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United Nations Security Council Background Guide

Written by: Paul Fisher and Lilly Tesfai: Case Western Reserve University

The Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six main bodies of the United Nations. It consists of 15 members, five permanent and ten elected members who serve two-year terms and are selected on a regional basis by the General Assembly. The Security Council held its first session in 1946 and is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states. UNSC is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security through peacekeeping operations, international sanctions, and military actions. A representative of each of its members must be present at all times at UN Headquarters in NYC so that the Security Council can meet at any time as the need arises.1

I. The Issue Nuclear Non-Proliferation and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

Statement of the Issue

The development of nuclear weapons by the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea under the leadership of Kim Jong Un is a complex issue with domestic, regional and global facets including recent missile launches, political instability on the Korean peninsula, the continued failure of the six party talks to come to a peaceful resolution. Over the past 15 years, the Security Council has deployed sanctions that have isolated internationally but North Korea has failed to end its nuclear program and continues to present a threat to neighboring nations. At the same time, South Korea’s president is likely to be removed from office over corruption and may be replaced with a leader that wishes to reduce tensions with North Korea provided added complexity to the issue.

History

Partition of Korea and the The modern states of North and South Korea were formed after World War II with the USA and the USSR splitting occupied territories into two states. The USSR formed North Korea

1 Cleveland Council on World Affairs, “UNSC Background Guide” 2016.

1 in the territory above the 38th parallel under the leadership of Kim Il-sung. North Korea was formed as a under the communist model with large-scale of industry and the establishment of an authoritarian government. South Korea, however, became independent as the Republic of Korea in 1948 as a parliamentary democracy. The initially occupied South Korea following WWII and established the initial government; however, the state has drifted between democratic governance and authoritarian capitalist rule over the past 70 years. In 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea and initiated the Korean War. The Security Council approved an intervention on behalf of South Korea that consisted primarily of American and Western forces. The People’s Republic of eventually intervened on the behalf of North Korea and fought the UN forces to a stalemate, with the signing of an armistice that returned borders roughly to their pre-war demarcation.

Cold War through 2000 During the era, the USSR and USA maintained their support to North and South Korea respectively. South Korea suffered through dictators and military rule with generals Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan from 1963 through 1987.2 In 1987 student lead to a new government, anti-corruption efforts, and increased political freedom.3 Now a conventional western style democracy while North Korea continues under family rule.4 During the 1980s and , South Korea experienced dramatic economic growth as one of the “Asian Tigers”, East Asian nations experiencing high rates of growth driven by industrialism, urbanization and vast increases in education. While it suffered during the Asian financial crisis, South Korea remained a relatively rich, industrialized and educated nation with high-tech manufacturing and an excellent university system. North Korea experienced a different path over the same time. Economic growth and production in North Korea either fell or remained low through the cold war leaving North Korea as a poor nation. North Korea was involved in a number of incidents including the capture of the US spy ship the USS Pueblo, missile tests, and missile tests the maintaining tensions on the Korean Peninsula.5 In the 1990s, killed over two million people and the nation currently depends upon foreign food aid to feed its people.6 In 1994, Kim Il-sung died and he was replaced by his son Kim Jong Il. Policy under the Kim’s remained secluded under the or self-reliance ideology and is well-known as the Hermit Kingdom.

Post 2000 history

2 "South Korea - Timeline." BBC News. 2016. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 6 "North Korea profile - Overview." BBC News. 2016.

2 Any attempts to thaw Korean relations ended in 2002 as North Korea restarted their nuclear program and expelled international nuclear inspectors.7 In 2006, North Korea tested a nuclear weapon, joining the ranks of global nuclear powers. International talks in 2007 lead to North Korea shutting down its main nuclear reactor in exchange for aid and other concessions. However, talks soon broke down and ended in 2009 along with a second nuclear test. In 2011, Kim Jong-ll died and was replaced by his son Kim Jong-un took power. North Korea began to develop its nuclear program during the Cold War.8 Developing a practical military nuclear weapon necessitates both a warhead and a delivery vehicle. While warhead development by North Korea became openly known in 2002, the ground work was laid by peaceful nuclear power generation and research starting in the 1950’s, and lasting through the 1980’s.9 In the early 2000s, the United States received intelligence that North Korea gained Pakistani nuclear technology.10 This lead to a nuclear test, the breakdown in relations, UNSC sanctions and the start, shortly thereafter, of the 6 party talks that eventually broke down in 2009 following partial implementation of attempted agreements.11 North Korea’s delivery vehicle development has been focused on development of missile systems. They began development in the 1960s and developing missile systems based on Chinese and Soviet designs.12 The current missile system under development is the Musudan based off of Soviet and Russian designs and is moderately successful.13 North Korea developed a basic warhead and missile-based delivery system in the 2000s.

Current Situation

North Korea North Korea continues to hold strained relations with the rest of the world under Kim Jong-un. He has offered to conditionally participate in international talks over the testing of long-range missiles and nuclear weapons. However, he has restarted nuclear reactors and tested missiles with some success, potentially able to hit Japan and the USA. In the process, North Korea has infuriated close allies. Efforts to restart joint talks with the United States, China, Japan, Russia, and South Korea have failed. In September 2016, North Korea announced its 5th successful nuclear test estimated at 10 kilotons.14 Current UN approved sanctions include essentially banning trade in weapons, aviation fuel, and nuclear materials along with the

7 "South Korea - Timeline." BBC News. 8 "North Korea." North Korea | Countries | NTI. 9 Ibid 10 Ibid 11 Ibid 12 Ibid 13 Ibid 14 "North Korea claims successful test of nuclear warhead." CNN.

3 opening of banks by North Korea or its agents in UN states.15 They have continued testing new missiles in in 2016 launching three missiles shortly after their latest nuclear test.16 The situation remains unstable and will require further action.

South Korea South Korea is currently undergoing a political crisis that complicates the current situation. The current president is Park Geun-hye who holds a hardline position on North Korea, strongly opposing both its continued nuclear program and abuses. However, she is caught in a scandal involving her connections to Choi Soon-sil, a religious sect leader, and close family friend and advisor.17 Choi is accused of using both connections to the president and the president's aides to extort millions from corporations for personal gain.18 President Park Geun-hye is currently facing weekly protests and has been forced to accept an party prime minister who has assumed her office while Park Geun-hye is under impeachment proceedings.19 Her position is weak and it is reasonable to expect her or close aides to face charges or be removed from office. She is currently out of power during an active impeachment hearings.20 Addressing current or potential changes in power in South Korea and the possibility of a more conciliatory policy toward North Korea could lead to increased support for normalization of relations with North Korea in the short room. One potential issue is the American installation of an anti-missile system in South Korea.21

Analysis

Due to the complexity of the issue, there are limited options for finding a permanent solution to the North Korean situation. Three possible approaches discussed involve continuation of current policy, military intervention, and normalizing North Korea’s status. As a possible option, the Security Council could continue its current policy of sanctions to pressure the North Korean government to change its policies. This policy is designed to punish North Korea and isolate it economically and politically from the rest of the international community until it revises its actions. This proposal has little near term risk as it is unlikely to escalate tensions but is likely to leave the problem intact for many years.

15 "North Korea hit with tough sanctions by U.N." CNN. 16 "Are North Korea's missile tests a practice run for evading THAAD?" CNN. 17 "South Korea's bizarre presidential scandal is a loss for the United States." The Washington Post. 18 Ibid. 19 Sang-hun, Choe. "South Korean President’s Leadership Style Is Seen as Factor in Scandal." The New York Times. November 11, 2016. 20 "South Korean court to begin considering President Park Geun-hye's impeachment." The Washington Post. December 21, 2016. 21 "Are North Korea's missile tests a practice run for evading THAAD?" CNN.

4 Secondly, the Security Council could take a more aggressive position and authorize military intervention. A UN-sanctioned military intervention to remove the government under Article 42 of the Charter of the United Nations. This strategy could be used to remove the North Korean government for its violations of human rights and the danger of its nuclear program. This would necessarily involve the use of force, involve large numbers of military and civilian deaths and the potential use of weapons of mass destruction. This strategy would likely be opposed by many countries throughout the world, several of which currently sit on the Security Council, but would also have the effect of providing a relatively swift solution to continued conflict in Korea and the end of North Korea’s nuclear program. Finally, the Security Council could consider its acceptance of North Korea into the international community as a nuclear state. Under this strategy, North Korea would continue to possess nuclear weapons and could potentially rejoin the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a nuclear state. This solution is also likely to be politically opposed by a number of countries throughout the region and globally. In addition, this strategy could potentially set a bad precedent for other states with nuclear ambitions. While these are three strategies that have been discussed by the Security Council and international community for decades, there are potentially many other strategies and policies that could be developed to address the growing threat of a nuclear-capable North Korea.

Conclusion

The failure to prevent North Korea from continuing its nuclear program is considered to be one of the largest challenges currently facing the United Nations. While North Korea has developed a full nuclear program and is refining and perfecting its program, despite using almost every type sanction possible, there has been little to no progress so far. Because fo the many complexities of the current situation, it is important to evaluate all possible consequences of the policies put forth by the United Nations. Policy adjustments and innovative ideas may help to improve the situation.

Questions to Consider ● Could additional sanctions and international condemnation provide sufficient incentive for North Korea to end its nuclear program and lower tensions? ● Will the internal political scandal in the involving South Korean president lead to changes in South Korean policy toward North Korea? ● Are North Korea’s friends and allies willing to continue to support the North Korean government? Are its rivals and enemies willing to continue to take a hard line in opposing North Korea’s nuclear ambitions?

5 II. Oppression & Civil Unrest in Venezuela

Statement of the Issue

The current political situation in Venezuela is tenuous at best. Currently facing an economic and social crisis comprising of economic collapse, political tension, and a breakdown of the rule of law, the government of Venezuela has continued to pursue a policy of political oppression and authoritarian control to maintain their position. Economic problems have also exacerbated the issues, with inflation of 180%-700% per year leading to the use of suitcases full of money to purchase goods and food shortages; leading to hour-long lines for flour.22 Currently, the political opposition is working to remove the president from office over corruption and perceived widespread failings of the government. In many parts of Venezuela, the police are running extortion schemes for goods such as medical supplies, and prisons contain pools for crime bosses to use both symptoms of widespread corruption. The current Venezuelan government has refused international aid and closed some borders; both of which are believed to be exacerbating the problem. The failure of the government to effectively address, attempt to address, or acknowledge the problems facing Venezuela raise questions of whether it has failed its citizens to the point where outside intervention is necessary.

History

Pre-1990 Venezuela emerged from colonial Spain as part of Gran Colombia following the revolutions lead by Simone Bolivar, Venezuela’s national hero in 1821. Oil production began in Venezuela during the beginning of the 20th century and still to this day is the key component of its economy. In 1958 Venezuela becomes a democracy with its first peaceful transfer of power 6 years later.23 Then Venezuela entered a period of relative prosperity and democratic governance while dominated by two major political parties. Due to social inequality, corruption and falling oil prices throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s a young military officer, by the name of Hugo Chavez, attempts a military coup.24

Chavez Administration Following his coup attempt, Chavez joined a small far-left party and ran for president easily winning office. His administration faced a coup attempt from the opposition in 2002

22 Finnegan, William. "Venezuela, a Failing State." The New Yorker. November 14, 2016. Accessed January 03, 2017. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/11/14/venezuela-a-failing-state. 23 "Timeline: Venezuela's tumultuous history." Al Jazeera English. 24 Ibid

6 during a strike by workers at the state oil company.25 His administration's survived and won a series of presidential elections by wide margins each time. Following the coup, Chavez took careful control of PDVSD, the state oil company, and used its profits to fund social welfare program throughout the country. At the same time, his administration began nationalizing multinational oil companies’ assets in Venezuela, seizing large assets from primarily American firms.26 On foreign policy, Chavez aligned himself with nations such as , China, Russia, Iran, and while he antagonized nations such as the United States and its allies. He led efforts to form an alliance of developing states to counterbalance groups like NATO. Hugo Chavez passed away in 2013, leaving Nicolás Maduro in power.

Current Situation

Shortage of Essential Goods Due, in part to government policies and poor economic conditions, there are significant shortages in food and other essential goods throughout Venezuela, and particularly in rural areas. Bread imports are down over 90% along with foods including meat, while fruit and fish are down 66% to 99% compared to a year ago.27 In addition, food riots are breaking out across the nation as people are unable to purchase goods. The situation is even worse in hospitals as most painkillers and other drugs have been stolen and power outages force many procedures to be postponed.28 The falling price of oil has been identified as significant contributor to the poor conditions of the Venezuelan economy. As a significant oil exporter, the falling proce of crude has led to a shortage of cash for purchasing key imports.29 In addition, the oil industry central role in the Venezuelan economy has led to neglect of other industries that produce essential goods and caused has “Dutch Disease.”30 This occurs when a country exports large quantities of raw goods, like oil, and the price of an exporting nation’s currency rises, making its other exports more expensive, crowding out industries other than raw good exporting. Both factors helped to cause the current crisis. The political opposition has declared a humanitarian crisis while the government currently denies that there is a crisis.31

Political Crisis Regular protests and a full breakdown of cooperation between the president and parliament have occurred in Venezuela in recent years. Perceived political suppression of critics

25 "Timeline: Venezuela's tumultuous history." Al Jazeera English. 26 Finnegan, William. "Venezuela, a Failing State." 27 Gillespie, Patrick. "Venezuela food crisis deepens as shipments plummet." CNNMoney. August 11, 2016. 28 Charner, Flora , and Paula Newline. "Venezuela health crisis: Shooting is just the first pain." CNN. May 5, 2016. 29 Finnegan, William. "Venezuela, a Failing State." 30 Ibid 31 Charner, Flora , and Paula Newline. "Venezuela health crisis: . . . “.

7 has also led to protests numbering in the thousands and are a weekly occurrence. Furthermore, President Maduro has vetoed over 20 measures to restrict his power.32 One particularly notable example of potential political suppression is the case of Lorenzo Mendoz and Polar, a major food and beverage company. Mondoz’s company is widely regarded as being well run and efficient but has come under attack by the government who claim that they fail to be productive or efficient.34 However, government raids have regularly blocked supply shipments, arrested employees, and have otherwise interfered in operations often without any formal charges being filed.35 While this is only one example, these behaviors have become common in Venezuela, which , along with the shortages of goods, have brought considerable political stress to the country. In an additional move that raises concerns over corruption and political oppression, Maduro has also ordered an end to petition drives for a recall action against him, which has also led parliament to consider putting Maduro on trial.36 Political tensions remain high across the nation and risk spilling over into widespread violence.

International Relations To further complicate the political crises in Venezuela, the country also has strained relations with many nations both regionally and globally. Following the death of of Cuba, Maduro has few friends in the international community. In the 2000s, Venezuela joined with a group of nations including Iran and Libya to form an anti-Western power bloc but with Iran and Cuba’s increasing normalization of relations with the West and the removal of the Libyan government, Venezuela has found few allies for its continuing ant-Western values.37 Currently South American nations are pressuring Venezuela to accept international aid to help restore order but the government refuses to accept it,38 however, Venezuela continues to exhibit offensive behavior to many of its neighbors including Brazil and Colombia.

Analysis

Due to the complexities of the situation, there are few neat solutions to the current crisis in Venezuela, and it is undetermined if the situation requires international intervention, and if so, to what extent. A key factor blocking international intervention, however, is the refusal of Maduro to accept foreign aid, making it difficult for the United Nations to provide the assistance the Venezuelan people require without the consent of the government. There is,

32 Mogollon, Mery, and Chris Kraul. "Venezuela's political crisis deepens, with parliament in standoff with president." Los Angeles Times. October 26, 2016. 34 Finnegan, William. "Venezuela, a Failing State.". 35 Ibid. 36 36 Mogollon, Mery, and Chris Kraul. "Venezuela's political crisis deepens, . . “. 37 Associated Press . "Gaddafi, Chavez sign anti-terrorism declaration." Ynetnews. September 29, 2009. 38 Casey, Nicholas. "Concern as Venezuela Refuses to Accept Aid." The New York Times. September 28, 2016.

8 however, a precedent from the non-cooperation of the government of Myanmar (Burma) with international aid agencies following a devastating typhoon. The government in this case held up food aid at an airport and deported foreign rescue workers increasing the damages from the typhoon in terms of human lives.39 Survivors of the typhoon were then used as forced labor, a gross violation of human rights, as determined by an international panel.40 Bearing in mind the damages caused in this case by refusing aid, the international community, including the UNSC may need to take additional steps to aid the people of Venezuela. A second issue for the situation occurs if the crisis in Venezuela is of sufficient magnitude to motivate sanctions or an armed intervention by the Security Council. While the closing of international borders and similar actions are severe, it is uncertain if they amount to a “threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression” for which the Security Council has authority to act upon. Historically, the UN, including the Security Council, has refused to intervene in internal political affairs. However, the UN has adopted the doctrine of “responsibility to protect,” which states that nations can employ “other means” to protect civilians from severe crimes against humanity including widespread violations of human rights.41 This doctrine is relatively untested with the possible exception of the Libyan intervention where NATO members intervened to pre-empt an expected massacre of Gaddafi’s political opponents.42 While many countries may feel that certain actions may be required, it is important to recognize the legal limits within which the United Nations can act.

Conclusion

The current political and economic crisis in Venezuela is complex and has far reaching effects both regionally and globally. Widespread shortages of goods and political conflict have resulted in a major humanitarian crisis. Key issues regarding the authority and applicability of Security Council action, the refusal of the Venezuelan government to accept aid, and the extent to which the doctrine of “responsibility to protect” applies to the situation vitally important in recognize in any proposal set forth. However it may also be important to recognize the relationships that specific countries have with Venezuela, the nation’s willingness to support intervention, and the history of humanitarian interventions.

Questions to Consider ● What methods should the Security Council use get permission to provide aid? And do they need permission in the first place?

39 Jenkins, Graeme Jenkins , and Sebastien Berger. "UN launches appeal as Burma refuses aid." The Telegraph. 40 MacKinnon, Ian. "Burmese regime deliberately blocked international aid to cyclone victims, report says." The Guardian. February 27, 2009. . 41 UN Prevention of , “The Responsibility to Protect,” UN.org. 42 Shadi Hamid, “Everyone Says the Libya Intervention was a Failure,” Brookings.

9 ● What steps can the Security Council take to reduce the state lawlessness in Venezuela? ● Can and should the UNSC takes sides in this internal political conflict? ● Does the doctrine of “right to protect” justify intervention for to stop widespread human rights violations that are not directly caused by explicit government action?

III. East African Refugee Crisis

Statement of the Issue

According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, currently there are 65.3 million forcibly displaced people globally, of which 21.3 million are refugees.43 Half of these 21.3 million refugees are under the age of 18.44 Today, many conversations surrounding refugees center on the fallout of the Syrian , as the conflict has forced nearly 5 million people into refugee status45 and has made Syria the greatest contributor to these numbers. However, often overlooked is the role of the humanitarian crisis in the horn of Africa. Social, political, and economic instability have all contributed to the insecurity that forcibly displaces people from their homes. 1.1 million refugees have come from Somalia alone46 because of ongoing conflict that began in the late 1980s. and , two nations long at odds with each other, have also been impacted by this crisis. Conditions have forced many to flee from these two states as well. It is common for refugees to flee from Somalia and Eritrea into Ethiopia and surrounding nations,47 but for many the objective is to arrive safely in Europe or the United States. A crisis of this magnitude demands creative interventions from the international community.

History

Somali Civil War A coup d’état of the socialist regime of Major General Muhammad in 1991 was the beginning of a war that continues in Somalia to this day. Somalia has not had a legitimate functioning government since Barre fled.48 The conflict largely consists of in-fighting between clan factions, where governance is maintained by loosely-defined tribal boundaries and control of the capital, Mogadishu, is maintained by warlords.49 Tribal territories created a

43 UNHCR, “Figures at a Glance,” UNCHR.org. 44 Ibid. 45 UNHCR, Figures at a Glance. 46 Ibid. 47 UNHCR, “Refugees in the Horn of Africa: Somali Displacement Crisis,” data.unhcr.org. 48 John Pike, “Somali Civil War,” GlobalSecurity.org. 49 Ibid.

10 sense of ,50 but otherwise could not provide basic healthcare or social services. Conditions for the people of southern Somalia have only worsened. Violence perpetrated by warlords and faction leaders led to significant loss of life, both internal and external displacement, and starvation.51 The immediate response by the international community in 1992 came in the form of a ban on the sale of arms to Somalia,52 and later military and humanitarian interventions by the United States and the United Nations alleviated some of the widespread hunger but ultimately failed to restore security.53 The United States withdrew from Somalia in 1994 after the casualties became too great, and the UN peacekeeping force withdrew in 1995.54 The conflict, today left largely without outside intervention, has increased the number of Somali refugees. Different attempts by faction leaders to declare autonomy contributed to the complete disintegration of the rule of law, especially in the early 2000s when transitional governments tried to emerge.55 The longest-lasting attempt thus far has been the Transitional Federal Government beginning in October of 2004, which was the fourteenth push for government legitimacy in Somalia.56 By September 2011, autonomous governing authority had been declared in more than 20 regions, all included by pushes for a stable federal system in the future.57 However, Somalia’s step forward is still faced with multiple difficulties. One is the militant wing of the Islamic Court system in the Somali government, more commonly known to the international community as Al-Shabaab, an Al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist organization. Military interventions by Ethiopia in 2006 and in 2011 occurred in attempts to stop the group. Despite these efforts, Al-Shabaab has claimed responsibility for numerous suicide bombings in Somalia and attacks in neighboring countries, including against the UN-backed Somali government, peace activists, international aid workers, and journalists.58

Eritrean-Ethiopian Conflicts Tensions between Eritrea and Ethiopia have been high for decades. The Eritrean War of Independence was fought between 1961 and 1991,59 and is one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts in African history. Following World War II and liberation from Italian colonial rule, Ethiopia held on to Eritrea as a territory and revoked its autonomy in an attempt to maintain

50 John Pike, “Somali Civil War,” GlobalSecurity.org.. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 National Counterterrorism Center, “Al-Shabaab,” Counter-Terrorism Guide. 59 New World Encyclopedia, “Eritrean War of Independence,” NewWorldEncyclopedia.org.

11 access to the Red Sea.60 Without Eritrea, Ethiopia is landlocked and kept out of ports such as Assab and Massawa along one of the most strategically important waterways in the world. Ethiopia’s monarchy, then led by Emperor , was overthrown via Marxist- Leninist coup in 1974. 61 This event marked the start of the Ethiopian Civil War, which also went on until 1991.62 Eritrean separatists were initially unified under the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) but in the 1970s unified under the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), which became the dominant opposition force during the Eritrean War of Independence.63 The new Marxist-Leninist government in Ethiopia was involved in both wars simultaneously, but enjoyed the backing of the during the Cold War.64 The violence was occurring in Eritrea and at the border, in the northern with the Tigray people, and even some Somali conflict.65 A combination of corruption, violence, , and caused the first Ethiopian diaspora.66 To make matters worse, Ethiopia is a drought-prone region. The famine in the 1980s brought international attention to the plight of , drawing support from humanitarian aid organizations such as Oxfam67 and celebrities such as Michael Jackson. It is why even today Americans commonly associate Ethiopia with starvation. Despite their efforts, an estimated seven million people died.68 Both the Ethiopian Civil War and the Eritrean War of Independence ended in 1991. The context of the Cold War is relevant as well, as the Soviet Union dissolved in the same year. Having driven out the last of the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, peace talks began. In 1993, a referendum was held. The Eritrean people voted in favor of independence almost unanimously, and Eritrea was admitted to the United Nations.69 But relations between Eritrea and Ethiopia did not remain cordial for long. The Eritrean-Ethiopian War broke out in 1998 over the Badme region along the border between the two nations.70 Eritrea neglected peace agreements until May 2000, when Ethiopia occupied a quarter of Eritrean territory, damaging critical infrastructure and displacing more than half a million people.71 The two-year war led to more widespread conflict in the Horn of Africa. The fighting found its way into Somali territory as the two sides worked to outflank each

60 New World Encyclopedia, “Eritrean War of Independence,” NewWorldEncyclopedia.org.. 61 Ibid. 62 New World Encyclopedia, “Ethiopian Civil War,” NewWorldEncyclopedia.org. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ethiopian_Civil_War 63 New World Encyclopedia, Eritrean War of Independence. 64 New World Encyclopedia, Ethiopian Civil War. 65 Ibid. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid. 69 New World Encyclopedia, Eritrean War of Independence. 70 New World Encyclopedia, “Eritrean-Ethiopian War. 71 Ibid.

12 other, and Eritrea supported rebels against the Ethiopian government while Ethiopia supported those against the Somali and Eritrean governments.72 The war was short but violent and affected masses of civilians on both sides. Displacement was widespread, weakened trade relations and economies lead to food shortages, fear motivated internments, and security risk justified deportations.73 Today, Eritrea and Ethiopia have tense relations and there is still consistent fear of conflict. While Ethiopia is a host country to masses of East African refugees,74 Eritrea is one of the world’s fastest-emptying countries,75 and many Eritrean refugees can be found within Ethiopia’s borders.

Current Situation

Somalia Refugees from war-torn Somalia have largely fled to Kenya, Ethiopia, and Yemen, though significant numbers can also be found in Uganda, Djibouti, and .76 The current exchange is almost ironic, as Yemeni people are going to to escape a war zone while East Africans are going to Yemen in search of a better quality of life.77 Since 1991, the United States and the have each accepted more than 100,000 Somali refugees, Canada has accepted 50,000 and Sweden 40,000.78

Ethiopia Though Ethiopia used to be a producer of refugees, it today hosts about 680,000 refugees, more than any other African country. Refugees from South , Uganda, Burundi, Yemen, as well as Eritrea and Somalia can be found in Ethiopian refugee camps.79 While the camps are a popular stopping point, there is a shortage of services and employment opportunities, often forcing refugees to continue the journey into more dangerous territory.80

72 Ibid. 73 Ibid. 74 UNHCR, Refugees in the Horn of Africa: Somali Displacement Crisis. 75 Zachary Laub, “ in Eritrea and the Migrant Crisis,” Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/eritrea/authoritarianism-eritrea-migrant-crisis/p37239 76 UNHCR, Refugees in the Horn of Africa: Somali Displacement Crisis. 77 Rachel Savage and Mohammed Ali Kalfood, “All roads lead to Djibouti as refugees flee Yemen even as migrants head there,” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/may/23/all-roads-djibouti- refugees-flee-yemen-civil-war-migrants-head-there 78 David Frum, “America’s Immigration Challenge,” The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/12/refugees/419976/ 79 James Jeffery, “Stuck in limbo in Ethiopia, Africa’s biggest refugee camp,” Deutsche Welle. http://www.dw.com/en/stuck-in-limbo-in-ethiopia-africas-biggest-refugee-camp/a-18848086 80 Zachary Laub, Authoritarianism in Eritrea and the Migrant Crisis.

13 This is not a problem exclusive to Ethiopian refugee camps either; camps in Sudan, Kenya, and other neighboring countries face the same problems.

Eritrea Many Eritreans, especially young people, have left the country in recent years looking to escape compulsory national service. This national service system began as an 18-month term of military training, but the terms often became indefinite.81 Eritrean asylum-seekers have reported forced labor, , and sexual abuse as a result of in this program.82 The national service system makes desertion the only viable option for many, and as a result, at least 5,000 Eritreans leave every month.83 An estimated 9 percent of the population has fled thus far.84

The Journey Refugees face many difficulties on their way to Europe. Border police at the Eritrean- Ethiopian border often have a shoot-to-kill mentality. Once the border has been crossed, some refugees can fall victim to human traffickers who lie in wait for these Eritreans. They can be tortured, held for ransom, or sold into trafficking circles. Desperation from seemingly indefinite stay in resource-poor refugee camps many times motivates refugees to carry on a dangerous journey to Europe. A common route takes individuals from camps in Sudan or Ethiopia to Libya, where they often pay large sums to board unseaworthy boats to cross the Mediterranean Sea.85 These boats often capsize, leading to thousands of deaths at sea. Even if all of these obstacles are overcome, reception in Europe is becoming increasingly doubtful because of the European Union’s reaction to the largest refugee crisis since World War II.

Analysis

Human rights abuses and violence are often the impetus for fleeing home. Refugee camp conditions in host nations such as Ethiopia, Sudan, and Kenya encourage individuals to continue an asylum-seeking journey into more dangerous conditions. The resettlement processes also do not provide much hope, especially for Somali refugees, as the number that are being resettled has drastically decreased in recent years.86 Finally, xenophobia and

81 Ibid. 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid. 84 Matina Stevis and Joe Parkinson, “Thousands flee Eritrea to escape life of conscription and poverty,” The Wall Street Journal. 85 Zachary Laub, Authoritarianism in Eritrea and the Migrant Crisis. 86 European Resettlement Network, “Somali Refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia,” Resettlement.eu.

14 immigration processes make the future of refugees in Europe and the United States highly uncertain.

Conclusion The Horn of Africa has been ravaged by war for much of recent history. Having undergone decades of violent conflict has crippled infrastructure and hurt foreign relations for both Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. In this drought- and conflict-prone region, poverty, oppression, and chaos run rampant, and it is the job of the United Nations Security Council to maintain international peace and security.

Questions to Consider ● What actions can the UNSC take to alleviate some of the burden of the refugee crisis? ● How does the crisis impact international peace and security? ● What kind of capacity building must occur to improve conditions in both origin and host countries? ● How can resettlement programs and immigration processes be improved? ● Is the best course of action to stop the flow of refugees, develop structures that make the journey safer, build up infrastructure in host countries, or a combination? ● What can be done to ensure a sustainable future for the region?

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