Decolonizing Being, Knowledge, and Power: Youth Activism in California at the Turn of the 21st Century By Samuel Bañales A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology in the Graduate Division of the University of California at Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Charles L. Briggs, chair Professor Nancy Scheper-Hughes Professor Nelson Maldonado-Torres Fall 2012 Copyright © by Samuel Bañales 2012 ABSTRACT Decolonizing Being, Knowledge, and Power: Youth Activism in California at the Turn of the 21st Century by Samuel Bañales Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology University of California at Berkeley Professor Charles L. Briggs, chair By focusing on the politics of age and (de)colonization, this dissertation underscores how the oppression of young people of color is systemic and central to society. Drawing upon decolonial thought, including U.S. Third World women of color, modernity/coloniality, decolonial feminisms, and decolonizing anthropology scholarship, this dissertation is grounded in the activism of youth of color in California at the turn of the 21st century across race, class, gender, sexuality, and age politics. I base my research on two interrelated, sequential youth movements that I argue were decolonizing: the various walkouts organized by Chican@ youth during the 1990s and the subsequent multi-ethnic "No on 21" movement (also known as the "youth movement") in 2000. Through an interdisciplinary activist ethnography, which includes speaking to and conducting interviews with many participants and organizers of these movements, participating in local youth activism in various capacities, and evaluating hundreds of articles—from mainstream media to "alternative" sources, like activist blogs, leftist presses, and high school newspapers—I contend that the youth of color activism that is examined here worked towards ontological, epistemological, and institutional decolonization. This study, which addresses negative social understandings about youth in general and young people of color specifically, highlights how the oppression of youth is systemic and central to modernity/coloniality, and calls attention to the necessity of incorporating age, power, and their theorization into the discourses on decolonization. Along with making youth's politics and political identities essential to the research, this dissertation aims to contribute to, not only knowledge production, but also the unfinished project of decolonization—which most literature on young people or youth activism has yet to do. 1 TABLE of CONTENTS Dedication and Acknowledgements ii Preface iii Notes on Terms Used ix Chapter One: The Politics of Age and the Unfinished Project of Decolonization 1 Chapter Two: Expanding Representations of Youth, Anthropology, and Decolonial Thought 20 Chapter Three: Youth Activism and the Decolonial Turn 45 Chapter Four: Youth Activism Decolonizing Being 71 Chapter Five: Youth Activism Decolonizing Knowledge 101 Chapter Six: Youth Activism Decolonizing Power 133 Chapter Seven: Towards a Transgenerational Consciousness 157 i DEDICATIONS and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation is dedicated to God-Ometeotl-Olodumare-Pachamama-Universe. I also dedicate this dissertation to those that came before me, to those in this lifetime, and to those yet to come. In particular, I dedicate this dissertation to those that participated in the decolonizing youth activism that I write about. I especially thank my graduate adviser, Professor Charles L. Briggs, who has helped me throughout this very long and arduous project, including the many turns and twists of my graduate school career. I also thank Professor Nancy Scheper-Hughes' valuable feedback and understanding. Last but not least, this dissertation would not have been possible were it not for the continuous guidance, feedback, and support from Nelson Maldonado-Torres, the third member of my committee. I am very much honored to have had three stellar activist-scholars serve as my dissertation committee. I also want to acknowledge significant people that played an important role in helping me complete my academic studies and navigate the often difficult path of higher education. People that assisted me with my intellectual, political, and/or personal growth include Silvia Suayfeta- Cortez, María Padilla, Lourdes Martínez-Echazábal, Francine Masiello, Lisa Sánchez, Laura E. Pérez, and Trinity A. Ordona. Many campus staff members, such as Francisca Cázares, Cassandra Hill, Ned Garret, Carla Trujillo, Lupe Gallegos-Díaz, Lisa Walker, Robert Jittrikawiphol, Elisa Huerta, Billy Curtis, and Lourdes Franco Martínez (que en paz descanse), were instrumental to completing my studies. I thank my family and friends for their love and support. Although there are too many to list here, I am particularly grateful for my mother Emma Bañales and my sister Vicky Bañales, as well as Claudia Peña, Pablo Villegas, and Sonia García. I want to also express my deep appreciation to the jotería of Young Queers United for Empowerment (¡YQUÉ!), which provided an amazing political, intellectual, and social community for over six years, especially with the members I developed close relationships. Organizing and working with other activist student groups, like Xinaxtli and MECHxA, was equally important. Also, I'm indebted to the activists that participated in my research project and/or in the movements this dissertation is based on. Finally, I also thank Dejanira Cruz, Vicky Bañales, Marcelle Maese-Cohen, Trexy Ching, Rahi Karnik, Gerardo Ayala, "Reina" Ángela Aguilar, and Felipe Flores for their feedback and assistance with the dissertation. Each of you contributed to my intellectual, political, and/or personal growth. Last of all, this dissertation would not have been possible without the intellectual and financial support of the Anthropology and Ethnic Studies Departments at UC Berkeley, the University of California Dissertation Fellowship, Graduate Division Summer Research Grants, Dean's Normative Time Research Fellowship, and the Ford Foundation Diversity Pre-Doctoral Fellowship. ii PREFACE In the early fall of 2008, I received an email from a staff member at UC Berkeley that works on diversity issues. Since I organize with the Queer Latin@ student group on campus, she asked me if it would be okay for her to give my contact information to a newly admitted graduate student that identified as a lesbian of color and was looking to make friends. Aware of the importance of building community across race and sexuality in the university, I welcomed the request. Via email, I got in touch with the graduate student and invited her to an upcoming campus event that would showcase the documentary video about the student group.1 It was an excellent idea since it highlighted why we joined the group, what we learned from being involved, and why the group was important to us in the context of the university. She said she would try and attend. The event took place in one of the underground rooms in the Moffitt library building during the evening. Other members of the group and I got there early in order to set up the audio-visual equipment and room. We were excited to see the video, not only because it was the first public screening of it, but also because many of the members would watch it for the first time. In respect of our ancestors and (indigenous) history of struggle, the event began with a spiritual blessing from an invited cultural leader from Oakland. With conch in one hand and flame in the other, she lit the sage before the intimate audience together honored the four directions, zenith and center: the cardinal points of a compass, and the sky and earth. After, she briefly explained the significance of the blessing to the audience and thanked the group for inviting her. I followed with a quick introduction about the importance of the video in the context of colonization: how, historically, same-sex eroticism existed in many indigenous societies in the Americas at the time of conquest, and how many indigenous people did not view sexual desire in the same ways as Europeans, did not categorize people in strictly binary terms, nor ascribed moral parameters like classifying acts as sinful/non-sinful.2 In other words, in contrast to how two-spirited identities across the Americas were often understood in positive terms,3 I pointed to the modern context where Queer Latin@s are generally demonized and perceived as inferior or perverted. I ended the introduction by mentioning how, through spoken word performance, personal and group interviews, and scenes from the 3rd annual Queer People of Color conference, the video was important for several reasons. Not only did the video document our hard work and struggles and place our existence on a map of (digital) knowledge, but also challenged the logic of colonization that has tried to convince us we are worthless. As the documentary screened, I felt a little nervous but validated—even empowered—to hear and see our voices on a big screen. After the documentary screened and the lights came on, I thanked the audience for attending and announced: "if anyone has questions about the group or the film, please talk with me or any of us," as I pointed to other members of the group in the audience. In between the shuffling of people as they left their seats to greet friends or exit the room, an unfamiliar face approached me. She introduced herself, followed by, "We've been in touch via email; you told me about the event." Despite being caught by surprise, I greeted her 1 So What! Young Queers United for Empowerment, produced Xamuel Bañales, (2008), film. 2 See Pete Sigal, ed., Infamous Desire: Male Homosexuality in Colonial Latin America, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). 3 See Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986 [1992]). iii warmly: "Nice to meet you; I'm so glad you were able to make it! There you have it, the group and what we do in a nutshell," I said with a smile as I alluded to the video.