is some research supporting increased motivation to participate in class work through place-based education and the development of community connections, there is no specific subject/gender PBE science teaching strategy connection research. Exploring the connection between place-based education (contextualized instruction) and subject/gender specific participation could provide educators with additional strategies to increase girls’ participation in science coursework and pursuit of science careers.

Conclusion

We live in an era in which encouraging girls to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science careers is viewed as valuable and necessary. The current literature highlights an exciting time in research into girls’ participation in science courses and pursing science- specific careers as it has provided the foundational means for further research to spring from.

The contributions of Gruenewald (aka Greenwood), Smith, and Sobel have established a strong theoretical platform for what place-based education is and the potential for improving student learning and community connectedness. In addition, Barton, Brickhouse, Britner, Czerniak, and

Johnson have developed a firm foundation that has identified what teaching strategies and support girls need in order to develop their willingness to participate in science education and consider science-specific careers. I acknowledge that my research will not answer all the gaps noted above. However, I do believe my research questions can contribute to extending the forward-moving path of place-based education and supporting girls’ participation in advanced science coursework and pursuing science-based careers. Examining the experiences of middle school girls in a PBE science class, the PBE teaching strategies, and developing a deeper understanding of their lived experiences, may enhance the support and encouragement girls need in order to increase participation in advanced science coursework and science careers.

Previous research has centered on developing and strengthening the definition of place- based education, strengthening teaching technique, identifying teaching strategies that support learning science content, and identifying teacher projections and attitudes that promote girls’ science participation. My research questions take these “what” questions and move to the “how and why.” I’m striving to find out how the participants on both sides of place-based education, teachers and female students, perceive their behavior influencing each other, in the present as well as the future, through the connection of place-based curricular and teaching pedagogy. It is

60 my hope that by increasing the understanding of the lived experiences of female students and their teachers in a place-based education school, this knowledge can be moved to other educational settings. This can support and encourage educators at the middle school level to provide teaching strategies that enhance girls’ science educational experiences and stimulate a desire to pursue advanced science coursework and science-based careers.

Chapter Three: Research Methods In this section, I discuss the qualitative research methods I used to investigate my research questions. I examined these questions in a case study of middle school girls’ perceptions of their experiences with a place-based science curriculum in a public charter school. In order to determine the richest methods of data collection, I reviewed and critiqued a range of potential research methods. I focus this discussion on the methods I used in my research. This discussion includes a description of the selection process for the research site and participants, data collection methods, and a data analysis plan including the identification of bias and trustworthiness. Given that this case study sought to investigate insiders’ perspectives about a little understood problem of practice, I believe qualitative research provided an appropriate method for my research questions (Bauer & Brazer, 2012).

Researcher Positionality

I am the data collection tool for this qualitative research. As the tool for this study it is essential that I self-examine my personal positionality and biases to increase the trustworthiness of my research. I am a white, married female middle school (seventh grade) science teacher with thirteen years teaching experience. The school I teach at is not my research site. During the time

I have taught at my school, the school has transitioned from having less than 20% student population eligibility for free and reduced lunch to almost 70%. I have taught seventh grade Life

Science every year. In addition to this teaching assignment, at various times I have also taught seventh and eighth grade Honors English, seventh and eighth grade Math and Math Lab, and seventh and eighth grade AVID (Advancement Via Individual Determination). I grew up in a high poverty neighborhood in Vancouver, Washington, and teach in the same district I attended kindergarten (K) through high school graduation. Growing up, I attended three schools: one elementary (K-6), one junior (7-9) and one high (10-12) school. However, I do not teach at a

62 school that I attended as a youth. Teaching is my second career. Prior to teaching, for fifteen years, I worked as a professional chemical dependency counselor, at a non-profit organization. I specialized in working with pregnant addicted women and youth (those under 18 years of age). I loved the challenges and joys this career provided. My patients were women and youth who were incarcerated, in transitional housing, homeless, or living with family members. I was the birth coach for many women who had no family support when their baby was born. There was no greater joy than helping deliver a baby who then received a negative drug test result. The baby was born clean and sober. However, I had an underlying calling to enter into the teaching profession. With courage and family support, I resigned my counseling position and went back to school to get my master’s degree and teaching credentials.

I grew up in poverty, in a family where a smart woman was teased and ridiculed as if she were “too smart for her own good.” However, this attitude changed when I was eleven years old and my parents divorced. My mom became the primary parent and raised my sister and me with a new empowering philosophy. Due to an aggressive breast cancer, my mom passed away when

I was 18. My sister and I learned from her amazing strength to tackle all obstacles with grace, determination and courage. As a result, I am the first female in my family to earn bachelor’s and master’s degrees. I am the only person, on both my paternal and maternal family sides, to earn a doctoral degree.

As previously stated, I am a middle school science teacher and have taught at the same low income school for thirteen years. I regularly use place-based education teaching strategies and philosophy as a guide to encourage my students to participate in science. I have been my school’s curricular representative on various committees at both the school and district level. For four years, I participated in the National Science Foundation’s GK-12 project in which scientists

63 are paired with teachers and participate in the classroom two days per week throughout the school year. I have coordinated four S.T.E.M T.E.As at our school. These sciences, technology, engineering, and math (S.T.E.M.) teaching engineering aptitude (T.E.A.) events are designed for girls and their moms (or other female role model adults) to experience engineering projects and activities in an after school setting. All of my life experiences, both positive and challenging, have influenced who I am and what I researched.

My life experiences have resulted in a lens which benefits this study because I understand the teacher’s lens and challenges of working in a middle school setting, the personality of middle school girls and the creative “make-do with what you have” attitude. My life experiences also provide avenues to empathize and quickly develop a relationship with the participants during the research process. I am able to quickly identify individual nuances and seek clarification in their responses that will increase the richness of the data collected. As a female middle school science teacher researching female middle school science student and teacher participants, I do have biases. Specifically, I used reflective journaling and collegial conversations to assure my observations and data analysis remained as deeply understood as possible. As an advocate for

PBE teaching strategies, these self-reflection and conversation tools helped to assure that I was not critical of the teacher’s classroom management or teaching style, and that I did not impose my personal preferences into the data collection and analysis. As I reviewed my notes and shared my experiences with co-workers and academic mentors I had reflective self-talk and critical friends who helped me maintain my researcher position as much as possible.

My research was completed at a public charter school which utilizes a school-wide place- based education philosophy. The school is located approximately one hour from my home. I did not know any of the teachers at this school. I was concerned that this lack of familiarity may

64 impact the initial depth of the interviews. I hoped that as time progressed our common teaching professionalism and our comfort with each other would provide the foundation needed in order to develop a high level of mutual respect and trustworthiness which would aide in gaining access to the information that was critical to understanding the presented research questions. This in fact did occur. After much discussion with my committee and the classroom teacher it was decided that my position within the classroom would be silent observer. Initially, this was very challenging for me. To move from being a science teacher to a researcher, watching and recording, but not engaging and interacting with the students and teacher, required constant self- checking which was accomplished through pre-placed reminder notes in my field journal that popped up while I was writing my observation notes and reflective journaling after each classroom visit. I also reviewed my reflective journal entries and my research questions prior to each classroom observation.

Explanation for Qualitative Case Study Research

Studies involving girls and science have utilized quantitative, mixed methods and qualitative methodologies, including studies by Barton et al., (2013); Brickhouse et al., (2000);

Britner, (2008); DeBacker and Nelson, (2008); and Greenfield, (1996). After a detailed analysis of the current published empirical research in three focus areas: 1) the historical background of girls’ science education experiences, 2) the teachers’ influence on girls’ science education experiences, and 3) the historical and contemporary view of place-based education, then identifying how each of these areas contributed to teaching strategies that increased girls’ science participation, I selected a qualitative case study methodology as the best way to study the experiences of middle school girls in a place-based education school. Qualitative case study research methodology was utilized in order to provide understanding of how teachers and

65 students “interpret their experiences” and “what meaning [they] attribute[d] to their experiences”

(Merriam, 2009, p. 23).

In a qualitative case study the heart of the study is the circle that defines the area of analysis (Merriam, 2009). For my area of analysis, I examined eleven eighth grade girls’ science educational experience in a PBE science class, and their perceptions of their teacher’s impact on these experiences. In my research, I considered this area of analysis as a fluidly bounded system, a single entity that was restricted and limited (Merriam, 2009). Studying perceived classroom experiences requires in-depth self-awareness, examination, and disclosure of the participants.

Merriam (2009) recommends utilization of a case study with a bounded system, a finite entity, in order to achieve the deep, rich description and analysis through comprehensive observations. A bounded system could be a single classroom, a specific population within a single classroom, or a specific teacher within a single classroom.

This research focused on eighth grade girls in one interdisciplinary school in which place-based education was incorporated into all academic disciplines: English, reading, mathematics, history, and science. In order to more richly examine varied participant perspectives, I chose qualitative procedures to provide the most depth in understanding of their experiences (Creswell, 2009). The research questions provided an opportunity to examine the perceived experiences of the participants in the context of the place-based education middle school science class of eighth grade students and their teacher that was in session as opposed to a summer workshop or college methods class. Qualitative case study methodology is well-suited to this research because it is impossible to separate the student and teacher experiences from the context of their interaction. My interest is on the insight, discovery, and interpretation of the

66 students’ and teacher’s experiences in order to develop a deeper understanding of their experiences (Merriam, 2009).

I used case study methodology to identify the perceptions of teachers and female students in a middle school PBE science class because it provides the opportunity to use “rich, thick description” of selected participants who can give first hand accountings of their experiences in a school utilizing non-traditional teaching philosophies and methods (Merriam, 2009). There are several different types of case study methodologies. This research was an illustrative case study describing real world examples of how a particular teacher and her female students experience science in a place-based middle school science class.

Case study research is a good fit for this qualitative education study because it investigates the interactions between teachers and students. All four research questions are asking “how.” The qualitative case study format has an advantage for “how” questions (Yin,

2008). As these questions promote less control over the research events, and a person’s experiences are so embedded within the event, it was impossible to determine the specifics of the study prior to the start of the research. This research method allowed the study to emerge as data were gathered and the flexibility to use the data as they emerged.

Qualitative case studies allow a researcher to have a wide array of evidence as well as the opportunity to closely examine the research participants by utilizing direct observations, interviews (subjective factors such as feelings, thoughts, personal preferences), and personalized artifacts, approaches that yield data about the range or variety of human experiences (Merriam,

2009). Participant characteristics such as: race, gender, age, cultural background, social economic status, and more are included in qualitative case study research when their analysis provides data pertinent to the study topic. For example, in my research the student participants

67 are female and in the eighth grade. These are the criteria that are best for this study. However, the study participants’ length of academic participation at the site school, age, and family background are varied. In this study on perceptions of science in a place-based education school, the experiences of the teacher and students determined what instruments were necessary or not.

For example, the use of student drawings to help the girls articulate how they experienced science was incorporated into the interview process (See Appendices A and B). Drawing was found especially helpful to the girls who had participated in science education at more than one school. The opportunity to draw their experiences helped the girls clearly explain how their experiences differed from one educational setting to another. The girls who had participated in science education at Riverfront Academy their entire school career found that drawing their experiences aided their explanation of where their science experiences occurred, whether inside the classroom or outside on the school’s campus grounds.

Finally, qualitative case study research allows data that are spread over multiple participants or fewer participants, based on what is being researched. In this study the site school was grades K-8. Rather than focusing on all middle school girls grades 6-8 at the site school, the study focused on the eleven eighth grade girls. This flexibility opened the door for increased richness and depth of the study participant experiences which promoted a deeper understanding of the research questions being studied. Stake (1995) asserts that the researcher in case study methodology enters into an environment with an interest in learning how it functions, and how participants respond, in its ordinary tasks. A qualitative case study emphasizes understanding the participants in a setting which is complex, specific, and unique. As a science teacher/researcher personal presumptions based on past experiences provided the opportunity to interact with the

68 methodology in ways that deepened my understanding of the findings as I learned from this study.

Selection of the Site Previous research on girls and science, teaching strategies, and place-based education demonstrated the importance of studying the topic in a classroom setting, using teachers and students from the same classroom in an environment where the entire school came together with a core teaching ideology. Aschbacher et al., (2010) examined what engages more high school students, specifically women and minority populations to learn science. Mattem and Schau

(2002) evaluated which causal model was most effective in determining the relationship between attitudes toward science and science achievement in seventh and eighth grade girls, while

Fadigan and Hammrich (2004) conducted a longitudinal study to determine what program elements affected participant educational and career choices to examine how the role of science education programs play in increasing the participation of women in STEM-related fields. Based on these studies, and many more, a requirement for my own research was a setting that was focused on one teaching pedagogy; specifically, place-based education. I wanted to study the perceived experiences of middle school girls in a PBE science classroom as this is the critical age when girls begin developing negative attitudes about science and science-related careers (Blue &

Gann, 2008; Brickhouse & Potter, 2009; Mattem & Schau, 2002; Sadler et al., 2012).

Additionally, I wanted to study the girls’ science teacher in order to determine how she perceived the impact her teaching had on the girls in her class.

I did initial evaluations on three place-based education school sites. I prioritized these sites based on middle school status, potential female student population, number of science teachers, and location. Each school incorporated PBE pedagogy into the daily instruction of all curricular areas. However, each school did appear to have varied pedagogical conceptions of

PBE. Once I had my priority list I contacted my first choice school, Riverfront Academy

(pseudonym). My initial phone call resulted in the receptionist suggesting that the best way to contact the teacher and director, due to the busyness of their schedules, was via email. After several email conversations in which the purpose of my study and the demographics and philosophy of the school were discussed and verified, a meeting was scheduled with the school’s director and the middle school science teacher. Prior to searching for a research site, I had never been to the Riverfront Academy school site which was an hour from my home. I visited the director and teacher to further discuss my research plan. They were eager and excited to have their school and students participate in the study. After our group meeting, the teacher gave me a tour of the school and we further discussed the potential research site, students, the teacher and my role as the researcher. Following this visit, I met with university faculty, education colleagues, and co-workers and reviewed my research criteria notes to discuss the school as my potential research site. Based on supportive recommendations and meeting the requirements, the school, teacher and students were determined to be the best fit for my research and Riverfront

Academy was therefore selected.

Description of the Site

In order to provide an introduction to the school, I share here a written description from my first day journal observations of this site:

…I am so focused on the beauty of the landscape that I almost miss my turn off to the

school. The warm sun and the beautiful view cause me to wonder ‘How can kids focus

on school work with all this amazingness around them!?’… The school appears to be

surrounded by farm fields, grass fields and a few residential houses…

I walk toward the school building and down the side stairs that lead to the main office… I

look to my right and see a cement path guiding me to the main doors of the school. As I

walk the path and approach the bridge I stop again. A small side path leads to the bridge

and invites walkers to come and cross… A sign tells visitors “Welcome to our Native

Plant Habitat: Home to Frogs, Salamanders, and Aquatic Insects.”… The exterior wall of

the school has been divided into mural columns. The first shows a red school house with

a large welcome sign above it, the next two playful child’s feet on tip-toes with the title

“Caution: Critters Underfoot,” the next panel shows various bird houses with a bright

sunshine and white fence in the background. A Blue Jay sits on the middle bird house as

if he is the sentry of the gardens; and the final panel is a split mural with a smiling moon

and stars on top and a smiling sunshine on the bottom. The symbolism in each mural

panel suggests the visitor is entering a space where the occupants love and respect the

natural world around them 24 hours a day…

…The entrance wall is all uncovered glass windows which flood the entry area with

natural light… As I walk into the school I notice the relaxed feeling of the space and the

relaxed manner of the secretary. She warmly greets me, asks me to sign in, and then

encourages me to make myself comfortable and to ‘feel at home’” (Shea, Journal Notes

04.23.2015, see Appendix C).

Riverfront Academy (pseudonym) is a public charter school located on an island in the

Pacific Northwest in a rural setting. There are no gas stations, no grocery stores, and no post offices on the island. Yet the island is located within 15 minutes of a major metropolitan city.

The school is in its fourth year as a public charter school. During the 2014-2015 school year, it was home to 216 kindergarten through eighth grade students. Including all full and part-time

71 staff, there are twenty-three staff members. Originally, the school was an independent school district, but due to state law changes in the mid-1990’s which required all districts to have a high school, Riverfront Academy was consolidated with a neighboring school district. The island district did not have a high school. This neighboring district agreed to manage the school building as long as the school was able to pay the facility and employment operational expenses.

Riverfront’s charter contract with the school district intentionally tied the school and building lease contracts. In other words, the district cannot renew one contract without renewing the other. According to the school’s director, Ms. Phoenix (pseudonym), “[It] would be very challenging to be a place-based school and lose your place!” (Phoenix, personal conversation,

April, 2015) Four years ago, after the director, teachers, and advisory board researched various educational philosophical frameworks; the decision was made to become a charter school focused on place-based education philosophy and to utilize Positive Behavior Intervention

Strategies (PBIS) for school wide discipline. PBIS is a program in which teachers encourage students through positive reinforcement to make wise educational and behavior choices that are supportive to the learning community. Riverfront Academy is a public charter and therefore does not charge tuition, however it received 80% of the full time equivalent (FTE) funding per student that the traditional public schools in the area receive. The school supports itself to fund the remaining 20% through parent volunteer hours, community partnerships, and various fund raising events including an annual community auction.

Students who want to attend Riverfront Academy are selected through a priority list lottery system. Students who live in the district are first priority, then siblings, then out of district students. Returning students must reapply but do not have to participate in the lottery system each year. All new students are placed into the lottery in which the director and teachers

“literally draw their [the student’s] name out of a kitchen bowl. And then [we] create a wait list”

(Phoenix, 2015). At the time of this study there were 35 students on the wait list for the kindergarten class as well as wait lists of various lengths for first through eighth grade.

Approximately half of the students were in-district and half were out-of-district. The school had students in the following demographic categories: Individualized Educational Plans (IEPs), living in foster care, single parent households, grandparent head of households and both traditional and non-traditional parent households. The class size was limited to 22 students. Due to students moving, the case study classroom had nineteen students. The school year was ending in 2 ½ months and the students were advancing to high school (a new school); therefore, the spots were not filled.

In the 2013-2014 school year, the most recent year state testing results were available,

Riverfront Academy received an Overall State Rating of Level 4 (Above Average), compared to all schools statewide based on the results of the state mandated reading and math assessments;

77.5% of the students met/exceeded state reading standards and 69% met/exceeded state math standards. The ethnicity section of the profile reflects tested students in grades three through eight. Student younger than third grade are not tested. There is a dearth in the number of schools in the Pacific Northwest that utilize place-based educational pedagogy. As a result, in order to increase confidentiality of the school, the names of the teacher and the students in this study as well as the name of the state where Riverfront Academy is located have been removed from the title of the table. The school’s profile is shown in Table 1.

Table 1:

State* Department of Education School Profile

Enrollment 2013-2014 216 Students with disabilities 9%

K-3 96 Number of different languages spoken 2 4-5 48 Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 1

6-8 72 Black/African American 3

Change from previous year +8.0% White 117

Students attending 90% or more Asian 9 of enrolled days > 95% Average Class size 22.6% Hispanic/Latino 11

English Learners <5% American Indian/Alaskan Native 6

Economically Disadvantaged 22% Two or more races 13

*State name omitted to help secure school’s confidentiality.

The demographics breakdown of gender and ethnicity of the case study classroom, as reported by the classroom teacher and confirmed by the school’s director, was similar to the school’s demographics and was as follows: 11 girls and 8 boys; 2 Asian, 1 African-American, 2

Hispanic, and 14 White. The teacher in this class was a white female. More details about the participants are discussed in the participant selection and results and findings sections.

The state science test results for 2015 had not been released prior to the beginning of this research. The results were published in June, 2015. All eleven female students met or exceeded state standards on the required state science assessment. Three of the boys met standards while five of the boys did not meet state standards. Riverfront’s eighth grade state science assessment results are shown on Table 2 and are for 21 students. Two students, one male and one female, had moved prior to the beginning of this research.

Table 2: Recreated to protect confidentiality

Scale Scores and Performance Level ****/Smarter Science Grade 8 Test Student Name Student ID Opportunities Scale Score SEM Subject *Letters used *Gender used, Taken Performance to protect instead of ID [to pass test] Level confidentiality to protect confidentiality A Boy 1 239 2 Meets B Girl 1 239 2 Meets C Girl 1 242 2 Meets D Girl 1 245 2 Meets E Girl 1 243 2 Meets F Boy 2 228 3 Does Not Yet Meet G Boy 2 235 3 Meets H Girl 1 242 2 Meets I Girl 1 238 2 Meets J Boy 1 233 2 Nearly Meets K Boy 1 235 2 Meets L Girl 1 244 2 Meets M Girl 1 249 2 Exceeds N Boy 2 239 2 Meets O Girl 1 235 2 Meets P Girl 1 239 2 Meets Q Girl 1 236 2 Meets R Boy 2 228 2 Does Not Yet Meet S Boy 2 232 2 Nearly Meets T Boy 2 234 2 Nearly Meets ****State name omitted to help secure student’s confidentiality

On the left hand side of the table, student names have been replaced with letters and in the second column from the left, identification numbers have been replaced by the students’ gender in order to protect their confidentiality. The third column identifies the number of opportunities, or times, the student completed the test. It is interesting to note that all the girls took the test one time and met standards. Seven boys took the test a second time, and two of the boys met standards, but the others did not meet standard. One boy met standards on his first test attempt.

Selection of the Participants

Seidman (2009) suggests utilizing a thoughtful and detailed search for participants through purposeful sampling. In qualitative research, the researcher chooses participants who can provide the best understanding and the most complete answers to the research questions

(Creswell, 2009). This includes selecting individuals who offer unique or rare attributes of the research topic (Merriam, 2009). The selection of my research site was the beginning of the purposeful sampling process. As emphasized by Seidman (2006), it is critical that a researcher make the initial contact with participants in order to start building rapport. During the site selection process, the director and teacher were interviewed. Through these meetings, it was apparent that this teacher and her students at this place-based education school most aligned with my research goals. Once my research site was determined, study participants became limited to the female students in the one eighth grade middle school science class and the one science teacher available at the school. My research focus was middle school girls; this automatically removed the male students from participant selection. The eighth grade class was selected because the following year the students were leaving the place-based school and entering various high schools. In this situation, at the high school level, students have choices in science classes.

Utilizing data from the eighth grade girls, I was able to determine if the students were selecting challenging science courses, or simple taking the basic required high school science classes.

Additionally, the eighth grade girls were selected because they had the most experience in middle school science classes. Middle school is comprised of sixth through eighth grades. While the area of science changes each year (sixth grade Earth science, seventh grade Life Science, and eighth grade Physical Science), science is a required course for all three middle school years.

Prior to interviewing the students, I observed the classroom eight times, gaining access by contacting the school’s director and the classroom teacher and discussing my research and girls in place-based education science classes. After observations and conversations with the classroom teacher, I selected the participants for this case study.

Description of the teacher participant

Ms. Wanda (pseudonym) is a white female in her mid-30s. She teaches middle school science and seventh grade math at Riverfront Academy. She has only taught at Riverfront

Academy. She has taught middle school science for the past three years. Though she was not a math or science college major and did not specifically train to be a math and science teacher.

According to Ms. Wanda, and verified by Riverfront Academy’s school director, she is highly qualified and has an endorsement in middle school math and middle school science. She has her

Bachelors and Masters in Education degrees. As Ms. Wanda explained, “It wasn’t my ultimate goal, but it’s where I ended up and I’m excited about it (Wanda, personal conversation, May,

2015).”

While each grade level has a separate science class, all three grades are taught the same science curriculum each year. Next year will be the first year Ms. Wanda has repeated science content. Ms. Wanda describes herself as “thoughtful, flexible, optimistic, and willing to take risks (Wanda, interview, 2015).” She grew up in a military family and frequently moved around living in Italy and Hawaii. She attended six different schools in six different states or countries between her kindergarten and high school years. According to the school’s director, these teacher characteristics are valuable assets in a PBE school. I purposefully selected Ms. Wanda after completing my initial observations and interviews with her and the school’s director, and after

77 consultation with university faculty, because of her dedication to the place-based education philosophy and her eagerness to share her excitement for learning with her students.

Selection and description of the student participants

At Riverfront Academy there is one eighth grade class with eleven girls and eight boys.

All eleven girls participated in this case study. The students were between 13 to 14 years old.

They came from varied family dynamic and cultural backgrounds. The girls had varied lengths of experience in a place-based education school setting. Each student self-selected her pseudonym. The individual student profile provides basic information to get to know each participant. They are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3:

Summary Description of Student Participants

Name Age Ethnicity Years at Riverfront Academy Calliope Finch 13 Asian American 4 years

Meiko 14 White 9 years Nicole 14 White 9 years Angela 13 White 4 ½ years Hazel 14 White 4 years Carter 14 White 4 years Laura 14 White 4 years Greta 14 White 2 years Batman 13 African American 4 years Virginia North 14 White 9 years Molly 14 White 8 years

Calliope Finch identified herself as a thirteen-year-old Asian American girl who lives with her parents and siblings. She has attended Riverfront Academy since the fifth grade. She describes herself as “happy, energetic, and always [wants] to learn” (Finch interview, 2015).

Meiko identified herself as a fourteen year old White girl who lives with her parents. She has

78 attended Riverfront Academy since kindergarten, nine years. She shared that she is “funny and quiet [and has] one real friend” (Meiko, interview, 2015). Nicole described herself as a white, fourteen-year-old who lives with her parents and sisters. She is the youngest child. She described herself as “very artistic and really good at math” (Nicole, interview, 2015). Nicole has attended

Riverfront Academy for nine years, her entire school career. Angela is a white thirteen–year-old who lives with her parents and sibling. She enrolled in Riverfront Academy during the middle of her fifth grade year and has been attending for the past 4 ½ years. She described herself as “very active, likes to be outside and get dirty, has an open mind and like[s] learning” (Angela, interview, 2015). Hazel is a fourteen-year-old white girl who lives with her mom, dad and older brother. She has attended Riverfront Academy since the beginning of fifth grade. She described herself as “weird, crazy, too cheerful, hard worker, productive, and at times a pest” (Hazel, interview, 2015). Carter lives with her mom, dad, and brother. She is fourteen years old and has attended Riverfront since the beginning of fifth grade. Carter shared she is “really into sports, loves the outdoors and spending time with her family. [She] is sarcastic, outgoing and a bit sassy” (Carter, interview, 2015). Laura stated she is a quiet, shy fourteen-year-old white female.

She lives with her mom and sister who describe her as creative, smart, but sometimes loud and obnoxious. She has attended Riverfront Academy since fifth grade. Greta identified herself as a white, fourteen-year-old, cheerleader. She described herself as positive, helpful, caring, sassy, and at times bossy. She lives with her mom and step-dad and has attended six different schools throughout the Pacific Northwest. This is Greta’s second year at Riverfront. Batman is a thirteen year old African American who lives with her parents and siblings. She has attended Riverfront since the fifth grade. Batman’s self-description included being positive, a hiker, soccer player and horse enthusiast. Virginia North has attended Riverfront for nine years. She is a white

79 fourteen-year-old who lives on the island with her mom, dad, and older sister. Molly was the eleventh student participant. She is a white fourteen-year-old who is in foster care. She has not seen her parents since she was four years old. She had been in multiple foster cares until her grandparents were granted custody of Molly and her brother. Molly has lived with her grandparents as a foster child since first grade, age seven. Molly has attended Riverfront, having been drawn in the lottery, since first grade. Molly reported she did not care about school until this school year. She attributes this attitude change to conversations with her grandmother who has encouraged her to want to better herself. As a result, Molly has improved not only her attitude but her grades.

Each girl in this study represented an individual experience as well as part of the social dynamic in Ms. Wanda’s science class. Elimination of some of the student participants was considered but ultimately this idea was rejected due to concern about reducing the understanding and expressive power of the girls’ independent lived experiences in Ms. Wanda’s science class.

As a result, all female students’ voices in Ms. Wanda’s eighth grade science class were represented in the data collection process.

Data Collection

This qualitative study strived to understand a teacher’s and students’ perceptions of female students’ experiences in a place-based science class. A qualitative design provided the opportunity to focus on how the participants viewed their experiences and what personalized meaning has been attributed to these experiences. This study was conducted in one school that utilized campus-wide place-based education teaching pedagogy. Utilizing purposeful sampling, the selected teacher represented a crucial role in the development of girls’ participatory behavior in the science class (Merriam, 2009).

I collected data during the last three months (April, May, and June) of the 2014-2015 school year. I spent two days per week at the school, arriving one hour before the science class began and remaining one hour after the eighth grade students left the class. This provided opportunities to more fully observe Ms. Wanda during lesson preparation, the students in her classroom, the interactions between Ms. Wanda and her colleagues, and to have member checking conversations with all participants. I also observed the all-staff Saturday training and planning meeting. This provided the opportunity to observe an aspect of how PBE was integrated into each grade level within the school. After each observation or interview, an additional hour or more was spent sitting in the school’s parking lot reflectively writing or digitally recording my personal thoughts and questions about each data collection experience.

Creswell (2009) suggests utilizing qualitative data collection methods, specifically observations and interviews, to capture first-hand experiences with the participants and allow participants to provide historical information as needed. In addition to conducting observations and interviews, I also collected artifacts. These artifacts included participant drawings and work samples, school enrollment records, and state assessment data. These artifacts provided verification of staff and student reported data, specifically state assessment results and length of attendance at Riverfront Academy. Furthermore, the drawings provided visual representations that aided in clarifying students’ responses to the interview questions. I attempted triangulation by utilizing three data sources. Triangulation requires three different sources of data that can build on and strengthen the researcher’s understanding of presenting themes (Creswell, 2009).

The utilization of three data sources, observations, interviews, and artifact collection provided the opportunity to critically decide which data were to be analyzed to create a “rich description” of this study’s findings. Merriam (2009) explains that a “rich description” in qualitative research

81 involves detailed descriptions from data collected from words, pictures, field notes, interviews, audiotape, and documents. When done effectively, this rich thick descriptive process has the ability to move the reader into the research setting in order to create a shared experience

(Creswell, 2009). This study follows in the footsteps of Barton et al. (2013), Brickhouse et al.

(2000, 2001), and Howley et al. (2011), qualitative researchers who utilized multiple data sources including interviews, journals, artifacts, and observations in their respective work. The following sections discuss the specifics of each data source utilized in my study.

Interviewing

Qualitative interviews require face-to-face meetings between the researcher and each participant. The interviews included open-ended semi-structured questions in which responses were digitally recorded to ensure the entire discussion was preserved for data analysis (Merriam,

2009). The interview’s purpose was to provide each participant the opportunity to voice their experiences and opinions about science in a place-based science class. In-depth interviews provide an opportunity for understanding the lived experience of other people and the meaning they make of that experience (Seidman, 2013). Student interviews, the sharing of their lived experiences in the science classroom, were the cornerstone of this research. It was their voices, sharing personal individualized experiences that provided a deeper understanding of how place- based education impacted their view of science and their decisions regarding future science classes and possible science related careers. To create the interview questions I used variations of previously used research questions related to girls’ science interest, to place-based education, and to girls’ science participation as described earlier, as well as recommendations from Merriam

(2009) and Seidman (2006) on developing open-ended interview questions.

Seidman (2013) cautions teacher-researchers to avoid the temptation to interview their personal students, as the personal investment and power the teacher has over the student can prevent legitimate data collection. I use place-based educational strategies in my classroom.

However, in order to increase authentic student openness and the depth and richness of this study, interviewing students at the selected site was imperative. Initially, eight girls had been selected collaboratively by the teacher and researcher. However, during the interview phase it became apparent that additional interviews would provide a deeper and clearer picture of the girls’ lived experiences in the science classroom. Therefore, all eleven female students from Ms.

Wanda’s Riverfront Academy middle school eighth grade science class were interviewed. All interviews were conducted during the school day, during science class at times determined by

Ms. Wanda, and the two other Riverfront middle school teachers, to assure students did not miss critical academic work or instruction time.

Each interview was conducted one-on-one in a setting that was supportive of privacy: the playground picnic table, the school’s computer lab, or the school’s library. Each participant selected the location of the interview and each location did not have other students or staff in hearing range in order to assure confidentiality. These locations also provided visual protection for the participant and researcher. In other words, we were in an open space where we could be seen but not heard (due to white noise provided by fans or lawn mowers) by staff members.

As suggested by Cresswell (2009) and Seidman (2013), a specific protocol or format was followed during each interview in order to provide consistent standardization. This protocol included: a written check list of instructions for myself, the interviewer, to assure I followed the same format and order for all interviews; an introductory icebreaker walk and talk giving the girls and myself an opportunity to get comfortable with each other; a list of typed questions,

83 given to each participant with a second copy on the table; opportunities to ask clarifying questions to probe for richer responses; opportunities for the participant to ask clarifying questions; wait time (silence) after each question; and ending with a sincere expression of gratitude for their time and honesty. Based on my counseling and teaching experiences, I knew that it was critical to ensure each girl felt comfortable with the interview process. This could help create a relaxed atmosphere that supported a richer interview.

The icebreaker started when we walked out of the classroom toward the interview area.

Each girl was given the opportunity to select the location of the interview. They could choose the playground picnic table, the library, or the computer lab. Giving the girls interview location choice gave them some power in the interview process. As we walked to the selected location, I would complement each girl. The complement would come from something I saw during the classroom observations or noticed as we walked. For example, Calliope and her lab partner had designed a very creative container to make ice melt quickly; I complemented the design and the problem solving skills needed to create the container. For another example, as Meiko, who had recently added blue to her hair, and I walked to the computer lab I noticed she was wearing an alternative band shirt and asked if she had been to one of the band’s concerts. I also told her that the color in her hair was one of my favorite shades of blue.

Each participant, teacher and students, participated in a minimum of one recorded hour- long semi-structured interview and one follow up member-checking interview. The interviews contained open-ended questions such as “how does your teacher encourage you to learn science,” allowing the conversation to move in a natural progression, and more specific, probing, and clarifying questions as indicated by the participant’s responses (Merriam, 2009). I used place- based education components discussed above and variations of previously used questions

84 combined with the research on developing open-ended questions to design the interview questions. I strived to design questions that had a direct, yet non-leading, focus to the areas I wanted to learn more about (See Appendices D and E). As recommended by Seidman (2013), asking probing questions to participant responses that are not clear, following hunches, and recording meaningful non-verbal body language increases the richness of the interview process.

When a participant shared new data that had not been previously presented, probing questions were asked and open-ended questions were designed and presented to the other participants to explore the phenomena further. For example, when I was interviewing Virginia North, she said

“I think that sometimes that [boys] hold the class back because you have to accommodate for all these blurt outs and not understanding things because they [boys] weren’t listening because they got bored in the first 30 seconds and then they start talking.” Then I asked her the following question, “So what are some other ways you see the eighth grade boys holding you back?”

Virginia was the first girl to directly suggest that the boys’ behavior was holding her back in science. To explore this idea further, a new open-ended question was added to the interview.

Then I talked to the previously interviewed girls to see if a pattern could be found. The interviews provided an opportunity to understand the lived experience of the teachers and students and the meaning they make of that experience (Seidman, 2013).

When students were asked to describe their previous and current science classroom, they were asked to create artistic representations, by drawing pictures to provide a visual representation of their experience in the place-based education and previous science classes as well as their future academic and career plans. Most of the girls quickly responded that drawing their thoughts would make it easier for them to explain their descriptions. They eagerly drew and talked at the same time. Some of the girls were hesitant expressing concern that they were not

85 very good at drawing. Once they were assured that artistic skill was not important and that they didn’t have to draw if they didn’t want to, each girl decided to try drawing. Those who were initially hesitant shared that drawing their thoughts made it easier to give a more detailed description of their experiences because they were seeing on paper their thoughts and memories.

This visual aided the students in expressing the depth of their experiences during the interview process.

The key to a great interview is the ability to listen to the participant. The researcher must be able to listen closely to encourage understanding and to ensure that the participant provides the necessary detail. The researcher must also identify words and nonverbal cues throughout the interview that may have a deeper meaning and probe the participant to gain clarification. It is also critical that the researcher be respectful of the participants’ time. The researcher must be willing to stop before the completion of all questions when necessary; while assuring the participant that completion will happen at a later time (Seidman, 2013). Although in my fifteen years of experience as a professional counselor I developed a keen listening ability, it was still crucial that after each interview I reflected on the strengths and areas for improvement by immediately listening to the digital recording and reviewing my interview notes. I tried to remain objective as I listened to the recordings. As a result, I noticed after the first student interview I needed to increase wait time after each question asked. I was not giving the student enough time to think about the question and formulate her response. After this first interview I increased the wait time by silently reciting a nursery rhyme. As I listened to additional interviews, I determined that the length of the nursery rhyme allowed adequate wait time and the interview discussions were deeper and richer.

The researcher must strive to create an equitable relationship with the participants.

During an interview and the research process, the researcher has power over the direction of the questions and control over the research results, and is the primary benefactor from the research.

Understanding the potential for power imbalance, the researcher must assure that both she and the participants are of good will. The researcher must remain sensitive to the participant by being respectful, using good manners, and showing genuine interest in the participants as they share their information (Seidman, 2013). To improve the quality of the interview, it is critical that the researcher have a good understanding of age, class, and gender issues and continuously be aware of how these considerations are affecting the interview process (Seidman, 2013).

My professional background of fifteen years as a chemical dependency counselor and fourteen years as a middle school teacher, combined with having three daughters provided a strong foundation for understanding how to talk with and listen to middle school girls. During each interview I showed genuine interest in what was being said by using eye-contact and follow-up questions. When participants were sharing their drawings, I reassured each participant that artistic skill was not a criterion, but that the individual’s shared story was most important.

Additionally, I would point to various spots on the picture and ask questions to clarify my understanding of what was being shared. After each interview I listened to each digital recording multiple times to complete transcriptions and data analysis but more importantly to review myself as the research tool. This personalized critique provided opportunities to learn and modify my behavior for the next interview.

Interview Questions

I field tested the teacher and student interview questions that were used for collecting data. Three science teachers who taught at a middle school that was not the research site

87 participated in one 1½ hour interview in which several of the open-ended questions were piloted.

Each teacher gave valuable feedback to the questions and the interview process that was invaluable as I conducted the interviews for this study. For example, one teacher suggested changing the order of three questions because it would promote a more natural flow of progression during the interview process. I made this change before starting data collection. The student interview questions were loosely based on eight questions from Glynn, Brickman,

Armstrong, and Taasoobshirazi’s Science Motivation Questionnaire II (2011). The student questions were also piloted by students at the school where I am employed, but who were not in my classroom. The students gave honest feedback on the clarity and their understanding of the questions. They also provided suggestions to aid in improving the word choice to increase student understanding. For example, three students said they struggled with the first question

“Tell me a little about you,” and suggested giving examples to help answer the question. Based on their feedback, the follow-up question “How would your friends, parents, and teachers describe you?” was added to give participants a starting point to self-description. Questions that did not provide responses that enriched my understanding of the research questions were removed after the pilot study. Conversely, piloted questions that resulted in rich responses that added to the understanding of my research questions were kept and used in this study.

Consultation and collaborative support were essential in the development of the interview questions. As modeled and recommended by research experts (Creswell, 2009; and Seidman,

2013), I utilized advice, feedback, and collaborative suggestions from colleagues, teachers, students and university research experts. These opportunities resulted in interview questions that significantly enhanced the research design. My interview questions are included as Appendix D

(Teacher) and Appendix E (Student) of this dissertation. In addition to Glynn, Brickman,

Armstrong and Taasoobshirazi’s Science Motivation Questionnaire II (2011), previous research by Brickhouse and Potter (2001), DeBacker and Nelson (2000), Glynn et al. (2011), Greenwood et al. (2009), Mattem and Schau (2002), and Tan and Barton (2010), to name a few, aided in the development of my interview questions. Additional questions were added as probing and clarification opportunities emerged during the interview process.

Confidentiality

Prior to beginning data collection, student assent and parent consent was obtained using

Washington State University’s Research Study Assent Form for 11-14 year olds in social/behavioral studies and the Research Study Parent Permission Form and the RBI forms were completed and approved (See Appendix F). Teachers completed the Research Study

Participant Consent Form. To protect confidentiality, students and teachers selected an individual pseudonym that I subsequently used throughout this research. Students were informed that their conversations and answers to the interview questions would not be shared with their parents, teacher, or school administration, and participation was voluntary with no grade incentive to participate, nor would their grades be affected for non-participation. Students have a tendency to try and answer questions in the way they think the teacher wants. By having participants who did not know the researcher (me), the likelihood of honest responses was increased. Ms. Wanda was informed that her conversations would not be shared with other teachers or the school administration. Like students, teachers are hesitant to honestly share their private thoughts and feelings when the possibility of peer or administrative judgment may result.

By clearly explaining the confidentiality of this work Ms. Wanda had an increased sharing comfort level. Ms. Wanda and the school’s director also signed the required consent form. All interviews were transcribed by me (See Appendix G).

Observations

In addition to interviews, I conducted eight classroom student- or teacher-focused observations during eight separate lessons in the PBE science class. As a teacher, I have completed numerous classroom observations with detailed scribing or note taking. These experiences provided skill building opportunities that helped me develop the necessary techniques to complete detailed field notes. The class observations were digitally recorded. In this setting I was a non-participant complete observer, and did not participate in any aspect of the design, implementation, or engagement of the lesson (Creswell, 2009). However, my position within the classroom did not follow the most stringent interpretation of a complete observer which includes being hidden from the group (Creswell, 2009). My observation location was in the back corner of the classroom and my presence was not a focal point of the lessons. Creswell

(2009) suggests that the researcher develop observational procedures and specific guidelines in order to determine what to include in the observational process. My observations included descriptive field notes of teacher/student behavior, teacher/student interactions, student/student behaviors and interactions, and other items I deemed relevant or needing follow-up to the study.

These parameters help shape the relevancy of the data that was collected. First, I was seeking to find evidence of items noted in the literature that encouraged girls to participate in science, teacher-influenced encouragement of girls’ participation, and PBE impacts on girls’ science participation. Second, I looked for evidence of participants’ self-reported behaviors to support the accuracy of their perceptions. And third, I examined my observation field notes and transcripts for any emergent or unanticipated themes.

Four observations focused on the teacher’s educational strategies and student responses to the strategies. During these observations the teacher/student interaction, both verbal and

90 nonverbal, were recorded in detailed field notes that described the communication/response exchanges. Four observations focused on student dialogue and behavior during the class period.

These observations occurred during partnered lab work. I would be in close proximity to the partnership, digitally recording and taking detailed notes about the student/student interaction.

During the lab I did not talk with the students being observed. Rather, I would note any questions

I had. When the students had completed their work, I would ask the students, teacher, or both my questions to assure clarity and accuracy in my observations. Neither teachers nor students were informed of the focus (teacher or student) of each observation; however they did know when the observations would occur. Each observation was conducted for the length of the class session and the passing time immediately before and after the class session for an average time of 90 minutes per observation. The observations included reviewing students’ lab books and other products to increase understanding of student science experiences in the place-based education class. Lab book pages and student products were digitally photographed for artifact-gathering purposes to increase the richness of the data collection and analysis.

Each class session was digitally audio-recorded, reviewed, and transcribed to provide opportunities to repeat the observation multiple times (See Appendix H). This provided additional data, including voice inflections, changes in student energy levels throughout the class session, and changes in the teacher’s patience levels that were not as detailed and specifically noted during the initial observation session classroom field notes. Merriam (2009) suggests the recorded observation be transcribed and integrated into the field notes as quickly and as detailed as possible once the observation is completed. After each observation, I completed a reflective observation journal entry prior to leaving the school. As I drove home I would listen to the audio tape. I typed the audio transcription and integrated my field notes prior to the next day’s

91 scheduled observation in order to assure the data were clearly recorded and to prevent unintentional integration of data between observations. Audio taping and transcribing provided the opportunity to return to the original classroom events during the analysis stage to help assure a richer understanding of the participants’ experiences. The digitally recorded interviews and observations were transcribed by me rather than a third party vendor. In addition to increasing participant confidentiality, I did my own transcriptions because I believe that this provided opportunities to develop more in-depth and personal connections to the data and assist in my accurate data interpretation while increasing the truthfulness of the study’s results. A sample of a partial classroom observation transcript can be found in Appendix G.

Artifacts

The third data source I used was artifacts such as public records, private documents, and student work samples and teacher lesson plans. I utilized digital photographs of whiteboard information, lab book pages, and three dimensional projects from teacher and student work samples. State and district documents are a vital resource for collecting data on student progress and forecasted high school course work. Student drawings, completed during the interview process, were used as an aid to help in articulating the lived experience and assist the researcher in understanding these lived experiences. While acknowledging the subjective nature and possibility of not accurately recalling actual events, personal documents provide a reliable source of data regarding the participant’s attitude, beliefs, and view of the world and do reflect her perspective of an experience which is the focus of qualitative research (Merriam, 2009). During the interviews, students were asked specific questions that encouraged them to draw their experience. They were reassured that artistic skill was not required and that stick people, animals, or buildings were completely acceptable. The participants used their drawings as tools

92 to help them describe their specific experiences. Photographs and drawings can be used during qualitative research as prompts for verbal data collection and by the researcher during data analysis (Merriam, 2009).

Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis involves systematically observing and identifying general themes in order to develop interpretations and meaning from the themes (Creswell, 2009). I used coding as suggested by Saldaña et al. (2014), in which the data is organized to create themes.

During the first round of coding, I used In Vivo Coding in which words and short phrases from the participant’s own language are utilized. This method is recommended for qualitative research especially when the study prioritizes and honors the participant’s voice (Saldaña et al., 2014). I started the coding process with the first observation and continued as each observation, interview, and artifact was completed. I began by identifying the evidence that had been supported through previous research such as girls’ perception that science activities are fun and

PBE involves community partnerships. When this was completed, I went through the data and analyzed and coded emergent themes. For example, as the girls described what specific aspects made their science class fun I would color-code the experience and look for patterns between each interview and classroom observations. I would then review the codes in search of themes.

Once themes were determined, assertions could be identified. Color-coding provided a visual separation within each transcript and also showed connections between transcripts. My self- reflective journaling enhanced the data collection and analysis processes. This aided in assuring a more accurate interpretation of the collected data and increasing trustworthiness within the study’s results. This process allowed similarities and differences between the participants to emerge. The visual representations offered by the color-coding strengthened my personal

93 connectedness to the data as a result of this process (Miles et al., 2014). An example of a color- coded partial transcript can be found in Appendix I.

The second cycle of coding involved identifying the most common themes from the interviews, observations and other artifacts by grouping the data into smaller categories, themes and constructs. I utilized pattern coding because it allowed detailed data analysis as well as grouping and developing themes (Saldaña et al., 2014). Utilizing pattern coding, after the initial

In Vivo coding, allowed for the condensing of large amounts of data into more manageable themes and provided the opportunity for analysis during data collection. This aided in focusing the observations and interviews (Miles et al., 2014). When a theme was repeated a notation was made to track the frequency of each theme. From this process, the most common themes and subthemes were identified and a visual representation developed showing the main themes that emerged from the data. Once themes were found, I recoded the data using the themes and reviewed the data again analyzing for additional information. Identifying the similarities and differences, through manageable themes, provided an opportunity to hear the voice of both teacher and student in order to explore the experienced perceptions of a place-based education science class and the implications for girls’ future science courses and science career pursuits.

Miles et al. (2014) cautions the researcher of getting locked too quickly into identifying a pattern, assuming understanding and then connecting data to a theme that poorly fits. Throughout the first and second cycle of coding, member checking was utilized in order to confirm or correct my initial findings and data to assure alignment with the participants’ reported experiences. I also regularly shared my progress with my committee chair and received valuable feedback throughout the research process.

In addition to the coding, themes and analysis, qualitative research demands thick and rich descriptions of the data. Barton et al. (2013), Brickhouse et al., (2000, 2001), and Howley et al.

(2011) use this approach to draw the reader into their work. I have attempted to write this level of description throughout this study to draw you, the reader, into the lived experiences of the participants. I have written a comparative level of description of the school setting to show the lived educational world of the participants (Appendix C).

Ethics

The Belmont Report has three key principles: respecting and protecting individual autonomy, maximizing benefits while minimizing risks, and justice. The researcher must be equitable and fair to all research participants (Seidman, 2013). In order to help assure an ethical foundation, I used the Instructional Review Board (IRB) to gain approval to conduct this research. In addition, I contacted the school’s director and district website to determine if additional protocol needed to be followed. The director reported that the IRB approval was more than sufficient to meet the school’s ethical expectations. The guidelines as outlined by the IRB and the Belmont Report were cornerstones that were carefully followed throughout this study.

As previously noted, all participants signed written consent or assent forms (Appendix F).

Parental consent was attained for all student participants. Prior to signing an agreement to participate, the researcher reviewed the form in detail. Participants were informed of the invitation to participate and given information about the study, its purpose, and length of time.

The possibility of participant risk and benefits, participant rights, and the voluntary nature of the research were explained. Specific details regarding confidentiality were discussed and each participant selected her individual pseudonym. I assigned the school’s pseudonym. Participants were informed that they could opt-out at any time during the research study. I utilized an opt-in

95 system to assure all research participants wanted to participate. The participants were also given copies of the consent/assent forms and the university faculty and researcher contact information

(Seidman, 2013).

As suggested by university faculty, in order to keep track of the documents and data I created a detailed organizational system (an audit trail). This included coding each participant’s documents, field notes, reflective journal entries, artifacts and transcripts and placing them in individual folders which were then secured in a file cupboard. To further safeguard the data, all digital material was coded and secured with three passwords on a lap top that was secured when not in use. All back up material was stored on a flash drive that was kept locked in a separate location. No documents were saved or secured on any cloud format to reduce the risk of unwanted access. Additionally, all documents were saved and closed on the lap top whenever the internet was being accessed.

Trustworthiness

In light of the pre-existing biases regarding science teaching and place-based education I brought to the research project, it was important to implement a checks and balances system. In order to promote trustworthiness, credibility, and accuracy of this project, researcher check points were utilized. First, the process of coding was utilized as suggested by Miles, Huberman and Saldaña (2014). My concern was assuring that the real essence of the data was being preserved and reflected in the analysis process so I had to restart the coding process multiple times. Second, “member checking” was completed with all participants in this study. All participants were asked to review the typed interview and observation transcripts and the categories and themes developed from these data points, as well as their personal reflections, drawings, and science journals (Miles et a., 2014). When teachers and students did not feel the

96 transcriptions or interpretations were accurate, notations were made, original recordings were reevaluated, and appropriate corrections were implemented. And third, I utilized reflexivity journaling to assist in increasing objectivity and accuracy of implementation of all aspects of data collection. To counter the personal connections I have with middle school science teaching strategies and place-based education, reflexivity journaling encouraged me to critically evaluate every step of the data collection and analysis process through an independent researcher’s viewpoint. By reflecting on myself as the human instrument I was able to acknowledge personal biases, dispositions, and assumptions during this study and make corrections as necessary

(Merriam, 2009). I used the 4-Step Process for Guiding Reflection as outlined by York-Barr,

Sommers, Ghere, and Montie, (2006): 1) What happened? (description), 2) Why? (analysis and interpretation), 3) So what? (overall meaning and application), and 4) Now what? (implications for action). I found it extremely helpful in guiding my reflective process during this study and it improved the reliability of my collection and analysis of the data.

Triangulation also increased trustworthiness. Triangulation involved three different data sources (Creswell, 2009): from the teachers I used observation notes, interviews, and personal teacher lesson reflections, and from the students I used observation notes, interviews, drawings and state testing results that added to the richness and trustworthiness of the analysis. The data were analyzed both between and within participants’ interviews, observation notes, and artifacts to determine themes as well as identify the point at which no new information or themes were observed. All participants participated in member-checking their individually shared experiences.

Experienced qualitative researchers have suggested saturation is a difficult point to identify due to the fact that future research can result in new data being added to existing research (Green

& Thorogood, 2009). However, saturation is seen as an avenue to increase trustworthiness. By definition, saturation is achieved when there are repeated themes and the lack of any new or previously viewed data within the current research study (Bowen, 2008; Guest et al., 2006).

During this study, when themes repeated themselves through interviews, observations, and artifacts, and new themes no longer emerged, saturation appeared to have been reached (See

Chapter 4).

No discussion of trustworthiness is complete without addressing the qualitative research validity debate. Validity is a controversial term among qualitative researchers (Joyner et al.,

2013, Miles et al., 2014; Morse et al., 2002; Whittemore, 2001). Wolcott (1990) rejected the use of validity within qualitative research and suggested the alternative wording “deep understanding.” Maxwell (1992, 2013) distinguishes the various understandings (descriptive, interpretive, theoretical, and evaluative) that emerge from qualitative research. He suggests the necessity of addressing the specific steps that have been taken to prevent validity threats to these understandings as a crucial element to increase the trustworthiness of a researcher’s study

(Maxwell, 1992, 2013). Each of these understandings stem from the researcher and how or what the researcher does during the qualitative study process. Maxwell (2013) suggests that a significant threat to validity or trustworthiness is researcher bias. Therefore, in order to increase the quality acceptance of my work, it is necessary to summarize the strategies I used to reduce the threat of researcher bias.

Reducing researcher bias

Researcher bias is the result of the researcher selecting only the information that connects with the researcher’s pre-existing study plan. Rather than using the data as it is presented, the researcher uses only the data that supports her research plan (Maxwell, 2013). To reduce this

98 threat, I began with a detailed description of my positionality within this study. I acknowledged my ethnic, familial, employment and educational background and how my personal history could impact my role as a researcher. In order to maintain my researcher positionality throughout this study, I consistently monitored my intellectual and emotional mindset to reduce the opportunities to move out of the researcher role, by keeping a detailed reflective journal. During the data collection phase my detailed research journal entries were made before I left the site after each interview and observation, and as necessary, I incorporated any notations from my field notes.

To assure I kept these thoughts fresh in my mind, I reviewed my entries prior to conducting the next observation or interview.

My field notes involved writing down detailed narratives of student and teacher behavior during all observations and interviews. These notes were used to document data in real-time, and to also reflect and draw connections on the previously collected data. I also digitally recorded each observation and interview and personally transcribed each recording. My field notes were then compared and incorporated into the transcription. This process helped me identify connections between the data and my own positionality. I tried to ensure qualitative reliability or consistency in my research approaches (Creswell, 2009). As I evaluated my data I was consistent in my documenting procedures and note taking shorthand. As I transcribed, I reviewed each segment of script to assure accuracy. Once the transcript was completed, it was reviewed multiple times to verify accuracy. Seidman (2013) suggested researchers self-transcribe interview and observation audio recordings to create an intimate knowledge of their data. I found this process, while time consuming, to be an integral part to my ability to make connections and identify themes within the data. My field notes and journaling of the environment and actions,

99 combined with the audio recordings and detailed transcriptions and participant member checking, aided to increase the descriptive validity or trustworthiness of my data.

It is essential to interpretative trustworthiness or validity that the researcher understands the data from the participant viewpoint. During the interview and member-checking process, open- ended questions were utilized to allow the participant to elaborate on her responses. In addition, triangulation, using different data sources to build and strengthen themes, helped assure

I was not placing my positionality onto the data (Creswell, 2009). Member checks provided opportunities for clarification and confirmation of understanding the data and themes, as well as eliminating researcher confusion and misinterpretation which increased the trustworthiness of this research.

I regularly utilized support from my committee chair and colleagues to provide valuable feedback on my research. Member checking after each interview and observation with the study participants focused on understanding and clarifying the events and emerging themes as I analyzed the data. These support systems increased theoretical validity or trustworthiness. They aided my search for data discrepancies, reduced researcher tunnel-vision (trying to force data to match my thinking), and promoted continued researcher open-mindedness to alternative data interpretations (preventing ignoring critical data).

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Chapter Four: Findings

Chapter four presents the findings of the study by answering four research questions:

1. How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction affecting girls’ experiences in

their science class?

2. How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction influencing the participation

of girls in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers?

3. How do middle school girls perceive their experiences with PBE curriculum strategies

influencing their participation in science class?

4. How do girls participating in PBE middle school science perceive their experiences in a

PBE science class affecting their personal participation in advanced science coursework

and pursing science-focused careers?

The results show that there are overlaps and interconnections within the data between these questions. I discovered overwhelming evidence that illustrates successful strategies that support and encourage the girls in Ms. Wanda’s eighth grade science class at Riverfront Academy to enroll in advanced science courses and pursue science professions as suggested by Aschbacher et al., 2010, Barton et al. 2013, Brickhouse & Potter, 2001, and Britner, 2008, as well as information that expands on past literature. Additionally, I discovered new information that had not been addressed in previous literature. I begin with a summary of Riverfront Academy’s school environment and educational philosophy, then to research participant Ms. Wanda, the middle school science teacher in this study, and conclude with the eighth grade girl participants from Ms. Wanda’s class.

Riverfront Academy

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Riverfront Academy is a public charter school located on an island near a major metropolitan city in the Pacific Northwest. According to Ms. Phoenix, Riverfront Academy’s director, from inception the school staff demonstrated perseverance, patience, and flexibility as it strived to open the door to the first year of students. Many stakeholders, including the island community and parents, were confident, supportive, and actively involved in the opening and continuation of the school. It was a core group of parents who researched charter schools, wrote the initial grants, and created the school’s charter document that paved the way for the school to open (Phoenix, personal communication, April, 2015). Collaborative stakeholder relationships between the school staff, parents, community partners, and place-based education expert Greg

Smith resulted in a school environment focused on PBE (Phoenix, personal communication,

April, 2015).

Collaborative relationships are integrated into the school’s daily environment and educational philosophy. Ms. Phoenix described the school’s commitment to ensuring positive relationships between parents, students, teachers, and the community as a cornerstone for parent support and student academic success. The school’s educational philosophy addresses students’ skills and lenses they will have when they leave Riverfront Academy and enter the work force and community. Ms. Phoenix (2015) emphasized that Riverside Academy is a place-based school and place-based is about humanities as well as the environment; “it’s not outdoor school.”

The commitment to community partnerships while learning the curriculum has resulted in student opportunities to connect academics to real-world implications and learn from their peers, community experts, parents, and teachers.

As a public charter school, Riverfront teachers earn more than twenty percent less than area public school teachers. Ms. Phoenix (2015) suggested that teachers work at Riverfront because

102 they “believe in the place-based education philosophy…[they] feel valued; supported and part of a team…[Teachers] know that if something is not working; the team will meet and together we will find a solution. I think feeling you have some control over your own destiny sells itself.”

Ms. Wanda

Ms. Wanda was in her third year teaching at Riverfront Academy. This is Ms. Wanda’s first school employer and she has always taught middle school science. Ms. Wanda shared that the journey that led her to teaching science was not one she had planned, but believes it is the path she was meant to travel. As the only science teacher at Riverfront Academy, Ms. Wanda has had the opportunity to teach her eighth grade students for the past three years. She appreciates and values the opportunity to teach the same students during this time period. Ms. Wanda identified that this three year period has resulted in her deep understanding of her students’ strengths, weaknesses, and personal interests. Ms. Wanda has a quiet, kind-hearted demeanor with her students, co-workers, and me. She has a relaxed and encouraging attitude that supports students as they learn new skills. Ms. Wanda believes that the depth afforded by three years of working with her students has resulted in unique relationships with her students. She shares, “I know what they like and this helps me tailor lessons to include their personal interests so they want to learn the science curriculum” (Ms. Wanda, April, 2015).

During this study Ms. Wanda’s eighth grade science class was studying a variety of topics. The students conducted research on soil chemical properties, nutrient needs of various vegetable seeds, and designing their garden plots. Riverfront Academy had recently received a greenhouse. Once the students finished their research, they tested their soil, added nutrients as they believed were necessary, and planted their seeds in their greenhouse garden plots. They

103 monitored their seeds on a weekly basis. As this was a long-term unit, additional lessons occurred during the time of this study.

Students participated in an Ice Cube Challenge. In this challenge students designed two containers, one that would make ice melt fast and the other would keep the ice from melting.

Additionally, discussions and activities on the differences in qualitative versus quantitative data collection as well as accuracy and precision occurred. Each lesson required more than one class session and was connected to the students’ Ice Cube Challenge as well as their garden plot long- term unit. Students were also working on their year-long eighth grade projects. This was an independent student-designed and directed project that had been started in November, 2014.

Each student presented their individual project to their peers and community members during the last two weeks of school.

Finally, during this study the students at Riverfront Academy completed their Common

Core math and English assessments and the state science assessment. They were also preparing for a high school biology assessment. The biology assessment was a new requirement that would determine if Ms. Wanda’s students would be placed in an integrated ninth grade science class or the tenth grade biology class. This assessment was completed after this study concluded.

Ms. Wanda acknowledged that she could teach in a public school system and have a significant increase in her pay; but she believes Riverfront Academy’s school environment and educational philosophy provides students with more academic success, gives teachers a more supportive and caring work environment, and fits best with her personal teaching philosophy. In order to off-set the reduced income, Ms. Wanda works weekends with her father at his food cart at the local community Saturday market. While discussing the financial limitations of working at

Riverfront Academy, Ms. Wanda shared “my fiancé and I discussed the salary limits of this job,

104 but we agree that the benefits of staying here are greater than the benefits of more money…so we have decided to sacrifice pay for a happier me” (Wanda, personal communication, May, 2015).

Effect of Teacher Instruction on Girls’ Classroom Experiences

How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction affecting girls’ experiences in their science classroom? To explore the question of how a PBE science teacher perceives her instruction affecting girls’ experiences in their science classroom, I discuss Ms. Wanda’s flexibility and exploration through three lenses: curriculum, pedagogy and educational environment setting.

Curriculum Flexibility and Exploration

Flexibility and exploration are adjectives that Ms. Wanda described as the cornerstone of her teaching style. I identified this flexibility and exploration in curricular, pedagogical, and educational environment settings. I define each setting in the following sentences. Curricular flexibility and exploration describes the resources and opportunities used to teach lessons.

Pedagogical flexibility and exploration describes how Ms. Wanda taught her lessons.

Educational environment flexibility and exploration describes the teacher/student and student/student interactions within the class community.

I will first discuss curricular flexibility and exploration. As the only science teacher at

Riverfront Academy, Ms. Wanda taught all three middle school sciences: earth, life and physical.

This was her third year teaching, and although the sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students were not in class together, they all studied the same science content, adjusted for each grade level, each year. This grade-specific curriculum differentiation was designed by Ms. Wanda; however, she did encourage students’ individual co-curricular development within and beyond the presented lesson. While Ms. Wanda would present a project that would demonstrate student

105 understanding and mastery of various science concepts, students could suggest alternative projects that were of more interest to them. Students were required to present a plan explaining what they wanted to do, as well as how they would use the purposed project to demonstrate mastery of curriculum. During this study, physical science was the focus area for all three grade levels. Ms. Wanda shared:

“We don’t have a curriculum with a scope and sequence…coming up with brand new

[curriculum and community partners] every year is challenging and time consuming

[especially] when some content areas are easier to apply to our school grounds than others.

This year has been more challenging because the content [physical science] is more

challenging to connect to their [students’] world. I think having at least one concrete real-

life example is important for all the concepts. Getting them [the girls] to draw on their own

life experiences…to connect the concept [we are working on] to them…They feel the

concept has value. [This] is critical to their [girls] interest in science. They need to see that

science isn’t just lab boats and beakers. So when we were studying light and color a local

glass artist, who is also a friend of one of our parents, came in and shared how these

physical science concepts are used in glass art. The girls really connected to this because

several of them are really into art.”

Another example of Ms. Wanda’s curricular flexibility and openness is her willingness to use cross-curricular content and student interest to integrate science concepts into real-world examples. While students were learning about brain function in their health class, Ms. Wanda invited a local university scientist who was doing brain research to her classroom. The scientist brought in several samples including a human brain, a cat brain and a shark brain. She shared

“[I] knew they were processing the information [because] they were actively listening and asking

106 questions… rather than passively accepting the information. Asking questions and thinking about the presentation, those are huge keys in girls’ [demonstration of participation]… Listening to the girls connect the science concepts with their health lessons was really special.” Ms. Wanda perceived that this experience provided a real-world connection opportunity that drew the girls into their science and health lessons; the result was an increase in their participation in and enjoyment of learning the science content. She further described that after the lesson several girls shared their plans to explore science research or medical careers.

Ms. Wanda’s students also participated in invasive plant removal and native plant planting at a local community lake. In order to get the needed volunteers to help with this project, Ms.

Wanda connected with a local farm that was growing the willow trees that would be planted as well as a researcher who was doing native plant research. These community members joined Ms.

Wanda’s class at the lake and shared their knowledge of why it was important to remove the invasive species, their experience of the benefits of the work the students were doing, and their elbow grease by showing the students how to plant the willows and working beside them during the planting. Ms. Wanda shared, “I try to make my class engaging and that means providing opportunities for students to connect with the community. Girls especially like getting to know community members. These connections help get [the girls] involved.” Ms. Wanda perceived that the opportunity to meet and work with local experts during community projects encouraged the girls in her class to connect with local experts and to apply classroom content to real-world experiences.

Ms. Wanda valued community partnerships and sought out these relationships through personal outreach, co-workers’ partnerships, and school parents. These partnerships extended

107 curricular connections in order to increase girls’ interest and participation in the science concepts that were being taught.

Pedagogical Flexibility and Exploration

A second area of flexibility and exploration was evident in Ms. Wanda’s pedagogy. Ms.

Wanda expected her students to take risks in their learning as she takes risks in her teaching. She believed that the “kind-hearted” culture of the school that is embraced by teachers and students opens the door for varied teaching strategies. The students are “really proud of their school and the community feel. They are excited to talk about what they are learning and are willing to take risks to learn new things. I feel comfortable taking risks in my teaching because I have so much support from my co-teachers” (Ms. Wanda, personal communication, April, 2015). Ms. Wanda

(2015) shared “when [students haven’t] seen a lot of academic success it’s a lot harder for [them] to participate. So I try to make sure [and] give opportunities [for] students to use their strengths and [provide] a safe environment to practice [academic] areas they are weak in.” Ms. Wanda identified the safety of the classroom and knowing the girls’ personal interests as key to getting them interested in participating in the science learning. She stated,

“I really have to make sure they are vested in [what is being taught] because they are super

intelligent and [otherwise] they will just blow it off. If [the girls] don’t feel it applies to

their life they will do it, but [they] won’t think about the concept. I know their [the girls’]

interests and hobbies and activities and what they find interesting so I try to plan things that

make them apply the concepts to [what they know and like]. I do this because this requires

higher level thinking and [the girls] really seem to enjoy that instead of just reading and

responding to questions. So they really like applying the concept to a skill or a project or to

their prior knowledge… Earlier this year we were studying projectiles, like angle and

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projectile, so instead of just drawing it on a piece of paper [the students] went outside and

threw footballs and recorded [the results] on their iPad. The girls in this class really need to

feel [concepts] apply to their life in order for them to participate. They mostly play softball

so, through my questioning, we talked about how they could connect softball to throwing

the football and then moved to projectiles. Any place-based opportunity to make it

correlate to their life, I take it! (Ms. Wanda, personal communication, 2015)

Through pedagogical flexibility, Ms. Wanda incorporated building student contributions into the curriculum. She gave her students a voice and opportunities to connect their lives with co- construction of curriculum. Ms. Wanda perceived that these opportunities encouraged the girls to take ownership of their learning and increased student understanding of science concepts.

An example of pedagogical flexibility involved a lesson in which students were to test soil samples in preparation for planting a vegetable garden. Initially, a group that included two girls was struggling to understand the purpose of the lesson. The girls were not interested in the assignment and spent their time discussing a pop-culture female singer rather than working with their group. Ms. Wanda questioned their lack of involvement. The girls shared they were going to wait until the boys had done the testing because it wasn’t an important part of the lesson. They assured Ms. Wanda they would get involved once the garden design and planting started. Ms.

Wanda stated, “Do you trust [the boys] to do the tests correctly so you are sure your soil is properly prepared? If [the soil] is not properly prepared, your vegetables will not grow.” The girls responded by a quick stare between the two of them, then they left their seats to find their partners and help with the soil testing. Although Ms. Wanda had discussed how to test the soil, the girls had not made a personal connection to its importance. Ms. Wanda’s question gave value to the soil testing and prompted the girls’ participation in the process.

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During this study Ms. Wanda was teaching the physical science content for the first time; each lesson was an opportunity to explore varied teaching strategies to aid her students in understanding and developing an interest in physical science concepts. She had tried textbook reading and answering questions and discovered the girls would do the work, but did not value the content learned. Ms. Wanda perceived that by providing opportunities to experience lessons through interaction with the concepts, the girls identified life experience connections and valued the curriculum being taught. Ms. Wanda believed in the importance of providing students with opportunities to connect individually to content being taught. This was done by giving students a voice and an opportunity to contribute by co-construction of the curriculum. She believed that this strategy was foundational in assuring content understanding and value and perceived it resulted in an increase in girls’ participation. Ms. Wanda’s exploration and flexibility in her pedagogical teaching provided a variety of learning opportunities for her students (especially the girls) that resulted in increased interest, understanding, and participation in physical science lessons.

Educational Environment Flexibility and Exploration

The third area is educational environment flexibility and exploration within teacher/student and student/student interactions within the class setting. Ms. Wanda believed her class space was more than the four walls of her portable classroom that she described as “really small and very cramped, but we make it work.” She believed that students needed to be comfortable in their environment in order to learn and encouraged her students to identify and request the type of space they needed in order to successfully gain mastery of the science content. She extended this belief to include whom the students worked with. Ms. Wanda explored a variety of student configurations to aid her students in successful learning. At times, Ms. Wanda predetermined the

110 educational setting and participant configuration for a lesson. These settings included independent, partner, small group, and whole class learning groups. However, Ms. Wanda also provided regular opportunities for students to self-select their learning environment to include the above mentioned settings and who would be in them. For example, although the students had assigned seats, during a lesson on qualitative versus quantitative data collection, Ms. Wanda instructed the students to “find a partner or work by yourself” during the activity portion of the lesson. Students were provided with the opportunity to either work alone or to find someone in the classroom to work with. Students who chose to work with another student had to leave their assigned seat to find their partner.

Ms. Wanda shared her perception on how her female students responded to these experiences:

Girls are more willing to problem solve and persevere [when doing] things that are difficult

instead of giving up after the first try when they are allowed to work in groups. They are

the ones who usually take charge and ask questions in order to move forward. Perseverance

is a big difference between the girls and the boys. The girls are the primary leaders of the

groups and are more likely to [be in] a leadership role when they are in a group. [However,]

the girls seem to have more distractions when they are paired up with their best friends. But

I still see more participation from the girls when they are in groups than when they work

alone.

Ms. Wanda scaffolded student active co-construction of the curriculum’s educational environment in a manner that supported and encouraged the girls in her class to become more active participants and leaders in science class.

During a lesson involving ice, students were challenged to make a container that would make ice melt faster and then make a second container that would make ice melt slower. Once

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Ms. Wanda had given the parameters for the challenge she provided time for student questions.

All questions were asked by girls. Their questions focused on clarification of the expectations, approval of materials they wanted to use, and limitations initially outlined in the challenge. The boys did not ask questions. As students participated in the creation of their container design, the girl/girl partnerships demonstrated cooperative problem solving and praise. As the girls discussed ideas they complemented the contributions by each partner. Phrases such as “that’s a great idea,” “wow, that was smart thinking, how did you come up with that?” and “you are really brilliant,” were expressed after each suggestion. I frequently observed Ms. Wanda giving supportive compliments and comments to all of her students during each observation during this study. This behavior was also demonstrated by the girls in the classroom. Ms. Wanda’s complimentary practice encouraged students to believe that could do anything. She was happy to see and hear the girls giving praise to their peers. Ms. Wanda described this interaction as a way to build a positive learning environment amongst the students.

Another example of Ms. Wanda’s educational environment flexibility was during the assessment portion of the qualitative versus quantitative lesson. The students had to create an iMovie in which they demonstrated their understanding of the two data collection methodologies. Initially, all students were working inside the portable classroom. However, as the students became more involved in their projects, several asked to move outside in order to use the football field, track, picnic tables, and various plants for the example segment of their iMovie. Although all portions of the iMovie could be completed within the structural classroom,

Ms. Wanda encouraged the students to explore how they would demonstrate their understanding using any example inside or outside the school building. At the end of the class period, Ms.

Wanda noticed several girls at various locations outside the classroom. They were so involved in

112 their assessments that they had not noticed students had gone to their next class. The girls had missed the transition time and were now late to their next class!

For many of the girls in this study, Ms. Wanda had been their only middle school science teacher. Ms. Wanda believed it was important for her students to create a positive science mindset. Ms. Wanda shared her perception; “[The] more traditional sense of just reading and book work and that kind of thing wouldn’t [allow girls] to really relate to the [content], [they] would continue to feel [science] doesn’t relate [to them].”

Ms. Wanda had created an educational environment that provided opportunities for her students to identify and voice curricular requests, and utilize settings that encouraged meeting their learning needs. By varying her pedagogical strategies, incorporating personal connections to curriculum, encouraging her students to co-construct curriculum, and creating community connections, Ms. Wanda provided opportunities for her students to make personal connections, find personalized value in the lessons taught, and meet individual learning needs. Ms. Wanda believed it was necessary for her to regularly reflect on how her teaching influenced her students and to modify her teaching strategies in order to create positive experienced in their science education. This is discussed in my second research question.

Effect of Teacher Instruction on Girls’ Science Participation and Career Pursuit

How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction influencing the participation of girls in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers? To explore the question of how a PBE science teacher perceives her instruction influencing the participation of girls’ in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers, I discuss Ms.

Wanda’s perception of what instructional strategies she perceived as promoting girls’ science participation and career pursuit through three interconnected lenses: creating positive science

113 self- image, creating positive support for advanced science course participation, and creating positive support for science career pursuits.

Creating positive science self-image

Ms. Wanda was very concerned about the attitudes the girls in her class exhibited when they first entered her classroom. She shared that during her school years she was very interested in science but most of her female peers were not. She wanted her instruction to be supportive and encouraging as well as promoting a positive science attitude for all her students, but especially the girls in her class. Ms. Wanda acknowledged that when girls first entered her class they came with negative attitudes toward science. They did not participate, would sit back and watch the boys. Since she was the only science teacher at Riverfront Academy, Ms. Wanda and her students were in the unique position of being together for up to three years. Ms. Wanda saw this as an opportunity to get to know the girls’ interests in order to encourage their participation in science class. With tearful excitement, Ms. Wanda described the attitude transformation one of her female students experienced: “the path from sixth grade ‘I can’t do science, I’m not good at science’, to now [is] just night and day. It’s just awesome to see her motivation and she now feels [enough science] success to see this as her career path.” The path this student traveled to transform her negative self-image can be divided into two interconnected behaviors that have occurred throughout this study: teacher acknowledged personal limitations and genuine praise.

Teacher acknowledged personal limitations

Ms. Wanda shares with her students that she is not “an expert in everything. The world is too big.” She tells her students “it’s okay not to be an expert.” Ms. Wanda acknowledged that the girls in her class had initially demonstrated a reluctance to try new science projects or skills because they were concerned about doing them “wrong.” Throughout this study, Ms. Wanda

114 frequently told her students that she was not sure of the answer to some of their questions. She encouraged students to use their iPads to investigate their questions and share their findings.

Students had been taught how to evaluate various internet sources and discern the quality of the information they were finding. Ms. Wanda believed that by disclosing her lack of knowledge and inviting the students to discover and share, the girls were more engaged in the lesson. The girls eagerly researched their questions because they wanted to teach the teacher. In the process, the girls gained confidence in their science knowledge and skills. This increased their positive science self- image.

During a classroom observation I listened to two girls, Carter and Laura, who were deciding what they wanted to plant in their garden plot. The girls discussed which vegetables would be best to grow. The discussion began with their favorite vegetables then moved to the seed choices that were available. They decided that they wanted to assure their garden plot produced the most vegetables in the class. When the girls questioned Ms. Wanda as to what would grow best, she replied that she did not know. Ms. Wanda reminded the girls of the variables that affected plant growth: soil type, amount of sunlight and water, and growth space.

The girls further discussed the information. They reread the seed facts on the packages, then using their iPads, researched which vegetables would grow the best in their garden area. When they finished their research, the girls shared their findings with Ms. Wanda. Ms. Wanda declared the girls “experts in seed selection” and encouraged them to continue with the next phase of the project.

Sometimes during a science investigation errors are made. Ms. Wanda believes it is important to publicly acknowledge the errors before her students move forward. The following is

115 an example of the class discussion Ms. Wanda had with her students regarding errors made while analyzing the soil that would be used to plant their seeds:

Okay, so yesterday, the soil tests did not really turn out very well. I will take

responsibility for that because I did not explain the process very well. So last night I went

back to the store and got more test kits so we can try again. So [what] we are going to do

is [re]test the potting soil and the ground soil to see what soil is good for our seeds. So

there are extra materials for everyone so we can redo the tests.

Ms. Wanda shared that she could have just moved forward with the project. She acknowledged that she thought about this, but believed that it was important to let her students experience the mistake and try again. “I didn’t do a good job explaining how to test the soil samples. That was my fault. I didn’t want all their [the students’] efforts to be ruined because they made decisions based on poor testing. Besides, [what] would happen if my mistake resulted in the girls not growing the most produce?”(Ms. Wanda, personal communication, April, 2015). This question was in reference to Carter and Laura’s discussion mentioned in the previous paragraph.

The importance of acknowledging classroom experts is a powerful strategy used by Ms.

Wanda in order to promote positive student self-image and acknowledging her personal knowledge limitations. Ms. Wanda shared the following example. Molly is a female student who is very interested in forensics. Ms. Wanda wanted to incorporate this interest into the science curriculum but wasn’t quite sure how to do this. After Ms. Wanda researched, she created a lesson plan and activities that not only incorporated the physical science content but Molly’s interest as well. She shared with the class the research she had done to create the lesson, but also acknowledged that Molly, who had been learning about forensics since the previous school year, was the class expert on forensics and would be a great resource to the class during the lesson.

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Ms. Wanda shared that during the lesson, she watched as many students first went to Molly with their questions. It was only when Molly wasn’t sure of the answer that the students asked Ms.

Wanda. This empowered Molly to share her expertise with her classmates. Molly also improved her science self-image and reinforced her decision to pursue forensic science as her future career.

Ms. Wanda was comfortable in sharing with her students her limited knowledge and providing opportunities for students to increase their knowledge through independent research.

Ms. Wanda believes her behaviors result in the girls increasing their positive experiences in the science class. Ms. Wanda explains, “The girls love to find out new things that I don’t know and share this new information. It gives them power over their knowledge and this makes them feel great about their learning. I love seeing their excitement when they learn they have taught me something.” Ms. Wanda’s willingness to acknowledge the expertise of her students and engage them as class experts results in additional positive experiences and promotes science career exploration opportunities.

Genuine teacher praise

Through informal discussions, Ms. Wanda explained that she felt it was important to acknowledge the efforts of her students. She believed this acknowledgement needed to be genuine and specific, and was critical to their willingness to see themselves as successful in science. Ms. Wanda explained that in order to consider a career in science students needed to believe they were good at science. She shared that at times she had to “really work to find something to complement a student on, but now that she does it every day, it’s just habit.”

Throughout this study Ms. Wanda frequently gave praise to her students. She celebrated when they completed a difficult task, acknowledged individual student growth, and reinforced problem

117 solving to increase learning. This praise could be found in one of two forms: Ms. Wanda public acknowledgment before the entire class or private individual acknowledgment.

Ms. Wanda used public praise for two primary purposes: promoting classroom management and recognizing individual skill. When she wanted the class as a whole to be on task Ms. Wanda would give public praise to students who were demonstrating the expected classroom behavior. For example, when students were taking longer than Ms. Wanda wanted to begin a reading task she stated to the whole, “Thank you for quietly reading.” This quieted the classroom and all students stopped talking and began reading. As students completed gathering their lab materials and waited for additional instructions, Ms. Wanda would acknowledge each group or partnership saying, “Thank you, for quickly getting your supplies and returning to your seats. We can do so many more fun things when you follow directions.” As I observed student interactions during these transitional times, it was evident that the girls were often first to be prepared and ready to move to the next task. However, when utilizing praise for classroom management purposes, Ms. Wanda did not directly acknowledge this behavior. Instead, she used general terms to complement the expected behavior without attaching any gender accolades.

When Ms. Wanda and I informally discussed the gender preparedness differences, she acknowledged the girls were quicker than the boys but chose not to draw attention. She expressed concern about creating any classroom divisions based on gender so she just reinforced the demonstration of positive behaviors by addressing them in gender-neutral public comments.

Although Ms. Wanda’s classroom management comments were gender neutral they did impact the girls’ participation in science class. Ms. Wanda noted that the girls “seemed eager to move forward and try new things so they were quick to be ready. It seems like they like doing more challenging work and they know they have to be ready in order to do it.” I observed

118 throughout this study the girls sharing ideas on how the presented science concept might be expanded into more complex learning. They would eagerly ask Ms. Wanda questions related to how the current lesson would be expanded and what behavior expectations would be expected when they got into high school science. The girls were aware and excited about advanced high school and college-level science classes.

While classroom management comments were gender-neutral, Ms. Wanda publicly praised individual student contributions to the class. During each observation, I listened as Ms.

Wanda would tell her students about a class member who had a talent that positively contributed to the learning environment. For example, as Ms. Wanda described the importance of being detailed in lab drawings, she highlighted Laura’s artistic skills. During the Ice Cube Challenge, students were required to design two containers. One container would keep the ice cube from melting; the other container would make the ice cube melt fast. Students were required to draw their designs before they made the. Ms. Wanda explained,

We have all seen Laura’s drawings. She is very detailed and thorough. She has spent a lot

of time learning to draw so well. Now I know we all have different drawing skills. I wish

I could draw as well as Laura. I’m not asking you to be an artist. I’m asking you to be

clear and detailed. If you label all the parts of your drawing, then I will understand what

you are creating. Your detailed drawing will also make it easier for you to make your

containers.

Ms. Wanda acknowledged Laura’s talent, shared personal limitations in her drawing ability, and encouraged students to do their best to create clear and detailed model drawings of the containers they were going to create. When they were drawing their designs, Ms. Wanda would then comment on what they could expect in high school science.

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Perseverance and hard work were traits that Ms. Wanda would privately and individually acknowledge as positive contributions to the classroom. She would equally praise both girls and boys who displayed these traits during class lessons. During the study, when students made negative comments, such as “this is way too hard, I can’t do this, let’s just wait and see what someone else does so we can get ideas from them,” Ms. Wanda would approach and give a positive comment to encourage continued effort on the challenge. However, Ms. Wanda shared,

“ [the] girls are more willing to problem solve and persevere to do things that are difficult instead of giving up after the first try—especially in group settings. They are the ones who usually take charge and ask what questions need to be asked in order to move forward.” In each class observation I listened to Ms. Wanda give positive student acknowledgement. I noticed that when the girls received positive comments while working through challenges, their responses included a smile to Ms. Wanda and their team partner(s), a determined look to succeed at the challenging work, and additional positive feedback from the other girls in the group. Ms. Wanda would expand this praise to include future science lessons. For example, Ms. Wanda would say, “Once you get this, you will know how to draw a detailed design. You will impress your science teacher next year. You can do this!”

Ms. Wanda’s modeling of positive praise resulted in the girls supporting each other with positive acknowledgements. At the conclusion of the Ice Cube Challenge, one group of all girls celebrated their accomplishment by sharing this exchange:

Carter: “Nice work guys! Good Job!

Hazel: “Woo Whoo! Way to go! Team work!!

During a lesson on precision and accuracy in which students used their iPads to draw the definitions of each concept, the following positive comment exchange occurred:

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Virginia: “Laura, always the artist!”

Laura: “You like my arrows?”

Virginia: “Like, WOW!”

A final example of the girls following Ms. Wanda’s habit of giving positive praise is this exchange between Meiko and Molly as they discuss how to accomplish a precision and accuracy activity:

Meiko: We can just do eight then give you eight and then trade off [talking to Molly in

another group regarding sharing supplies so they can complete task]

Molly: yeah that’s a good idea, you’re so smart!

Meiko: sometimes it’s not good to be a smart girl.

Molly: Yeah, you’re right about that. But I think in here [science class] we are smarter

than the boys.

Meiko: Oh, yeah, absolutely we are. I think we understand everything in here better than

the boys.

Molly: Especially you, you are so smart, you get things super fast.

Meiko: You get things too—that’s why we are good partners, we are both smart.

Throughout this study, Ms. Wanda was reflective and intentional in her use of acknowledging her limitations and promoting positive student feedback in order to influence girls’ participation in her science class. By modeling genuine feedback to her students, the girls in her class consistently gave each other positive, encouraging, and supportive feedback that aided them when they were given science challenges during class. Ms. Wanda viewed these teaching strategies as stepping stones that encouraged girls to participate in science in her classroom, advanced science courses beyond her classroom, and to pursue science careers.

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Creating positive support for advanced science course participation

In addition to sharing her limitations and giving students genuine praise, Ms. Wanda encouraged her students to challenge themselves in order to access advanced science courses.

She did this by supporting them as they prepared for advanced placement testing, pursued science camps, and independent classroom content extension studies.

The first two years Ms. Wanda taught at Riverfront Academy, eighth grade students were automatically allowed to participate in high school Biology as freshmen. Most freshmen were required to enroll in integrated science, the first level science course. However, Ms. Wanda’s students consistently scored high enough on the state science exam to allow them to by-pass the integrated science course and start with the more rigorous Biology class. About one month prior to this study, Ms. Wanda was notified that her students would not be able to enter the Biology class unless they passed an entrance exam. This exam was in addition to the state science exam.

Ms. Wanda shared:

The high school counselors told us that we can’t forecast our eighth graders straight into

Biology. They had to test out of freshman [science] class. When I heard this I decided I

would open up the opportunity for a study group. I asked the high school for a study

guide so I could help the students prepare. They sent [me] the Next Generation Science

Standards. No study guide, just the standards… So I took that and now I’m preparing

materials for [the students to] study…like study guides, practice problems and equations

for force, mass, and distance… I explained to the students the new requirement to get into

Biology and invited everyone to join in the study group. This is voluntary and above the

work we do in class. All the girls and a couple of the boys are participating. I told them I

thought they could all pass if they studied and took their time on the test, but it would be

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a lot of hard work. So as I create practice problems, they work on them as a small group

both in class when we have time, but at home too. Then we talk about the problems

together and get their questions answered. It takes a lot of time, but the opportunity to

skip a year and access more specific advanced science classes will be worth it… For a kid

like, well Molly. Molly would be able to take Forensic Science [an advanced science

course] as a sophomore rather than a junior or senior. This will really motivate her to

pursue her career passion.

Ms. Wanda encouraged her students to take the Biology placement test in order to gain access to advanced science classes. She knew this would require a significant time commitment on her students’ part but also on hers. Ms. Wanda showed her support and provided encouragement to her students by giving her personal time to help them prepare. While all the girls in Ms. Wanda’s science class had passed the state science exam on their first try, they could have decided this was enough testing and simply chosen to forecast into the freshman-level high school science course. However, the girls in her class responded to Ms. Wanda’s support by signing up to take the placement test and actively participated in the study group at school, during their lunch time, and at home.

Ms. Wanda’s support was not limited to preparing her students for a high school science placement test. During this study I observed Ms. Wanda’s sharing information about a girl’s summer science camp opportunity with her students. The summer camp informational flyer was posted on the classroom information board. The camp provided an opportunity to apply earth science concepts in a real-world setting—Mt. St. Helens. The girls selected would be working with female scientists conducting field investigations and extending classroom curriculum concepts. Ms. Wanda stated:

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I encouraged all the girls to apply for the camp. There aren’t a lot of science opportunities

in our area for middle school girls. This is a great opportunity and I told them I would

write a recommendation for each of them if they wanted to apply. Several girls said they

wanted to apply. Some of them had other things going on during the camp so they

couldn’t apply. Molly asked me to help her with her application and write a letter of

recommendation. It’s really hard to get into the camp and not everyone is accepted. The

focus is earth science; I know she will like it. I encourage all of the girls’ to take

advantage of every opportunity and apply to everything…even if it is very specific,

because you never know what will spark a new interest. I think that if I am encouraging

them to apply I have to be willing to help them with the process.

Through Ms. Wanda’s support and encouragement, Molly did receive an acceptance letter to participate in the girls’ science camp.

In addition to directly influencing students to participate in advanced science coursework,

Ms. Wanda indirectly guided her students to explore scientific concepts beyond the content presented in class. Ms. Wanda shared:

I know I can’t do everything, and sometimes that is frustrating. But I can encourage

students to go beyond what we do in class and learn more about a topic. It’s not an

advanced class, but I think it helps the students see what more there is to learn about a

topic. I think that encourages students to go into more advanced classes when they get to

high school and college.

During this study, Ms. Wanda encouraged students to independently explore science concepts through extensions beyond the classroom discussion and activities. For example, one student had completed and shared a research project she did that involved her horse that she cared for at

124 home. Another example, described in the following paragraphs, evolved from a class service project.

When the class planted willow trees at a local lake, two girls became very interested in the lake habitat’s effect on the local frogs. The girls were curious to see if they could recreate the lake environment at school. Ms. Wanda encouraged them to research the needs of the frogs before they created any habitat. She also instructed them that if they got real frogs they needed to keep them healthy and safe. The girls surveyed the availability of food on the school’s campus, the habitat needs, and care for frogs. Through research, they determined what was needed then presented a plan to Ms. Wanda. That evening, one of the girls found a frog at her home. She brought it to school the next day. In addition, the girls brought in an aquarium, plant life, and water container then created the habitat. The girls were very excited to share with their classmates and teacher what they had created and all they had learned about frog habitats and their nutritional needs. The frog stayed in the classroom for the remainder of the week and then was returned to its native habitat. Ms. Wanda had been supportive and encouraging while the girls researched and then created the frog habitat. In addition to learning about the frogs, the girls learned about the plant life and other resources on their school’s campus. During my observations I saw and heard the girls sharing their expertise with their classmates. In addition, the girls talked with each other about wanting to learn more about plant life on the island and more about other amphibians in their local community. When the girls asked their teacher how they could learn more, they were excited when Ms. Wanda shared that there were science classes, books, internet sites, and local experts that focused on just those specific topics.

Ms. Wanda demonstrated many strategies described in the literature to encourage her students to participate in advanced science coursework. However, she was unique in placing

125 such a high value on her role as a supportive teacher to ensure her students received the resources, contact information, and recommendations in order to successfully gain access to advanced science classes, science workshops, and science camps. As previously stated, Ms.

Wanda understands she cannot do everything herself. While this frustrates her, it does provide opportunities to build relationships with community members in order to influence girls’ pursuing science-focused careers.

Creating positive support for science career pursuits

As a school grounded in place-based education, Riverfront Academy has a mission that includes the expectation that their students are connected to the community and the community is connected to the students (Ms. Phoenix, personal communication, May, 2015). Community partnerships are a significant part of the school’s culture and especially the eighth grade class.

Three areas within these partnerships were identified as significant resources Ms. Wanda regularly used to create positive support mechanisms that encouraged girls to pursue science careers. They are: 1) accessing local science experts, 2) learning about non-traditional science careers, and 3) developing mentor partnerships. Each of these areas created opportunities for Ms.

Wanda’s students to discover and explore science careers.

Accessing local science experts

During informal and formal discussions, Ms. Wanda shared that getting community partners can present challenges when they do not know how to work with kids or participate in an educational setting. At times it can be difficult to find a partnership that fits student needs.

Although creating the partnerships was time-consuming and occasionally frustrating, Ms. Wanda was committed to establishing more field study opportunities to assure that her students could go out and work with more community organizations on a more regular basis. She believed the

126 benefits to the students, specifically the opportunity to see science in action, made the effort worthwhile. Ms. Wanda shared:

One of [the] strengths of our school [is our reliance] on community experts; in the

summer we do most of our planning for the year and this is when we start searching for

community experts. Sometimes the community comes to us, like when we planted the

willows. Other times, we go to the community. Like for our planting trip to happen we

needed more volunteers. So Ms. Phoenix posted the request on our Facebook page and

made some phone calls and we got the owner of a local farm and a researcher who does

native plant work. It was great to have them because they showed us the proper way to do

the planting, but also talked with us about the local environment. [The students] were

impressed [the experts] got paid to do what they did.

Learning about non-traditional science careers

Ms. Wanda believes it is important for students to understand that there is more to science than the traditional white lab coat. She expressed concern when students had a narrow view of what a scientist was. She recalled when a university scientist brought brain samples to her classroom; the girls were surprised that he was a scientist. He didn’t fit the image they had of what a scientist looked like or acted like. Ms. Wanda shared that now two of the girls in her class were interested in taking college level Human Anatomy and were considering a career in brain research.

Ms. Wanda emphasized the importance of the non-traditional science careers and consistently made a point within each lesson to connect what the students were doing to the possibility of a future career. When I asked her about this she responded:

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Whenever I’m teaching I mention that if you [the students] are interested in what we are

learning [in the classroom, they] could do it in the future. It is important to at least open

up their eyes. If this type of thing is interesting to you, there’s always x-y-and-z that you

could do in the future. You don’t hear about all the careers that are out there in science.

You only hear about the scientists. So it’s helpful for them to see that it’s not just the lab

coat and beaker and the scientist drones. There’s definitely not just one idea of what a

science career is. The most influential part of science is the part we don’t learn in the

textbook and that’s the community connections. One example of this was when we were

studying about light and color. I thought about how I wanted to connect this to our

community and I was really having a hard time. Then I remembered one of parents at our

school is a glass artist. I asked her to come in and talk about what she does. Now I could

have just done the basic stuff and left it there. The students could explain what happens

between light and color. But when the artist shared and showed what happened, you

could just see the kids’ [facial] expressions change and I knew they understood what we

had been learning. Without the community expert, the artist, the kids probably would not

have understood how the science of light and color connect to career opportunities. I have

a couple of girls who are really into the arts, especially drawing. Before this lesson, they

enjoyed both science and art, but now they are connecting the two. Who knows where

that could take them?

Ms. Wanda’s use of community experts in careers that are considered non-traditional science careers created opportunities for her students to see the vastness of science-related careers. The use of a glass artist sparked two of her female students to delve more deeply into the properties

128 of light, color, and their passion for artistic drawing. These non-traditional science experiences have prompted Ms. Wanda’s students to want to explore science properties in more depth.

By utilizing community science experts in both traditional and non-traditional science education, Ms. Wanda’s students have been encouraged to expand their understanding of what a science career and a scientist are in a whole class setting. Ms. Wanda has expanded community experts in the use of mentors. This has provided opportunities for Ms. Wanda’s students to individually explore their science interests and possible science careers.

Developing mentor partnerships

Riverfront Academy requires each eighth grade student to complete and present an individual project of their choice. This project requires students to discern an area of interest, explore this interest, and share their learning in a formal presentation with their science class.

While this is not directly a science project, many of Ms. Wanda’s students selected topics that were science based. The students are required to find a community mentor to guide them through their learning. The students must ask someone in the community to be willing to work with them as they learn about that person’s career. The use of mentors connects to the Riverfront

Academy’s Paying it Forward educational philosophy. As Ms. Phoenix (2015) explained:

We know that not everyone is going to live on an island. So how do you have a value for

the community when it’s not yours? But everyone has a community somewhere. So [the]

idea was that the passion and knowledge that kids leave [Riverfront Academy] with

would go back to the community in which they live or the community they are from or

the community they value and have connections to. Our mentors show students that they

are valuable and although they may not live on the island they can give back to their own

community when the opportunity presents itself.

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The mentors guide and assist the students in learning more about career opportunities. Ms.

Wanda (2015) explained:

The eighth grade project requires [the students] to reach out to the community and ask

local experts on the topic they are studying. They started by talking with their parents, or

family friends, or neighbors. Then they had to figure out what they wanted to study. So

we have a pilot, a forensics teacher, a helicopter pilot, and photographers to name a few.

The students started their project at the beginning of the [school] year [November, 2014]

and have been working with their mentor all [school year]. [The project] is not a science

project, but it obviously has ties to the sciences.

I’m really excited because one of my students wants to be a helicopter pilot. The mentor

is a helicopter pilot and has taken the student for a ride. Next week we are facilitating a

helicopter landing at the school so he can give his presentation. The whole school is

going to watch the landing and then the younger students are going back to class while

the middle school students will talk with the pilot and learn more about the science of

flight.

Nicole has been working with a photographer and she has been incorporating her love of

earth science, specifically wave motion, into her photographs. I’m really amazed at what

each student is doing and how they have used their science knowledge and connecting it

into so many careers.

When students struggled to find a mentor, Ms. Wanda provided assistance. She shared that

Molly really wanted to learn more about forensics but was struggling to figure out how she would get a mentor. Ms. Wanda contacted a local high school and talked with the forensics teacher. Through this connection, Molly was able to audit the high school class her mentor

130 taught. In addition, she spent time with her mentor learning about the science courses and other requirements needed to get a job as a forensic scientist.

Ms. Wanda acknowledged the importance of encouraging the girls in her class to continue taking advanced science courses in college. Furthermore, she believed it was important to encourage the girls to pursue science careers. However, Ms. Wanda identified that as a fairly new teacher her primary focus was the science taught in her classroom. She acknowledged the limited hours in a day and the difficulty of dividing her time to create and prepare lessons, teach and reflect on her lessons, grade student work, and develop community partnerships. Ms. Wanda shared, “I know there are more things I can do, and as time goes on I will incorporate more. This interview and [having] you [in my class have] helped me think about my teaching… I have enjoyed all of this.” Ms. Wanda shared that she learns from her co-workers with extended years in the educational field and participates in discussions regarding how to balance everything. She shared she has been inspired by her colleagues suggestions, support, and encouragement.

Ms. Wanda encouraged her students to seek out community partnerships that provided opportunities to explore individual interests. However, she also gave students the guidance and support needed in order to help assure that the partnerships would enhance their science knowledge and science experiences. By providing her students with access to local experts, exploration of non-traditional science careers, and connections to student-interest specific mentors, Ms. Wanda created classroom opportunities that had the potential to provide a gateway into a science career path. The importance of providing opportunities and experiences were central to Ms. Wanda’s science teaching instruction. She perceived them as key to supporting her female students’ participation in her science class as well as their willingness to participate in advanced science coursework and pursuing science-focused careers. The effectiveness of these

131 strategies directly connected to how Ms. Wanda’s female students responded to them. Their responses are discussed in the following sections.

Middle School Girls’ Perceived Experiences Influence Science Participation

How do middle school girls perceive their experiences with PBE curriculum strategies affecting their participation in science class? In this section I discuss my third research question; the effect of Ms. Wanda’s teaching strategies and PBE curriculum on her eighth grade girls’ perceptions of their science participation. Eight of the girls (Laura, Greta, Carter, Angela,

Batman, Molly, Hazel, and Calliope) had transferred from other schools at various times in their educational careers. Their perspectives on their previous science education provided an opportunity to explore how contrasting science instruction affected their science participation in their current classroom. Therefore, I begin by describing how these girls viewed their previous science classroom experiences. These experiences provide a foundational perspective of their experience in a science class that utilized curriculum strategies that contrasted with Ms. Wanda’s

PBE science instruction. Then I discuss, through the Riverfront Academy eighth grade girls’ perceived experiences, how their PBE school and science classroom environment, their interactions with their teacher, and their community connections have affected their participation in science.

Previous science classroom experience

Since the majority of the girls in Ms. Wanda’s science class came from other schools prior to Riverfront Academy it is necessary to briefly discuss their participation and attitude toward science prior to entering a place-based education science classroom. Without addressing their prior experiences and how these impacted their views and participation in past science

132 classes, any discussion of the girls’ current attitude and participation level in science class would be incomplete and create a shadow on their current science experience perceptions.

The majority of girls who had transferred to Riverfront Academy collectively described their previous science class experience as passive in which the majority of time was spent writing notes and doing worksheets. With the exception of Molly (who transferred to Riverfront in first grade and had no memory of science being taught) and Hazel (who was home schooled by her mother until fifth grade), the girls described a lack of opportunity to extend or change lessons to meet their individual needs, a lack of interactive inquiry in their science classrooms, and a lack of teacher support in addressing and clarifying misunderstandings in their previous science classes. The lack of co-construction of the curriculum was one critical element that affected their feelings toward their previous science classes. With the exception of Molly and

Hazel, the girls emphasized that when they entered Riverfront Academy they did not like science nor did they want to take science classes. The following examples discuss individual student perceptions. Calliope, who previously attended three different private or charter schools, entered

Riverfront Academy in fifth grade. She describes her fourth grade science class:

All the smarter kids--whatever that means-- would sit in the front; and the other kids were

in the back. [Teachers] would have things on the board and they would point and tell us

to write them down. Then they would give us a worksheet and just tell us to ‘do this.’ It

was just you, the row of people that you sat in and the teacher. We weren’t allowed to

talk with each other or to collaborate on anything. We couldn’t do anything outside the

worksheet. There was nothing else except a paper and a pencil and making sure your

posture was right. It was just worksheets and white boards and notes, no hands-on

activities. We never did projects or experiments, just the worksheets. I didn’t like science,

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it was boring. I dreaded going to class. I always got a good grade in science because my

parents expect me to get good grades. But I didn’t like science and I don’t really think I

learned anything. I just got a good grade so I wouldn’t disappoint my parents. If I ever

had to go back to that I don’t think that I could.

Carter, who had attended Riverfront Academy for the past four years, echoed Calliope’s experience sharing:

In fourth grade, the year before I came to Riverfront Academy, you never really got to

experience anything so you didn’t really know what was happening. The desks were in a

row. We did all the work in the classroom. I don’t remember ever going outside to do our

work. A lot of it was just writing stuff down and the teacher was talking at you. It wasn’t

really very interactive. It was kind of like, well [science] wasn’t very joyful. I didn’t like

science. It was kind of hard to understand. And honestly, I don’t really remember a lot of

it because we just listened and it wasn’t interactive.

Laura, who enrolled in Riverfront Academy as a fifth grader, shared, “We were in the classroom all the time. We didn’t really go outside at all. There were lots of rules and the teacher was bossy mean. She didn’t let us have much freedom with assignments. I really didn’t like

[science].”

Laura’s frustration and lack of connection to her science teacher was shared by Angela and Batman as well. Batman stated:

My teacher would have us take our seat. We sat in rows. [The teacher would] have us

take out our workbooks and have us work on them. She would go over [the sheets] a

little bit, and then she would have us do our work and have us figure it out for ourselves.

That was really frustrating. We didn’t do labs so I didn’t have any experience to try and

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understand what I was supposed to learn. I didn’t really like science at my old school

because she didn’t help us and we didn’t do hands on things and we didn’t go outside!

Angela’s lack of interest and frustration of science stemmed primarily from her previous teacher’s lack of assistance and support. Angela shared:

[The teacher] just put all the elements up on the board and made us learn it by ourselves.

I would try and ask questions. And she would tell me to look at the board again, that was

really difficult! I really didn’t get a good enough reflection and understanding of the

elements and this has really affected me on my science today. When we studied the

elements with Ms. Wanda, all those negative memories came up and then I just kind of

blocked out the elements. It was too stressful. I still have a really hard time learning the

elements and I know I need to learn them!

While most of the girls had attended no more than two additional schools, when Greta entered Riverfront Academy it was her sixth school including three previous middle schools. She had attended various public schools throughout the Pacific Northwest having moved due to her father’s job and her parents’ divorce. She described her previous sciences classes collectively saying:

Science was frustrating at my classes [at previous schools]. The teachers just had a harder

time going around and having time to talk to each individual student about our work.

They gave us a paper and said read through this and get to work. It would get very

frustrating because there [was] no one to help me and no one [was] trying to do the paper

the teacher gave us. We did worksheets and note taking every day. No, I really didn’t

like science, not really.

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Molly had no memory of science as a kindergartner or first grader; the remaining six girls expressed negative feelings toward science based on their perception of their science education experience prior to attending Riverfront Academy, a place-based education school environment.

As previously mentioned, Hazel had been homeschooled until the fifth grade. Hazel shared memories of learning science concepts in her family garden, in her home kitchen, and in going to various community centers and museums. She shared that she believed her love of science was nurtured and supported by her mom who would let her explore her science questions in fun, interactive ways. The other girls who enrolled in Riverfront Academy at varied times in their educational careers shared experiencing lack of teacher support, lack of opportunity to extend or change lessons to meet their individual needs, and lack of interactive inquiry as reasons for not wanting to participate in science. With the exception of Hazel, as each girl transferred schools and began her academic career at Riverfront Academy, she brought with her a negative attitude and belief about science. Based on their prior science classroom experiences, these girls shared a strong desire to not participate in science class. However, three girls, Nicole, Virginia, and

Meiko, who had attended Riverfront Academy since kindergarten and had experienced science as an integrated curriculum rather than a separate class of their primary grades viewed science as fun, and they were eager to participate.

The girls in Ms. Wanda’s class began middle school science having had varied elementary school science experiences that affected their science participation. Their perceived experiences in Ms. Wanda’s science class resulted in commonalities and differences that affected their science participation. This can be addressed by a closer look at the effect on the girls’ participation as a result of the science classroom environment created by their teacher Ms.

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Wanda, the student interpersonal interactions with Ms. Wanda, and the community connections that have been encouraged by Ms. Wanda within the science classroom.

Participation and the classroom environment

From the first time I entered Riverfront Academy I noticed a more relaxed, calm, casual atmosphere. The school secretary, teachers, maintenance man, and director all appeared happy to be at work. Everyone I was introduced to conveyed a genuine love and excitement for the learning that was happening at Riverfront Academy. Ms. Wanda had shared that the school cultivated kind-hearted behavior in both students and staff. The school was like a family that really cared about each other. She believed that having this sense of family in her classroom was essential to encouraging student participation.

Peer support promotes science participation

During each classroom visit I observed the girls laughing and actively participating in lecture discussions, interactive lab activities, and problem-solving assignments. For example, when Molly and Greta did not understand something, once clarification was given, they would laugh and share that if they had slowed down and listened they would have understood the first time. Calliope expressed positive comments even when she or her partner struggled to complete a lab activity. The focus was on what was needed to be successful. Even though there was work to accomplish, the classroom atmosphere was energetic but relaxed at the same time. I witnessed the girls genuinely caring for each other and helping assure that they were all successful in science class. The girls celebrated when they were successful and praised the strengths they each had. For example, when Molly was struggling to design a container that would make her ice- cube melt fast, her lab partner Batman stated, “Don’t worry, we will get this. We are smart and we can do it!” It is the sense of genuine care and concern for each other that encouraged

137 participation. Angela reported that she really liked science but she struggled with understanding some concepts, noting “science isn’t always my friend in school.” Angela continued, “My friend

Hazel, who knows a lot about science, she really helps me with the stuff I struggle with. My peers help me so I try to help them when I understand.” I observed these behaviors each time I was in Ms. Wanda’s class. It did not matter if the students were working inside the classroom or outside on the school grounds. The girls were consistently supporting each other. During the observations and interviews I did not witness any of the girls saying or doing anything during class that would discourage participation in the science lessons and activities. Batman shared,

If someone needs help I try and help them. When I need help the girls will try to explain

[the assignment] to me, or they will get out their notebook and show me so I can see it,

like this is what we wrote down. Like if I was sick one day they will show me their notes

so it will help me understand. The girls say nice things to help me get caught up or when

I do the right thing or finally understand what we are doing they will be like giving me

positive comments so I want to do more. The girls help me so I want to be able to help

them too. We are like a family. We want each other to do well.

These insights were echoed by many of Ms. Wanda’s class. Meiko stated “If I don’t know something, they [girls in class] explain it until I understand. I get more out of the lessons when working together.” Meiko continued, “Not only am I learning how to be [myself] from the girls, they are giving [me] permission to be [my]self. We laugh a lot together. They are just so very accepting of my style and how I act. I’m comfortable doing science with them.” The feelings of family and peer supportiveness promoting an eagerness to participate in the science lessons were a continuous theme. Virginia expressed, “It makes me really happy that I have these girls, who are so different from me, around me because I’ve learned things from them that I wouldn’t have

138 learned otherwise. Some of these [girls] have been with me since kindergarten and I’m still learning from them—that’s great!” Greta’s comments encapsulated what the girls shared:

“I feel comfortable in my science class because all the girls here understand [me]. There

aren’t too many of us so we know each other personally. When I came [to Riverfront

Academy] I didn’t think I would like science. But Ms. Wanda lets us do lots of the work

with partners so we really get to know each other. I’ve been to so many schools I didn’t

think the girls would like me, but they do. That makes me more comfortable and then I

participate. [Now] science is my favorite class. I like the experiences and getting to do

things with chemicals and learning about cells and everything. In science [I] can just

forget about everything else that has happened that day and [I] can just focus on the

science, it’s really neat. I just focus on what is the lesson and the sounds of the other

people and whatever they are doing just kind of disappears and I can just be in science,

it’s kinda nice. We do a lot of hands-on science. We go outside. We plant, collect plants

and dirt, and test the pH levels. It’s just so much more fun. I’m in the lesson and I’m

thinking and doing the lesson not spacing off like I did at my old school. If I didn’t feel

comfortable and knew the girls in my class so well, I know I wouldn’t be participating in

science. I would be like I was before [at my old schools], just dreading going to science

class and not doing anything. The girls in my class they are my friends. They are there for

me. Like if I’m not paying attention they will say something like ‘it’s time to be taking

notes, or she’s about to erase the board did you get that down, if not you can use my

notes. They are like my safety net and they don’t let me forget about anything. One thing

I really like in my science class is that we have opportunities to reconnect. Sometimes

Ms. Wanda takes us outside and we just sit on the grass. I reconnect with like the fact that

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we are not just in a portable, we are outside. We have this amazing world around us, so

reconnecting with the plants, the flowers and stuff. We can actually kind of drift away.

We get to hear about each other’s high point or low point throughout the day and then we

can talk with [our classmates] and let them know we are there for them if they want to

talk more. We learn the curriculum but we learn about each other too. That’s what girls

want in our science class. That’s what I want in my science class.”

Greta’s summary of the importance of interpersonal connections through partner work and socializing as ways to encourage participation in science class was shared by each girl. In addition, several girls discussed the importance of the learning outside the traditional classroom as encouraging them to participate in science. Ms. Wanda believed the girls in her class needed to feel that the classroom curriculum had importance outside the classroom. She believed it was necessary to provide these connections through outdoor opportunities and interpersonal connections in order to encourage the girls to participate in science. Molly valued the educative component of collaborative learning but acknowledged that student socialization can, at times, get in the way. Molly shared,

A lot of people socialize while they work…last year I did more socializing than working.

I like group work because of other peoples’ view and opinions are valuable. But this year

I do my work then socialize. Last year I had A LOT of homework because I socialized

too much. This year I get my work done in class so I don’t have very much to do when I

get home. When my work is done then I socialize about the work, I like it a lot better that

way. I still get to work and socialize with people, [and] I get my work done.

Outdoor connections to classroom curriculum promotes science participation

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During the time of this study, each classroom observation included time outdoors. While each class started indoors, students would move outside as the class period progressed. At times a brief lecture in the classroom was followed by an activity that students could complete outdoors. Even when an assessment was being done, students could work outdoors. The opportunity to learn outdoors was another classroom feature several girls shared as important to their willingness to participate in Ms. Wanda’s science class. Outdoor learning included activities that reinforced concepts taught in class, extending classroom content to real-world learning experiences, and opportunities to do in class assignments on the outdoor school benches in order to make a less interesting assignment more enjoyable. Calliope Finch described the classroom, “We have an open classroom where we are all kind of connected to everything. My

19 classmates, including myself and our teacher, are exploring and finding out new things. My class is like a breath of fresh air because we are inside and outside every day.”

The outdoor learning times were viewed as experiences that helped students understand the concepts that were being taught in the classroom. Molly shared, “If you are in a classroom all the time you don’t really know how to plant and pull up weeds out of the garden and stuff. We go out [of the classroom] and help the environment. I think that’s really good because we do what we learn.” Hazel added, “We talk a lot about the community, the girls are really into these discussions. Then we go outside and plant a bunch of native plants and get rid of invasive plants in order to help the birds and other animals—we love that!” Virginia identified field trips as one of her favorite ways to learn; “We spend a lot of time outside. It’s applying what we learn in class into real world situations so we get to see, yes I really WILL be using this in real life when

I grow up. It’s not just something my teacher is telling me.” However, Nicole shared that outdoor experiences were challenging for her. She stated, “There’s not much room in [our class] so we

141 have to go outside to do our lab. Outside is just open and it’s like everything is everywhere and I kind of get off track…it’s what we have so [I] make the best of it.”

The willingness to participate in science class by making connections to real-world events through outdoor learning was echoed by Angela. Angela discussed that she was willing to do the “paperwork” in class because she knew that every lesson would have an activity. She states, “Learning [science] in real life perspective rather than books and words—you can see what the books and words can tell you about it. After you do something that you have read about, you can really understand science, I mean that’s how I understand it.” Angela continues, “Field studies are really fun because we have to think about what is best for the plants because the trees really need to grow. So when we went to the lake it all came together and I knew I was making a difference because I participated.” Laura agreed with Angela, “I don’t learn much from just writing something down. I need to experience it. Each time we go outside we do something that connects to what Ms. Wanda taught us. When I participate in the activities, my notes make more sense. When it makes sense I love doing science!”

Molly extends the importance of outdoor learning by sharing her reluctance to do science in the past, “Before… I didn’t really put a lot of effort into my science. Sometimes I’d do the work…but the quality was really low. I didn’t understand how everything fit together. But now, I do all the work because I understand that the outdoor activities make me understand science better.” Molly further explained how the outdoor activities have encouraged her to do the in- class work:

I don’t like things where you like read this and then draw a diagram- that is just so

boring. I’m not interested in this so I’m like no I’m not doing it. But if [Ms. Wanda] says

that we are going to go outside and do an activity when we get done with the reading and

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the drawing, then I’m like ‘oh, okay, I’ll do this so I can go outside to do the activity.

Even now when we have to do something that doesn’t get an outdoor activity after it I

don’t like it. But now I do it because I know that later we will be doing something that I

will need to know that information. But, I might not do as well as I could have [when

there isn’t an activity with the work]. Sometimes when I’m just not able to do the work

‘cause I just don’t want to, Ms. Wanda will let me go outside and work on the bench.

That really helps because at least I’m outdoors and I really like to be there, so if I want to

be there I have to do my work.

Each component, reading, lecture, and activity was used to both inform the student and enrich the previous lesson. The girls perceived these as opportunities to co-create both the curriculum and the learning environment. These components intertwined to create a complete learning opportunity that the girls perceived as aiding in their understanding of the science curriculum.

The girls also drew on previous knowledge and interests to extend their knowledge.

Whether reinforcing, extending, or enriching science concepts, Ms. Wanda provided students with daily outdoor opportunities that connected to the science curriculum. The girls perceived these opportunities as providing needed supports that promoted and encouraged them to participate in science class. The girls also identified one more powerful element in Ms.

Wanda’s science classroom that promoted their willingness to participate in science—fun. Each girl described the classroom environment as a fun place to learn. This fun component was not exactly the same for each girl. It is important to note that fun was not viewed as an activity that was quick and easy to do. An activity or lesson was considered fun if it was engaging and challenging yet attainable. They were willing to participate in the aspects they individually identified as the not fun parts science class in order to get to the component they each viewed as

143 fun. When the girls were having fun, they wanted to participate and learn in science class. For example, Nicole did not like being outside, but she thought labs were fun. She knew most of the labs were done outside so she shared, “I just deal with it [the outdoors] because I love doing labs.”

Fun in science class promotes science participation

The girls in Ms. Wanda’s class perceived their PBE science class as fun and this encouraged them to participate. They shared that Ms. Wanda used a variety of ways to encourage participation. The girls identified Ms. Wanda incorporating humor, laughter, curriculum challenges, and interaction in her classroom. During my classroom observations Ms. Wanda and her students were seen smiling, laughing, and actively participating in each lesson presented. Ms.

Wanda’s female students discussed the fun nature of the classroom as an essential component that promoted their participation in science class. Calliope described her science classmates saying “Our class is just kind of relaxed, but also at the same time, it’s not at the point of being lazy. When [I] look around the room [I] see my classmates smiling, everyone is happy to be there.” Calliope expressed that the class activities are fun so everyone is happy. Hazel shared her experience during a lesson on catapults, “It was really hard but really fun. My partner and I had to try and catapult marshmallows into our mouths. It was really fun because there [were] a lot of hands on things and we got to pick our own partner, so I chose my friend, a girl.”

Angela discussed the fun she had while doing a very challenging science lesson involving density,

I was having a really hard time; I just wasn’t getting [density]. So we did this lab where

we had to make bubbles float from one point to the other without breaking. We had to use

corn syrup and I think dish soap. We had to change the bubbles because the corn syrup

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would make the bubbles too heavy or too light and so we had to adjust things. It was

really cool. It was so fun to get to try out my thoughts and see what would happen.

Batman also discussed the bubble lab. She shared it was one of her favorite and “funnest” labs

“because it was different than what we usually do. And there were bubbles involved and I

REALLY like bubbles!!” Batman shared that her previous science class did not have fun activities and this contributed to her not participating in science lessons. Now she likes science because:

We get to go outside a lot during class. This class is just a lot more fun. I really like

participating in [science] now because it is fun. In class we learn something then we do a

fun project or lab. If I was paying attention I know how to do it. If I don’t [pay attention]

then I don’t know what to do and I get confused and frustrated, then I don’t like science.

So since I know there will be a fun project I pay attention so I get to have fun in class.

Hazel shared that the lecture on precision and accuracy was “kind of confusing.” She shared that she felt confident in being able to memorize the definitions of each word, but not so confident in her ability to understand what each word meant. Hazel explains:

When we have lessons like that I really look forward to the activity because they help me

a lot. [Activities] make it really fun. For precision we got hula hoops and bean bags and

we tried to throw them into the middle. Ms. Wanda makes it really fun like that when we

do our units. Everyone is always looking forward to whatever is happening next in

science. I really like them because then I really understand the concepts.

Several of the girls commented on the curriculum challenges of the science class. They discussed that at various times throughout the year the assignments were very difficult and they did not solve the challenge on the first attempt. The girls shared that knowing that other

145 classmates were also struggling made them know they were not alone and having the opportunity to share ideas with each other made the experience fun. When trying to conduct a lab that had multiple steps, Laura expressed her frustration during a challenging lab:

It was really hard. You had to follow every direction exactly. Not all the students got it

right the first time because there were LOTS of steps and we kept making mistakes. It

was really fun and very scientific. I knew if I kept trying I would get it. The lab was just

really fun like being a real scientist. I felt like a scientist and that’s what made it fun.

Carter shared that she felt most of the assignments were very challenging, “Sometimes it’s just trying to do the assignment using the iPads, like iMovies. The first time I did that it was so hard because I didn’t know how to make the movie. But it was so fun getting help from my friends then seeing the movie when I finished.” Carter described her most challenging, yet one of her most fun and rewarding assignments of the school year:

It was an electrical circuits unit. We had to make our own houses and have lights in three

rooms. I love hands-on activities, but this was so hard. I could get one light in one room,

but then it would turn off the light in another room. Everyone was having a hard time.

But we were all laughing and having so much fun because we wanted to get the lights to

turn on in our houses!! It was kind of frustrating because [I] had to keep going back over

the line and checking everything then try again. Then finally the house lights up and [I

felt] like AWWWWW, it felt amazing like [I] finally did it. It was like a week-long

project. It felt really good when [I] actually got it!

The girls in Ms. Wanda’s class perceived curriculum experiences that created opportunities to develop peer support, connect to the outdoors, and have fun while learning a challenging science curriculum. At the conclusion of each activity students shared their

146 experiences and final project with their classmates. The students perceived opportunities to extend their understanding by applying the learned concept to new situations that were guided by

Ms. Wanda and the students. The girls perceived their science class participation increased as a result of these opportunities. However, the girls shared that the classroom environment was not the only factor that affected their willingness to participate in science class. The girls discussed their interpersonal interactions with Ms. Wanda as a contributing factor.

Participation and student/teacher interpersonal interactions

In this section, I discuss the impact of student/teacher interpersonal interactions as it pertains to the girls’ participation in Ms. Wanda’s PBE science classroom. I describe how knowing student personal interests, encouraging students to have individual control of their learning and providing repeated opportunities to master science concepts have encouraged participation in science class. While these may appear to be a one-way teacher to student interaction, within this PBE classroom it was a two-way exchange. Within each of these areas I will describe what was witnessed during classroom observations and what the girls’ reported, through their perceptions and experiences, during science at Riverfront Academy throughout the school year. I begin with the students reflecting on their perceived understanding of Ms.

Wanda’s and their peer’s ability to connect the girls’ interest to the science curriculum, and how these connections affect their participation in class.

Connecting student interests to curriculum promotes science participation

During interviews, Ms. Wanda shared her goal of connecting the science curriculum with her students’ interests. She believed this strategy was a key in promoting student participation in learning and understanding the subject matter. She stated, “We have been together for three years. I know my students interests. For the girls, connecting their interests to what I am teaching

147 really helps them want to do the work and learn the material.” This connection was both directly stated by Ms. Wanda and was a scaffold process. Each provided the students opportunities to make individual connections. Molly described how her teacher’s efforts to make science meaningful to her impacted her feelings toward science:

We did this unit on forensics. I was kind of shocked because I was interested in that topic

and [Ms. Wanda] knew that. I thought it was really cool that we would do [forensics]. It

was really cool because I thought she did that whole unit just for me because I was

interested in forensics. She did that just for me—how cool is that?

Several of the girls used this example and described how the forensic unit affected Molly and themselves. Virginia shared, “it was so cool to see Molly so excited when we did forensics. She is one of my best friends and she got to be the class expert. It really motivated her to go into forensics.” Meiko added, “because of Molly’s love for forensics, we got to do a fingerprint activity. Now Virginia, Greta, Angela and I are all interested in going into forensics! All because

Ms. Wanda did a topic that one of us is really interested in.” Meiko’s perspective illustrates how the PBE curriculum provided students with an opportunity to move beyond the teacher-initiated lesson plan and into a collaborative opportunity that supported science participation while exploring a science specific career.

Angela shared that during class assignments the iPads are used. In addition to forensics,

Angela was very interested in graphic design and cartooning. She identified that having the opportunity to use the iPad to create projects using her graphic design and cartooning skills helped make her interested and learn the curriculum in the assignments. She expressed, “[the iPads] make it really fun and showed me there are many ways to have fun with science. iPads

148 show me that science isn’t just study and work hard and no fun—science can be really really fun!”

The students shared that Ms. Wanda challenged them to create their own research project that focused on something they were interested in. While Ms. Wanda set the lesson in motion, several of the girls’ perspective was their individuality and collaborative problem solving with their peers that actually designed the lesson. The girls’ perceived opportunity to collaboratively discuss their individual projects encouraged them to participate in the research project. These lab projects were individually designed by the students. Calliope discussed her independent slug project:

There is one garden [at home] that kept getting slugs in it—not all the gardens just one

and we couldn’t figure out why. So I decided to research slugs and see what keeps slugs

away. So I found out that some people thought you should just kill them. I didn’t want to

kill them. I just wanted the slugs to stay out of my mom’s garden. There was some stuff

on using things around the perimeter of the garden to keep the slugs out so I decided to

make my lab about that. So I designed my lab and Ms. Wanda said I could try it out on

the school gardens. So I put pine needles and bark chips in different spots to see what

would happen. And there were significantly less slugs. I felt like my research that I had

been doing was actually important and it wasn’t just something fun I had been doing. It

was also something that could be used to help my school which was just beyond

fantastic!

Engaging in opportunities that incorporated science curriculum topics with the girls’ personal interests, the girls reported they were excited to participate in science lessons because they were interested and connected to the concepts. When Ms. Wanda further challenged her students to

149 research something science-related that they were interested in, the girls took ownership of the assignment and were excited to participate.

Providing opportunities for individual ownership of learning promotes science participation

The girls stressed the value and appreciation they had when Ms. Wanda gave her students opportunities to tailor the science curriculum to meet individual interests. It appeared Ms. Wanda minimally differentiated the curriculum. Rather she challenged her students to co-create curriculum through differentiation. By giving students more control and ownership for their learning, Ms. Wanda encouraged her students to learn and participate in science. Ms. Wanda provided several choices for projects, but students could suggest their own individualized project. Laura shares, “[Ms. Wanda] comes in with a basic plan but [we] can tweak it to make it more fun or expand it when [we] want to. If we are not interested in the assignment she gives

[we] can ask to change the assignment so that it best helps us learn.” Carter identified these opportunities as encouraging her to participate in science, “Ms. Wanda lets us choose our own projects. This makes me feel good and it makes me feel like I know more than I used to. I feel smarter and more science smarter”

A magazine article or television show can be the catalyst for an individualized learning opportunity, and the girls shared that Ms. Wanda was receptive to varied avenues for learning science. When students were learning about waves, Laura read an article about the sound waves of music. She recalled that her friends were talking about how music helped them do better in school and sports. She shared:

I started thinking about people who run while listening to music and those who run

without music. This made me think about the different types of music people like to listen

to. Then I started wondering how people ran depending on the music. So I asked Ms.

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Wanda if I could do a project that looked at how music affected how fast people ran. I

was so excited when [Ms. Wanda] encouraged me to do it. She tells us that she wants us

to do as much as possible to make it your project rather than something she assigns us. So

I designed my lab, then Ms. Wanda looked at it and gave me ideas to make it better. So

then I did my lab. I found that people said they ran faster when they listened to rock

music, but people actually ran faster with country music. It was a longer project than

everyone else and it took a lot more work. But it was worth it because it turned out really

cool!

Ms. Wanda began the sound wave lesson, Laura’s friends expanded this lesson to include how music affects their school and sports performance, and Laura used this scaffolding to create her individualized research lab.

Individualized learning ownership is not limited to modifying a teacher or student created assignment. Nicole identified that she modifies work time in order to keep participating in assignments she is not interested it. She reported that she perceives an assignment as interesting to her if it connects to something she personally likes. Nicole shared that at times she struggles to stay focused when the class is doing something she is not interested in. Through problem- solving, Nicole created a plan to help her get her work done. Nicole presented her plan to Ms.

Wanda. She takes breaks on assignments that do not interest her. Nicole reports, “Like, if I do 10 minutes of class work, then I can do a couple minutes of an iPad game or I get to go outside and walk on the boardwalk in front of our portable. I’ll ask Ms. Wanda and usually she says okay as long as I stay on the time line.”

By encouraging her students to actively tailor or co-create assignments to fit their individual learning styles, interests, and needs, the girls in Ms. Wanda’s science class reported

151 they were more willing to participate in learning the presented curriculum. They also shared that these opportunities encouraged them to move beyond the curriculum and find ways to incorporate personal inquiry and curiosity. In addition, some girls like Nicole, created reward systems that promoted participation when they were not interested in the topics being taught.

They would peer edit each other’s individualized assignments. This resulted in having to start over on their work in order to correct errors. Several girls reported a willingness to take risks because Ms. Wanda encouraged them to try again without fear of being ridiculed or getting a lower grade because their first attempt was not successful.

Providing opportunities to ask questions and try again promotes science participation

Throughout the classroom observations, I saw Ms. Wanda give her students multiple opportunities to learn the science concepts being presented. During each observation Ms. Wanda would return to a previously taught lesson, identify the misunderstandings students had demonstrated, and then teach the concept again using a new context. Carter explained, “Ms.

Wanda gives us time to do things, and go over things, and experience stuff. That is when

[science] is fun and interesting. I want to keep trying.” Greta discussed how these reteaching opportunities encouraged her participation:

If you don’t understand something Ms. Wanda will get a little white board and draw it

out for you to help you understand. And if you still don’t get it, then she will keep trying

until you understand it. For me, that’s really nice because when I think I understand

something, then find out I’m wrong and [Ms. Wanda] talks about it again, I’m

comfortable asking questions to help me understand. I really like that we don’t give up

on something when we don’t get it. Sometimes we do a new activity so we can try again,

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that really helps too. It never feels like we are in trouble because we don’t get it. We just

try again in a new way.

Nicole shared that during the sound wave unit she struggled with understanding how different lengths of chord would make various sounds. The lesson started with Ms. Wanda lecturing on what sound waves were, then moved to a class discussion. This was followed with a demonstration on sound waves. Nicole discussed her perception of the lesson,

It just didn’t make sense. We read about it and I thought I understood. But I got the

questions all wrong. So then the class talked about it and I just got more confused. I kept

asking questions hoping I would understand, but I still kept doing the work wrong. I

mean, I was like it’s the same chord why does the sound keep changing? It just didn’t

make sense! So, then we had this demonstration with a machine and we would push

different numbers and they would hit the chord and different sounds came out. I was like

if I do this, this will happen, and if I do this, it will go crazy, and then it just clicked! It

was just really cool. I was like I understand it, I’m getting the hang of this, and now I

know what all these are—isn’t that cool! Just knowing that I can keep trying and that Ms.

Wanda will let us try as many times as we want to until we get it, how can I not

participate? Once I understood the waves, Ms. Wanda let me redo the work and I got the

questions right and my scores changed. There is nothing to lose and lots to gain!

Nicole perceived the wave lesson as confusing and frustrating. When the class demonstration was conducted, she shared that she understood what her teacher and friends had been trying to explain to her. Once she had an understanding of the lesson, Nicole asked to redo the assigned work. Nicole’s shared that she redid the assignment for an improved grade and to demonstrate her independent understanding of the sound wave concept. However, Molly commented

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“sometimes it feels like we spend a lot of time on one topic and I’m ready to move on. But then I think when I have trouble understanding we spend more time on a topic. So I have to have patience so everyone has time to understand too.”

Some of the girls reported they were a bit shy about asking questions to the entire class.

However, they felt comfortable asking their classmates and Ms. Wanda because they perceived their teacher and classmates were receptive to what they had to say. The comfortable use of collaborative learning amongst the students and Ms. Wanda increased participation in science.

Calliope shared her perception:

The opportunities to ask questions feel so open and right. It feels right to be learning with

other people rather than just having them around you. She continues, sometimes it will

take the rest of science class to talk about a student’s question, other times it’s like five

minutes. Either way the questions are accepted [by Ms. Wanda and other students],

they’re looked at and talked about. Not just stuck on a board with pins. And [then] we all

understand so we can do better.

Several girls perceived a classroom atmosphere where students received encouragement to ask questions, both clarifying misconceptions and exploring new concepts. Carter shared, “Anytime I raise my hand [Ms. Wanda] is able to answer my question, and if she can’t she looks it up so we both know.” The students’ and Ms. Wanda’s use of questioning to help uncover their misunderstanding and discover a deeper understanding of the science content was identified as a perceived support to classroom participation. Collaboratively seeking answers to posed questions created a collegial class environment that encouraged the girls to participate in science learning.

Meiko discussed Ms. Wanda’s balance between guiding her when she struggled with science content, “when I need help with something [Ms. Wanda] will help me to get through it.

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She will give me hints by asking me questions that help me think it through so I can answer [the question] myself. Her questions help me connect the information together and then I understand.” Meiko explained that by being asked questions, she was encouraged to participate rather than “shutting down and quitting, because I know that [Ms. Wanda’s] questions would help me understand. When I understand something, [Ms. Wanda] tells me I’m smart. This keeps me involved in what’s happening in class. I think that’s really good.” During classroom observations and student interviews the use of positive teacher affirmations was witnessed and discussed throughout the study period.

Positive teacher affirmations promoted science participation

As the girls described how Ms. Wanda gave individualized support when they had challenges in understanding the science concepts presented in class they consistently identified the reception of positive affirmations from their teacher. These affirmations were viewed as an essential key in their willingness to participate in science whether the lesson was challenging or simplistic. I asked Batman about ways Ms. Wanda encouraged her to participate in science. She replied,

When I don’t understand things, like a definition, [Ms. Wanda] will break up the word so

that it will make more sense so I understand it. She will use simpler words that are not

gigantic or scientific—more every day words so I can understand it. Then when I know

it, [Ms. Wanda] says nice things to make me want to keep learning and to try to

understand what we are doing. Like she will tell me I did a great job and stuff. When Ms.

Wanda tells me that, I just glow all over…Then, later when me or my friend have

something that’s confusing I do what Ms. Wanda did for me. This just makes me feel

good that I can do it by myself or I can help my friend.

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Ms. Wanda’s affirmations encouraged the girls in her class to view themselves in a wider lens that ignited a willingness to participate in science. Calliope shared that when she read her report card she was really surprised by the compliment Ms. Wanda had written, “Ms. Wanda said

I had a very scientific mind. I was like, whoa, I never thought of myself as a scientist and my teacher says my mind is scientific. That made me want to learn so much more about science, because that’s the kind of brain I have.” During the forensics unit, Molly shared she never saw herself as a leader in the classroom, “Ms. Wanda told the whole class that if [they] have any questions just ask Molly because she will know. She is our expert. That meant a lot to me because I never thought I could be a leader and Ms. Wanda is telling everyone I’m an expert!”

When Ms. Wanda gave her students a compliment or positive affirmation, I observed several behavioral changes in the girls. They became more engaged in the lesson as demonstrated by increased science conversation, increased focus on the assignment, increased energy to do the work, and increased eagerness to understand the concept being taught. Greta explains,

When [Ms. Wanda] tells us good things about what we are doing we want to work

harder. We know that when she [Ms. Wanda] decides we have been working hard and it’s

time to take a break we [will] go outside. When we are outside, [we are] just in the

moment and just be with the now. We’re not thinking about the homework we haven’t

done or the presentation that’s coming up or anything, we are just in that moment. So the

compliments are good because sometimes we really don’t feel like doing the work, but

the compliments get us back on track. Sometimes when [Ms. Wanda] notices we are

struggling with something she will say something really nice like about what we are

wearing or something she noticed we did during lunch. Then if we don’t get back to work

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she will ask us what is on our mind and if we need to go sit outside and let things calm

down in our mind. She gives us lots of compliments and space when we need it. So that

just makes me want to do my science ‘cause she understands that sometimes you just

need to hear something nice to get you going again.

Nicole sums up by the impact Ms. Wanda’s compliments and positive affirmations have on her by saying, “[Ms. Wanda] inspires me to do more science things. She believes in me so I believe in myself.”

The girls’ self-reflections on what contributed to a willingness to participate in science lessons and activities, even on days that they did not really want to, included the personalized ownership and connection to lessons. Several identified the opportunity to question and redo lessons, as well as compliments and positive affirmations received from their teacher as additional factors that increased their participation. Furthermore, the girls discussed the impact community connections had on their participation in science class.

Participation and community connections

As a place-based education school, Riverfront Academy placed community connections as one of its highest advantages in the educational benefits for their students. Ms. Phoenix,

Riverfront’s director, shared that Riverfront’s commitment to PBE is integrated into the school’s mission statement. She shared,

The specific nature or mission that your school is going to offer, you know, what people

can expect when they come to your school that’s what’s critical to our success. I’m really

proud of our charter. I’m proud that we work closely with two of our local universities

and one of the guru’s of PBE to provide a lot of superior in-service teacher trainings on

PBE. Our school board members, teachers and students work hard to develop community

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connections that will be sustainable not only while the students are attending our school,

but when they move beyond our walls. For us, community is both within our school walls

and outside our walls. Both are equally important to us. For the girls, especially in

science, these community connections give opportunities to see how what they learn in

the classroom has value in daily life and the future. I think this gives our students,

especially the girls, an edge in science. We break down stereotypes that our society

places on little girls…When they go with community partners and plant willow trees

[they are planting native plants to help the local environment] and they come back

muddy, the girls realize it IS okay to get dirty. They worked together, encouraging,

digging holes, planting, and getting muddy. [The girls] think ‘the dirt didn’t hurt me, it

didn’t ruin my stuff, and like I got to do this amazing thing, and nobody teased me about

how I look.’ Or when the students have to go out and talk with our community members

to learn about various careers. What an opportunity to learn from local experts! We grab

opportunities to enrich education. Our board members, the teachers, the students—

everyone is always on the lookout for new community connections. I think our students

really value the richness they get from our community connections and I think it

encourages participation each day.

The importance of PBE community connections was stated by Ms. Wanda and Ms. Phoenix throughout their interviews. I also had multiple notations of Ms. Wanda’s inclusion of these connections during my classroom teacher-focused observations. In addition, three distinct areas of community connections were identified impacts that affected science participation. The following discusses how the girls viewed community connections created by the school staff, their teacher, and themselves affecting their science participation.

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Student perceived school-created community connections affect science participation

The girls’ perceived school-created community connections experiences as affecting their science participation. First, the connections were experienced within the school itself. While these connections were facilitated by the school, the students helped in their creation. All the girls perceived the adults and students at Riverside Academy as an extension of their family.

Each girl in Ms. Wanda’s class described a love of their school community. Virginia attributed these connections to the way teachers supported each other and how they let the students support each other. She expressed, “The teachers and director and the support staff, they all like each other and get along really well. They help each other and all the students.” Virginia also shared,

“I LOVE my school. I’ve always loved it. Everything is so close knit, the people in eighth grade know the kids in kindergarten. I think that is just so cool!” Angela expands Virginia’s comments saying, “Since I [came] to this school, it has literally turned my world into a different perspective. I love it here. They don’t exclude me. I feel grateful [for the] opportunity to come to this school and meet these people. They really did change my life and my attitude about everything.” Greta discussed the support staff as key to her success in science:

Our [school secretary], our [maintenance man] and our [librarian] are so encouraging

(Greta identified each person by name). They seem to know when I’m having a tough

time in science. They are so friendly and they encourage me. They tell me to hang in

there because they know I can do it. It’s nice to have a small school where everyone

knows you and encourages you because I think in middle school is where you are trying

to figure yourself out. There is less drama and all the adults show you that they care about

you.”

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The encouragement the girls experienced from Riverfront Academy’s teachers and support staff was described by all of the eighth grade girls. Molly shared, “they actually have time to sit with us and help us work through a problem when we need help. We are definitely a community.”

Meiko summarizes, “I think all the girls are excited for high school, but terrified to leave

Riverfront because…everyone is a family. When I struggle, everyone helps. Everyone believes in you that makes me believe in me. When I get stuck on a science problem, I want to keep trying because eventually I will understand it.”

The second school created community connections were the relationships outside of the school walls. While the girls did not know exactly how these relationships were created, they did know many times Ms. Phoenix would get a phone call from a community member asking for help with a wide variety of community projects. Greta discussed her amazement at how community members would call and talk with Ms. Phoenix and invite students to help with community service projects. Community members invited the students to join them at a local clothing bank. The goal was to organize clothing by size to make it easier for the homeless to find the right size clothing. Greta shared her perception:

I don’t know how people know about us. But I do know that Ms. Phoenix gets calls for

help and she lets us go to places and help. Like we [went] to a clothing bank where they

had bags and bags of clothing for kids who don’t have clothes. Ms. Phoenix let us go and

help sort clothes. It was fun because we were with our friends and we go to meet the

people who work at the place. We had to look at all the clothes and see what had a hole in

it or was it dirty or if it needed to be thrown out. Then in science Ms. Wanda talked about

how we can help our community and how it’s important to be good stewards and not just

throw things away. I say helping the community is one of the best parts of science.

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Carter shared that Ms. Phoenix “seems to know everyone in our community. She makes sure that we get lots of opportunities to take what we are learning and use it in our community and Ms.

Wanda is always up for it.” Carter described the first time their class went to a pond and were restoring it by removing invasive plants and replacing them with native plants. They worked with members of the pond maintenance staff in the removal of invasive species and the planting of native willow trees. She stated,

We were learning in class exactly what we were doing out there [at the pond]. We were

helping our community…which is super cool. I mean, it’s kinda cool when you can make

that connections and see how important [our school learning] is to the environment, to the

community! Ms. Phoenix and Ms. Wanda are always saying we make a difference and

what we think and do is important. When I do community service in science it really

makes me feel proud and that makes me want to learn more science and do more things!

Just being out there and doing something good makes me feel good.

During the classroom observations and student interviews I noticed that Ms. Wanda’s girls were quite insightful with regards to the relationships Ms. Phoenix had assisted in developing. Many girls expressed genuine appreciation of Ms. Phoenix’s efforts to support opportunities to connect their classroom science lessons to real world opportunities that promoted community connections. The curriculum, community connections, and experiences intertwined and were influenced by the teacher, community members, and students. These interconnections were formed by teacher and student voice both individually and collectively in a manner that enriched classroom lessons. Furthermore, as Meiko, Greta, Laura, and Molly’s perceptions (discussed above) demonstrate these interconnections enhanced student understanding of the collective and personal relationships between curriculum, self and

161 community. Due to this interconnectedness, the girls in Ms. Wanda’s class, at varied individualized levels, identified science participation as vital to their current and future education and careers as well as their understanding of societal issues. These issues included homelessness, personal waste of material and the importance of giving back to their community. They expressed sincere gratitude toward community members who had worked toward developing these education and real-world connections. Laura shared, “I think about all the people who build the school, working together to create this beautiful school, it’s so cool. You have to appreciate the people who did all this work because they gave their time for my education.” Molly shared,

“Every time I think about all the community people who work with us so we can learn more, it’s just really awesome. Don’t you think?” Additionally, the girls were quick to identify the role their teacher Ms. Wanda played in developing community connections to enhance their science participation.

Student perceived teacher created community connections affect science participation

Each eighth grade girls at Riverfront Academy discussed appreciation for the work Ms.

Wanda did to bring community partnerships into the classroom. They believed these opportunities increased their excitement and willingness to participate in science class. I begin with an excerpt from Nicole’s interview. She discussed her lack of interest in Ms. Wanda’s sound wave unit. She did not have interest in the topic and did not see any relevance to her life.

Nicole shared that she was just “going through the motions to get the assignment done, but I really didn’t care about the information. I just wanted to get a good grade.” Nicole explains,

When we started the sound waves and color waves I thought, this is going to be really

boring and a waste of time. But I’ll do it so I can get a good grade. It was confusing,

which made me not like it even more. But then after we learned the information Ms.

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Wanda brought in these people who had a computer program. The program could just

measure the hertz and the other aspects of the wave…when they pushed different

numbers it affected the wave of the chord. This made everything connect to me. I thought

it was really cool that people would take their time to come in and show me their

computer program. I wanted to learn because took their time to come in and work with

us. I thought that was really special!

By bringing community experts into her classroom, Ms. Wanda provided an opportunity for her students to connect the science content she taught to a higher level of student understanding.

Nicole expressed more interest and excitement to not only learn the content, but to also participate in the science activity.

Batman continued the conversation. She shares that Ms. Wanda frequently discussed the importance of giving back to the community and how this had affected her participation in science. She stated, “I notice that when we help the community, they help us too. We go to their houses and take away invasive species. We go and plant willow trees. We get dirty, we laugh, we learn, we connect more to each other and to our neighbors. Then [the community members] come to our classroom and share…like when the university researcher came and brought brains for us to look at and study. We even got to hold them!” Ms. Wanda’s willingness to develop community connections by arranging field trips that connect to the science content has encouraged girls’ participation and a willingness to give back to the community. During Molly’s interview she discussed how her participation in science class has been affected by her experiences on field trips to a local lake. She shared:

I feel like I [each time we go] I did something that like helps others and our environment.

And like, when I go back and check like once a week to see if the Canary grass has

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grown back and it hasn’t and that feels really good. I’m really proud of that. I’m giving

back to the community. I think it’s affected me in a positive way. Now, I’m like going

outside. And I’m saying ‘hi’ to my neighbors and being friendly to people. I grew up in a

different surrounding. We never talked to anybody and we didn’t go outside, we were just

to ourselves. So now in the classroom I want to participate in science because when I do I

learn, and I never know when Ms. Wanda will bring in [a new community] member that I

can learn from or who I can help. And that just feels so good and that makes me want to

do and learn more science, because I just never know when those opportunities will

happen. I want to make sure I’m ready.

While doing class observations and during interviews the girls identified the time, energy and importance Ms. Wanda placed on community connections and science learning. Each girl expressed gratitude for how these varied connections influenced their willingness to participate in science, even at times when the science content was not of interest to them. These experiences, created by Ms. Wanda, aided to increase their science participation. The use of school teacher generated community connections provided the encouragement and support the girls needed to create and develop their own community connections.

Student created community connections affect science participation

Riverfront Academy’s commitment to PBE extended to student generated community connections. The girls identified two varied connections that affected their science participation.

The first was with their families. They shared that they frequently caught themselves sharing what they had learned in science class with younger siblings and their parents. Meiko discussed how she and her mom were walking one day. Her mom commented on how blue the sky was.

Meiko shared, “My mom said ‘WOW, the sky is so blue’, and I said actually it’s the reflection

164 off of…and I just kept telling her what it was. It just came out of my mouth, I couldn’t stop myself! My mom was really impressed. That was so great!” Meiko also shared that when she does “cool experiments, I like to go home and share them with my little brothers. We do them together.” When asked to share an example, Meiko stated,

One time we took hard mint lifesavers and went outside and made lifesaver sparks. I feel

like a teacher and I’m sharing the really cool think we did in science. Now, I’m always

thinking is that really there, or is that real, or is that the actual color, or like sciency things

that I never used to do. This surprises me because it feels so second nature and it actually

comes from my science class! I love connecting with my brothers like that. I pay more

attention and get more involved in my science class because my brothers are always

asking me to share what I have learned.

Greta shared that when the class was learning about how heat rises she was so excited to go home and explain this concept to her mom:

My mom couldn’t understand why I kept saying my room was too hot, but my sister—we

share a room, kept saying she was cold. I told my mom it was because I sleep on the top

bunk and the heat goes up. My sister sleeps on the bottom bunk and she has cold air. So

we changed how we made our beds and [the room] felt better.

In addition to family connections, the girls shared how the need to make community connections outside their family affected their science participation. Each girl in Ms. Wanda’s class discussed the school expectation to develop a non-family member partnership with a community member in order to do their eighth grade project. They were required to talk to community members that were in a career field that interested them. The students had to ask these individuals if they would be willing to be their mentor. The students were expected to work

165 with their mentor to learn about their career. It was not required that all projects have a science- focus. However, all the girls’ projects in Ms. Wanda’s class did have a science component. The girls identified how their projects served as a stepping stone to learn about individual interests and connected them to their community. Their individual interests included photography, forensics, brain research, and computer graphics. Batman shared,

I think I’ve become less quiet and more involved. I participate more [in science]. Before,

[this project], I stayed to myself. Now, because of science, I go up and talk and help out

in the community. I got to meet new people and I feel a part of my community because I

had to find my mentor. The best part of having a mentor was that I could ask my

questions to someone who was working at a job that I want to do some day. I can read

about it, but to actually talk and work with someone, that’s just amazing.

Calliope shared that the skills she learned while having to find her mentor would benefit her in her future career. She shared she wants to be a hematologist researcher. She states,

I learned how to make a professional phone call. I had to make phone calls to a place to

talk with a professional which was something I didn’t know before. I had to practice and

talk mature so the mentor would be willing to work with me. Everything is always going

down those basic professional calling skills I learned while preparing to call my mentor. I

want to get into a good college. Learning how to talk and work with my mentor--these

skills will help me in my interviews and college classes. I want to be a researcher. Ms.

Wanda says I have to be able to talk with scientists professionally if I want to do that. She

says that if you can’t talk professionally, then people won’t give you a job.

The girls perceived their personal community connections affecting their participation their current science class. By having opportunities to develop community relationships through

166 their school, their teacher, and individually, they expressed an increased interest and willingness to participate in their science class. Furthermore, several girls expressed the importance these relationships would have on their future participation by linking their current participation with their ability to get accepted into colleges and careers. The majority of the girls shared their future college and career plans focused on having advanced science education. These conversations were the focus of my fourth research question.

Middle School Girls’ Perceived Experiences Affect Course and Career Pursuits

How do girls participating in PBE middle school science perceive their experiences in

PBE science class affecting their personal participation in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers? In this section I discuss how the students’ perceptions of their experiences in Ms. Wanda’s PBE science class have affected their participation in advanced science courses and pursuing a science related career. They credited being in a PBE school and

Ms. Wanda’s fun teaching style as the two most impactful components that have resulted in their current attitude toward science. With varied degrees of importance, each girl in Riverfront

Academy’s eighth grade science class shared the following characteristics that affected their decisions regarding participating in advanced science classes and pursuing science related careers:

1. Having fun in the science classroom and outdoor field activities increased individual

curiosity that prompted a desire to take advanced science classes,

2. Feeling confidence in their personal ability to be successful in advanced science

classes,

3. Developing a belief of advanced science knowledge is a valuable commodity that

would affect their future income and living status and

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4. Developing a non-traditional view of science careers.

These four characteristics are not listed in a hierarchical order. While each girl identified the above characteristics as affecting her decision regarding participation in advanced science classes and pursuing science related careers, they expressed varied levels of importance for each characteristic. As a result of their educational experiences at Riverfront Academy and Ms.

Wanda’s science class, all eleven girls planned on taking science all four years in high school and advanced science classes during their college years. While not every girl had planned to pursue a traditional science career, every girl planned to pursue a career that did require a strong science foundation. The following is a discussion on the four key experiences expressed by the girls as affecting their participation in advanced science courses and pursuing a science career.

Science fun and individual curiosity

Each girl in this study referred to having fun in their science class. Fun was not viewed as activities and lessons that were quick and easy to do. Fun activities and lessons were identified as requiring high engagement and challenge on the part of the student and personal feelings of accomplishment and achievement when completed. In other words, fun occurred when the girls were challenged and their curiosity was engaged. During observations I frequently noticed the girls in Ms. Wanda’s class asking higher-level questions regarding the activity they were engaged in. For example, during soil testing to determine what vegetables would be best to plant in the classroom garden beds, the following questioning occurred:

Angela asked: “what is pH and why it was important to the soil?”

Carter asked: “is there pH in other things or just in soil?”

Virginia asked: “what if there is too much pH, then what do we do?”

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Ms. Wanda gave a brief explanation and then shared that when the students were in high school and college they would have opportunities to take science classes that would discuss chemicals at more depth. Meiko excitedly responded, “Classes like chemistry right? I can’t wait to take

Chemistry!” During her interview, Meiko elaborated on her comment, “I like [our] science class.

But I would just do chemistry. I really want to do that! And Human Anatomy—we talked a bit about it, but I want to learn more.”

When she participated in a classroom activity in which students had to trace a virus back to the original carrier, Batman shared that she knew she wanted to take more classes on viruses.

She explained:

At the beginning of the year I wanted to be a nurse. Then after we learned about viruses

and bacteria and we did this really cool activity I wanted to be a really awesome scientist

who finds new bacteria and study bacteria and the levels of bacteria and what it looks like

at various stages of life. I know there are lots of classes in college about bacteria and

viruses so I’m looking forward to that. I want to be a bacteria researcher. I think that’s

what it’s called. Maybe get to go to different parts of the world and track down where the

original source was. I think that would be really cool.

While Batman started the school year considering a nursing career, the fun she had experienced in her class activity sparked an interest in studying viruses. This one activity expanded her science curiosity and the variety of advanced science classes and career paths she could consider.

The importance of science being fun was central to Laura’s future college and career plan to participate in advanced science classes as she pursues becoming a veterinarian. Laura shared:

In high school I’m going to take biology and chemistry and something else but I don’t

remember the name. In college I’m taking Human Anatomy and Animal Anatomy. I

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know there are others; I just don’t know what they are called. I know my science classes

will be fun because science is fun. I also know I want to be a veterinarian so I will have

to work hard. Science has been fun at this school, and I’m so curious which makes me

want to take more science classes in high school and college.

Angela was literally bouncing with excitement as we discussed future science classes.

She shared, “Fun experiments make me want to learn more science. That’s why I want to be a forensic scientist because that was so much fun. [Forensics] just fascinates me. I would have never thought about a career in forensics if it hadn’t been for the fingerprint lab we did.” Molly shared similar thoughts about the forensics activity:

It started with Ms. Wanda’s fingerprinting activity. That really triggered me into high

gear to become a forensic scientist or forensic investigator. Then when we had eighth

grade endeavor I went to the high school and got to sit in on a forensics class with the

juniors. We watched a documentary and then we did a lab. It was a little challenging and

I got all the work done. I kept a level head and didn’t get too overwhelmed by anything.

It was really fun because I got out of my main peer group and got into another group. I

got to hear their opinions on the things we were doing. I’m taking the [high school

Biology] exam next month so when I pass it, then I can take the Forensics class as a

sophomore and not have to wait until I’m a junior.

Ms. Wanda’s dedication to a learning environment that provides high level cognitive fun inquiry labs and activities creates opportunities for her students to become curious and inquisitive. This commitment encouraged, supported, and excited the girls in Ms. Wanda’s class to extend their knowledge by participating in advanced high school and college science classes as well as pursuing science-specific careers.

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Confidence in personal ability

An attribute shared by all eleven girls was a deep sense of confidence in their ability to do well in advanced science classes. There were a few girls who believed science was an easy subject for them. But others reported science was a very challenging class. Several girls, including Nicole and Greta, admitted to struggling to understand science concepts and that science was not one of their best subjects. However, they believed they would be successful in advanced science classes. Regardless of their personal strength in the subject matter, the girls shared a high level of confidence and the belief that with perseverance they would be successful in future advanced science classes.

During this study, Ms. Wanda’s students were preparing to take a high school entrance science exam. All of the girls were participating in a study group to prepare for this assessment.

In order to by-pass freshman integrated science and enter the sophomore biology class they had to pass this exam. Greta discussed that while she did not see science as her best subject, her goal was to get into Biology because she really liked Life Science in seventh grade and “Biology is more details of Life Science.” Greta shared, “We have a big test that we are going to take and try to get into Biology…We are studying for it now. We have already learned most of it so I’m pretty confident about taking [and passing] the test.”

Carter plans to get an honors high school diploma which requires a minimum of three years of lab science. She states, “I know I have the work ethic and the brains to get the honors degree.” While Carter does not know what science classes she will take in high school she shares, “I will take whatever science fits my schedule because I definitely enjoy [science].”

When discussing her career plans Carter disclosed:

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I wanted to be a nurse for a little bit, but I don’t know if I’m going to end up doing that. I

really want to be a lawyer like my mom, but I’m not sure where that will end up. I

thought about being a sports lawyer for people who have injuries and stuff. But the more

I think about it, the more I think environmental science lawyer might be the best for me.

This will combine my two big loves- I want to be a lawyer and I love the environment. I

guess either way I will be taking lots of science. I’m good at science so I’m not worried

about the classes being too hard.

As personal confidence increased the enjoyment of science increased. Nicole recognized that in past years her confidence in science was minimal and as a result her participation was minimal. She discussed how her feeling toward science had changed the past couple of years:

My entire life I’ve been separated from science. I didn’t view it as something I would do;

I didn’t think I was good at it. Quite honestly, I didn’t think it was important. Now, I like

science more because, it’s more recognizable and its fun and I can say like okay I learned

this in science and I know what to do with it. I feel I can do science and that I can do it

really well…Now I would just be out doing something and a lesson from science [will]

pop up some place. Like at the movie theater, a scene with waves and then I’ll think

about the science lesson. And I’m like, whoa, I really understand science, and it is in the

world! Now I think I want to be a researcher. I don’t know what I want to research. I just

want a job that involves science research and math.

Individual confidence in the ability to do science work directly affected the willingness to participate in advanced science coursework and consider a science-focused career. This confidence was found in two distinct areas—the belief in innate natural science ability and that

172 through hard work science success was attainable. The girls elaborated their explanations of the importance of advanced science classes as they discussed their career plans and future incomes.

Science knowledge as valuable commodity

Financial independence was a concern shared by all eleven eighth grade girls. They shared their eighth grade project had attributed to their belief that being able to be financial support themselves was essential to adult success. Greta shared, “You have to have science to have a nice job. Even if it’s something as simple as a science teacher, without science [Ms.

Wanda] wouldn’t have a job.”

The desire to have a career path that assured financial stability and personal comfort was highly valued. For example, Hazel shared her plans of working in an animal science career, “I really want to learn science because when I grow up I want to do something with animals and science tied into that because science is really fun.” As we explored this career path I asked

Hazel if she was considering a technician-type job working with animals. She replied, “No not really, more the doctor. I mean if I was desperate maybe a tech person, but hopefully not. They really don’t make enough money to live comfortably. I want to be the veterinarian.”

Calliope shared she is considering two science-related career paths in order to improve her chance of being able to financially support herself. She explains:

I want to be a writer, a science fiction writer. I’m actually working on a story right now

for English...being a writer there’s always the issue of income. Writers have a very up

and down income. If I were to be something else I was thinking of how I’m not a

squeamish person at all and I really like brains and blood and that stuff, just because I

find them interesting. So I was thinking I could be a doctor. But then I thought I don’t

want a bunch of sick people coming to see me. So then I was thinking what else is there

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besides just being an overall doctor? So then I thought alright, maybe I could be a

hematologist. Someone who works with blood, ‘cause that is something that interests me

so why not look into that? I’m thinking more on the side of the research. Uh, like

researching blood types and things like affect ah blood alcohol levels and the mercury in

the body and what that does. Or iron deficiencies or too much iron in the blood. You

know things like that! So I think I’m going to do that but still write science fiction and if I

make it rich then I will just write—maybe, because my favorite author is famous but she

has another career too, so I might be like her and keep doing both. But there is more

money for women who work in science careers, so since I love science that is what is best

for me.

The value of traditional and non-traditional science careers was identified. The freedom this viewpoint created encouraged identification of a varied range of science career paths. This variety provided limitless career options that encouraged the girls to consider science careers.

Non-traditional science careers

Ms. Wanda identified that one of her professional goals was to help her students view science as “more than just white lab coats and old men. I want them to have multiple access points and see science as having multiple access points.” Ms. Wanda believed that by assisting her students in having a wide view of science, they were more willing to consider advanced science and pursue science-related careers. The girls in Ms. Wanda’s class shared an expanded non-traditional view of science careers. As previously mentioned, Calliope is considering combining her love of science with her writing and becoming a science-fiction writer. Virginia shared, “I love science. I like the idea that it isn’t one specific thing; its math and social studies and language arts. It’s in everything and I really like that. And I like that it’s creating so many

174 things by combining other things.” When discussing her career plans, Virginia discussed combining music with helping child cancer patients, “I’d like to study the science of music, the sound waves and how pitch effect[s] patients…I really want to do something that will help kids with cancer. I’m realizing that helping cancer patients is really important to me…combining music and being a children’s cancer doctor is a way to do this.”

Greta shared that she never thought she would admit to how much she loved science and the idea of a career in science is new to her, “I’ve thought about mixing science, hair and nails because I could combine them to do chemistry. You get to do science with those because you have to mix all the chemicals…I’m thinking about a job where you do the research for hair and nail supplies and make them safe for people. That would combine two things I love, science and make-up and hair. Well I guess that’s three things, which is even better!” The importance of selecting a career that they would enjoy and provide a comfortable salary was evident during each student interview. However, Angela expanded this conversation as she talked about her future plans:

I’m thinking about my future and how I need a good job and education not only for me

but my future family. I really like computer programming, graphic design and cartooning.

But I also really like forensics and would like to be a forensic scientist. So I go back and

forth, because I want to have a family. I want to learn science so I have a job that is good

for my family and is fun for me. I want to know how electricity works. I need to be able

to make a play house for my little girl and all the science I need to know how to build that

structure for her. I want my job to support me and her. I don’t want my job to keep me

away from my family. So I’m trying to figure out how to earn a lot of money, do the

science I really think is fun, but still be there for my future daughter.

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Ms. Wanda’s commitment to encouraging the girls in her class to view science in a wide spectrum has resulted in their anticipation to participate in advanced science classes and a willingness to explore and pursue science-specific careers. Both formal and informal interviews and observations throughout this study provided glimpses into the lived experiences of the girls in Ms. Wanda’s eighth grade science class. These experiences resulted in the girls expressing an eagerness and excitement to participate in advanced science classes and pursue science careers, as well as a personal belief that they have the work ethic and skill set to be successful in all science endeavors they pursue.

Emerging themes impact girls’ future science participation

During this study two themes that could not be found in the literature emerged. Both could be additions to the feminist and social cultural theorists’ well-documented obstacles for girls’ science participation. During my study, the girls in Ms. Wanda’s class discussed the role of boys in the science class and their desire to marry and have children as experiences that impact their willingness to pursue advanced science classes and science careers. In this section I will discuss both of these themes.

Boys in science class

Throughout the interviews and during observations the girls discussed their frustration and appreciation of the boys in their science class. They shared previously well-documented concerns such as feeling they are doing all the work, not having equal access to the science equipment, and not being heard by their lab partner. However, the girls identified the boys’ lack of mature behavior as affecting their science participation. Boys’ immaturity affecting girls’ science participation has not been previously well-documented. Meiko shared,

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The boys seem to have a hard time paying attention and they are really distracting. They

are just so immature and goofy. Sometimes while [I’m] trying to pay attention they start

talking and I get distracted. When a boy is my lab partner, I get less work done which

means I have more homework. That’s because I can’t work when the guys are being so

distracting. It’s just so hard to participate. Sometimes I just want to quit because they are

being so goofy. It’s stressful. Overall I like having a girl lab partner because we talk

about the science and we get more work done”

Virginia continues:

I’ve realized [science] classes are pretty focused without the guys. We [the girls] are

pretty on task and are really learning a lot of things. I think I participate more without the

boys around. I think [the boys] just don’t have the attention span, at least not eighth grade

boys. I think that sometimes that holds the class back because you have to accommodate

for all these blurt outs and not understanding things because they [the boys] weren’t

listening. They aren’t responsible and mature. They get bored in the first thirty seconds

and then they start talking and distracting everyone. When Ms. Wanda asks questions the

girls in our class are a little more thoughtful and they like to think things out a little more

before they say something. It’s more difficult for the girls because if you are not saying

what you feel or exactly what you want then it’s going to be harder to get it. The boys

jump in and then I lose my thoughts. The boys just blurt out anything. I want to think

about what I’m learning. I want to understand what I’m learning and understand what I’m

processing. Not just learning about something, [but] how you feel about something and

why you feel that way about something. When the boys blurt out, that is distracting and I

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don’t learn as much. Sometimes I think that as a school to be able to have an all-girls

school so that there are not guys there holding me back—that might be a good thing.

Molly shared her frustration,

Sometimes it annoys me because [the boys] are talking and distracting those of us who

are trying to get our work done. The girls are mainly the ones that contribute to the class

discussions and we are mainly focused and doing our work. I don’t think the boys are

fully in the class. The girls are the leaders and the guys are just like goofing around. I feel

that it’s not really our responsibility to get the boys focused. I think they should do it

themselves. The boys can get on my nerves. They just need to grow up and be mature.

They take time away from class. I don’t have time for that. I need to get my work done

and I don’t want to do your work too. I’m hoping in college it will be better because

everyone is there because they want to be there to learn.

Greta shared her lack of participation when she has a boy lab partner:

They are teenage boys and they are going to make fun of you if you do something wrong.

Sometimes they yell at you. They find different ways to embarrass you. [The boys] are

always goofing off that’s just the age they are. Girls will encourage you to do better. Like

you did great, keep trying you can do it. They encourage you to try again and not feel

embarrassed. Boys say things like ‘you suck at that’. I don’t want to try when they talk

like that. I’ll try lots of times with girls; we support each other because we want

everyone to succeed.

While most girls expressed frustration with the lack of support and maturity of the boys in class many acknowledged the importance of the boys’ science perspective as providing a needed challenge to their personal understanding of the science concepts. These girls saw the

178 boys’ science viewpoint as valuable to enhancing science experiences and increasing their participation in science class. The boys’ varied conceptual world view of science is the second component of boys’ previously undocumented behavior affecting girls’ science participation.

Calliope acknowledged her annoyance with the boys’ lack of maturity, but shared that the benefits she gained from them were more prevalent. These benefits helped her cope with her frustration of the boys’ disruptive behaviors. She shared, “I would choose a boy [lab partner] because he thinks differently than I do. I like to work with someone that might give you the opportunity to see something else that I don’t see.”

Angela elaborated on Calliope’s thoughts,

Boys are going to provide you with a different point of view that will give you a richer

experience. The boys ask these questions that can have many answers. They open me to a

different concept. They have a different perspective on things and I think that’s really

important. I would lose opportunities, those life opportunities and I think a boy lab

partner would help me get those. Like with boys they show me that there are ways to do

things with your hands but without a book. That you can learn with your hands and not

just the books. They boys have more experiences doing things with their hands. That is

really powerful and it makes me want to try new science things because they showed me

a different way.

While Carter shared that she felt boys were less mature than girls, she acknowledged their impact on her science participation differently than the other girls in her class. She explains,

I think it depends on what we are doing in class. The boys can be really creative and have

great ideas. I like being partnered with the boys because I see a different side of

creativity. We can bounce lots of ideas off each other. I’m really competitive and most of

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the girls in our class not so much. When we are doing competitive things, I like to have a

boy lab partner. Especially when we are doing simple machines activities, most of those

are competitive. There are a couple of boys in our class who are just so creative and I’m

like ‘I have no idea how they would ever think of those kinds of things.’ When we are

doing those, the girls don’t always come up with something we can use. I like to win so

being with a boy is better. When we are doing projects, I like to be with a girl because

we work well together. I know we will both do the work. We will contribute equally. We

will be respectful to each other and we will get a good grade. So yeah, it depends on what

we are doing. Sometimes I can participate more with the boys, but sometimes I

participate more with the girls.

Each girl in Ms. Wanda’s class acknowledged the boys’ maturity affecting their participation in science class. Some of the girls were very adamant in the negative impact the boys had on their participation. However others, while acknowledging this negative impact, were more tolerant of the boys’ behaviors and used the boys’ skill set to improve their personal needs in science class. By focusing on the benefits they gained from the boys the girls were able to extend their participation, learning and understanding of the science material. In addition to acknowledging the impact the boys had on their class participation, the girls recognized their desire to marry and have children as a consideration that could impact their willingness to pursue science careers.

Future marriage and children

The desire to marry and have children affecting girls’ participation in a science career is the second theme that could not be found in previous literature. One characteristic of a place- based educational school is the importance of individual connection to the community. Students

180 at Riverfront Academy are challenged academically but also socially as they discover how they individually fit into their community. During the eighth grade year, the students begin to explore what type of future they want to have. The students are encouraged to explore their career interests, their academic interests and their personal interests in an effort to create a directional plan for the future. While exploring a plan for marriage and family is not a required component of this process, many of the students choose to incorporate this into their plan. During this study, some of girls shared that their future plans included marrying and having children. They shared that this goal was part of their consideration as they explored career opportunities. They also discussed how a career in science could affect this familial goal. Carter begins this discussion sharing:

I was telling my mom about wanting to be a lawyer. She reminded me that a lawyer takes

time away from your family. Family is really really important to me. So then I was

thinking about what type of lawyer would allow me to be with my family more. That’s

when I started thinking more about environmental science.

Carter expressed concern that a science career would require sacrifice for her future family. She shared the desire to balance family demands and career demands, and shared that the atypical hours required for some science-specific careers, would be a challenge. She stated, “I know I want my family to be first, my job will be second.”

Angela shared she was considering a career as a forensic scientist but was concerned that the life of a police officer would take away from her future family. She viewed her struggle as a confusing process she was working through. Angela acknowledged she had time to think about her career, but worried about taking too long to make a decision. She shared, “I’m thinking about being a computer programmer, graphic design or cartooning and animation. Science and math

181 are in those jobs. Those jobs you can do from home. It’s a good way to balance family and a job.

I want to make sure that I can be there for my future little girl.” Angela expressed her willingness to consider a variety of science/math related careers to help assure that her future family would not be compromised by her career choice. While Angela did not have a boyfriend, her desire to marry and raise children was impacting her selection of a science-related career plan. Greta summarized the girls’ career selection process and the desire to balance family and career, “I’m thinking about chemistry and forensics; being a doctor or nurse, hair/nail stylist or researching hair and make-up. There are so many choices. I don’t want my choice to harm my future family.

The best way to say it is I’m scattered right now.”

Conclusion

The analysis of the data showed that the eighth grade girls’ experiences in a place-based educational middle school science classroom resulted in a willingness to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science specific careers. While obstacles were identified that affected the girls’ willingness to participate in science classes and consider science careers, the analysis shows that the girls were striving to work through the obstacles in order to reach their educational and career goals. The study did not involve collecting data on parents’ perspectives or long-term follow-up on the study’s participants. It would be useful for future studies to include data from those stakeholders. All the girls in this study expressed a deep sadness that this was their last year at Riverfront Academy and a sincere gratitude for the educational experiences they gained in Ms. Wanda’s science class. Greta summarizes the girls’ experiences, “Sometimes

I wonder what would have happened if I hadn’t come [to Riverfront Academy], and then I think it was a good decision for me to come here. A really, really, good decision.”

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Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusions and Implications

The final chapter of my dissertation begins with a brief review of the purpose and problems studied and a methodology and findings summary. The primary focus of this chapter is a discussion of the results and their implications.

Study Summary

The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of a middle school science teacher’s influence on the experiences of her eighth grade girls at a school that utilized place- based educational teaching practices. The literature review revealed an important connection between how girls experience science education and their willingness to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science-specific careers. Powers (2004) suggests that students demonstrate higher levels of academic engagement, enthusiasm for learning, and recall of knowledge when they know their learning is connected to their community. Place-based education has been viewed as a means to increase motivational interest and participation in individual learning (Gruenewald, 2003). As several researchers including Barton et al. (2013) and Britner (2008) explain, in order to encourage girls to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science careers, educators must be willing to embrace alternative teaching options tailored to girls’ science educational and motivational needs and strengths.

This case study examined a science teacher and her eleven eighth grade girls’ experiences during the last three months of the school year. This was a PBE school where teachers utilized place-based learning strategies in all curricular areas for all grade levels. Interviews of the school director, the teacher and her students, as well as observations and artifacts were used to collect data on the participants’ lived experiences, as well as the perceptions of those experiences. The

183 data were analyzed to find themes to inform the results. The following is a summary of the results of the data analysis.

Summary of the Findings

Findings from the data analysis were individually teased out. The study began with an examination of the first research question addressing how a PBE middle school science teacher perceived her instruction and curriculum affecting girl’s experiences in the science classroom.

Three themes derived from that question: curriculum flexibility and exploration, pedagogical flexibility and exploration, and educational environment flexibility and exploration. The second research question examined how a PBE science teacher perceived her instruction and use of curriculum influencing girls’ willingness to participate in advanced science coursework and pursue science-focused careers. The themes derived from this question were the promotion of the girls’ positive self-image, creation of positive support for advanced science participation, and creation of positive support for science career pursuits. The third research question considered how the middle school girls’ perceived experience in their science class affected their science participation. Through the girls’ discussions the following themes were found. These themes included previous science classroom experiences, classroom environment, student/teacher interpersonal interactions, and community connections. I continue with the fourth question that considered how girls’ experiences in their PBE science class effect their participation in advanced science classes and pursuit of science-focused careers. Themes included classroom activities triggering natural curiosity that prompted a desire to take advanced science classes, confidence in personal ability to be successful in advanced science classes, a genuine belief in the value that advanced science classes would have on economic and independent living, and a non-traditional view of science careers. As I investigated research question four I presented two

184 unique findings. The first was the girls’ belief that the boys’ lack of maturity affected their science participation. The second was the girls’ concern regarding how a science career would impact their future marriage and child-raising opportunities. In the following section I individually examine each research question in this study.

Discussion of Research Questions Findings How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction in relation to girls’ experiences in their science class? Place-based education teaching strategies are complex and varied depending on the individual teacher, the school environment, and the school community both within and outside the building’s walls. This study focused on one specific science teacher, Ms.

Wanda. PBE teachers use the environment and community around them in order to create an integrated and personalized learning environment. Ms. Wanda perceived her flexibility and explorative teaching instruction affecting the girls in her classroom in three specific domains: curriculum, pedagogy and educational environment setting.

Riverside Academy did not use a specific curriculum with a scope and sequence. Ms.

Wanda used the Next Generation Science Standards as her guide and had the curriculum flexibility to teach the concepts in the manner she deemed most beneficial to her students.

Without a specific school-mandated scope and sequence, curricular flexibility provided opportunities for community connections and interactions between Ms. Wanda, her students and community experts within a more fluid and genuine timeline. This flexibility allowed Ms.

Wanda and her students to participate in community events that connected science concepts in real time. These experiences demonstrated the genuine importance of the taught lessons and increased girls’ participation in science class.

Place-based education encourages a supportive school environment where student learning exploration and risk taking are the norm. Ms. Wanda expected and encouraged her

185 students to take risks with their learning. Ms. Wanda had a more organic, rather than proscribed, pedagogical teaching style. She encouraged students to question their learning and openly share when they did not feel the content or activity had value to their learning. For example, during the soil testing, rather than help their group with the testing, two girls chose to stay inside and wait.

Ms. Wanda questioned this decision and the girls openly shared that they did not think the test was important to the planting. Ms. Wanda presented a possible reason why their involvement could be important, but did not tell the girls to go help. After the conversation, the girls decided the testing was important to them and went outside to help their group. They were encouraged to suggest lesson variations to make learning more meaningful and connected to them.

During the time of this study the girls demonstrated a high comfort level when they asked for changes or modifications to the lessons in order to meet their individual needs. The electrical circuits unit was originally planned to take two class sessions; however, the students asked for additional time and the lesson was five class sessions. Carter shared that the extra time allowed her to continually change her design until all her house lights came on. The girls actively participated in their learning during teacher-directed assignments and student-suggested learning extensions and modifications. After completion of willow tree planting, two girls asked to create a frog habitat in the classroom. The girls explored the school’s campus for materials and food resources then presented their plan to create the habitat. Ms. Wanda agreed to the habitat in the classroom for a designated time period then the frogs would be returned to their natural environment. Pedagogical flexibility increased the girls’ participation in their science learning process and resulted in teacher/student and student/student interactions that increased flexibility in the science educational environment.

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Educational environment flexibility is essential in a place-based education classroom. Ms.

Wanda embraced the importance of the educational environment being more than the four walls of a classroom with a teacher in front of her students. At times, Ms. Wanda predetermined the educational setting and participant configuration for a lesson. These settings included independent, partner, small group, and whole class learning groups. However, Ms. Wanda also provided regular opportunities for students to self-select their learning environment to include the above mentioned settings and who would be in them. Self–selection of their learning environment acknowledged the individual learning styles and needs of the students. This increased the girls’ participation in science. In addition, Ms. Wanda was willing to let the organic nature of learning determine the educational environment. When Ms. Wanda’s original plan was for indoor learning, students were frequently given permission to move outside. When Ms.

Wanda’s assessment plan involved partnerships, the girls expressed concern that this would limit the individuality of the assessment scores. Ms. Wanda revised her plan to provide the girls with individual assessments. Students were a part of many decisions regarding their learning environment. Although Ms. Wanda provided significant flexibility and choice the autonomy provided was earned or lost based on student responsibility to participate and learn in the alternative environment. Ms. Wanda had created an educational environment that provided opportunities for her students to identify, request, and utilize settings that encouraged meeting their learning needs.

By varying her pedagogical strategies, incorporating personal connections to curriculum, and creating community connections Ms. Wanda provided opportunities for her students to develop personal connections and value in the curriculum taught, as well as meet individual learning needs. Her pedagogical strategies included supporting her students as they co-created

187 curriculum. As students’ curiosities moved them to question and expand their learning of presented curriculum, Ms. Wanda supported her students’ requests to differentiate and alter assigned lessons and learning environment. Students’ needs to individualize or personalize their learning and educational setting increased ownership of their learning. This co-creation and self- selection of learning environment for lessons, projects, and curriculum encouraged the girls in

Ms. Wanda’s science class to actively participate in individual and collaborative science learning.

Ms. Wanda typically began her lessons by presenting a science concept to the entire class.

The lesson would move to whole group discussion and questions then the lab or activity related to the science concept was introduced. Students would have another opportunity to ask clarifying questions specifically related to the assigned task. Throughout this study Ms. Wanda varied the social dynamic of the activities and labs. This included individual, partner, and group dynamics.

She also varied between self-selected and teacher’s assigned individual, partnership, or group learning configurations. Regardless of the configuration, student learning opportunities to differentiate or expand were present. The girls in Ms. Wanda’s class frequently co-constructed their learning through requests to alter the assigned activity. Ms. Wanda would ask the girls to explain what they wanted to do and write out their plan. Ms. Wanda and the student would then discuss the plan prior to Ms. Wanda’s approval. As students’ new understandings and explorations emerged, Ms. Wanda encouraged student discussion and presentation of the co- constructed lesson to the entire class. Through the co-creation of their learning, the girls actively participated in science class discussions, activities, and labs. As previously mentioned, Ms.

Wanda believed the girls in her class were more willing to persevere in the completion of challenging projects. During the time of this study she did not directly share this observation

188 with her students. The girls’ ownership and co-creation of their learning appeared to be a factor in their science participation. Additional research into this suggestion could provide a clearer understanding of a possible connection between the two. Ms. Wanda regularly reflected on how her teaching influenced her students and modified her teaching strategies in order to create positive experiences that increased participation in science education and pursing a science- focused career.

How does a PBE science teacher perceive her instruction influencing the participation of girls in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers? The central factor to influencing the participation of girls in advanced science coursework and pursing science- focused careers was genuine, authentic, teacher-specific encouragement that created a positive science self- image, positive support for advanced science participation, and positive support for science careers pursuits. Ms. Wanda openly acknowledged her inability to be an expert on all science concepts. To increase understanding, students became class experts on various science concepts. Ms. Wanda used herself as an example of a person who was not science perfect but could have a successful career in science and gave genuine praise when her students expanded their science understanding. Additionally, student prior knowledge and expertise were praised and utilized when new science concepts were introduced. Ms. Wanda frequently suggested students talk with the class experts who were knowledgeable about science topics. Once Ms.

Wanda acknowledged class experts, they would learn more about the topic in order to be prepared to help their classmates. Genuine praise helped the development of a positive science self-image and increase personal confidence and knowledge in the content.

Genuine positive support was given to encourage participation in advanced science courses by providing preparation opportunities. Ms. Wanda created study packets and provided time for

189 study groups to aid her students in preparation for their high school science entrance exam.

Activities were intentionally selected to allow opportunities for both the students and Ms. Wanda to share their academic strengths and challenges in the science content as well as practice and discuss the challenging content in order to prepare for their exam. Time was given during the regular class day to provide opportunities to clarify misconceptions and provide celebration for concept mastery. In addition, Ms. Wanda shared science camp information, encouraged the girls to apply, and wrote recommendation letters to aid the girls’ acceptance into the limited space events.

Accessing and connecting her students to community experts and mentors provided genuine science relationships. Creating opportunities to view science in both traditional and non- traditional settings gave Ms. Wanda’s students a holistic view of science and increased their willingness to consider science-specific careers. Ms. Wanda demonstrated many strategies described in the literature to encourage her students to participate in advanced science coursework and pursue science careers. A high value on the teacher’s role as a genuine positive support to ensure students received the resources, recommendations, and community relationships was critical to increasing the girls’ science self-image, and their pursuit of advanced science courses and science-focused careers.

How do middle school girls perceive their experiences with PBE curriculum strategies affecting their participation in science class? Peer and adult teaching strategies were influential to the girls’ science participation. Ms. Wanda strove to connect all her lessons to real-world situations to help her students understand both the concept and the importance of learning it.

These provided opportunities for the girls to create connections and applications within their world in order to personalize the value of the science content being taught. When students

190 struggled with understanding concepts, Ms. Wanda would re-teach lessons by drawing pictures and referring to a prior experience to explain misunderstood concepts. The girls were quick to help each other understand by sharing their work and giving several suggestions on how to do the lesson. However, the girls were not seen copying each other’s work. They honestly strove to learn the science concept. Ms. Wanda encouraged the girls to challenge and support each other through peer teaching. The girls interpreted this as genuine care that they all did well in science.

During the ice cube challenge Molly struggled with how to design the containers, but Batman affirmed their intelligence and encouraged perseverance until the project was completed. They celebrated their successes and helped each other when they struggled to learn a challenging concept. The importance of not giving up and being there to help when needed was central to their participation in their PBE science class.

Choice in their learning environment, whether indoor or outside and connecting science concepts to life beyond the classroom was essential to the girls’ willingness regarding science participation. They valued the opportunity to self-select how they demonstrated their learning through individual, partnership, or group work. The many opportunities to co-create their learning through curriculum, activities, and labs were highly valued. Humor and laughter were seen as critical as this created a learning atmosphere that was relaxed and welcoming. In addition, activities that were highly challenging and engaging were viewed as key components to making science fun. The need for fun in science was essential to their willingness to participate.

While each girl expressed the above factors as influencing their participation in science, it is important to note that the value placed on each factor was individualized. In other words, one girl may have placed fun as the most important while another girl valued choosing her partner as most important.

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One characteristic shared by all the girls was the belief that their place-based science learning was impactful to their future place in their community. This believed importance was a motivator to participate in science class. Science education was seen as critical to their life-long success regardless of career or family path. The girls varied on the branch of science (physical, earth, or life) they viewed as most enjoyable. For example, Greta shared she was “scattered” as to what science branch she most enjoyed and what she wanted to pursue as a career. She was considering medicine or forensics, but also research for hair and nail care products. She viewed all of these possible careers as making an important contribution to her community. In order to reach her goal, Greta believed it was important for her to participate in her eighth grade science class because she would not reach her future goals, including participation in advanced science classes, without learning the presented content. Calliope, Nicole, and Batman were considering various biological medical research careers. The opportunity to learn and touch various brains in class was a highly impactful PBE science lesson that started their willingness to explore science research careers and increase their participation in science class. Hazel and Laura were considering veterinary science careers. They did not identify a specific catalytic lesson.

However, their self-confidence for science success grew as a result of place-based education science lessons. As their confidence grew, their willingness to participate in science grew as well. Meiko and Molly were considering forensic and chemical sciences. The close familial connections and support they received through place-based education provided feeling accepted and valued by their peers and teacher. This resulted in a high level of confidence to participate and take risks in science without fear of negative comments when errors were made. Virginia was considering specializing in children’s cancer research or pediatrics specializing in children’s cancer care. Angela was exploring forensics, computer programming and graphic design. Carter

192 was pondering a legal career focused on environmental law. The high frequency of interactive hands-on inquiry-based PBE learning experiences along with community and environment service opportunities increased participation in science class as well as influencing their possible career paths.

Student/teacher interactions affected the girls’ participation. When Ms. Wanda presented science concepts that were of interest to one or many of the girls, they participated more. The girls who were not initially interested in a science concept had an increased willingness to participate when the topic was of interest to their female friends or when they had the opportunity to individualize their learning by altering the assignment to increase personal interest. The relaxed classroom environment supported the willingness of the girls to ask questions when they didn’t understand and to make multiple attempts to learn science content thus increasing their participation in class. Additionally, consistent positive teacher affirmations increased the girls’ self-belief that they could be successful in science, thus increasing their participation.

Finally, community connections significantly affected the girls’ science participation.

Community connections were created by the school administration, Ms. Wanda, and the individual students. The girls reported that learning from community experts increased the importance of the science curriculum. Experts would share their skills in the science classroom, or the students would go to the job sites, or both the experts and students would meet at a neutral location and work together. Regardless of the venue, the girls identified the opportunity to apply their classroom learning to real-world experiences as essential in increasing participation. They explained that these opportunities were giving increased value to what they were learning so they wanted to participate in science more.

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How do girls participating in PBE middle school science perceive their experiences in a

PBE science class affecting their personal participation in advanced science coursework and pursuing science-focused careers? The girls credited being in a PBE school and Ms. Wanda’s fun teaching style as the two most impactful components affecting their personal participation in advanced science coursework and pursuing science-focused careers. The science activities experienced throughout their middle school science class triggered their curiosity to learn more about specific topics. The opportunities to have multiple attempts at science success and the positive affirmations received by their teacher have resulted in a high level of personal confidence in individual ability to be successful in advanced science courses and a science career.

Community partnerships helped the development of non-traditional views of what a science career looks like. The girls in Ms. Wanda’s class saw beyond the stereotypical middle-aged man with wild white hair, glasses, and white lab coat scientist. They had a more holistic view of what a scientist and science career is. A personalized view of possessing the skills and ability to be successful in advanced science classes and being successful in science-related careers are evident. Additionally, the girls in this study valued science education and careers. They had a solid understanding and valued the economic and living status advantages a science career can provide. All the girls in this study identified the importance of and plan to continue their science education through advanced classes through the college level. As a direct result of their experiences in PBE middle school science, most of the girls in this study are considering a science-specific or science-related career. Two themes were identified that would impact their final decisions. Each of these themes would benefit from additional research to more fully explore the impact on girls participating in advanced science courses as well as pursuing science

194 specific careers. First was the girls’ perception of the boys’ lack of maturity and the second was a strong desire to marry and have children. Several girls in this research identified these themes as possible barriers to continued science participation and the pursuit of science career goals.

However, the girls employed creative problem solving skills in attempts to eliminate these barriers in order to pursue their individual career goals. I will discuss each of these.

The first was the girls’ perceived lack of maturity on the part of the boys in their class.

This barrier impacted their willingness to participate in science class. At times some the girls would not participate because of the immature behavior. Several of the girls were adamant that the boys’ behavior interfered with their science learning and enjoyment of the class at various times throughout the year. They discussed feelings of being held back in learning some concepts because time was taken from content learning to address the boys’ behavior. The girls acknowledged the boys’ immature behavior yet found ways to use the boys’ academic strengths to improve their personal needs in science class. They acknowledged the importance of the boys’ perspective as enriching personal viewpoints and challenging personal thinking and the boys’ building creativity to improve engineering designs. This helped them cope with the boys’ perceived immature classroom behavior. Teachers who acknowledge girls’ perceptions of boys’ lack of maturity can assist girls who struggle to participate in science due to male science partners and students in the classroom. This aid in the creation of coping strategies that provide opportunities to encourage girls’ in participating, learning and understanding complicated science material to increase their willingness to pursue advanced science classes in high school and college.

The second barrier was the concern regarding how a science career would impact their future marriage and child-raising opportunities. This barrier impacted some of the girls’

195 willingness to pursue science specific careers. Some of the girls identified struggling to decide on a science career in which they could be happy and successful while being able to assure their children did not grow up in day care. Again, creative solutions were discussed as they attempted to sort their plans. The girls discussed learning about science careers that allowed them to work from home, negotiating daily work hours, and trying to create a balance between career and family. Each girl who discussed family and work balance concerns acknowledged family would be their first priority while establishing a science career would be secondary.

In this study, girls who were considering having children were quite adamant that their family would not take second place to a career. Furthermore, they would abandon pursuing science careers in order to keep family as their first priority. In order to encourage girls to pursue science careers, employers will need to address the implications science careers have on women and their future families. Creating family-friendly work environments will aid in recruiting women into science careers. Job-sharing, flexible work hours and flexible work environments such as home offices could address some of the concerns women have regarding pursuing science careers.

Co-creation of an educational science place: Ms. Wanda and her female students

It is important to discuss Ms. Wanda’s perception of her science teaching and her female students’ perception of their experiences in relationship to each other. In some areas both Ms.

Wanda and her students identified the same factors that influenced participation in science class and the willingness to pursue advanced science courses and science careers. However, there were some contrasting perceptions for the same factor, as well as a factor that was deemed significantly important to the girls, but not addressed by Ms. Wanda. The following discusses this cross-analysis.

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First, Ms. Wanda identified the girls as being more willing than the boys in her class to problem solve and persevere on challenging work. She further stated that the girls would work harder to solve a problem when they were in groups or partnerships. Many of the girls shared that being given the opportunity to repeatedly try to master a concept was an important factor in their willingness to participate in science. The knowledge that they could redo work as many times as they needed without grade penalty encouraged them to focus on understanding content and not just getting the assignment done. Ms. Wanda removed the girls’ concern about good grades by providing repeated opportunities to learn science concepts. They did not have to worry about a poor assignment grade because the opportunity to improve their grade was available.

This encouraged the girls to focus on understanding and mastery of science concepts.

Additionally, the girls were willing to take more risks to participate in their learning when they had the support of a group or partnership. The girls had more confidence to try challenging tasks with the encouragement of their peers.

Second, both Ms. Wanda and the girls identified the importance of curriculum connecting to both personal interests and real-life applications as essential factors in increasing science interest and participation. For many of the girls, Ms. Wanda had been their science teacher for three years and knew them very well. Additionally, because there were only eleven girls in the eighth grade class they knew each other very well. When the class was learning about forensics

Ms. Wanda acknowledged she intentionally chose the topic because it was of high interest to one of the girls. The girls also acknowledged how impactful that lesson was because one of their friends’ interests was studied in class. Molly, the girl most interested in forensics, was in awe that an entire class unit was dedicated to her personal interest. Personal connectedness to science

197 content resulted in the girls’ anticipation of future advanced science class participation and consideration of science careers.

Third, Ms. Wanda shared that one of her primary goals is to assure her lessons are engaging and challenging. The girls identified the importance of fun lessons. While a first impression may see these two views as contradictory, they are not. When “fun” was explained, the girls defined lessons that were challenging and engaging as fun. Lessons that were easy were defined as boring and uninteresting. Ms. Wanda perceived her lessons as opportunities for science success. The girls shared they experienced support, encouragement, and positive affirmations given during each lesson. These experiences made them believe they would be successful in learning science concepts. High confidence in science learning ability was evident in all the girls, including those that reported they sometimes struggled in science class.

Challenging and engaging science projects, activities, labs, and class discussions appeared to encourage the girls’ willingness to continue science learning through advanced science classes at both the high school and college level. Additionally, several of the girls are considering science- related careers as a result of their experiences in a place-based education science class.

Fourth, Ms. Wanda and the girls identified community partnerships as an essential experience that influenced participation. The varieties of partnerships were not viewed in any collective priority order. Simply having mentors and community experts participate in both classroom and field lessons were critical experiences that aided in girls’ willingness to participate in science and helped increase feelings of community connectedness. Many of the girls had a very narrow traditional view of science and science careers. When a glass artist visited Ms. Wanda’s class and discussed physical science concepts necessary for the art to be created, daily science usage implications changed. Calliope and Greta described scientists as

198 men who wore white coats and had crazy hair. When a college professor who does brain research visited and brought brain samples the classroom their mindset shifted. The variety of community partnership experiences provided opportunities to expand on the definition of science education and careers. By viewing science careers in a nontraditional format, many of the girls were considering participating in advanced science coursework and pursuing science career options.

Finally, the girls shared the opportunity to differentiate or co-create curriculum a significant experience that contributed to their science participation. Ms. Wanda did not identify curriculum co-creation/differentiation as a factor that increased girls’ science participation.

While Ms. Wanda presented a predetermined assignment or lesson to her students, she did provide opportunities for the students to modify or expand the presented plan. During a lesson on sound waves Laura wondered how music sound waves affected how fast people ran. Laura talked with Ms. Wanda about an independent project that would explore her questions. With Ms.

Wanda’s encouragement, Laura researched her questions and shared her results with the class.

The girls shared an increased ownership of their learning when they were allowed to tailor a lesson to personal interests in more direct ways than Ms. Wanda originally presented or the opportunity to choose their individual work setting (alone, partnership or group).

Ms. Wanda viewed some girl-girl partnerships as more socially distracting. However, many of the girls identified working with a girl partner as an experience that allowed them to be more relaxed and increased enjoyment of the science lesson. For example, Hazel shared that she was initially anxious and nervous about a lesson involving building a catapult and getting it to shoot marshmallows into another student’s mouth. She didn’t know what a catapult was therefore not sure how to build one. When Ms. Wanda that shared the students could choose their own partners, Hazel chose a girl partner because “I knew it would be hard, but I knew my friend

199 wouldn’t laugh at me. I knew she would give me confidence and that helps me grow.” Ms.

Wanda’s willingness and encouragement to support students’ co-creation and differentiation of science lessons to more individualized lessons resulted in increasing girls’ valuing science content and willingness to participate in advanced science courses as well as consider science careers.

PBE and Girls’ Participation in Science Education and Careers

The literature connecting place-based education and girls’ participation in advanced science education and science careers is limited. There is literature discussing the impact PBE can have on a child’s connections to the importance of community. Gruenewald (2010) explains place-based education expands learning opportunities that connect community, educators and students in order to increase the importance and extend the depth of curriculum understanding.

Sobel (2005) elaborates that the uses of PBE teaching strategies have been shown to increase student interest and enjoyment in learning curriculum. Additionally, there is extensive literature on the obstacles girls encounter that prevent or discourage participation in advanced science education and the importance of exploring alternative teachings strategies that support girls’ participation in science and the pursuit of science careers. Barton et al. (2013) explains that girls’ science participation is impacted by expanded science opportunities, individual science support and recognized science work. Brickhouse and Potter (2001) states scientific activities need to be congruent with gender identities and community connections in order to increase girls’ interest in science education. Ms. Wanda’s actions and thoughts included all the elements of highly effective place-based educational teaching practices. However, Ms. Wanda also incorporated specific teaching strategies the girls needed in order to increase their belief that they were

200 competent and capable of participation in advanced science coursework and pursing science specific careers.

Ms. Wanda understood the importance of taking time to learn and celebrate each student’s academic successes and limitations. She provided opportunities to improve science skills in a safe and caring environment that encouraged the girls in her class to support and challenge each other to achieve science success and confidence. Ms. Wanda used the individual interests of her students as gateways to introduce required science concepts. Community partners were used to help move students to a deeper understanding and application of science concepts in a manner that would promote participation and interest among all her students, especially the girls.

With only three years of teaching experience, Ms. Wanda is a fairly new middle school science teacher. However, she uses the complexities of place-based education and the specific needs of her female students to create a fun, loving, and challenging science learning environment. Ms. Wanda frequently reflected on her teaching practices and the needs of her students. She understood the girls in her class and used their individual interests as a stepping stone to entice participation in science learning. The result is a PBE middle school science class where girls genuinely participate, love, and value science. These girls see their individual futures including advanced science coursework and careers.

The study revealed that while there were challenges to implementing and accessing PBE education, there were no identified drawbacks. For example, Ms. Wanda shared that teacher preparation time needed to develop lessons, community partnerships, obtain material resources, in addition to a reduced salary, was a challenge. However, she was not willing to seek employment at a public school where these challenges could be reduced. The benefits of working

201 in a PBE setting outweighed the challenges and personal financial limitations. Several of the girls in Ms. Wanda’s class lived off the island where Riverfront Academy was located. They commuted up to one hour each way to school. Parents had to drive thirty or more minutes to get students to the school bus stop. This required families to either carpool or modify work schedules to get to the bus stop on time. Once at the bus stop students rode for an additional half hour to get to school. Some of the girls’ parents drove the entire distance to school and back home each day.

The distance between their classmates’ homes created a challenge to complete class projects that required homework. However, the support of their parents’ commitment to PBE at Riverfront

Academy encouraged the girls to creatively find ways to complete homework projects and increased their appreciation for the opportunity to learn in a PBE environment.

Limitations

This is a limited study involving only one PBE science classroom, one teacher and one group of middle school girls and a specific limited period of time. However, from the depth of the examination, we can gain significant insights into the impact PBE teaching strategies have on the lived experiences of eighth grade middle school girls in a science classroom. This provides the opportunity for an increased understanding of the teacher’s and students’ experiences which counters the sample size limitation. It is important to note that data from parents was not collected. To include this stakeholder category, data could be collected in future studies.

Another limitation was my role as a silent observer. I was expected to remain inconspicuous and not build relationships with students or the teacher. However, spending a significant amount of time observing and interviewing the female students and Ms. Wanda, I found myself experiencing joy as the girls reached science milestones and achievements. For example, when I learned that Molly had been accepted into a prestigious summer science camp, I

202 was overjoyed at her program acceptance. I felt the same joy as if Molly were one of my own students. I experienced excitement for Ms. Wanda as she shared her personal achievements, such as getting a house loan and preparing for her upcoming wedding, and professional frustrations, such as lack of adequate preparation time, during the course of the study. I see this as a limitation because relationships can potentially cloud judgment, specifically in qualitative research when the data analysis instrument is the researcher herself.

Significance and Implications

Exploring teaching instructional strategies that encourage and promote girls’ increased participation in science class has paramount importance to diverse communities. First, I address the research community. This data can be used to inform other studies as well as in conjunction with other studies to examine individual components as well as to advance research on increasing girls’ science participation and pursuing science-specific careers. My study confirms and extends current research on girls’ experiences in the middle school science classroom. While current research themes were supported, they were also extended and new themes emerged.

Specifically, these include the importance of student directed differentiated lessons and assignments, the implications of girls’ perceptions of boys’ maturity, and the effects of girls’ future marriage and family considerations on future science participation and career pursuit.

Place-based education suggests a focus on pedagogy with interconnections between student, teacher, and community, and critical pedagogy of place’s foundational core is focused on a balance between community, environment, and experiential connections that includes a transformation of students’ social, political, and economic societal conditions. As discussed in the critical framework for this study, critical pedagogy of place suggests a blending of PBE and transformative education’s complementary components as a way to provide compatibility with

203 the science concepts and inquiry practices advocated in the most recent changes in national and state standards. My study adds to this framework by exploring how Ms. Wanda’s Riverfront

Academy eighth grade girls’ science experiences provided opportunities that encouraged and supported them to continue participation in advanced science classes and pursuing science- specific careers. Supporting and encouraging girls to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science careers are areas in need of additional research to both advance the conversation and to increase girls’ success in the sciences.

Second, I address the community of employers who recruit women to enter the science career world from research companies to application-based science careers. This data can be used to inform employers what is needed in order to encourage girls to participate in advanced science courses in the pursuit of science-specific careers. The girls in this study were clear in their unwillingness to compromise their future families for a science career. Employers need to consider and explore resources in order to make science careers more family-friendly. This could include but is not limited to considering job sharing, working from home, on-site child care/preschool, and flexing work hours to accommodate women with children.

Third, I address the community of science educators who teach middle school girls experience unique challenges. At this age, girls are struggling with personal identity and confidence. This study provides teachers with strategies to encourage and promote girls’ participation in science. As the girls in this study were preparing to enter high school, these strategies can be beneficial to high school teachers to continue providing science learning experiences that support girls’ pursuit of advanced science coursework and science-focused careers. Specifically, the importance of community partnerships, co-creation of curriculum and assignments, as well as learning environment, were viewed as providing experiences in science

204 class that supported girls’ participation in science both academically and as a career option.

Utilizing engaging and challenging projects, while encouraging and believing in student science success, were acknowledged as fun science learning experiences by the girls in this study.

Additionally, and ideally, this research can aid teacher preparation programs by providing educational strategies that can equip future teachers with techniques that will support girls’ participation in advanced science courses and pursuing science-based careers. In this study, the girls’ acknowledge comfort in their teacher’s ability to help them find information, not necessarily needing to know all the content. The experience of co-learning and sharing new knowledge with their teacher was important and enhanced the science learning experience.

Fourth, I address the community of middle school girls who have an interest in science and those who have been turned off by negative experiences in science class. The girls in this study did not enjoy traditional textbook science learning. However, they were willing to do this style of learning when they knew a related activity or lab would be the follow-up lesson. The girls in this study demonstrated perseverance as they experienced opportunities to redo work until mastery of science concepts. They co-created their learning opportunities by suggesting differentiated curriculum, as well as their learning environment, in order to personalize and master science content. Personalized science learning resulted in many girls experiencing and valuing advanced science education and pursuing careers. As Ms. Wanda became aware of her students’ interests, she connected her teaching to meet the needs her students. As interest and excitement for science increased, the girls demonstrated increased willingness to participate in science class and pursue science careers. Additionally, the importance of community partnerships were viewed as important experiences in science class that supported girls’ participation in science both academically and as a career option. The girls believed they were making a societal difference

205 when they worked with community members, specifically by removing invasive species, planting native willow trees, and organizing clothing at a community outreach program.

The timing of this study is professionally significant given the increased political, industrial, and institutional pressures on teachers to increase girls’ participation in science coursework and careers. Currently, industrialized countries believe that the foundation for future competiveness success of a well-educated workforce requires mandated improvement in science and mathematics education. This study encourages teachers to critically reflect on their individual art of teaching in their classroom in relation to place-based education pedagogy. As teachers continue to be on the receiving end of these varied community pressures it will be critical that they explore alternative teaching strategies that aid in improving girls’ willingness to participate in advanced science coursework and pursue science careers.

Finally, this study is significant to me as a female middle school science teacher. The opportunity to spend extended time with Ms. Wanda and the eighth grade girls in her science class has greatly impacted my own teaching career. Since completing the observations and interviews I have returned to my own science classroom and have begun to critically look at my teaching practices and lesson plans in light of what I learned from my time at Riverfront

Academy. Knowing how impactful co-curriculum and learning environment experiences were to the girls in Ms. Wanda’s class, I have increased organic opportunities for this to occur for my students. I have evaluated and encouraged student feedback on lessons to evaluate the level of fun through the lens of engagement and challenging learning experiences. As a result, changes have been made including increasing genuine compliments and encouraging students to redo assignments in order to increase science curriculum mastery.

206

Additionally, I have begun to incorporate additional place-based educational community connections by increasing community member classroom participation and field-based inquiry learning opportunities. Increasing the social and political elements of the curricular topics has become a priority in my science teaching. The deeper understanding of the implications of place- based science education I gained through this study have provided opportunities for me to continue to improve my teaching practice and increase my commitment to providing my students a rich, personalized science education. This study has made an exceptional impact on my professional teaching practice and will for years to come.

Conclusion

Mattem and Schau (2002), as well as Sadler et al. (2012), have identified that girls’ motivation to participate in science course work begins to decrease during the middle school years, grades six through eight, and continues to decline throughout high school. Researchers and teachers have tried various strategies to encourage girls’ participation in higher education science courses and pursue science-specific careers. However, these strategies have made minimal gains.

Through the presented questions, I have attempted to highlight the perceived experiences of eighth grade girls and their teacher in a place-based education (PBE) science classroom and how these experiences impact the girls’ willingness to participate in advanced science courses and pursue science-specific careers.

There has been minimal research on place-based education’s gender specific/science curricula impact. Through their perceived experiences, I have identified PBE curriculum strategies that encouraged girls’ participation in their current science class. Additionally, the girls’ and their teacher’s perceived experiences resulted in the development of a foundation that encouraged the girls to continue their science education by participation in advanced science

207 courses at the high school and college levels. Several of the girls in this study also considered pursuing science-specific careers. Long term research with the girls’ in this study, monitoring their science participation and career exploration as they move through high school, college, and career could provide additional insights into the long-term impact their PBE middle school science education foundation had on their participation in advanced science education and science career pursuit.

In addition, I have attempted to illustrate new questions that arise when applying the participants’ insights in the gender and science research, all of which are currently ongoing in the literature. Brickhouse et al. (2000) has suggested it is necessary to consider gender and other factors that contribute to science learning. It appears curriculum developers and researchers need to consider questions concerning gender and science on a whole-school level. Brickhouse et al.

(2000) and Brickhouse and Potter (2001) discuss school values and norms and their impact on the formation of student scientific identity. However, no studies could be found that focused specifically on a place-based education school’s overall culture or administration impacts in relation to girls in science. Therefore, I suggest more specific research of these factors is needed.

While this study is limited to one PBE classroom science teacher and her eleven eighth grade girls, I believe cases such as this could be useful in helping pre-service and in-service teachers, as well as researchers and curriculum developers understand issues of girls’ participation in school science. Based on this study’s findings, I believe when teaching middle school girls, it is important to tailor science curriculum methods and learning environments to meet their learning interests and needs. By finding meaningful places and providing students opportunities to co-create curriculum, educators could assist middle school girls in the discovery of science education and careers as enjoyable and meaningful to their future.

208

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Appendices

Appendix A: Student Drawings Perception of science before PBE Instruction

During the interview process student participants were asked to draw a picture of their science experience prior to entering Riverfront Academy. Picture A was drawn by Calliope. She shared that in her previous science class, the students who were identified as smart sat in the front row and the others sat in the back. The students completed worksheet packets every day. Calliope shared that the students were expected to have perfect posture and stay in their seats. The teacher was at the front of the class lecturing most days. Calliope shared labs and activities were rare.

She did not like science in this environment.

Picture A: Calliope’s perception of her previous science class drawing.

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Picture B was drawn by Greta. She reported there was lots of noise and confusion in her previous science class. Greta struggled to focus and concentrate. She did not feel she could ask the teacher for help because she was too busy trying to keep everyone quiet so they could do their work.

Picture B: Greta’s perception of her previous science class drawing.

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Appendix B: Student drawings perception of science during PBE instruction

During the interview process student participants were asked to draw a picture of their science experience during PBE instruction at Riverfront Academy. Picture C was drawn by

Calliope. She shared that science at Riverfront Academy “was like a breath of fresh air.” She described her drawing in the following manner: the science classroom was like the roots of the tree of knowledge. The students start there but they are not limited to the classroom building.

Calliope shared she did not draw the tables because the class is not seated very often. Learning happened in the classroom, outside on the school grounds, but also all around the community.

The blank spaces were described as the time to reflect on what was learned but also openness in learning. Calliope shared, “In science there is newness every day, the white represents what is to come and time to think about what we have already learned.”

Picture C: Calliope’s perception of her PBE science class drawing.

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Picture D was drawn by Greta. This drawing showed several activities that were done in the class room as represented by the box around her work. Greta shared, learning about soil, plants and animal, pH testing, taking notes, and working with a partner. She discussed that partners were both fellow students and Ms. Wanda. They were all partners in learning science.

Greta further explained that all the white around the box represented the newness of each class day. She stated, “In science, there is something new every day. That’s why it’s white, we never know what is going to be going on, but whatever it is, I know I will really enjoy science class.”

Picture D: Greta’s perception of her PBE science class drawing.

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Appendix C: Shea Journal Partial Notes

During each observation, detailed notes were written in a journal. The observation sessions were audio taped and then transcribed by me. At the end of the observation, prior to leaving the study site I would review my notes and write in additional thoughts or questions. I would then leave the site, listening to the audio tape as I drove. When I returned home that evening, I would transcribe the recording and incorporate my field notes into the transcription. I would review the transcriptions prior to the next observation. The following are partial notes from my first observation session.

Journal Notes #1 Purpose: To get acquainted with the school environment. Length of Observation: 90 minutes

After I leave the slow moving freeway traffic and merge onto residential streets, I’m struck by the unusually warm day. I continue down the somewhat busy street until I have to turn onto a two lane bridge. Once across I turn onto a side road and begin to feel as if I am moving back in time. The traffic thins as the roadside businesses become sparser. Each building, while its occupants are contemporary, appears aged but fairly well maintained. I continue my drive. The traffic continues to thin, as do the businesses. I cross a second bridge and feel as if I have driven into a country movie. As I drive to the school I’m surrounded by farmland. The fields have been tilled and late winter and early Spring crops intermixed with areas of openness. The view is amazing and calming. The miles of openness are inviting, relaxing, and encouraging. I am so focused on the beauty of the landscape that I almost miss my turn off to the school. I park the car and sit, appreciating the elegance of the farm fields. The warm sun and the beautiful view peak my curiosity—How can kids focus on school work with all this amazingness around them!? The school appears to be surrounded by farm fields, grass fields and a few residential houses. I notice a large grass area and wonder if this is where to students play during recess and lunch but discount the idea as there is no climbing structures or basketball courts, just open space. I walk towards the school building and down the side stairs that lead to the main office. A huge deciduous tree has started greeting visitors with its new greenery growth. The tree is 226 massive and once the leaves have developed, will provide cooling shade to those who work and visit this space. I pause at the bottom of the stairs and I am greeted with a native plants garden. This little garden welcomes visitors to the space. A wooden bench, sparsely covered with moss and wooded walking bridge are the standout structures. They are surrounded by lush green plants of varying heights—tall deciduous trees, mid high flowerless bushes and low growing green groundcover. Near the middle of the garden there are four half-barrels that appear to have had herbs planted inside. The plans are starts. I wonder if these herbs will be used by the school lunch cook or if they have some other purpose. As I look closer, I recognize lush ferns, bluebells, bleeding hearts, and several other perennials waiting for Mother Nature to signal their time to bloom. Dandelions and other plants have already awoken and welcomed the early spring season. Throughout the garden are four trees whose leaves are waking up. Soon the trees will fill out and provide garden visitors with comforting shade. I look to my right and see a cement path guiding me to the main doors of the school. As I walk the path and approach the bridge I stop again. A small side path leads to the bridge and invites walkers to come and cross. The bridge ends mid- way across the garden. The end is blocked by a small wooden fence and invites you to sit and enjoy the surroundings. A sign tells visitors; “Welcome to our Native Plant Habitat: Home to Frogs, Salamanders, and Aquatic Insects.” Here the path forks. Looking down the left path I can see the county road. It divides the school’s lush green lawn and budding Camilla Tree and the dark nutrient rich sprouting farmland rows. On my right of this path, a flower bed lines the side of the school building. Roses, bleeding hearts, Iris, and other plants are patiently waiting for their opportunity to share their natural beauty with those who walk by. The wall of the school has been divided into mural columns. The first shows a red school house with a large welcome sign above it, the next two playful child’s feet on tip-toes with the title “Caution: Critters Underfoot,” the next panel shows various bird houses with a bright sunshine and white fence in the background. A Blue Jay sits on the middle bird house as if he is the sentry of the gardens; and the final panel is a split mural with a smiling moon and stars on top and a smiling sunshine on the bottom. The symbolism in each mural panel suggests the visitor is entering a space where the occupants love and respect the natural world around them 24 hours a day. The fork to the right is the entrance to the school. The entrance wall is all glass uncovered windows which flood the entry area with natural light. The right side of this glass wall is the cafeteria wall again providing natural light into the space. As I walk into the school I notice the

227 relaxed feeling of the space and the relaxed manner of the secretary. She warmly greets me, asks me to sign in, and then encourages me to make myself comfortable and to “feel at home.” I notice more murals on the walls. Especially impressive is a huge tree mural that extends from floor to ceiling and to adjacent walls. The branches give the impression of continuous growth. There are many leaves on the tree, several with student names on them. All the murals have a professional, yet child friendly appearance that draws the viewer into the scene. The teacher who I will be observing walks through the lobby with her lunch and invites me to join her, or go ahead to the classroom to get settled before the students arrive. I decide to make my way to the classroom. I walk down a student decorated hallway. Every child eye-level space is filled with art work and assignments proudly showing the accomplishments of the students. I pass through a set of glass double doors into a “mud room” area where several dozen pairs of boots and rain jackets are located. (I wonder if these are loaner boots, or if the students bring their own and leave them there when the weather is not warranting their wear.) I then pass through another class door into a covered play area. Several younger children are playing with jump ropes and hula hoops. I follow a short path passed an impressive oak tree—I wonder if this tree was used for the model for the mural tree in the lobby. A small group of children are playing tag around this tree and in the grassy area that surrounds it. I continue to walk towards the classroom, which is located in a portable. I pass a dilapidated green house frame with door—no roof, the playground equipment with several children climbing, swinging and sliding, and a football/soccer field complete with a bark chip walking track. Many children are playing soccer—more than enough for two teams, yet no one is on the sideline, everyone is running. There are students who are walking the track as well as a few adults. I look around and see that there are a few benches and tables, no one— adult or child is using them. What I do not see are students sitting or standing in place talking/reading or adults standing strategically within the various play areas watching the children. Everywhere I look, children and adults are moving. I wonder if this is the common practice or if everyone is just enjoying the atypical sunny warm day) I continue walking to the sun bleached grey portable building that houses three classrooms. I enter the first door which is the science classroom I will be doing my observation. The classroom is crowded with tables, chairs, student lockers, portable sink, and a small area that is designated as the teacher’s corner. Each table can seat two students. The tables are arranged in a

228 mixture of rows and groups. A total of twelve student tables take up the majority of the floor space. The tables are completely cleared off, with two standard sized orange back chairs pushed under. As I look around the room I notice there are no textbooks, the front whiteboard is cleared, and the side whiteboard has the daily plans listed for each grade that will spend a portion of the day in this space. Posters are around the room; each poster encouraging and supporting student learning. One poster catches my attention. It reads, “It’s okay to not know, but it is NOT okay to not try.” Another poster reminds students on the process of learning—a growth mindset-- TACK—Thinking, Application, Communication and Knowledge. My line of sight is drawn to the large windows located on two opposite walls. As I look out one window I see a large cherry tree, at least 45 feet tall. There is a slight breeze outside which is gently blowing some the tree’s soft pink blossoms to the ground. Some areas under the tree are a pink blanket of blossoms. Other areas moving away from the tree have blossoms scattered about the lush green lawn. Next to this window is a large whiteboard divided into three sections. Each middle school grade has a section and the day’s agenda is listed on the board. I turn my attention to the opposite window. As I look out I see the greenhouse, children playing in the field and walking the track, and again, the acres of green grass inviting the students to play. (I wonder how these windows and their amazing view impact the students: distract the students from their learning, or if the addition of the large amount of natural light that comes in helps encourage students to develop their learning and growth mindset light the wall poster encourages, or something else that I have not thought about.) Next to this window is a large corkboard with a monthly calendar listing assignments and school events.

I turn my attention to the lockers. These caught me off-guard. The lockers take up 80% of the back wall space. They are grey and old. Some have locks, but many do not. There are fifteen lockers stacked two high. Many of the lockers have small folders with student names on them. Some of the folders have notes inside. I’m curious as to who wrote the notes, and why not all lockers have the folders and locks. On top of the row of lockers are several storage bins and boxes all filled to capacity. There are tall piles of tri-folders and other student projects. Next to the lockers is an old wooden bookcase filled with microscopes, tin cans filled with colored pencils and other project supplies, old science reference books, and storage file containers filled with CDs.

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As I look around the room, students begin to enter. They appear to be about sixth grade. This is based on their size, behaviors and conversation as they struggle to open their lockers. They grab books and other needed supplies from their lockers and head to the interior exit door that leads to the classroom next door. Just as they finish getting their supplies, another wave of students enters the room. They get their notebooks, pencil and iPad from the lockers and find a seat. These are the eighth graders who are staying in this class for their science lesson. The room is filled with the energy of 13 and 14 year olds. There are conversations about tv shows, pop music, history class homework, speculation about what is happening in science today, and complaining about another teacher’s homework assignment. The energy is one of anticipation. The students quickly find their seats and the teacher begins. (I’m wonder as I did not hear a bell ring—how did the students know it was time to go to class—they were at lunch break.)

I look around the room and notice—there are 11 girls and 8 boys in the class. I diagram the locations each student is. The girls are all seated by girls, boys seated next to boys (I wonder if the students self-selected their seats or if they are assigned.)

End partial journal notes.

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Appendix D: Interview Questions: Teacher

Before each interview, I reviewed the consent form found in Appendix F. The interview questions were semi-structured and many were open-ended so these initial questions were asked and then the participant responses would determine follow-up questions that were asked to obtain additional understanding. The interviews were used to member check and theme check with each participant.

The teacher questions are listed below:

1. How would you describe yourself?

2. How would your co-workers and students describe you?

3. Tell me about your life experiences that influenced your decision to become an

educator.

4. What is your current position and how long have you held this position? Have you

taught at any other schools?

5. What is your teaching credentials (highly qualified, certification, National Board)?

6. Tell me the story of how you become a middle school science teacher?

7. Tell me about your educational philosophy and what life experiences shaped your

philosophy.

8. How would you describe your school and your students?

9. Please describe what participation in your science class looks like.

10. Please describe your perception of participation differences in your class between

boys and girls in your class.

11. Please describe ways you consider student gender when preparing and teaching your

science lessons. What challenges do you face teaching science to girls?

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12. Please describe science teaching strategies you use to encourage girls to participate in

your class.

13. Please describe how your place-based education science curriculum supports girls’

science participation in your class.

14. Please describe any changes and challenges you have regarding teaching the PBE

science curriculum and how these influence girls’ participation in your science class.

15. What are the best aspects of teaching science in a PBE school? How do these best

aspects impact the 8th grade girls in your science class?

16. What are the most influential characteristics of science in a PBE school? How do

these characteristics influence the 8th grade girls in your science class?

17. Please share a true story about a girl in your class who you think was really changed

or transformed by Place-based science education.

a. Why do you think this happened?

18. Please explain how the community interconnections in your classroom

a. Other students

b. Parents

c. Other teachers/administration

d. Businesses

e. Neighbors

f. Volunteers

19. How do you support and/or encourage girls’ to participate in advance science

courses?

20. How do you support and/or encourage girls’ to pursue science specific careers?

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21. Do you have any final comments? Are there any questions I should have asked that I

didn’t that can improve my understanding of your science teaching and the girls’

experienced responses to your teaching?

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Appendix E: Interview Questions: Student

Before each interview, I reviewed the individual participant parent consent and student assent forms found in Appendix F. The interview questions were semi-structured and many were open-ended so these initial questions were asked and then the participant responses would determine follow-up questions that were asked to obtain additional understanding. The interviews were used to member check and theme check with each participant.

The following are the student interview questions:

1. Tell me about yourself. How would your friends, parents and teachers describe you?

2. What is your current age, grade and how long have you gone to this school?

3. Tell me about your school.

4. Draw a picture showing your PBE science class. Please describe your picture, sharing

your thoughts and feelings about your PBE science class.

5. Think about a science unit that stands out to you.

a. Please describe the lessons,

b. what you thought about the lessons, and

c. how you felt about the lessons, from the first day until the end of the unit.

6. What other schools have you attended?

7. Draw a picture of your previous science class. Please describe your picture, sharing

your thoughts and feelings about the differences between the two science classes

8. What role do you play in your science learning?

a. How do you influence what you are learning in class?

b. How do you learn from your peers?

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c. How does your teacher help and encourage you to learn science topics you are

interested in?

9. Tell me about your best science class ever and what you enjoyed most about the class.

10. Tell me about your worst science class ever. What annoys you the most about

science?

11. What could teachers do to make science fun and interesting? How does your science

teacher make science fun and interesting?

12. How does your teacher connect science and you to your community?

a. What were your thoughts and feelings about these connections?

b. How have these connections affected your view of the community or world

around you?

c. What was your teacher’s role in these experiences?

d. How have you changed as a result of these connections?

13. Describe how girls experience science

a. How is this experience different from boys?

b. How have these differences affected your ability to learn, participate and like

your science class?

14. If you could be in charge of science class, what would your class look like?

a. What would you study?

b. What materials would you need?

c. What would the teacher be doing?

d. Where would the class be?

e. What would the students be doing?

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f. How would you know the girls in the class were learning and having fun in

science class?

15. Draw a picture of how you see your future in science. Please describe your picture,

sharing your thoughts and feelings about your future in science. What ways will you

use the science you are learning now later in life? What science classes do you plan

on taking in high school and college?

16. What type of job do you want to have when you are an adult? Do you see yourself

working in a science field when you grow up? Please explain why/why not.

17. If you could choose if you had a boy or a girl lab partner, who would you choose and

why?

18. Is there anything that I should have asked you about your science class that I didn’t?

Please share anything else you would like to share with me regarding you and

science?

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Appendix F: Informed Consent/Assent Forms

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY-Vancouver Department of Education Research Study Parent Permission Form

Study Title: Middle School Girls: Experiences in a Place-based Education Science Classroom Researchers: Primary Investigator: Dr. Richard Sawyer Department of Teaching & Learning WSU Vancouver 14202 NE Salmon Creek Ave Vancouver, WA 98686 (360) 546-9658 [email protected] Co-Investigator: Charlene Shea Graduate Student Educational Leadership Doctoral Student 360-281-6393 [email protected] or [email protected] Dear Parent(s), You are being asked to allow your child to take part in a research study conducted by Richard Sawyer and Charlene Shea. Please read this form carefully take as much time as you need. Ask the researcher to explain anything you don’t understand. This study has been approved for human subjects to take part by the Washington State University Institutional Review Board.

You may refuse to give permission, or you may withdraw your permission for your child to be in the study, for any reason. Your child will also be asked if she would like to take part in this study. Even if you give your permission, your child can decide not to be in the study or to leave the study at any time.

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What is this research study about? The purposes of this study, a doctoral dissertation, are to determine (1) how middle school science teachers at a place-based education school perceive how their teaching strategies’ influence the participation of girls in the science classroom and (2) how their students’, middle school girls, experience this science curriculum. I am asking your permission for your child to be in the study because she is a middle school grade girl currently taking a science class in a place-based educational school. The study interviews will be conducted during May 21, 2015 and June 15, 2015.

What will my child be asked to do if she is in this study? If your child takes part in the study, she will be asked to participate in up to two interviews related to how she feels about science, observed in her regular science class to gather participation and experiences data, and allow a review her school work. The interview may be audio taped in order to accurately record student statements.

Are there any benefits to my child if she is in this study?

The potential benefits to your child for taking part in this study are your child will be able to express how she experiences science. This may aid her in clarifying how science impacts her daily life and future science choices. Additionally, if your child participates in this study, it may help other students and teachers in the future.

Are there any risks to my child if she is in this study?

The potential risks to your child from taking part in this study are your child may miss up to three science classes, while participating in the interview process. Every effort will be made to minimize missed class time and arrangements with your child’s science teacher will be made to assure critical class content is not missed or to conduct the interviews during lunch break or other non-instructional times. Your child may experience some discomfort such as stress or boredom during the interview process or minor self-consciousness during the observations. If your child shows any signs of discomfort, the opportunity to discontinue the process will be offered and a referral to the school counselor will be made.

Will information about my child be kept private? The data for this study are being collected confidentially. The data will be kept private and confidential to the extent allowed by federal and state law. All data will be kept in a locked storage area in which passwords or combination codes are needed in order to access your child’s information. To further protect confidentiality, students will select an

238 individual pseudonym that they will be referred to during the course of this study. I will be sharing some of the data with my advisor and other university personnel. I am a mandatory reporter for all child abuse or neglect concerns.

The results of this study will be written in a final report for my dissertation presented to WSU-Vancouver. The results of this study may be published or presented at professional meetings but your child’s name will not be used or associated with the findings. The data for this study will be kept for three years, ending on June 30, 2018 to assure completion of the dissertation process. Are there any costs or payments for your child being in this research study? There will be no costs to you or your child for taking part in this study. Your child will not receive payment or any other form of compensation for taking part in this study. What are my child’s rights as a study volunteer? Your child’s participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your child may choose not to take part in this study, choose not to answer specific questions, or leave the study at any time. There will be no penalty or loss of benefits to which you or your child are entitled if you choose not to give your permission for your child to take part or your child withdraws from the study. Who can I talk to if I have questions? This study has been approved for human subject participation by the Washington State University Institutional Review Board. If you have questions about this study or the information in this form, please contact Charlene Shea at [email protected]. If you have questions about your rights or your child’s rights as a study participant, or would like to report a concern or complaint about this study, please contact the Dr. Richard Sawyer at Washington State University-Vancouver, 14202 NE Salmon Creek Ave., Vancouver WA. 98686 at 360.546.9658 or [email protected] What does my signature on this consent form mean?

Your signature on this form (next page) means that:

 You understand the information given to you in this form  You have been able to ask the researcher questions and state any concerns  The researcher has responded to your questions and concerns  You believe you understand the research study and the potential benefits and risks that are involved for your child.  You understand the interview and observation sessions may be audio taped  You understand that even if you give your permission, you child may choose not to take part in the study.

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Statement of Parent Permission I give my voluntary permission for my child to take part in this study. I will be given a copy of this permission document for my records. My child can NOT be audio taped______

My child CAN be audio taped______

______Signature of Parent Date

______Printed Name of Parent Statement of Person Obtaining Parent Permission

I have carefully explained to the parent of the child being asked to take part in the study what will happen to their child. I certify that when this person signs this form, to the best of my knowledge, he or she understands the purpose, procedures, potential benefits, and potential risks of his or her child’s participation. I also certify that she:

 Speaks the language used to explain this research  Reads well enough to understand this form or, if not, this person is able to hear and understand when the form is read to her  Does not have any problems that could make it hard to understand what it means for her child to take part in this research. ______Signature of Person Obtaining Parent Permission Date Charlene Shea WSU-V Doctoral Student ______Printed Name of Person Obtaining Consent Role in the Research Study

WSU IRB #14404-001 Approved: 5/21/2015 Version Valid until: 5/20/2016

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WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY-Vancouver (Department of Education)

Research Study Assent Form (For 11-14 year age range social/behavior studies)

Study Title: Middle School Girls: Experiences in a Place-based Education Science Classroom Researchers: Primary Investigator Dr. Richard Sawyer Department of Teaching & Learning WSU Vancouver 14202 NE Salmon Creek Ave Vancouver, WA 98686 (360) 546-9658 [email protected] Co-Investigator: Charlene Shea Graduate Student Educational Leadership Doctoral Student 360-281-6393 [email protected] or [email protected] My name is Ms. Charlene Shea. I am from Washington State University. I am inviting you to take part in a research study. Your parent(s) know I am talking with you about the study. This form will tell you about the study to help you decide whether or not you want to participate. What is this study about? The reasons for this research study are to find out (1) how middle school science teachers at a place-based education school, your school, perceive how their teaching strategies’ influence the participation of girls in the science classroom and (2) how their students’, middle school girls-- you, experience this science curriculum. I am asking your permission for you to be in the study because you are a middle school grade girl currently taking a science class in a place-based educational school

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What am I being asked to do? If you decide to be in the study, I will ask you to participate in up to two interviews, observe you in your science class, review your lab book and class assignments and observe you in your regular science classroom. The interviews will be audio taped in order to assure I’m accurate in recording your statements. What are the benefits to me for taking part in the study? o Taking part in this research study may not help you in any way, but it might help me learn how middle school girls experience science class in a place-based education school. o If you take part in this study, you might learn how science impacts your daily life and future science choices.

Can anything bad happen if I am in this study? You may miss out on what is happening in your regular science class up to two times, because you will be participating in up to two interviews and the last one to help clarify statements you made during your previous interview. Every effort will be made so you do not miss critical class time. I will be working with your teacher to assure the timing of the interviews are done at the best possible time so you do not miss critical class time. The interviews will be conducted in the school library and your teacher will not have access to your responses. You can freely answer all questions without worrying that your teacher will know what you said. Who will know that I am in the study? I won’t tell anybody that you are in this study and everything you tell me and do will be private and confidential. Your teacher and parent may know that you took part in the study, but I won’t tell them anything you said or did. When I tell other people or write a paper about what I learned in the study, I won’t include your name or that of anyone else who took part in the study. I do have to report child abuse or neglect. Do I have to be in the study?

No, you don’t. The choice is up to you. No one will get angry or upset if you don’t want to do this. And you can change your mind anytime if you decide you don’t want to be in the study anymore. What if I have questions? If you have questions at any time, you can ask me, your teacher, and you can talk to your parents about the study. I will give you a copy of this form to keep. If you want to ask me questions about the study you can at any time.

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Washington State University-Vancouver professor, Dr. Richard Sawyer, has reviewed this study to make sure that the rights and safety of people who take part in the study are protected. This study has been approved for human subject participation by the Washington State University Institutional Review Board. If you have questions about your rights in the study, or you are unhappy about something that happens to you in the study, you can contact him at 360.546.9658 or [email protected]. Do you have any questions about the study? We can talk about these now and during the study. **************************************************************************************************** IF YOU WANT TO BE IN THE STUDY, SIGN AND PRINT YOUR NAME ON THE LINE BELOW: I might audio tape your participation in this study. Please put an X on this line if it is okay for me to audio tape (record) you ______

______Sign your name Date ______Print your name Statement of Person Obtaining Assent I have carefully explained to the student taking part in the study what she can expect. I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, the child understands the purpose, procedures, potential risks and benefits of the study and his or her rights as a participant. I also certify that she:

 Speaks the language used to explain the study.  Reads well enough to understand this form or, if not, this student is able to hear and understand when the form is read to her  Does not have any problems that could make it hard to understand what it means to take part in this study. ______Signature of person obtaining assent Date Charlene Shea WSU-V Doctoral Student ______Printed Name of Person Obtaining Consent Role in the Research Study

WSU IRB #14404-001 Approved: 5/21/2015 Version Valid until: 5/20/2016

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WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY College of Education

Research Study Consent Form Study Title: Middle School Girls: Experiences in a Place-based Education Science Classroom Researchers: Primary Investigator Dr. Richard Sawyer Department of Teaching & Learning WSU Vancouver 14202 NE Salmon Creek Ave Vancouver, WA 98686 (360) 546-9658 [email protected] Co-Investigator: Charlene Shea Graduate Student Educational Leadership Doctoral Student 360-281-6393 [email protected] or [email protected]

You are being asked to take part in a study being conducted by Dr. Richard Sawyer and Charlene Shea. This consent form explains the study and your part in it if you decide to join the study. Please read the form carefully, taking as much time as you need. Ask me to explain anything you don’t understand. You can decide not to join the study. If you join the study, you can change your mind later or quit at any time. There will be no penalty or loss of services or benefits if you decide to not take part in the study or quit later. This study has been approved for human subject participation for the purpose of a class study by the Washington State University Institutional Review Board. What is this study about? The purposes of this study, a doctoral dissertation, are to determine (1) how middle school science teachers at a place-based education school perceive how their teaching strategies’ influence the participation of girls in the science classroom and (2) how their students’, middle school girls, experience this science curriculum. . This study seeks to

244 collect data from middle school teachers to discover how teaching strategies are affecting middle school girls’ science class experiences. What will I be asked to do if I am in this study? If you take part in the study, you will be asked to answer questions according to a predetermined interview protocol concerning your perception(s) of your teaching strategies that promote participation in your science classroom. You will also be asked to allow, Charlene Shea one thirty minute observation of you teaching a science lesson of your choice in your teaching setting, and to complete a brief written reflection at the conclusion of that observation. Are there any benefits to me if I am in this study? There is no direct benefit to you from being in this study, though you may gain a deeper perspective of your practice upon reflection. If you take part in this study, you may help inform future research concerning improving teaching instruction in middle school science curriculum. Are there any risks to me if I am in this study? There are no potential risks involved in this study, but if you feel uncomfortable in any way, you may choose not to participate in the study immediately. Will my information be kept private? The data for this study will be kept confidential to the extent allowed by federal and state law. No resulting documents will identify you, and your name will not be associated with the findings. Results will be shared in my dissertation defense and will not identify participants by name. Voice recordings will be taken of the interview; recordings will be destroyed once transcriptions are typed. The data for this study will be kept until the completion of the dissertation process and then destroyed. Are there any costs or payments for being in this study? There will be no costs to you for taking part in this study. You will not receive money or any other form of compensation for taking part in this study. Who can I talk to if I have questions?

This study has been approved for human subject participation by the Washington State University Institutional Review Board. If you have questions about this study or the information in this form, please contact Charlene Shea. If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, or would like to report a concern or complaint about this study, contact my committee chairperson Dr. Richard Sawyer, [email protected].

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What are my rights as a research study volunteer? Your participation in this research study is completely voluntary. You may choose not to be a part of this study. There will be no penalty to you if you choose not to take part. You may choose not to answer specific questions or to stop participating at any time. What does my signature on this consent form mean? Your signature on this form means that:

 You understand the information given to you in this form  You have been able to ask the researcher questions and state any concerns  The researcher has responded to your questions and concerns  You believe you understand the research study and the potential benefits and risks that are involved.  You understand the interview and observation sessions may be audio taped

Statement of Consent I give my voluntary consent to take part in this study. I will be given a copy of this consent document for my records. I agree to be audio recorded______

______Signature of Participant Date

Printed Name of Participant______

Statement of Person Obtaining Informed Consent

I have carefully explained to the person taking part in the study what he or she can expect. I certify that when this person signs this form, to the best of my knowledge, he or she understands the purpose, procedures, potential benefits, and potential risks of participation. I also certify that he or she:

 Speaks the language used to explain this research  Reads well enough to understand this form or, if not, this person is able to hear and understand when the form is read to him or her  Does not have any problems that could make it hard to understand what it means to take part in this research.

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______Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date Charlene Shea WSU-V Doctoral Student ______Printed Name of Person Obtaining Consent Role in the Research Study

WSU IRB #14404-001 Approved: 5/21/2015 Version Valid until: 5/20/2016

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Appendix G: Partial Interview Transcript

Prior to each interview participants were given a copy of the interview questions, given time to review the questions and ask any clarifying questions they had. During the interview the appropriate consent/assent forms were reviewed and signed. For each student participant, verification of parent permission signature was confirmed. Each interview was audio recorded, the audio was listened to multiple times prior to transcription. Then I transcribed the recording and edited each transcription multiple times to assure accuracy. The following is a partial transcript from Molly’s interview.

May, 2015, Molly interview. Location: playground picnic table

R: How long have you gone to this school? M: Since I was in first grade. R: Really? So you went somewhere else for kindergarten and then you came here? M: yeah, R: Tell me about your school. M: I like it I’ve been here practically my whole life. I don’t really know any different and I really like it. We have a small number of students, we get more 1 to 1 time with the teachers. We are small enough that they don’t have to rush around and try to see this person and this person and this person. They actually have time to sit with us and help us work through a problem when we need help. Which I like that a lot! R: Do you see this school as a school or a community based? M: It’s definitely community based. I mean we go out and we help the environment and we go out of the classroom a lot and I think that’s a really good portion of school. Because if you are in a classroom all the time you don’t really know how to plant and pull up weeds out of the garden and stuff like that.

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R: Okay so this paper is for your first drawing and that is a picture of your science class. It can be the inside the outside, a combination—since you already said you spend a lot of time outside. You can draw it any way you want to. There is no hard and fast, there is no right answer, it is just your answer. M: Okay, I have the artist skill of a kindergartener so.. R: No worries, stick people are okay and no artistic skills will be judged at any time. M: Oh good [drawing and laughing as she draws] Well in one portion of my picture I have the science class when we are indoors. The students are doing work at the tables doing indoor stuff like work sheets, quizzes, studying. And then in the other portion of my paper I have people pulling up weeds and planting and taking care of plants and talking and doing outdoor activities. R: Thinking about a science unit that really stands out to you.. M: Oh last year we did forensics and that really stands out to me, that really interested me. I thought it was really cool because before we did our unit I was interested in forensics and when we were doing the unit the teacher was like, okay,

R: So when you found out you were doing a forensics unit, what were your thoughts initially, before you started? M: I was kinda shocked because I was interested in that topic, and the teacher knew that, and I thought it was really cool that we would do that. R: So how did the teacher know you were interested in forensics? M: I talked about it all the time, really I was always talking about it. So it was really cool because I thought she did that whole unit just for me because I was interested in forensics. She did that just for me—how cool is that? End sample Molly partial interview transcription

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Appendix H: Partial classroom observation transcript

Each classroom observation was audio recorded while detailed field notes were taken. At the completion of the observation, I would review my field notes and repeatedly listen to the audio recording. After listening to the audio recording, I would transcribe each observation session. The following is a partial classroom observation transcript during a lesson on precision and accuracy.

Classroom Observation 6

T: Just think about it for a second. If you are measuring the distance between the two furthest bean bags how does that measure precision? FS4? FS4: if you have good precision then everything will be really close together and everything is going to be between the ones that are furthest apart so that makes sense T: Anyone have anything else to add to P’s? Okay, so she is exactly right so you are measuring the furthest points so everything is going to be between those points, so if the distance is small then you are pretty precise. What did you guys get for number 2, M? FS5: Uhh, T: Did your precision increase or decrease? FS5: We’re not there T: You’re not there? Alright, Yeah go ahead FS6: Our precision got worse because it was getting really hot outside and we just wanted to get done so we could go in T: Okay so what could be a key to becoming less precise? You were too hot? FS6: Yeah T: Okay, FS7? FS7: It was pretty precise at the beginning but and then I think we just kinda got tired at the end and so they were more like all over.

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T: Okay, F? F: (From B/G Grp A) Ours weren’t really precise because each time we had a couple of really wild ones so there T: Really wild? F: Pretty far away. T: Do you think if you would have taken out the outliers you would have been more precise? F: yeah it probably would have changed things T: MS what about your group, precision? MS: What? T: Precision where was your group at? MS: We didn’t do so good T: So what does that mean for precision? MS: They were far apart! T: So what does that mean for your precision? MS: Not so good T: Alright. So who would like to summarize the difference between accuracy and precision? Overall. Brian go ahead MS: I didn’t raise my hand T: Alright, Patrick? Go ahead MS: Accuracy means that when you get closer to the target and precision is how close your shots are T: Alright, okay we are going to move on from this lab and we are going to do an individual assessment. Number one, what does individual mean? Whole class: by yourselves T: Yes, by yourself. Number 2 what does assessment mean? MS: a test? T: So there’s different kinds of assessments. You can take a test, you can write a paper, you can make a video which is what you will be doing today. So there’s different ways, tasks, that I have to 251 figure out if you know something and can demonstrate it. So this is what we are doing today. You are going to have a partner to help you film because it’s kindof hard to film yourself so the partner is just for filming purposes. You’re gonna be doing the assignment yourself. FS: Oh, I have a question T: yes FS: Are you almost done with the Biology uh study guide? T: No, that’s coming from the high school because they are deciding what to test on. Break in transcription… continuing students discussing how they will demonstrate their understanding of accuracy and precision on independent assessment.

T: remember, you are doing your own iMovie [Girls stop talking] FS: Ohh can we use educreation? You can do a voice over on that? T: are you sure about that? FS: Yeah, T: Sure FS5: That’s a good idea FS: Yeah, I think it will be easier to explain if I can draw and talk about it FS5: Yeah F: What type of project should I do? MS: You should write a song! F: Yes!! You are brilliant! MS2: Why would you do that? F: It’s a fun way to learn! MS2: Oh, I guess. F: What song should I do?

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FS: T, if you do a trailer do you do the voice over at the beginning? F: No, you do it after. Okay I gotta figure out which song to use. Hello, my name’s T, Hey does it matter what order we do it? T: No any order is fine F: Hey FS, I need a song idea FS: searches for songs and starts playing music F: No not that one. [uses iPad to look up lyrics] FS2: We need a mirror in the back? MS: What? FS2: There should be a mirror in the back of the room, then I could sit this way and still read the projection. FS3: You would have to read it backwards! FS2: Oh yeah, well I still think we need a mirror in the back F: That is a brilliant idea! Oh my gosh, you are so smart T [T is name of self, student talking to self outloud] laughing, YES YES YES OKAY UM.. FS 2: What? F: Yes, okay umm Yes Yes umm okay what song should I do?!!! FS3: Fancy you should do your song to Fancy [starts humming the song melody] MS: Man, she just started freaking out. I simply suggested she do her project as a song and she is freaking out! FS: It’s brilliant!! End sample partial classroom observation transcript

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Appendix I: Partial color-coded coding process

Upon completion of each transcript was complete coding began. Below is a portion of

Greta’s interview that has been color-coded for coding purposes. This process was used to begin identifying themes with and between data.

GRETA Codes: INT= Interview OBS= Observation Z/1= speaker or observation number Boys influence Student Perspective Teacher Supports Teacher supports science education PBE 8th grade science classroom Educational Philosophy School Environment Classroom Environment PBE Challenges PBE Benefits Teacher Support: Careers Teacher Support: Advanced Classes

Research Question 4: How do girls participating in PBE middle school science perceive their experiences in a PBE science class affecting their personal participation in advanced science coursework and pursing science-focused careers?

Location Quotes: In Vivo Descriptive Code Theme Coding INT-G-268-269 You have to have Science to get good Teacher support- science to have a job careers nice job even if it is something as simple as a science teacher, without science Ms. B wouldn’t have a job INT-G-487-490 we have a big test that Test Prep Study group Teacher support- we are going to take for Biology Test advanced science to try and get into class Biology. It’s a giant packet, and we are studying for it now. We have already learned most of it, so 254

I’m pretty confident about learning these things INT-G-501-503 forensic science and I Class unit Teacher Supports definitely want to take introduction to high advanced science that class and I think school class classes there are science classes you have to take before you can take that one, so I’m going to take those classes too. INT-G-511 It would be fun to Class unit Teacher Supports take a chemistry class, introduction to high advanced science I really want to take school class classes that too if they have it. INT-G-518 definitely the science Class unit Teacher Supports that lets me learn introduction to high advanced science more about blood and school class classes human body stuff and cells.

INT-G-525-528 I’ve thought about Chemistry to pursue Teacher support mixing hair and the cosmetology career or advanced sciences to nails, because then I nursing career or achieve science could combine them disease specialist related career to do science because you get to do science with those because you have to mix all the chemicals and stuff. So I thought that would be fun. INT-G-599-601 Sometimes I wonder Positive School Environment what would have attitude/academic happened if I hadn’t changes come here, and then I think it was a good decision for me to come here. A really really good decision

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Emerging question: How do girls perceive boys influencing girls’ experiences in the science classroom?

Location Quotes: In Vivo Descriptive Code Theme Coding INT-G-389 I think that the girls Girls get big picture Global view of science- can handle things a -girls lot better than the boys can. INT-G-393 the boys think science Boys narrow view of Narrow view of is just putting science science-- boys chemicals together and trying to make explosions INT-G-395-397 the guys are very Boys not interested in Boys—physical science happy about that, they Life Science/plants don’t seem very interested in the plants and things like that.

INT-G-403 You hear all their side Boys side Boys negative impact conversations and conversations distract on girls you look at them and girls just start laughing at them. INT-G-407-409 they start talking Conversation Boys negative impact about random things Distraction example on girls success not related what we are learning and the next thing I know the teacher is saying that class is almost over and I haven’t taken the notes that I need to be ready for the next thing INT-G-413 they are teenage boys Boys make fun of Boys—negative impact and they are going to girls’ mistakes on girls’ self esteem make fun of you if you do something wrong INT-G-414-415 if you do something Boys yell at girls for Negative Self esteem wrong and you make mistakes a fool of yourself then they are going to yell

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at you and say you did it wrong. INT-G-416 They just find Boys embarrass girls Negative self esteem different ways to embarrass you. INT-G-417-419 a group of girls they Girls support and Girls— would encourage you encourage—try again supportive/encouraging, to do better. Like you positive self esteem did great, keep trying you can do it. They encourage you to try again and not feel embarrassed. INT-G-419-421 Where the boys are Boys, not supportive, Boys, don’t encourage like, you did that don’t try again perseverance of girls wrong you suck, don’t try that again cause you will mess up again with the guys.

INT-G-555-556 I’d choose a girl Girls do all the work, Unequal distribution of because I just feel boys goof around work like at this age the boys are kinda goofing around and the girl will do all the work INT-G-559 if they don’t get their Girls frustrated with Boys cause frustration part done then you boys who don’t do get stuck doing the their share of work whole thing and that’s frustrating. INT-G-570 The boys usually just Boys do public Boys seek public do the presentation presentation, not prep recognition for work part but not much of work they didn’t complete the work before hand. INT-G-573-576 If we are doing a lab Boys do labs that Unequal work that involves involve chemical, distribution combining things or otherwise girls do all chemicals then the work boys are more into it because they are interested. But if not then the girls do everything and the

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boys just sit and talk because they are not really interested INT-G-577-580 I just feel you can Girls connect and Girls supportive of connect with them support each other successes more. You know like if you don’t understand something they are not going to make fun of you or be mean to you. The girls are going to help you and explain it so you know what to do. INT-G-584-585 I do feel more More confidence to Increased confidence comfortable and I do science with girl with girl partner have more confidence partner when I have a girl partner than a boy partner INT-G-589 if you have a boy Boys cause stress in Boys hold errors over partner and you make science head a mistake they hold it over your head forever and that’s really stressful.

End partial color coded coding process.

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