Activism Deferred Among Black American Students

PROCTOR RESEARCH BRIEF | JULY 2020 Activism Deferred Among Black American Students

By Patrice W. Glenn Jones

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore attitudes of prosocial behavior (i.e., advocating and organizing) among Black American high school and college students age 18-23. The study is guided by two research questions: (1) How do Black American students perceive activism, and (2) What factors influence youth activism among Black American students? Seventeen participants contributed their perceptions, and data was collected via interviews from December 2018 through March 2019. This publication highlights the significance of youth advocacy and organizing, in general, and Black American students’ specific perceptions of their involvement and contribution to social change. Findings reveal four themes: (a) voicelessness, (b) inequity awareness, (c) undirected desire, and (d) group participation and collectivism.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Patrice W. Glenn Jones is an assistant professor with Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Worldwide (ERAU-W), a periodic contributor to Pearson Education, and an online learning specialist. Despite her involvement in several professional sectors, Patrice’s passion lies with helping Black students realize their best selves through education, self-actualization, and a sense of community. Dedicated to researching psychosocial factors that impede or accelerate Black students’ success, Patrice taught for years in minority-serving schools and institutions prior to joining the ERAU-W faculty. Patrice began her career as an English teacher and radio air personality in Jacksonville, Florida. After earning a master’s degree in English from the University of North Florida, her career expanded to higher education and included positions as copy editor, TRIO program coordinator, faculty member, instructional designer, program director, and assistant dean. She holds an Educational Specialist degree in Information Science and Learning Technology with a specialty in design and development, from the University of Missouri-Columbia. Patrice’s reputation as an authentic, passionate innovator follows her, and she has been hailed as educator to watch. Furthermore, her concern for Black students, forthright disposition, and love of people has led her to serve as keynote speaker for the Florida Fund for Minority Teachers, Richland School District, and other organizations. She holds a Ph.D. in educational leadership from Florida A&M University. You can reach Patrice at [email protected].

SAMUEL DEWITT PROCTOR INSTITUTE for Leadership, Equity, & Justice ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS

BACKGROUND become civic activists who promote institutional, social, and political change (Warren, Mira, & Nikundiwe, 2008). Incidents of gun violence and unlawful uses of excessive Furthermore, youth organizing solidifies that young force by law enforcement have been met with activism people not only care about social conditions but are among its victims and other young Americans affected active participants in the decision-making that brings by experience or through association. Reactions to the about change (Delgado & Staples, 2008). May 25, 2020, death of George Floyd, for example, who died, quite literally, under the weight of a Minneapolis Christens and Kirshner (2011) noted a distinction police officer included peaceful protests and riots. And between youth organizing groups and highlighted teen advocacy for gun-free school zones gained national youth-selected issues, as opposed to youth involvement attention after 17 people were killed and 14 others in issues pre-selected by adults or an organization. injured in the 2018 shooting at Marjory Stoneman Youth-selected-issue organizing and advocacy has Douglas (MSD) High School in Parkland, Florida. a more realistic potential to shed light on student issues of marginalization. Even more, youth-initiated Many students recognize that they too could become advocacy and organizing efforts are distinct from youth- casualties of misappropriation of power and acts of selected ones. When young people initiate advocacy violence. They further assert, in their own words and on and organizing, they take the lead and seek help from their own terms, that if actions are not taken to change adults or organizations; the issues that youths select targeted injustice and thwart violence, such incidents will usually have the greatest influence on and meaning to likely persist, as they have for decades, making victims of the students. more young people in the United States. Some students take to the streets chanting “No justice, no peace” while While the practice of youth organizing is presently others fight for gun control and increased accountability increasing, participation among Black American among those who are supposed to serve and protect. No students may not live up to the historical activity of matter the method of protest, the prosocial behavior— those students involved in the Civil Rights Movement. advocacy and organizing efforts—among young people Many would argue that there is less need for such wide- has taken center stage across the country. For Black spread activism among Black students, and many, still, students, in particular, advocacy is a matter of life or would disagree. Incidents of police-initiated violence death. against Black youth highlight the social inequity that persists. After Zimmerman was acquitted for killing The history of student advocacy and organizing includes 17-year-old Trayvon Martin, a surge of youth-led and Black American college students who led sit-ins at the youth-involved protests escalated across the country. counters of department stores throughout the South. That same weekend, for example, a group of young Black Four North Carolina A&T University students were activists met in Chicago to mobilize a political and social among the first to protest segregated dining by sitting movement (Smith, 2014); the meeting was an effort of in a ‘Whites only’ section in Woolworth. Denied the the Black Youth Project, which is led by adult scholars. equal opportunity of service, these student advocates— While many professionals and scholars advocate for Ezell Blair, Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil, and David young people, youth-led advocacy is an important facet Richmond—prompted a wave of student-led protests and of social change. Furthermore, youth-led advocacy is not were instrumental in sparking social outcry around racial a Black or White issue. However, the discussion herein discrimination from young Black American’s perspective. relates to youth-initiated organizing and the attitudes While youth organizing initiatives often address local of Black American students toward involvement in issues, these efforts had the potential to cause broader advocacy and organizing. Specifically, this discussion on socioeconomic and political change, as in the case of the organizing and advocacy emphasizes the perspectives of Civil Rights sit-ins. The sit-ins and associated behaviors Black American youth in predominately Black American led to profound social change. communities (e.g., those attending predominately Black American high schools and historically Black colleges Community organizers acknowledge issues and seek and universities). solutions. Prosocial behavior, which refers to voluntary action intended to help others, is prompted by communal vision that works toward improved circumstances or PROBLEM AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE goal accomplishment. Through youth organizing, in STUDY particular, marginalization of young people and their Many Black American students have come to expect experiences are highlighted, and disregarded youth and even accept issues of social injustice, educational

2 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS inequity, racial discrimination, institutional racism, and involvement in activism among this group of students. other issues that shape them. Frequent experiences There are conflicting reports about the level of activism with such social disparities can and have led many Black among young Black American and youths from low American students to develop a perceived apathetic income backgrounds, but it is important to note that disposition to the wrong. For Majors and Billson (1992), the research presented herein precedes the death of this emotionlessness, fearlessness, and aloofness, a term George Floyd, which has been created with awakening they coined the “cool pose,” is used by Black Americans activism among America’s young people. Some research to combat inner pain. This “cool pose,” which is not indicates that Black American students and urban youth an actual pose but a characterization of Black youth’s are less involved in post-Civil Rights activism than their physical movements, can subsequently lead to behaviors White and middle-class peers (Camino & Zeldin, 2002; that result in greater opportunity and treatment inequity Hart & Atkins, 2002). Hart and Atkins (2002) identified (Majors & Billson, 1992) because White teachers, in adult socio-political apathy as an obstacle that mitigates particular, can confuse the students’ physical demeanor activism and civic responsibility among students in as a form of defiance or quality of delinquency. In some urban areas. Those who consider youth participation in cases, these disparities are accepted as ‘normal’ and are politically-charged expressionism (e.g., hip hop, spoken expected. Circumstances outside of these perceived word, poetry, and social media) view the level of activism norms (i.e., school-target mass shootings and unjustified among Black American youth more positively (Ginwright, police shootings) can, and often do, illicit advocacy and 2010). Akom (2009), for example, discussed the role organizing among youths. The aforementioned issues of of hip hop to promote social improvements among disparity present a genuine threat to social equity and Black American communities. Likewise, Kinloch (2010) the future of Black American communities, and these examined the relationship between community activism issues warrant prosocial behavior. and critical literacy in Harlem New York. Clay (2012) conducted a two-year study among two youth, hip- Moreover, with a bountiful legacy of advocacy and hop generation groups to determine their engagement organizing, coupled with continued incidents of in activism. With the attention placed on achievement institutional racism and social inequities, there remains disparities between Black and White students, as well issues around which Black Americans must mobilize and as poor and wealthy children, Black youth advocacy re- organize toward change. Many Black American leaders, emerged out of the need for academic and social equity like Congressman John Lewis, have a history of student (Ginwright, 2010; Ginwright, Cammarota, & Noguera, organizing and prosocial behavior. With so much work 2005). Black youths are aware of the injustice, and those yet to be done, young leadership is necessary. Where, who participate in advocacy efforts realize that they can then, are the young advocates with a trajectory of contribute to policy changes. community leadership, and how can we prepare them if apathy seems to persist among Black American youth? SOCIAL IDENTITY

Herein, I examine Black American student attitudes Reicher, Hopkins, Levine, and Rath (2005) identified about prosocial behavior, in general, and advocacy and three tenants of social identity in their model of helping: organizing, specifically. Hence forth, the term activism (1) category inclusion, (2) category norms, and (3) will be used to refer to prosocial behavior, advocacy, category interests. These elements provided a context and organizing. The elements of social identity (Reicher, to help examine Black American students’ potential for Hopkins, Levine, & Rath, 2005), along with sense of prosocial behavior. community and perceived self-efficacy research, were identified and framed to guide interviews of Black Category Inclusion American high school and college students. Select Category inclusion essentially means a sense of responses are revealed. This brief also reveals themes that belonging. When people feel a part of a group, their emerged from those interviews. These themes amplify potential for advocacy increases. According to Levine conditions that negatively affect students’ perspectives and Thompson (2004), people will act to support in- about activism and further deter student-led activism group members, and this action will likely take the form among the participants. Its purpose is to understand of a collaborative action of helping. Commonality isa student perspectives about activism and isolate factors focus. To understand Black American students’ feelings that deter involvement. The desired outcome is outlined of inclusion, I posed questions about sense of belonging, strategies to prepare the next generation of young Black which is also related to sense of community and isolated American organizers and advocates. To achieve such, group-membership affiliations (i.e., church membership, we must first identify factors that promote and defer sorority or fraternity membership, school organizations, athletic team participation, and such).

3 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS

Category Norms community, and identified communal activities within The second element, category norms, refers to the the neighborhood. A decade after Sarason proposed SOC group meaning or collective purpose, as manifested theory, McMillan and Chavis (1986) conceptualized a by group traditions, practices, and terms of acceptable multi-dimensional sense model. The dimensions include behavior. Individual identity is thus influenced by group membership, influence, integration, fulfillment of needs, culture and the standards of acceptable behavior. Within and shared emotional connection. a group, these norms can be defined or implied. Cultural implications are isolated to identify congruence among PERCEIVED SELF EFFICACY perceived norms and behaviors that consistently are Willing participation in a community is reduced to viewed as abnormal or unacceptable. individuality, as is a person’s ability to contribute to group goals and communal interest. Individual behavior, Category Interests thus, shapes goal and group accomplishment. Bandura Category interests refer to common concerns among a (1998) introduced perceived self-efficacy and defined it group. According to Reicher, Cassidy, Wolpert, Hopkins, as an individual’s “beliefs in [his or her] capabilities to and Levine (2006), prosocial behavior is more likely to organize and execute the courses of action required to occur when group members perceive that advocacy produce given levels of attainments” (p. 624). Perceived and organizing will indeed help their interests. Trends self-efficacy further refers to a person’s beliefs about regarding Black American student interests were isolated his or her own abilities to exercise control over personal to provide a more focused perspective of prosocial behavior and over events (Bandura, 1991). behavior levels among students with varied interests. While youth advocacy, as a component of prosocial At the center of Reicher et al.’s (2005) social identity behavior, can occur as a solitary effort, its reach is likely elements is the individual-to-group relationship. An to extend beyond an individual. Organizing, however, individual’s participation in a meaningful group to which by definition is about collective action. The relationship he or she feels communion is key. In contrast, the ability between individuality and communal work are thus to belong to a group without identifying with the group reciprocal. Individuality is an important element of is a possibility. For example, specific level of achievement communal and personal responsibility, for individuals and grade point average can qualify a student to be a part make up the collective. When youths organize in groups, of the National Student Honor Society (NSHS). However, they are not only individually engaged, they have the being a part of the NSHS does not mean the student potential to motivate and engage others. Moreover, feels like he or she belongs, accepts the behaviors of the individuals are engaged in the development of a larger NSHS membership as normal, and is interested in the community and are more engaged in the democratic principles representative of the organization. Therefore, process. I interject sense of community as an important quality to supplement Reicher et al.’s (2005) social identity theory. However, in consideration of perceived self-efficacy, if an individual perceives that he or she is unable to control SENSE OF COMMUNITY personal behavior or to make a difference, the individual’s Sarason (1974) offered sense of community (SOC) as involvement with and contribution to a group or social an alternative to his perceived limitations in traditional activity is unlikely. Perceived self-efficacy is, therefore, community psychology models. According to Sarason another important dimension in examining individual (1974), a sense of community is, “The perception of student activism and the likelihood of organizing and similarity to others, an acknowledged interdependence advocacy behaviors. with others, . . . and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure” (p. 157). Shortly after Perceived Truth Sarason introduced SOC, Doolittle and MacDonald (1978) Along with perceived self-efficacy, individual perception constructed the Sense of Community Scale to determine of truth and how we weigh facts prompt our responses the behaviors and attitudes of individuals functioning as to those facts. Ditto and Boardman (1995) asserted that a social organization at the community level. Early sense when an individual does not want to believe something, of community studies focused on neighborhoods. For more work is involved in reaching acceptance of said example, Ahlbrandt and Cunningham (1979) examined information; however, if an individual wants to believe the relationship between sense of community and something, there is less effort required for the person to neighborhood satisfaction and discovered that those perceive it as truth. For example, if a student has limited most satisfied with their neighborhood viewed it asa perceptions of civic engagement and does not see many community within a city, had a sense of loyalty to the people engaged in prosocial activity, this may shape his

4 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS perception and his belief system. In turn, it may take these factors could lead to increased understanding of more effort to convince him that he has the ability to Black American student involvement in activism. make a difference through involvement in organized activity. According to Ditto and Boardman (1995) our As the aforementioned conceptualization has not been beliefs sway how we interpret facts. Perceived truth, previously studied, its investigation calls for expanded as a tangent element of perceived self-efficacy, is dialogue and possible clarification of related concepts particularly important among young people, as they are among youth. Therefore, a qualitative approach using still developing both cognitively and socially. Therefore, interviews was used to determine if the intersectionality the ability to influence their belief system, and thus their of factors, as well as other concepts, contribute to perception of truth, are likely more probable than among probable Black American youth involvement in advocacy older adults. As students believe in or accept situations and organizing. Students’ perceived attitudes toward (a) as truth, their perceived self-efficacy helps to propel prosocial behaviors, (b) the Civil Rights activism, and (c) them into mobilizing around problems. group-shared issues were also explored.

SOCIAL ADVOCATE EFFICACY METHOD Consistent with the above referenced conceptualizations For the purpose of this study, I used perspective of social identity, perceived self-efficacy, and sense interviews to examine the perceptions and attitudes of community in relation to Black American student of Black American high school and college students advocacy and organizing, other research indicates regarding prosocial behavior and related concepts that prosocial behavior, being defined as voluntary presented in the aforementioned framework. The sample participation in a helping activity, is most likely and most for this study was selected using purposive and directed powerful when students have positive relationships sampling, which increases theme generation. with adults (Bowers, Johnson, Warren, Tirrell, & Lerner, 2015) and feel individually empowered, a high sense The seventeen Black American students in this study, of belonging, (Akiva, Carey, Cross, Delale-O’Connor, & which include eight men and nine women, met identified Brown, 2017), a sense of efficacy (Taft & Gordon, 2018), criteria: (a) self-identify as Black American, (b) enrollment a sense of responsibility (Goessling, 2017; Stoudt, Cahill, at a predominately Black American high school or Torre, Lopez, Belmonte, Djokovic & Rosado, 2016), and historically Black college or university, and (b) between are personally affected by issues (Montague & Eiroa- age 18-23. Students were enrolled at five different Orosa, 2017). institutions—three high schools and two universities—in the same state. I, therefore, offer Social Advocate Efficacy (SAE) as a conceptualized framework to explore Black American I interviewed participants using an open-ended interview student attitudes about advocacy and organizing. Figure schedule of 14 questions (See Table 1). The questions 1 displays the relationship among these factors. were developed from the review of literature on prosocial behavior, sense of community, and perceived self- As indicated by the presence of social identity, a high efficacy. All interviews were held between December perceived self-efficacy and a high sense of community 2018 to March 2019 (i.e, after the shooting at MSD High could contribute to a greater chance of involvement in School but before the death of George Floyd). Interviews advocacy. While presence of these elements cannot took place in person and through audio-visual enabled be said to predict student involvement in prosocial virtual collaboration programs, based on participant behavior, advocacy, and organizing, the intersection of preference and availability.

FIGURE 1. SOCIAL ADVOCATE EFFICICACY

Social Identity Perceived self- Sense of Activism (Group inclusion, efficacy community (pro-social norms, and + + = behavior, interests) advocacy, and Truth Shared Issue organizing)

5 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS

TABLE 1: INTERVIEW TOPIC GUIDE interpretations of the findings. Likewise, sharing ethnic- racial group background with the participants also had no influence on coding or interpretation of the data. Talk to me about pro-social behavior, The researcher does recognize the potential force of activism, and organizing around an ethnic-racial group congruence as a potential leverage Pro-Social issue or problem. on participant responses during interviews. Feelings of What do you voluntarily do to help belonging, which are often present among people with Behavior others? similar characteristics (e.g., race, culture, gender), can Are you currently involved in any promote sense of community (Sarason, 1974) and affect activism? Why or why not. participants’ behaviors (i.e., responses).

FINDINGS Describe your family. Are any members of your family involved in any social Data saturation, which occurs when no new themes activism or organizing? emerge during interviews, occurred at 17 interviews. Talk to me about your teachers and I assigned pseudonyms to the participants to maintain school. their anonymity. All participants self-identify as Black Inclusion Describe your relationships with your Americans. Participant gender, level of education, and closest friendships. age were also identified. Participant characteristics are In what group do you feel that you most presented in Table 2. belong? TABLE 2: PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS

What group traditions, practices, and High acceptable behaviors do you share in Participant Gender School/ Age Norms the group previously discussed? College Andrew Man High School 18 Brenda Woman High School 18 What about that group makes you feel Chantel Woman High School 18 you belong? Would you feel a greater sense of DeAllen Man High School 18 empowerment if you were connected to Eve Woman College 20 a group with the same social concerns Fran Woman High School 18 Sense of and issues? Explain. Community Do you feel involvement in such a Greg Man College 21 group would encourage your pro-social Hakeem Man College 23 behavior? Ian Man College 23 Jayden Woman College 21 Karen Woman College 22 The following research questions guided this study: Landon Man High School 18 1. How do Black American students perceive activism? 2. What factors influence youth activism among Black Monica Woman High School 19 American students? Nia Woman High School 18 Olivia Woman College 19 All interviews were transcribed, and participant member- checks were then conducted for accuracy. Upon Patrick Man High School 18 transcript approval, I analyzed and coded the qualitative Quinton Man College 22 data using open and axial practices. Key themes were identified among the participants. Based on the data collected, four themes emerged based on participant’s responses. In addition to these themes, Articulation of reflexivity includes analyzing how related ideas also emerged. These themes and related the researcher’s background may shape the study. ideas are presented in Table 3 and are described using Researcher experiences as an alumnus of one of the high data extracts to illustrate each of them. schools and one of the universities did not persuade

6 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS

TABLE 3: THEMES AND RELATED IDEAS

THEME RELATED IDEAS

Invisibility Powerlessness Voicelessness Control Frustration becomes apathy

Race as a construct Inequity Racism as a normal part of awareness life Our issues don’t get attention. They treat being Black in America like it’s a choice. They pay more attention and seem to care more about being homosexual or wanting to Lack of modeling transgender. Somehow, LGBT issues have become more Undirected Family legacy important than the racism we experience... I’m not saying desire Civil Rights movement they [LGBT population] should be treated wrong; Iam Mentorship not saying that. I just feel it is funny that people rather be sensitive to that group’s issues merely based on who they are sleeping with rather than address the racism and Friends as community racial discrimination we [Black Americans] have always Group Common issues and endured. participation concerns and collectivism Support desired Another participant indicated: Isolation No one listens to us [young Black Americans] or cares what we think.

Still another participant persistent with similar messages The four themes, including extractions of the data of voicelessness: collected, are presented above. My teachers are . . .[student laughs]. . . well, most of them are White, and I guess that would be okay if they got it. But THEME 1: VOICELESSNESS they don’t get it, and they don’t even want to hear what One of the most powerful themes that characterized the we have to say. They just want to keep us under control. participants’ perceptions of prosocial behavior and the factors that impact youth advocacy was voicelessness. A 19-year-old participant reflected: The literal definition of voicelessness refers to the lack of voice or the inability to communicate. The figurative Hey, nobody listens to what I have to say. I’m young and meaning of voicelessness is associated with powerlessness Black, so nobody listens except when I get very loud. and the mitigation or marginalization of perspective. Most students expressed ideas that coincided with the latter Most of the participants indicated that being young, in definition. Participants communicated voicelessness, general, and Black, specifically, were disadvantages in the frustration from lack of control, powerlessness, and effort to be heard and taken seriously. The participants invisibility as a condition of being a Black American youth. also indicated that their experiences were marginalized As a reaction to these abstractions, the development of an and disregarded. As a result of their voicelessness, aloofness was noted. Some of their comments are below: some participants indicated they did not feel as though they could make a difference and, therefore, developed When asked about personal interests and the ability to and communicated apathetic ideas. Issues of race were make a difference regarding issues that impact Black dominant. While the ideas were present among both American youth, one participant responded: genders, all of the man participants communicated ideas related to this theme. These ideas coincided with Logan’s (2017) assertion that apathy develops out of dysfunctional

7 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS or unhealthy relationships. Among Black American men, When asked to discuss his teachers, one participant in particular, emotions are managed to evoke apathy responded: (Jackson, 2018). I can tell some of my teachers are racist. They act like they can’t stand us. When I was in third grade, my teacher was a mean old White lady and she used to always use “you people.” I really didn’t know what she meant until I was older. She meant Black people.

Regarding group norms, one participant indicated: We’ve been struggling since we came to this country, and most people just accept that [the struggle] as a normal part of being Black.

With regard to her concerns and interests, one participant commented: Education is what really concerns me and institutional racism. Both are systems that affect underprivileged children and could ultimately determine whether they succeed in life.

Another participant’s sarcastic response conveyed the apparent awareness of stereotypes and inequity: Aren’t we the problem? That’s what it seems to suggest-- that we [Black Americans] do all the wrong.

In her response about prosocial behavior and activism, one participant said: THEME 2: INEQUITY AWARENESS The second theme that emerged from the participants I mean I feel bad about all the shootings in schools, but if was the awareness of racial inequity. Most participants these shootings were at Black schools, I don’t think there spoke about racism. Several shared their frustration with would be interest. It would be “Oh, those people are just the race, and others shared specific racist experiences. causing problems like they always do.” Some ideas of racism were more sophisticated than others. From institutionalized racism to social Among participant’s concerns and issues, racism was acceptance of negative racial stereotypes, participants the most commonly identified. Though accepting in were aware of racism and viewed it as a natural part of their awareness of racism as ‘normal’, some students life in America. Below are some of their comments: shared a sense of bewilderment regarding its continued existence. These ideas coincide with two critical race While discussing group belonging, one participant said: theorists’ assertion that (a) race is a social construct and If a group of us [young Black Americans] are together, (b) racism is a common occurrence (Delgado & Stefancic, [others think] we must be doing something wrong. 2017). By accepting racism as a common occurrence, the participants suggested a socially inherit disadvantage Another participant replied: and seemed to suggest there was little that could be done, in the way of prosocial behavior or organizing, to I just don’t get it. It shouldn’t matter that we are Black, correct racial inequities. but it does. THEME 3: UNDIRECTED DESIRE A 21-year-old college participant indicated: The third theme, undirected desire, refers to student’s I don’t ever forget that I’m Black. It’s important to me, desire to participate in activism, but with a lack of and I am not even sure why. I guess it’s because people direction from others, they are often unsure about always remind me. My mom always said we have to work how to engage. Through several comments about the harder to reach the same goal. Sometimes, that’s just a Civil Rights Movement, mentorship, family legacy, and lot to even think about. modeling emerged as important factor influencing the

8 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS participant’s involvement in activism. Below are some and potential activism. In contrast, comments regarding of the comments: isolation suggested apathy. Below are some of those comments: When asked if she would feel a greater sense of empowerment if connected with a group with the same One participant shared how group involvement social concerns, one participant replied: motivated her: Yes, I do believe being connected to people with similar I’m in student council, and I love being a part of a group issues would empower me to do something. Even if they of people that have similar concerns. It pushes me to do don’t make a difference, being around people that want right by others and right by myself. to see change would inspire me to do something positive. I think. A second participant stated that group involvement would motivate him: Responding to discussion about activism and organizing Being around people that want to see change in these around an issue, one participant said: areas like education, racism, and homelessness would We need to do something different [than the actions inspire me to take action. of Civil Rights advocates], but I’m not sure what or how. I don’t know if we [young Black Americans] have A college participant indicated his interest in a Greek the patience that people did during the Civil Rights fraternity as a form of collectivism: Movement. They took a lot, and I’m not sure we can take The past few years, I’ve started being more careful when what they did. I choose the people I hang with. I try to be with people who want what I want and who have the same interests. Another participant responded: I guess that’s why I’m thinking about pledging [for a I guess I kind of envy the people who grew up during Civil fraternity]. Rights; they saw the benefits of working together to get things done. They had examples of how to do it [self- Another participant communicated feelings of isolation advocate]. They probably repeated what they saw. When and dismay about group involvement: was the last time we [young Black Americans] saw that Sometimes I just feel alone and confused about it all. level of fight? I didn’t grow up seeing it, not in real life. Sometimes I think, what’s the point.

When asked about his personal participation in any Most participants communicated ideas related to sense activism, a participant replied: of belonging. This theme, along with the participants’ Most people I know act like they don’t even care about comments, coincided with previous research. Hunter, all the wrong going on. They don’t do anything about it, Case, and Harvey (2019) explored sense of belonging so I don’t either. among Black college students and found that Black American college students experience a sense of Ultimately, most participants expressed interest belonging through connection with and responsibility in activism, but they did not know how to engage to others. Hunter et al. (2019) further asserted that in such activities, and they had never seen the through collective obligation, Black American college behaviors in practice. According to McCracken (2017), students expressed their racial identities. intergenerational mentoring is an important aspect of activism and engagement. The participants’ comments DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS coincide with McCracken’s (2017) assertion. Wu, Based on the findings of this study, key conclusions Kornbluh, Weiss, and Roddy (2016) also emphasized can be drawn. First, Black American youths between the importance of youth-adult relationships for youth the ages of 18 and 23 communicate strong emotions engagement and activism. directly related to their racial identities. For many of them, being Black and young places them at a greater THEME 4: GROUP PARTICIPATION AND disadvantage than merely being Black. The participants COLLECTIVISM revealed awareness of a social hierarchy that placed The final theme that emerged from the participants Black Americans youths as a group of lesser importance. emphasized group participation and collectivism. For them, the issues associated with any other minority Participants’ comments suggested that collectivism and (e.g., LGBTQ) are more important than those of Black group participation were important factors of motivation American youths. Previous research reveals that LGBTQ

9 ACTIVISM DEFERRED AMONG BLACK AMERICAN STUDENTS youths also communicate feeling a sense of rejection and voicelessness regarding their personal issues (Beck, 2016; Khoury, 2010; Whittlesey, 2019). Secondly, mentorship and modeling of positive prosocial behaviors can be beneficial to Black American youths’ involvement in and perception of advocacy and organizing. Therefore, Black American parents, teachers, civic leaders, and activists should work to include youths in activism as early as possible. This early inclusion models organizing behaviors for Black American youths and normalizes participation in such activities. Additionally, based on participant responses, elements of the social advocacy efficacy conceptual framework (i.e., social identity, perceived self- efficacy, and sense of community) are indeed important in determining whether Black American youths engage in prosocial behavior. The tenants of the social advocacy efficacy framework coincide with identified themes (i.e., voicelessness, as well as group participation and collectivism). Finally, collectivism is an important variable of youth advocacy. Youth involvement in extracurriculars (e.g., sports, music, dance) should include active community service and organizing activities. Students should be allowed to identify issues that are important to them and organize around these issues. It is incumbent of the adults (i.e., parents, teachers, coaches, community center leaders, activity sponsors) to help facilitate the prosocial behaviors of elementary-aged students by encouraging their voices (e.g. encouraging individualized, situation-based critical thinking; validating personal have been activated by blatant acts of injustice, activism reactions; creating a safe environment for students to ask must thrive beyond the current social climate. questions; and listening when they speak). Further these adults must allow Black American students to become Black American are still the most underserved student more independent in organizing and activism as they groups in America, and for many, particularly those from mature. low economic backgrounds, fulfillment of the American Dream seems just that—a dream. Thus, it is appropropriate CONCLUSION to ask as Langston Hughes questioned, “What happens to a dream deferred?” What happens when youth do not feel We are halfway through 2020, and the recent incidents of empowered to act? violence toward Blacks in particular (e.g., Ahmaud Arbery, Breonna Taylor, and George Floyd) have resulted in a Many people would suggest that King’s dream of a height of unrest, anger, and social tension, and these unjust nation of people who are judged by the “content of their deaths are being met with protests and rioting. While the character” does not seem much improved from conditions former is a more desirable reaction to injustice, the latter in 1963. Although increased opportunities are now is a reminder of Martin Luther King Jr.’s sentiment on afforded to many marginalized groups, including Black rioting. According to King, “Rioting is the language of the Americans, there is still much work that requires advocates unheard.” And if the participants’ comments presented and organizers who will fight for solutions to issues of herein are a representation of the sense of voicelessness injustice. Change occurs through the social and physical shared by even a small number of Black American youth, investment of change agents. America’s youth, like the King’s words offer legitimacy to all the authentic reactions participants involved in this explorative study and those of protestors in Minneapolis and throughout the nation. who engage in 2020 protests, are essential catalysts for social equity, and they must—as we all must—take action. Though difficult to accept, it is reasonable to conclude Furthermore, social advocacy efficacy can empower that injustices toward Black Americans will continue future generations to act. Ultimately, the suffocation of before things improve, and while some young Americans perennial wide-spread inequity is one we cannot accept.

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