A Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of the Berea Sandstone in Athens County, Ohio

Home , Cleveland Shale, Cussewago Sandstone

A thesis presented to

the faculty of

the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Science

Mohanad Z. Muslim

August 2014

This thesis titled

A Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of the Berea Sandstone in Athens County, Ohio

MOHANAD Z. MUSLIM

has been approved for

the Department of Geological Sciences

and the College of Arts and Sciences by

Gregory Nadon

Associate Professor of Geological Sciences

Robert Frank

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3

ABSTRACT

MUSLIM, MOHANAD Z., M.S., August 2014, Geological Sciences

A Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of the Berea Sandstone in Athens County, Ohio

Director of Thesis: Gregory Nadon

The Berea interval is composed of two separate sandstones, the basal Second Berea and the upper Berea Sandstone, which represent the last progradational pulses during the latest Devonian in the Appalachian basin. The interval within Athens County was investigated using cross-sections, isopach, and motif maps based on 295 gamma-ray logs and one core from the Second Berea zone. The data reveal the presence of two high frequency sequences, a lower sequence composed of the Cleveland Shale and

Second Berea and an upper sequence formed by the Bedford and Berea Sandstone.

Both sandstone units were formed by prograding wave-dominated delta and strandplain during forced regressions with the basal sequence preserved as a series of detached shorelines and the sandstones with the upper sequence as attached shorelines. The thinning of the Berea interval to the southeast is interpreted as on lap of a forebulge located in southwestern West Virginia. Therefore, the deposition of the

Berea is occurred in the back-bulge in Athens County. 4

DEDICATION

Dedicated for my fiancée who has unconditionally supported me 5

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Gregory Nadon for all his support, patience, guidance, insight ideas, and encouragement. He helped me out to access to the logs, core, and editing my thesis drafts. I am grateful my committee Dr.

Green and Dr. Kidder for their support and advice.

This project would not have been possible without the support of Ohio Geological

Survey who provided the scanned well logs for Athens County with the assistance of

Mr. James MacDonald. I acknowledge the Government of Iraq (HCED program) for financial assistance during the course of this study. 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ...... 3 Dedication ...... 4 Acknowledgments...... 5 List of Tables ...... 8 List of Figures ...... 9 List of Plates ...... 11 Chapter 1:Introduction ...... 12 Chapter 2:Previous studies ...... 15 2.1 Introduction ...... 15 2.2 Tectonics ...... 15 2.3 Stratigraphy ...... 20 2.4 Paleogeography ...... 24 Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 27 3.1 Introduction ...... 27 3.2 Well log data ...... 29 3.2.1 The type well ...... 31 3.2.2 Correlation ...... 31 3.2.3 Datum selection ...... 33 3.3 Maps ...... 35 3.4 Core description ...... 37 Chapter 4: Data ...... 41 4.1 Introduction ...... 41 4.2 Lithofacies Associations ...... 41 4.2.1 Lithofacies Association A: Prodelta ...... 42 4.2.2 Lithofacies Association B: Prodelta sandstone ...... 46 4.2.3 Lithofacies Association C: Shoreface sandstone ...... 46 4.2.4 Depositional Model: A wave-dominated delta ...... 48 4.3 Well log data ...... 50 4.3.1 Cross sections ...... 52 4.3.2 Isopach and Isolith maps ...... 52 4.3.3 Log motifs ...... 62 7

4.3.3.1 Motif A: Shoreface type one ...... 63 4.3.3.2 Motif B: Channels ...... 64 4.3.3.3 Motif C: Shoreface type two ...... 68 4.3.3.4 Motif D: Regressive-transgressive sandstone ...... 69 4.4 Depositional model ...... 70 4.5 Sequence stratigraphy ...... 70 4.5.1 Sequence stratigraphy concept ...... 72 4.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy using well logs ...... 75 4.5.3 A subsurface sequence stratigraphic model ...... 81 4.5.4 Sequence stratigraphy of the Berea interval ...... 82 4.5.4.1 The Cleveland-Second Berea sequence ...... 82 4.5.4.2 The Bedford-Berea sequence ...... 83 Chapter 5: Discussion ...... 86 5.1 Introduction ...... 86 5.2 Tectoinc setting ...... 86 5.3 Depositional Model: Wave-dominated delta ...... 89 5.3.1 Modern deltas ...... 89 5.3.2 Ancient examples ...... 91 5.3.3 The Berea Sandstone ...... 94 5.4 The sequence stratigraphic model ...... 95 Chapter 6: Conclusions ...... 100 References ...... 102 Appendix A: Tectonic model ...... 109 Appendix B: Tectonic model calculations ...... 118 Appendix C: Cross section plates ...... 123 Appendix D: Isopach, isolith, and log motif data ...... 127 8

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 2.1: Late Devonian strata within the Appalachian Basin ...... 22

Table 3.1: Properties and geological interpretations of well logs ...... 30

Table A.1: List of physical parameters for flexural modeling ...... 113

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1.1: The Late Devonian paleogeography of eastern North America ...... 13

Figure 2.1: Exposures of the Berea Sandstone relative to the study area ...... 16

Figure 2.2: Schematic model of a foreland basin ...... 17

Figure 2.3: Regional tectonic model of the North America ...... 19

Figure 2.4: Regional stratigraphy of late Devonian in northeastern America ...... 21

Figure 3.1: Well location map ...... 28

Figure 3.2: Type well ...... 32

Figure 3.3: Datum implications using gamma-ray logs in cross sections...... 34

Figure 3.4: Structural map of the Bedford-Berea in Athens County ...... 39

Figure 3.5: A photograph of the measure core within the Second Berea Sandstone ...... 40

Figure 4.1: Summary of the core lithofacies association ...... 43

Figure 4.2: Lithofacies Association A: ...... 44

Figure 4.3: Lithofacies Association B: ...... 47

Figure 4.4: Lithofacies Association C ...... 49

Figure 4.5: The basal contact of the Second Berea from the core ...... 51

Figure 4.6: Isopach map of the Cleveland Shale ...... 53

Figure 4.7: Isopach map of the Second Berea Sandstone ...... 54

Figure 4.8: Isopach map of the Bedford Shale ...... 55

Figure 4.9: Isopach map of the Berea Sandstone ...... 56

Figure 4.10: Isolith map of the Second Berea Sandstone ...... 57

Figure 4.11: Isolith map of the Berea Sandstone ...... 58

Figure 4.12: Eight well cross sections of the Bedford-Berea sequence ...... 59 10

Figure 4.13: Fence diagram ...... 60

Figure 4.14: Log motif classification of the Berea interval ...... 65

Figure 4.15: Motif map of the Second Berea Sandstone ...... 66

Figure 4.16: Motif map of the Berea Sandstone ...... 67

Figure 4.17: Sequence stratigraphic surfaces in marine environment ...... 71

Figure 4.18: Sequence stratigraphy with a schematic gamma-ray logs ...... 74

Figure 4.19: An example of a progradational parasequence set ...... 76

Figure 4.20: Sequence stratigraphic surface interpretations from porosity logs ...... 77

Figure 4.21: Systems tracts model within gamma-ray logs ...... 79

Figure 4.22: Spectral gamma ray logs ...... 80

Figure 4.23: Sequence stratigraphic model in Athens County ...... 85

Figure 5.1: The stratigraphic and tectonic model in Athens County ...... 88

Figure 5.2: Wave-dominated delta modern model ...... 92

Figure 5.3: Variation and distribution in different shoreface types ...... 97

Figure A.1: Palinspastic map of the Acadian orogeny ...... 110

Figure A.2: Isopach map of Late Devonian strata ...... 111

Figure A.3: Topographic profiles used to calculate the lithosphere thickness ...... 112

Figure A.4: The change in the lithosphere thickness and the deflection ...... 116

Figure A.5:Possible forebulge location during the Acadian Orogeny ...... 117 11

LIST OF PLATES

Page

Plate 1: Cross Section A-A' ...... 123

Plate 2: Cross Section B-B' ...... 123

Plate 3: Cross Section C-C' ...... 124

Plate 4: Cross Section D-D' ...... 124

Plate 5: Cross Section A-D ...... 125

Plate 6: Cross Section E- E' ...... 125

Plate 7: Cross Section F-F' ...... 126

Plate 8: Cross Section A'-D' ...... 126

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Extensive, thin sandstone bodies are present in several foreland basins in North

America. The Viking, Dunvegan, and Cardium formations in the Alberta basin are well-studied examples that have been exploited for energy recourses (Plint, 1988;

Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009). The areal extent of these sandstones varies from approximately 44,000 to100,000 km2. In each case the progradation of the sandstone has been interpreted by many authors to be the result of a drop in absolute sea level that generated what is termed a forced regression (Plint, 1988; Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009).

In the Appalachian basin a similar sand sheet is present in the Late Devonian that extends over 120,000 km2 (Pashin, 1990). The latest Famennian (Upper Devonian)

Berea Sandstone is present throughout an area that includes northeastern Ohio, northwestern Pennsylvania, western West Virginia, and eastern Kentucky (Pepper et al., 1954). Regional studies by Pepper et al. (1954) and Pashin and Ettensohn (1995) concluded that the Berea Sandstone was carried out from fluvial channels with source areas east and north of Ohio (Figure 1.1). In subsurface of southeastern Ohio, a siliciclastic unit, termed the Cussewago-Sandstone, is present below the Berea and has been correlated to what drillers refer to as the Second Berea. The grain size of the

Berea ranges from siltstone to fine-grained sandstone and thicknesses vary from zero to more than 250 feet (Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995). The Bedford-Berea interval is bracketed by two extensive black shales, the lower Cleveland Shale and the upper

Sunbury Shale (deWitt, 1946, 1951). The Berea Sandstone contains a wide range of 13

Figure 1.1 A paleogeographic map during the Late Devonian modified from Brezinski et al. (2010). 14 depositional facies deposited a late phase of the Acadian orogeny (Pashin and

Ettensohn, 1995).

Thousands of gas and oil wells have been drilled into and through the Berea interval over the past 100 years (Pashin, 1990). The Berea has been studied intensively in outcrop, however, two regional subsurface studies have been conducted by Pepper et al. (1954) and Pashin and Ettensohn (1995). The more recent study concluded that the Berea interval was the product of a forced regression. However, the use of the top of the Berea Sandstone as a datum for correlation makes it difficult to assess that interpretation.

This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that the Berea Sandstone was deposited by a forced regression using core and 295 well logs in Athens County Ohio.

If a forced regression were the primary cause of the sandstone progradation, then two outcomes are expected. First, the use of a lower datum, i.e., one within the upper

Ohio Shale, should reveal a distinctive geometry on well log cross sections. Second, these cross sections combined with lithofacies data from core, isopach maps of the different lithologic units, and maps showing the vertical trends in gamma-ray logs within the unit, known as motifs, should form a consistent and predictable pattern showing off-lapping of the sandstones into the basin.

CHAPTER 2: PREVIOUS STUDIES

2.1 Introduction

The Berea interval has been studied for more than 150 years by many researchers and over that time the understanding of the formation of the basin, the age of the unit, and the depositional environments have changed substantially. This chapter provides an overview of the tectonic development of the basin, stratigraphy and regional paleogeography.

2.2 Tectonics

The study area is located in the Appalachian basin, which is a foreland basin, and specifically a retroarc foreland basin, that formed in response to the Appalachian

Mountain Range (Figure. 2.1). A foreland basin is an elongate of sedimentary basin filled mainly by sediments carried out from the adjacent orogenic highlands with the thickest deposits within the basins are located close to the thrust belt (Jordan, 1981;

Quinlan and Beaumont, 1984; Miall, 2000). The size and thickness of a foreland basin has been successfully modeled as the bending of a rigid plate flexure by an applied load (Turcotte and Schubert, 1982; Quinlan and Beaumont, 1984). The deepest portion of the basin, also referred to as the moat, is located closest to the applied load and the basin effectively terminates at a peripheral bulge. DeCelles and

Giles (1996) subdivided the foreland basin into four depozones from the orogen to the craton including the wedge-top, foredeep, forebulge, and back-bulge (Figure 2.2).

The sediments that occupy the wedge-top depozone are situated in the frontal zone of the orogenic wedge and taper toward the hinterland. These deposits are characterized

Figure 2.1: The exposures of the Berea Sandstone relative to the study area. 17 view. b) Cross section modified modified b) Cross section view.

del of foreland basin a) Plan foreland basin del of Schematic mo Schematic : 2

Figure 2. (1996) from and Giles DeCelles

18 by coarse grain sizes, widespread unconformities, and gradual deformation. The foredeep depozone is located between thrust front and the forebulge and the sediments can reach up to several kilometers in thickness. The forebulge is an uplift or positive feature that extends cratonward of the foredeep. If it rises above the sea level the forebulge can be an additional source of sediment delivered to the back-bulge depozone (Tankard, 1986a,b). The height and position of the forebulge varies with the rheology of the underlying plate and the distribution and mass of the applied thrust load (Beaumont et al., 1988; Flemings and Jordan, 1990). The back-bulge is the area that located between the forebulge and craton and the regional stratigraphy patterns from isopach maps show regional closure between the craton and the forebulge

(DeCelles and Giles, 1996).

The Appalachian basin was formed by a series of orogenies during the Paleozoic

(Ettensohn, 2008). From the Middle Ordovician to the Permian the Taconic, Salinic,

Acadian, and Alleghanian orogenic events produced one or more clastic wedges that were termed deltas in the older literature (Diecchio and Gottfried, 2004) (Figure 2.3).

A total of eight major clastic wedges including Blount, Queenston, Bloomsbury,

Catskill, Bedford-Berea, Price-Pocono, Borden, and Allegheny are observed over an area that extends more than 6,000 km across and 1,000 km along the depositional strike of the basin(Ettensohn, 2004). The depositional facies contained within these wedges vary from terrestrial to open-marine. The Acadian Orogeny (Early Devonian) resulted from an oblique convergence of Avalonian terranes with the southeastern margin of Laurussia and four tectophases have been identified within the orogeny

(Ettensohn, 2004). The Catskill delta, the proximal sediment source of the 19 evonian evonian

America from Middle to Late D to Late America from Middle orth N : Regional tectonic model of modelRegional : tectonic 3 Figure 2. and Gottfried, 2004) from Diecchio (modified

Bedford-Berea succession, was deposited during the third tectophase of the Acadian orogeny and prograded westward of the Appalachian basin.

2.3 Stratigraphy

The Catskill and Pocono complex wedges deposited during the third tectophase of the

Acadian Orogeny were the proximal sediment source of the Bedford-Berea interval(Figure 2.4). The Bedford-Berea succession represents the last progradational siliciclastic wedge in the Appalachian basin during the Late Devonian (Upper

Famennian). Newberry (1890) applied the term Berea grit to the sandstone exposed at

Berea County, Ohio. The Berea Sandstone is composed of medium- to fine-grained sandstone that ranges in thickness from a few feet to more than 235 feet (Pepper et al.,

1954). The two major studies of the Berea that capture the variety of work done on this unit over the past 180 years are those of Pepper et al. (1954) and Pashin and

Ettensohn (1995). The generalized stratigraphy of the Late Devonian and Upper

Mississippian is illustrated in (Table 2.1).

The work of Pepper et al. (1954) was primarily a stratigraphic description of the

Berea with the goal of understanding the paleogeographic distribution of the various components in the central Appalachian basin. The authors incorporated surface and subsurface data from Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Kentucky to construct a series of paleogeographic maps showing the interpreted changes in shoreline position as the Berea-Bedford sediments were deposited. The presence of thick sandstones incised into the Bedford Shale in northern Ohio led the authors to conclude that the major sediment source for the Berea was in Ontario. Additional subsidiary sand 21

Late Devonian in Northeastern America modified in modified Late Northeastern Devonian America

Regional stratigraphy of Regional stratigraphy : Figure 2.4 and Ettensohn (1995). from Pashin

. Brezinski et al Brezinski

(1995) and (1995) Ettensohn and Modified from Pashin from Modified

. ) 2009

8, Table 2.1: Nomenclature of Late Devonian and Lower Carboniferous strata within the the Carboniferous within of Lateand Lower strata Devonian Table 2.1: Nomenclature Basin Appalachian (200

23 sources on the eastern and southern sides of the basin were termed the Cussewago,

Gray-Fink, and Cabin Creek trends. The Cussewago, which was first named by

White (1880) after exposures of along the Cussewago Creek valley, western Crawford

County, Pennsylvania, was correlated in the subsurface with a unit known as the

Murrysville Sandstone. Regional trends indicated that the source of the Murrysville was in west-central Pennsylvania, i.e., to the southeast. These fluvial systems eroded the Catskill delta and brought sediments of sand and silt size to present-day West

Virginia and to Ohio. The end of Berea deposition was marked by a regional transgression that deposited the Sunbury Shale.

The next comprehensive examination of the Berea-Bedford interval (Pashin and

Ettensohn, 1995) incorporated data from facies models, plate tectonics, and sequence stratigraphy. These data included samples from 67 outcrops and subsurface data from approximately 600 wells including gamma-ray logs, cores, and cutting. The lithofacies analysis combined with well-log cross sections and isopach maps in Ohio and adjacent states showed the presence of a wide variety of depositional environments, such as fluvial, deltaic, estuarine, beach, storm-dominated shelf, turbidite, and oxygen deficient basin–floor systems.

The authors divided the Appalachian Basin into two parts, an eastern platform and a western basin. The eastern platform was affected by erosion of Catskill delta and the depositional pattern in this area includes aggradational, transgressive, and valley-fill successions with total thicknesses less than 75 feet. The western basin contains deposits of progradational deltaic and shelf sequences with thicknesses that can 24 exceed 150 feet. The section was also divided into two depositional episodes; basin fill and delta destruction. During the basin filling phase, the Cussewago, the Gay-

Fink, and the Cabin Creek fluvial systems eroded the Catskill delta and provided the sediments for the distal part of the western basin. Later, the Cussewago delta prograded over under-compacted mudstones of the Ohio Shale resulting in widespread diapirism in north-central Ohio. In southern Ohio, Pashin and Ettensohn

(1995) correlated the Cussewago with Second Berea Sandstone, which was thought to be a separate unit by Pepper et al. (1954), and suggested the latter was the distal end of a delta system.

The second depositional episode resulted in a regional transgression and destruction of the Cussewago delta in the northern basin. However, in southern parts of the basin, the progradation of the Gray-Fink and Cabin deltas from the east and Berea siltstone from the north formed estuaries and an open shelf, which were also interpreted to be present by Pepper et al. (1954). Finally, the regional transgression that deposited the

Sunbury Shale marked the end of the deposition of the Berea.

2.4 Paleogeography and paleoclimate

The eastern side of the Appaliachian Basin was covered by an epicontinental sea during the Late Devonian (Pepper et al.,1954; Lewis and Schwietering, 1971; Pashin and Ettensohn 1987, 1995; Ettensohn et al., 2009). The sea way terminated just north of Ohio (e.g., Pepper et al., 1954) with an eastern margin that more or less parallels the trend of the Appalachians. The location of a western margin has been the subjuct of a prolongedcontroversy, however, both Pepper et al. (1954) and Lewis and 25

Schwietering (1971) considered the Findley Arch to be an exposed land mass before the deposition of Cleveland Shale. Climate influences not only sediment supply to foreland basins but also tectonic style and eustasy (Ettensohn, 2008). The

Appapchian basin was located at a paleolatitide of approximately 25ºS during the Late

Devonian (Miller and Kent, 1988; Ettensohn, 1985). Studies of Upper Devonian strata incorporating isotopes and paleontology record significant global events including sea-level fluctuations, biotic extinctions and widespread black shale deposition (Nicollin and Brice, 2004; Myrow et al., 2011).

The forced regression inferred for the Berea by Pashin and Ettensohn (1995) requires a rapid fall in eustatic sea level that is generally ascribed to the formation continental ice sheets. At the time of the Pashin and Ettensohn study there was no evidence of ice sheets at the end of the Devonian, however, Caputo et al. (2008) presented evidence for Latest Devonian glaciations in South America and suggested that these resulted in eustatic sea level fluctuations. Moreover, Brezinski et al. (2010) interpreted a succession of diamictite, mudstone, and sandstone within Spechty Kopf and Rockwell

Formations in the eastern United States as the product of glacial advance and retreat.

Both units overlie the Catskill delta in the central Appalachian basin and extend more than 400 km along depositional strike in the central Appalachian basin. The authors suggested that the petrology of the sediments within the Spechty Kopf and Rockwell

Formations indicated that they were deposited at the edge of a larger ice sheet. The hypothesis of a significant glaciation coinciding with the deposition of the Berea is augmented by the results of Kaiser et al. (2006) who reached a similar conclusion after examination of equivalent strata in Germany and Austria. They concluded that a 26 warm climate period, during which the Cleveland Shale was deposited, was then followed by an abrupt decrease in temperature and a glacial episode at the end of the late Devonian. Therefore, a forced regression is plausible but, because of the uncertainties inherent in the age dates of the two studies, it is necessary to examine the vertical and lateral distribution of the stratal patterns within the Berea interval to test the hypothesis.

CHAPER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The interpretation of depositional environments within a subsurface interval can be achieved with geophysical well logs and cores (Serra and Sulpice, 1975; Serra and

Abbott, 1982; Van Wagoner, 1990; Cant, 1992; Rider,1996; Posamentier and Allen,

1999;Catuneanu, 2006). Lithology can be interpreted from wireline logs using a variety of log types, such as gamma-ray, sonic, resistivity, density, and photoelectric

(Selley,1998;Ellis and Singer,2008). Each log is a measure of a different property of the rock and fluid around a borehole and has advantages and limitations. The steps involved in a well-log study include, 1) selection of a type well used to identify the units, 2) Calibration of log data with core data if available, 3) selection of an appropriate datum, 4) correlation of the logs available, 5) construction of maps and cross-sections.

The Ohio Geological Survey provided scanned copies of publicly available well logs from Athens County for this study. More than 1,150 logs were available along with the locations of each of the wells in an excel spreadsheet. A base map of the wells was constructed by plotting the coordinate systems of the logs on the Athens GIS map, downloaded from the Athens GIS website, by using Golden Surfer Software, version11 (Figure 3.1).

Berea interval Berea -

Latitude used to studyused Bedford Well locations map Welllocations Figure 3.1

Longitude

3.2 Well Log Data

The Berea interval is a siliciclastic succession and therefore gamma-ray logs are the single most efficient tool for defining formation contacts and shale volume (Serra and

Sulpice, 1975; Armentrout et al., 1993). The spontaneous potential log is also used to define shale beds (Galloway, 1986), however the gamma-ray log is generally preferred because the spontaneous potential response is affected by very resistant formations, non-conductive mud, air-drilled holes, cased holes, and formation fluids

(Schlumberger, 1989). A conventional gamma-ray log measures total natural radioactivity (Cant, 1992; Catuneanu, 2006) emitted by the combination of potassium, thorium, and uranium in an interval. Sandstones and carbonates are lithologies with typically low radioactivity whereas shale has a high gamma-ray response. Typical penetration distances are 10 cm, and vertical resolution is generally taken to be 40 cm(Rider, 1996). Gamma-ray response is less affected by borehole rugosity than the density, sonic or resistivity tools with short electrode spacing. Resistivity tools with longer spacing between electrodes have deeper penetration and are therefore less affected by borehole rugosity, but also have a less vertical resolution than the gamma- ray tool (Asquith and Gibson, 1982). A summary of well logs types, physical properties and geological interpretations, modified from Cant (1992) and Catuneanu

(2006) is illustrated in Table 3.1. A gamma-ray tool that records the variations in the three radioactive elements with depth is a more recent development and less commonly available, but can be used to determine shale mineral species (Hesselbo,

1996).

Table 3.1: Properties and geological interpretations of different well logs (after Cant, 1992; Catuneanu, 2006)

Well logs Property Measured Units Geological Interpretation

Spontaneous Natural electric Millivolts Lithology, correlation, Potential potential (relative to curve shape analysis, (SP) drilling mud) identification of porous zones.

Resistivity Resistance to Ohm-meters Identification of coals, electric current flow bentonites, fluid evaluation.

Gamma-ray Natural radioactivity API units Lithology (shaliness), related to K, Th, U correlation, curve shape analysis.

Sonic Velocity of Microseconds/ Identification of porous compression sound meter zones, coal, tightly waves cemented zones.

Caliper Size of hole Centimeters borehole condition and reliability of logs.

Neutron Concentrations of Percent Identification of porous hydrogen (water and porosity zones, cross plots with hydrocarbons) in sonic, density logs for pores empirical separation of lithologies.

Density Bulk density Kilograms per Lithologies such as (electron density) cubic meter anhydrite, halite, includes pore fluid (gm/cm2) nonporous carbonates. in measurement Dipmeter Orientation of Degrees Paleoflow (in oriented dipping surfaces by (Azimuth and core),stratigraphic, resistivity changes Direction) structural analyses

3.2.1 The Type Well

The spatial distribution of the wells within Athens County varies widely depending on the presence or absence of producing horizons. The wells used in this study were initially selected on the basis of one well per section to provide an overview without sacrificing detail. In sections with more than one well, the well closest to the center of the section was used. Additional wells were added in areas where shorter spacing was needed because of rapid changes in lithology. The result is a total of 295 wells showing all well locations used to study the Berea intervals.

Dover Township was chosen at the beginning of the project for the type area and well because it had the largest number of deep wells (105). The Peabody Coal Co. #3 well

(API # 34009228570000), located in section 28 was selected to be the type well

(Figure 3.2). The well was chosen because all of the different formations and the datum are clearly visible.

3.2.2 Correlation

Prior to making cross-sections and maps of attributes of subsurface units the wells must be correlated. The two steps involved are selection of an appropriate datum and then comparison of the tops of individual stratigraphic lithosomes from one well to another until the tops chosen are consistent across the study area.

Figure 3.2: Type well within the Berea Interval illustrating stratigraphy and calculation of gross sandstone values from the gamma-ray log. . 33

3.2.3 Datum Selection

A datum is a log marker response used to hang cross sections for stratigraphic correlations and is considered arbitrarily to be flat. The best choice for a datum is a bed that was originally horizontal, located close to the interest interval, widespread, and identified easily in well logs and cores (Cant, 1992). A datum may be selected above or below the interval of interest and either location results in distortion of the geological sections but the resulting interpretations are not identical (Figure 3.3).

The choice of datum location influences sequence stratigraphic interpretations (e.g.,

Posamentier et al., 1992). The choice of an upper datum, such as a marine flooding surface (Figure 3.3a), distorts the stratal geometry through pull-up in distal regions that would show incorrectly fluvial incision increasing basinward. The choice of a lower datum from within the underlying marine mudstones (Figure 3.3b) shows that the lowstand shoreline sandstones are not coeval and correctly depicts the increase in fluvial incision in the upstream direction. Because the goal of this study is to determine if the sandstones of the Berea interval were deposited as a result of one or more forced regressions, the datum for this study was selected within the marine mudstones of the upper Ohio Shale below the Cleveland Shale.

A consistent correlation of well logs is the basis for the construction of cross sections and maps. The logs within Dover Township were correlated manually beginning with the type log. The top of each lithostratigraphic unit was matched for similarity in log 34

Figure 3.3: Datum implications in gamma-ray log cross sections of forced regressive shorelines (after Posamentier et al., 1992).

35 response by using the inflection points on the curves, i.e., the midway point between the maximum and minimum deflection of the log signature, as the top of a bed

(Asquith and Gibson, 1982; Schlumberger, 1989). A series of closed correlation traverses were made to determine of the choice of tops was consistent. The accuracy of tops was tested by generating structural contour and isopach maps. Logs from wells with abrupt changes in elevation or thickness were examined again to be sure the tops were picked correctly. Once all logs in Dover Township were correlated a similar process was used to extend the correlations throughout the remaining townships.

3.3 Maps

After the tops within each well were identified maps showing various aspects of the study interval in order to interpret the depositional environments. The maps constructed include structure, isopach, isolith, and log motif. A structural map shows the elevation of a formation top relative to sea level. The zero depth on well logs are usually measured from the Kelly Bushing (KB), which is the top of the rotating bushing on the derrick floor, one foot higher than the derrick floor (Darling, 2005) and the KB elevation is commonly listed on the well header. However, the well logs examined in this study use any one of three different elevations as the zero point, the

KB, ground elevation, or surface casing. In addition, there were cases where the well elevations were not legible or cannot be read from the header. In that event the ground elevation obtained from Google Earth was used. The subsea elevations of the datum were contoured using Surfer v.11 from Golden Software (Figure 3.4). The contouring technique utilizes a Kriging contouring method, which involves using all 36 the data to determine the best midpoints indicating the same elevations (Darling,

2005). In cases where wells displayed structural anomalies, which were determined not to be a result of errors in picking the formation tops or because of deviated wells, the ground elevations from Google Earth were used. The revised maps showed more consistent trends.

An isopach map shows variations and trends in thicknesses between two tops.

Isopach maps were constructed to show the spatial distribution of the four main lithostratigraphic units: the Cleveland, Second Berea, Bedford, and Berea. In addition, isopach maps of the two sequences present were also drawn. In all cases, the maps were first contoured by hand and then re-contoured by hand using Illustrator.

Isolith maps of gross sandstone display the thickness defined by a 50% log cut-off on the gamma-ray logs were constructed for both sandstones (Figure 3.2). Isolith maps in subsurface studies are constructed to aid in interpreting the depositional environment. For example, the spatial patterns of sandstone thickness vary for different types of deltas. Isolith maps are constructed by drawing a sand line through the lowest gamma-ray value in the interval and the shale line through an average of the highest value determined by the eye (Asquith and Gibson, 1982). A cut-off value is established as a percentage of the distance between the sand and shale lines. The portions of the log with gamma-ray values less than the cut-off are contoured as gross or net sandstone values. The selection of the cut-off percentage varies depending on amount of gamma-ray log response and the study. Typical maps are of gross sandstones commonly use a 50 % cut-off (i.e., half-way between the sand and shale 37 lines) whereas net sand maps have higher cut-offs ranging from 66 % up to 98% (e.g.,

Nadon et al., 2000 used 98% cut-off). For this study, a gross sandstone cut-off of

50% was selected.

Selecting of the shale line in this study required comes consideration for two reasons.

First, the shales above and below the study interval have a different overall gamma- ray response. The upper Ohio Shale was chosen for the shale line whenever possible because the age of both units is the same. In areas where the Ohio Shale was not penetrated the location of the shale line was interpolated using the overlying

Cuyahoga Shale. The difference in API between the average Ohio Shale and the average Cuyahoga Shale was measured in the nearest well. Then the same difference was subtracted from the average values of the Cuyahoga Shale in the shallow well.

Maps of log motifs, which are the vertical patterns of logs within a specific interval, show the spatial distribution of the vertical pattern of well logs of a specific interval.

These motifs are used to reconstruct the paleogeography (Galloway, 1986; Cant,

1992) and determine whether the sandstone deposition was continuous or not.

3.4 Core Description

Four cores taken from the Berea interval (ODNR numbers 3426, 3251, 3252, 3253) are available to the public at Horace R. Collins repository, a part of Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR). The purpose of the description is to calibrate the gamma-ray log to rock and therefore the core selected for detailed description was chosen based on the availability of a gamma-ray log and core condition. Core number

3426 from the C. C. Curtis No. 4-B, well (API# 34009228550000) taken from the 38 interval 1649-1681 feet matched all the prerequisites and was described by recording the sandstone grain size at 1/2 phi intervals every foot using a standard grain size chart and a sample microscope. The description also included recording the sedimentary structures present. Each box of core was photographed and selected samples photographed in greater detail. Two feet are missing, one foot at 1668 feet and another at 1664 feet (Figure 3.5).

The contour The

Berea in Athens County, Ohio. contoured Berea using - Latitude

Figure 3.4: Structural map of the Bedford StructuralFigure 3.4: basin. theof foreland into axis eastward is deepening overallSurfer. trend The level values below are depth sea

Longitude . 40

C. C. C. e core within the Second Berea from the Berea from Second the e core within 34009228550000) showing the quality of the recovery. of the the quality 34009228550000) showing API# API# well (

B - Figure 3.5: A photograph of the measur Figure 3.5: Curtis No. 4

CHAPTER 4: DATA

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses each of the data sets used in this study, the lithofacies observed in core, isopach maps, log motifs, gamma-ray log cross sections, and the sequence stratigraphy of the Bedford-Berea succession. The measured core within of the

Second Berea sandstone is divided into three lithofacies associations. The spatial variations in the interval are shown in cross sections, isolith maps of the main sandstones and isopach maps of the main lithostratigraphic units (Berea, Bedford,

Second Berea, and Cleveland). The log motifs recognized within the intervals containing the Berea and Second Berea Sandstones add additional information that is integrated into the sequence stratigraphic interpretation.

4.2 Lithofacies Associations

Within the subsurface, core provides the most accurate means to examine and interpret the vertical succession lithofacies and facies associations. Lithofacies are bodies of rocks that are characterized by a combination of lithology, physical, and biological structures that can be used to differentiate them from the surrounding and juxtaposing rocks (e.g., Reading, 1996). Individual lithofacies are commonly found in multiple depositional environments and therefore cannot be used to differentiate one setting from another. In order to interpret a depositional environment, it is necessary to describe the set of facies associations present. The core available for this study, which was cut in the Second Berea Sandstone, contains six lithofacies divided into three lithofacies associations interpreted as prodelta, prodelta sandstone, and 42 progradational shoreface (Figure 4.1). Each lithofacies association within the core is described in detail below.

4.2.1 Lithofacies Association A: Prodelta Mudstone

Description: Association A consists often feet of dark gray to black mudstone with thin interbeds of very fine-grained sandstone. The sandstone beds increase in number and thicken up-section to form an overall coarsening upward trend. Association A is present in three different intervals termed A1, A2, and A3. Interval A1 consists of three feet of parallel laminated, black mudstones at the base of the core (1683-1680 feet). Neither burrows and nor pyrite were observed in this interval and this lithology is abruptly overlain by sandstones of Facies Association B. Interval A2 is six feet thick (1677-1671 feet) and consists of mudstone beds interbedded with very fine- grained sandstone that gradationally overlies Facies Association B. The sandstones in

A2 vary in thickness from five-millimeter thick lamina at the base to four centimeter beds at the top. The contacts between the mudstones and sandstones are sharp. The base of interval A2 is characterized by minor burrowing and an absence of pyrite whereas the top is wave ripple laminated with pyrite present. The A2 interval has abundant soft-sediment deformation structures and parallel lamination (Figure 4.2).

Interval A3 consists of two feet of interbedded sandstones and mudstones located between the sandstones of Facies Association C. This interval contains three coarsening upward cycles capped by very fine-grained, wave-rippled sandstones and laminated mudstone. No burrows or pyrite were observed and the grain size and sedimentary structures in A3 are the same as A2 (Figure 4.2). On the well log Facies

Association A has the highest gamma-ray response in the section. 43

Figure 4.1: Summary of the core lithofacies associations calibrated to the gamma-ray log. Note that there is only a very slight increase in grain size up section. The total core thickness is 34 feet. 44

Figure 4.2: Interbedded sandstones and mudstones within lithofacies Association A. a) cross laminated structures, b) thin bedded mudstones and sandstones, c) cross laminated with pyrite, d) deformed structures with borrows, e) laminated to bedded mudstone within bioturbated sandstones, and f) wave-ripple cross lamination.

Interpretation: Facies Association A is interpreted to be the product of deposition from hyperpycnal flows on a prodelta based on the lack of bioturbation and laminated to bedded mudstones with sandstones with deformation structures. The laminated mudstones and upward increase of thin lamina and beds of very fine-grained sandstones indicates a prograding sediment package. The lack of burrows and abundance soft deformation are consistent with a high sediment flux, which may have been combined with lowered salinity and rapid deposition rates (Bhattacharya and

MacEachern, 2009).

During the deposition in the Upper Devonian, the Appalachian basin was at a paleolatitude between 5°S to 25°S (Brezinski et al., 2009) with a semitropical to tropical climate (Ettensohn, 2008). In similar settings in both the modern (Nemec,

1995; Mulder and Alexander, 2001; Mulder et al., 2003) and in the Cretaceous

(Soyinka and Slatt, 2008) high suspended load rivers formed a widespread prodelta by deposition from hyperpycnal flows. When a high suspended load river water enter slower density brackish standing ocean water during floods, the denser river water can flow along the bottom as a hyperpycnal flow and carry sediments along the shelf as a turbidity current (Bhattacharya, 1992, Mulder et al., 2003). Prodelta deposits formed by the waxing and waning of hyperpycnal flows are characterized by interbedded stratified thickening upward sandstones within mudstones that show normal or reverse grading (Mulder et al., 2003). The sandstone beds may contain hummocky cross- stratification and wave ripple cross-lamination formed during large storms. High stress conditions including period of brackish water and high sediment flux carried by hyperpycnal flow limit the ability of organisms to rework the sediment, however, 46 some burrows may flourish intermittently between seasonal flooding events

(Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009).

4.2.2 Lithofacies Association B: Prodelta Sandstone

Description: Facies Association B is composed of two feet of well-sorted sandstone that fines upward from very fine-grained with a sharp lower contact and to mudstone with a gradational upper contact. The sandstone is bracketed by beds of Facies

Association A. Structures within the sandstone include cross-lamination and climbing ripple lamination. No burrows, fossil remains, or pyrite were observed (Figure 4.3).

The gamma-ray log pattern of this portion of the core reflects the sharp base and fining upward grain size.

Interpretation: The sharp base, fining upward grain size trend and cross-lamination are all consistent with deposition from a unidirectional flow, such as a turbidity current (Reading, 1996). The occurrence of the sandstone bed between two beds of

Association A suggests deposition on a primarily mud-rich prodelta with floods or storms that triggered turbidity currents. Sandy turbidites are also reported from deltaic settings in the Cretaceous (e.g., Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009).

4.2.3 Lithofacies Associations C: Shoreface Sandstone

Description: Facies Association C is characterized by fine- to very fine-grained amalgamated sandstones 21 feet thick. The beds are massive at the base convolute and parallel lamination toward the top. A four-foot thick bed of massive, very fine- grained sandstone occurs at the base of the association, where it gradationally overlies 47

Figure 4.3: Lithofacies Association B fine grained sandstone showing climbing ripples indicative of rapid sedimentation.

Association A. The lower contact appears to be sharp on the gamma-ray log, but the contact in core is more gradational with interbedded sandstones and mudstones overlain by massive sandstone with no upward change in grain size. The massive bed is overlain by ten feet of slightly coarser, fine-grained sandstone containing convolute lamination. The upper seven feet of the sandstones is slightly finer very fine-grained and contains parallel laminations. Pyrite is present in the lower, massive bed and none of the beds contain burrows (Figure 4.4).

Interpretation: The decrease in the amount of mudstone and the sedimentary structures present within Facies Association C suggest a slight increase in overall energy in the depositional setting compared to the facies below. The convolute lamination observed in those facies association is virtually ubiquitous in the Berea interval in outcrop and core (Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995). The absence of burrows within Association C is interpreted to be a result of high environmental stress due to a high sediment flux. The decrease in mudstone, the presence of the sedimentary structures, and the location of the sandstones above prodelta mudstones are consistent with deposition on a delta front or a more generic prograding shoreface (e.g.,

Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009; Mulder et al., 2003).

4.2.4 Depositional Model: A Wave-Dominated Delta

The limited core data suggest that the depositional environment is a deltaic environment based on comparing the core within modern and ancient analogues. The prodelta of lithofacies Association A shows a number of identical features to those reported from the modern Atchafalaya River delta (Neill and Allison, 2005) and the 49

Figure 4.4: Lithofacies Association C illustrating: a) massive sandstone containing pyrite, b) parallel laminated sandstone, and c) convolute laminated sandstone.

Lower Cretaceous Dunvegan Formation in Alberta and the Ferron Member in Utah

(Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009). Each of those studies described facies similar to the hyperpycnite facies model of Mulder et al. (2003). The increasing number and thickness of the very fine-grained sandstones up section within the prodelta indicates an overall increase depositional energy upward and deposition from waxing and waning hyperpycnal flows. The abundance of soft-sediment deformational structures and the lack of bioturbation are consistent with high sediment flux typical of environments with hyperpycnites. The prodelta sandstones of Association Aare similar to facies described within the Ferron Member and Dunvegan Formation

(Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009). The climbing cross lamination is a result of rapid deceleration of flow that can occur in hyperpycnal flows or turbidity currents triggered by storms. The Association C sandstone does not contain any evidence of tidal structures, therefore the depositional environment is interpreted to be either a wave- or river-dominated delta. Differentiating between the two alternatives requires an understanding the spatial distribution of the sandstones. A wave-dominated delta setting is associated with strandplain shoreface sandstones whereas a fluvial dominated delta has elongate, shoestring sandstones (Reading and Collinson in

Reading, 1996). The rapid continuous change in grain size at the base suggests that the overall amount of the accommodation available was decreased (Figure 4.5).

4.3 Well Log Data

Well log data include cross sections, isopach and isolith maps as well as log motif maps. Each one of these data are analyzed and described in detail based on the analysis of the gamma-ray within the Bedford-Berea interval. 51

Figure 4.5: Identification the basal contact of the Second Berea by incorporating the gamma-ray log and core data. 52

4.3.1 Cross Sections

A series of isopach and isolith maps showing the variations in thickness and sand content within the Berea and Second Berea intervals were generated after the detailed correlation of the well logs was completed (Figures 4.6 to 4.11). Eight cross-sections were constructed that are parallel and perpendicular to the trends observed on the maps (Plates1to 8). The spacing between most of the wells is less than one mile and the maximum spacing is four miles. A fence correlation diagram that consists of the

16 gamma-ray logs at the intersections of the eight cross sections illustrates the changes in the stratigraphic trend of the Bedford-Berea interval throughout Athens

County (Figure 4.12 and 4.13).

4.3.2 Isopach and Isolith Maps

Description: Isopach maps were constructed of the Berea Sandstone, Bedford Shale,

Second Berea, and Cleveland Shale. The Cleveland Shale isopach map shows that the formation is an average of 10-15 feet thick and a maximum of 43 feet thick in northwestern Dover township. The thickest Cleveland deposits are oriented in a NW-

SE direction, however, the unit pinches out to zero in the southeast (Figure 4.6). The isopach map of the Second Berea thickness shows that the unit varies in thickness from 20 to 80 feet. Overall, the Second Berea interval thickens from southeast to northwest (Figure 4.7). The Bedford Shale is highly variable in thickness (10 to 35 feet), but is present throughout the study area (Figure 4.8). The Berea sandstone varies in thickness from zero in the southeast to a maximum of 25 feet in the northwestern portion of the study area (Figure 4.9).

Latitude

Shale.

Figure 4.6: Isopach map of the Isopach mapCleveland Figure 4.6:

Longitude

, and b) an alignment parallel to parallel alignment an , and b) tone. The values show two values show tone. The ands

to the northwest to Latitude

sopach map of theBerea S sopach mapSecond Figure 4.7: I Figure 4.7: offlapping trends; and a) thickening paleoshoreline. the regional

Longitude

hale showing highly variable thickness highlyhale showing Latitude .8: Isopach map of theS Isopach mapBedford .8: Figure 4

Longitude

The values show two trends; a) thickening and two trends; a)The values show

Latitude

. Figure 4.9: Isopach map of the Berea Sandston. of the Isopach mapBerea Figure 4.9: regional paleoshoreline. to the parallel alignment an offlapping to the northwest, and b) e

Longitude

SW trending SW trending -

. Note the presence of . Note theNE presence Latitude separated by zones zero gross sandstone zones zero by separated

4.10: Isolith map of theBerea Second 4.10: Isolith map

e Figur sandstones

Longitude

isolith isolith

SW trend seen in the Second Berea theSW trend Second seen in - SE trend within the thickest sandstones. thickest the SE trend within - Latitude . The NE . andstone 4.11: Isolith map of the Berea S of the Berea 4.11: Isolith map Figure secondary as wella NW present asmap is also here Longitude

equence throughout Athens throughout equence Berea s -

Latitude

Figure 4.12: Eight well cross sections of the sections Bedford Figurecross 4.12: Eight well County.

Longitude

The diagram shows The diagram shows

in Athens County. in

of theinterval Berea Latitude

ence diagram showing Shale and Second Berea Sandstone pinch out to the southeast and the continuous continuous and thethe southeast Second Berea Sandstone pinch out to Shale and A f

Cleveland Cleveland

Figure 4.13: the Berea the nature Sandstone. of

Longitude

. 61

The isolith maps show the variation in gross sandstone thickness within each interval defined by a 50% log cutoff on the gamma-ray logs. The isolith maps of the Second

Berea and the Berea have variations in sandstone thickness from zero to more than 30 feet in two trends. There is an overall NE-SW orientation for most of the data, however, the wells containing more than 30 feet of sandstone, are aligned NW-SE

(Figure 4.10). The isolith map of the Berea shows that sandstone is present in all townships and increases in thickness to the northwest. The orientation of the sandstones in general is similar to the Second Berea and, like the lower unit, the thickest sandstones can be contoured in a southeast-northwest trend. The gross sandstone isopach thins to zero to the southeast in Troy Township.

Interpretation: The overall pattern shown by Cleveland isopach map can be interpreted as either depositional onlap or a result of erosion truncation prior to deposition of the Second Berea. The northwest-southeast trend of the thickest deposits within the Cleveland is interpreted as the infilling of topographic present before the transgression. The orientation of the trends is consistent with infilling of former channels. The thinning of the Second Berea isopach values to the southeast could be a result of depositional offlap, depositional by-pass, or erosional truncation.

Because the regional source for the Second Berea is the Appalachian Mountains to the east (e.g., Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995), the overall NE-SW pattern of sandstone thickness is interpreted to be one of shorelines prograding to the northwest.

Therefore, the thinning to the southeast is not the result of depositional onlap.

Instead, the absence of the Second Berea is interpreted to be a result of depositional by-pass, erosional truncation, or some combination of both. The orientation of the 62 thickest sandstones perpendicular to the shoreline trend suggests that they were formed by channel processes.

There are too few data to confidently interpret the variations in thickness of the

Bedford Shale because there are complex facies changes within the unit not apparent on well logs (Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995). However, the thickness changes mapped here could be the result either of infilling of the relic paleogeography on top of the

Second Berea or erosional truncation during deposition of the Berea Sandstone. The thickness and sandstone trends observed within the Berea Sandstone shows it to be a more extensive unit than the Second Berea, although it too thins to the southeast. The general NE-SW thickness orientation is interpreted as a prograding shoreline whereas the trend of the thickest sandstones is interpreted to be a reflection of channel infilling

(Figure 4.11).

4.3.3 Log Motifs

Log motifs are defined as a set of patterns or signatures that are the product of different lithofacies and are used to distinguish different sediment trends in well logs(Serra and Abbott, 1982). Serra and Surplice (1975) correlated gamma-ray logs to grain size and classified gamma-ray log patterns based on the upper and lower contacts and the presence of either gradual or abrupt upward deflections. The deflections of a gamma-ray log, which are always shown on the left track of a log, respond to an increase or decrease in the amount of natural radioactivity that is most often from potassium in shales (Asquith and Gibson, 1982). The companion logs displayed on the right track (sonic, density/neutron, resistivity) all respond to changes 63 in porosity and deflect in the opposite direction from the gamma-ray log. The result is that an upward decrease in radioactivity is accompanied by an upward decrease in porosity creating a funnel-shaped response, which is commonly interpreted as a result of regression. Conversely, an increase in shale content creates a bell-shaped response that can be interpreted as a transgression.

The gamma-ray logs of the Berea and Second Berea sandstones are grouped into four main motif patterns, each of which has two variants with a smooth or serrated curve(Figure 4.14). The former indicates a gradual change in rock property up- section whereas the latter is a response to interbedded lithologies. The spatial and vertical changes in the four groups of motifs of the two sandstones units are documented in Figures 4.15 and 4.16.

4.3.3.1 Motif A:Shoreface Type One

Description: Motif A is characterized by a sharp upper and lower contacts with a blocky profiles. The thickness of Motif A in both the Berea and Second Berea thins to the southeast. This motif within both sandstones shows NE-SW orientations, however, Motif A within the Second Berea sandstone interval is recognized in only seven wells. Both the Motifs A1 (smooth) and A2 (serrated) are present and are approximately 20 feet in thickness. In contrast, Motif A is the most common pattern in the Berea Sandstone (70 percent of the wells) with Motif A2 the most prevalent subtype (Figure 4.15 and 4.16).

Interpretation: A blocky gamma-ray log motif can form in a broad range of environments from fluvial and deltaic channels to shoreface (Posamentier and Allen,

1999). The northeast-southwest trend of Motif A within the Berea and Second Berea is parallel to the strike of the Appalachian basin and therefore this pattern is unlikely to represent deposition in channels. Consequently, the blocky gamma-ray of motif A is interpreted as representing a shoreface environment with the sharp contacts indicating limited total accommodation.

4.3.3.2 Motif B: Channels

Description: Motif B has a low gamma-ray response at the base that increases to a maximum upward. The average thickness of Motif B ranges from 15 to 25 feet in both the Berea and Second Berea sandstones. Within the Second Berea Motif B occur in three parallel tracts oriented northwest-southeast, i.e., perpendicular to Motif A trends within the study area. The Second Berea contains examples of both smooth

(B1) and serrated (B2) motifs. The latter is more common. The B1 variant is the most common the Berea Sandstone and forms trends oriented northwest-southeast

(Figure 4.15 and 4.16).

Interpretation: Motif B is a result of an increase in mudstone up-section typically interpreted as a decrease in energy (Serra and Abbott, 1982; Rider,1990; Selley,

1998). The combination of gamma-ray and porosity logs creates a bell-shaped pattern. The abrupt base of Motif B to low gamma-ray values is interpreted as an erosional base followed by a fining upward grain size. The possible interpretations of this motif are deposition in a fluvial to deltaic channel (Cant, 1992; Rider, 1996, 65

Figure 4.14: Log motif classification of the Berea interval based the nature of sandstone contacts and log shape. After Serra and Sulpice (1975).

Sw trend to Sw -

Latitude SE trend of the motif B (channel). SE trend of the motif - the Second Berea. Note the presence ofprimary Berea. Note NE the Second presence

igureof 4.15: Motif map F Alsoa NW present isthe sandstones.

Longitude

present in the Second Berea in the present

Latitude

Sandstone. The trendsSandstone.

Longitude Figure 4.16: Motif map of theFigure 4.16: MotifBerea map the of Motif A and arepredominance the differences The main Sandstone present here. are natureof themore sandstones. continuous

Catuneanu, 2006). A channel interpretation is consistent with the orientation of the trends perpendicular to those of Motif A and the regional paleoshoreline.

4.3.3.3 Motif C: Shoreface Type Two

Description: Motif C occurs as a gradual decrease in radioactivity upward accompanied by a decrease in porosity forming a funnel-shaped pattern. Motif C is the most common pattern within the Second Berea but is not present in Troy and most of the Carthage Townships. The serrated motif (C2) is the primary variant within the

Second Berea. In the Berea sandstone, Motif C appears in parallel swaths that extend in a northeast-southwest direction. Motif C1 (smooth) is the most abundant pattern within the Berea sandstone (Figure 4.15 and 4.16).

Interpretation: In siliciclastic successions, a funnel-shape log pattern indicates an increase in sandstone up-section that is interpreted as an increase in energy (Potter et al., 1983; Rider, 1990; Van Wagoner et al., 1990;Cant, 1992;Rider, 1996;

Posamentier and Allen, 1999). The difference between variations C1 and C2 is a function of the presence of thin mudstone interbeds in the latter. Motif C is formed in environments undergoing some form of progradation such as crevasse splays, distributary mouth bars, barrier islands, delta front, and strandplain (Cant, 1992).

Since all these depositional environments display the same gamma ray signatures on the logs and there are no cores to calibrate the well log response, it is impossible to differentiate between individual environments. However, the signatures of motif C are arranged in several zones separated by different log patterns that indicate series of progradational events occurred. 69

4.3.3.4 Motif D: Regressive to Transgressive Sandstones

Description: Motif D has a more or less symmetrical pattern in which the gamma-ray value first decreases up-section and then returns to a high value. Motif D occurs in both the Berea and Second Berea Sandstone and has an average thickness of 25 feet.

In the Berea sandstone interval Motif D is scattered throughout Dover, Athens, Ames, and York Townships (Figure 4.16), only variant D1 (smooth) is present in the Berea.

In Second Berea interval, Motif D is well developed with D2 as the most common variant. This motif extends across wide area within the Second Berea in trend northeast- southwest throughout Ames, Bern, Canaan, Carthage, and Rome

Townships (Figure 4.15).

Interpretation: The gamma-ray pattern in Motif D is interpreted as an initial coarsening upward due to regression followed by an increase in shale content up- section as result of transgression. The depositional environment of Motif D is interpreted as transgressive shelf sandstones (Ainsworth et al.,2000). Shelf sand bars are reworked during a transgression event by coastal processes and produce a gamma- ray log pattern of a symmetrical motif (e.g., Cant, 1992). The presence of Motif D above the Second Berea Sandstone is interpreted as a result of a transgression associated with the basal Bedford Shale (Ettensohn, 1985; Pashin and Ettensohn,

1995). The rarity of the D2 pattern in the Berea Sandstones suggests that there was less time for deposition or reworking during the Sunbury transgression. 70

4.4 Depositional Model

The spatial patterns observed in the isopach and isolith maps combined with the core data are inconsistent with the shoestring sandstones expected in a river-dominated delta system. The wide, predominantly sandy plain indicated by the maps is consistent with a strandplain associated with a prograding wave-dominated delta (e.g.,

Curray et al., 1969; Reading 1996). The sandstones interpreted as shoreface and transgressive are aligned parallel to the expected regional shoreline trend in both the

Berea intervals. The scarcity of the channel patterns is also consistent with this model

(Figure 4.17).

4.5 Sequence Stratigraphy

Sequence stratigraphy is a methodology developed originally to explain the stratal geometry of thick passive margin deposits in terms of chronostratigraphy (Van

Wagoner et al., 1990). On a large scale, the advantage of using sequence stratigraphy is the ability to infer changes in relative sea level from the vertical and lateral variations of sediments. The extension of the methodology to core, and outcrop scale studies is termed high-resolution sequence stratigraphy (Van Wagoner et al. 1990;

Posamentier and Allen, 1999). Well log patterns can also be interpreted in terms of sequence stratigraphy although important assumptions must be considered (Rider,

1996). The interpretation of well log data in terms of sequence stratigraphy and a model for the study area is outlined below after a review of key sequence stratigraphic concepts and terms.

Figure 4.17: Sequence stratigraphic surfaces in marine environment, with incorporating gamma-ray log with stratigraphyand based level (after Catuneanu, 2002). LNR= Lowstand Normal Regression, HNR= Highstand Normal regression, FS= Forced regression, LST= Lowstand Systems Tract, HST= Highstand Systems Tract, TST= Transgressive Systems tract, FSST= Falling Stage Systems Tract. 72

4.5.1 Sequence Stratigraphic Concepts

A sequence is defined as a succession of conformable and genetically related beds bounded by unconformities (Posamentier et al., 1988; Van Wagoner, 1995,

Posamentier and Allen, 1999; Catuneanu 2002). Sequences are divided into systems tracts, were defined as a series contemporaneous depositional systems by Brown and

Fischer (1977, in Van Wagoner, 1990). The spatial and vertical distribution of the facies and facies associations that comprise the systems tracts are controlled by the amount and rate of formation of the available space for sediment to occupy, which is termed accommodation. Fundamentally, accommodation is created or lost through the interaction of the rise or fall of eustatic sea level, tectonic uplift or subsidence, and sediment flux. System tracts can be identified through distinctive stacking patterns of parasequences, which are a conformable and genetically related succession of sediments bounded by flooding surfaces (Catuneanu, 2002) formed by high-frequency oscillations in relative sea level. The three types of parasequence sets recognized a progradational, retrogradational, and aggradational (Van Wagoner, 1990). A progradational parasequence set (PPS) consists of an overall coarsening and thickening up-section. This vertical pattern occurs when the rate of relative sea level change is slowly rising allowing sediments to fill the available accommodation space.

The regression that occurs during deposition of a PPS creates a basinward shift in facies (Catuneanu, 2006). A retrogradational parasequence set (RPS) is characterized by a thinning and fining upward pattern. The decrease in grain size and volume of sediment is interpreted to be a result of a rate of formation of accommodation that exceeds sediment supply resulting in a transgression (Posamentier and Allen, 1999).

An aggradational parasequence set (APS) is one in which there is no change in 73 thickness or grain size up-section. The balance of forces required to produce an APS does not commonly occur and is seldom sustainable (Van Wagoner, 1990). The number of different systems tracts identified within a sequence varies depending on the basin type and the presence or absence of a shelf e break (Rider, 1996). Within foreland basin setting the four systems tracts that are commonly identified within a complete sequence are termed Lowstand, Transgressive, Highstand, and Falling Stage

(Figure 4.18).

A Lowstand Systems Tract (LST) is comprised of a progradational parasequence set formed during the early stage of a relative sea level rise when sediment supply exceeds the rate of accommodation formation. The Transgressive Systems Tract

(TST) forms during the subsequent period of rapid increase in rate of accommodation that creates a retrogradational parasequence set. The TST is capped by the Maximum

Flooding Surface (MFS), which represents the maximum landward shift of facies

(Van Wagoner, 1990). The MFS is also referred to as a downlap surface because of the manner in which the overlying parasequences appear to terminate on this marker in seismic sections (Catuneanu, 2006). A Highstand Systems Tract (HST) forms as the rate of formation of accommodation slows allowing deposition of a progradational parasequence set. The upper TST and basal HST are zones where the rate of sedimentation is lowest, which results in formation of a condensed section in which the amount of organic material per volume of material is greatest. Although both LST and HST consist of progradational parasequence sets formed during slowly rising relative sea level, the difference is that LST overlies a sequence boundary and underlies the TST whereas the HST is located above the (MFS) and is capped by 74

a siliciclastic a to applied

MFS= Maximum Flooding

. ray logs -

. Tract. SB= Sequence SB= Boundary Tract.

forced regression (after Rider, 1996) (after regression forced Rider,

ransgression Systems T

by a influenced setting using gamma ure stratigraphic interpretation 4.18: Sequence Fig ramp Highstand Systems Tract, HST= Systems floodingLowstand Surface, Surface, LST= Tract, FS= TST= 75 either a sequence boundary or deposits of the Falling Stage Systems Tract (FSST)

(Plint and Nummedal 2000). Deposition of the FSST occurs during formation of negative accommodation. As a result, the shoreline facies advance basinward because of the receding sea in what is termed a forced regression, as opposed to a normal regression, which occurs when sediment supply exceeds the rate of formation of accommodation (Posamentier et al., 1992). The FSST is characterized by shoreface sediments that may form as a continuous sheet or a series of detached shorelines

(Ainsworth et al., 2000). A sequence boundary is placed either at the base(e.g.,

Posamentier and Morris, 2000) or top of the FSST sandstones (Plint and Nummedal,

2000; Catuneanu et al., 2009) (Figure 4.19).

4.5.2 Sequence Stratigraphy Using Well Logs

The recognition of parasequences and parasequence sets in the subsurface can be accomplished using well logs because the vertical changes reflect changes in grain size. Each well log measures different properties of a formation and although all may respond to grain size changes the two logs most commonly used are the gamma-ray and SP (Schlumberger, 1989). In marine siliciclastic deposits, a decrease in radioactivity upward capped by a higher gamma-ray signature is interpreted as a parasequence capped by a flooding surface. A progradational parasequence set is interpreted from an overall coarsening upward profile (Figure 4.20). An overall increase in radioactivity up-section suggests a retrogradational parasequence set. The

SP, or self-potential, log records the change in electrical potential between an electrode at the surface and another in the borehole. A deflection on the SP log occurs as a result of a series of small electrical charges that are created by differences 76

Figure 4.19: An example of three coarsening upward parasequences contained in a progradational parasequence set by incorporating gamma-ray log and core (modified from Rider, 1996).

Figure 4.20: Interpretations of sequence stratigraphic surface from gamma-ray and porosity logs.

78 in the salinities of the formation water and mud filtrate. A deflection on the SP log indicates a permeable bed. In some basins (e.g., the Gulf of Mexico) the SP and gamma-ray curves show the same patterns (Galloway, 1986), however, in general the

SP underestimates the amount of sandstone presents because cementation affects permeability (Asquith and Gibson, 1982). Different types of porosity logs (sonic, neutron, density, and resistivity) also can be interpreted in terms of changes in grain size. However, all the porosity tools also reflect changes in pore fluids and may not give precisely the same results as a gamma-ray log, particularly when gas is present

(Figure 4.21). The interpretations of well log trends in this study were restricted to gamma-ray responses.

The stratigraphic surfaces that can be interpreted from gamma-ray logs occur in three categories, erosional, drowning, and slow depositional (Rider, 1996; Figure 4.22).

Erosional surfaces, such as the base of a channel, and regressive surfaces of erosion exhibit a large shift in grain size across a limited vertical extent. Channels are often incised and deposit coarser sediments into surrounding finer sediments. A regressive surface of erosion is formed by wave scour during falling sea level associated with an abrupt basinward shift of facies during a forced regression (Catuneanu, 2006).

Whether or not a regressive erosion surface represents a sequence boundary in the subsurface is subjective and dependent up on the interpretation of the section above and below the surface in question.

Figure 4.21:Systems tracts model within gamma-ray logs after (Rider, 1996; Plint and Nummedal, 2000; Catuneanu, 2002). HST= Highstand Systems Tract, LST= Lowstand Systems Tract, TST= Transgression Systems Tract, FSST= Falling Stage Systems Tract, FS= Flooding surface, MFS= Maximum Flooding Surface, SB= Sequence Boundary, RSME= Regressive Surface of Marine Erosion. 80

Figure 4.22:A spectral gamma-ray log from the MillfieldCoal& Mining Unit #2 well(API# 34009230620000)showing the uranium, thorium, and potassium content of the lithologies. The maximum flooding surfaces is placed at the maximum of the total gamma-ray peak.TST= Transgressive System Tract, HST= Highstand System Tract, and FSST= Falling Stage System Tract.

Drowning surfaces occur as a result of marine flooding. On the gamma-ray log, a marine flooding surface is placed at the inflection point between a sandstone below and a shale above (Rider, 1996). Ravainement surfaces, sometimes referred to as transgressive surfaces (Catuneanu, 2006), mark the passage change from non-marine to marine and form during or after rising sea level. On a gamma-ray log a ravainement is similar to marine flooding surfaces, but the transition to mudstones on the log more abrupt (Rider, 1996). Slow depositional surfaces occur within the condensed section and contain the MFS. On gamma-ray logs the maximum flooding surface is typically taken to be the point of highest radioactivity in a shale (Schlumberger, 1989). This is because slow sedimentation rates should create a combination of maximum clay content and the increase in organic matter per unit volume allows precipitation of more uranium at or near the MFS. This can be confirmed using a spectral gamma-ray log that shows the separate contributions of potassium, thorium, and uranium to the total gamma-ray signal (Figure 4.22).

4.5 3 A Subsurface Sequence Stratigraphic Model

A model of gamma-ray responses that correspond to sequences formed in siliciclastic sediments on a foreland basin ramp during normal and forced regression is shown in

Figure (4.19). A normal regression is common in deltaic settings where there is a relatively high influx of sediments from the source areas can produce a continuous building out of the shoreline toward the sea depending on local tidal and wave energy levels (Posamentier et al., 1992). A characteristic of this type of regression is a conformable contact with the underlying marine mudstones or shales. In contrast, a forced regression can be recognized by the presence a relatively coarse grained 82 deposit directly upon mudstones. The nature basal contact will be abrupt because of erosion of the transitional facies between nearshore sand and offshore mud

(Posamentier et al., 1992). Forced regressions also may be accompanied by incised fluvial channels if the fluvial equilibrium profile is steeper than the slope of the exposed marine shelf. It is possible to differentiate between normal and forced regressions in rock record(Posamentier and Morris, 2000). Normal regressions are composed of progradational and aggradational patterns, however, forced regressions lack aggradational patterns because the falling sea level creates negative accommodation. In the subsurface, the expected gamma-ray signature from a normal regression deposit will be a gradual decrease in radioactivity (coarsening upward) compared to an abrupt drop if a forced regression occurred. In addition, the expected lateral changes in grain size in a normal regression will be a decrease in thickness and grain size of the deposits towards the distal part of the basin, whereas in the case of the forced regression both may increase.

4.5.4 Sequence Stratigraphy of the Berea Interval

The vertical and lateral variations in log motifs, gamma-ray log cross sections, and gross sandstones as well as isopach maps reveal the presence of three high frequency sequences. Each sequence demonstrates a different type of forced regression pattern

(Figure 4.23).

4.5.4.1 The Cleveland-Second Berea Sequence

The basal sequence is composed of the Cleveland Shale and Second Berea and averages 50 feet in thickness. The highly radioactive Cleveland Shale is interpreted to 83 be the result of deposition as a condensed section and therefore a sequence boundary occurs below within the upper Ohio Shale. Although the Cleveland Shale does not continue through the study area the basal sequence boundary must. Therefore where the shale is absence the boundary must occur within the upper Ohio Shale. The maximum flooding surface (MFS) is placed at the maximum radioactive peak that separates between retrogradation below and progradation above. A spectral gamma- ray log is available for one well in Dover Township (Millfield Coal & Mining Unit

#2; API# 34009230620000). The log signature shows that, in this case, the response is a result of the potassium within clay minerals and therefore can be interpreted as the most landward portion of the transgression (Figure 4.19). The Highstand Systems

Tract is placed at the top of the MFS in which on the logs illustrate a progradational parasequence. The end of HST is placed at the base of the Second Berea Sandstone.

The log signatures of the Second Berea suggest a Falling Stage Systems Tract (FSST) because of the pattern of alternating bands of sandstones and regions of zero gross sandstone indicating detached shorelines. The top of FSST is sharp and is interpreted to represent an erosional surface and a sequence boundary (Plint and Nummedal,

2000; Catuneanu, 2006).

4.5.4.2 The Bedford- Berea sequence

This sequence is composed of Bedford Shale and the Berea Sandstone and is an average of 35 feet thick. The basal sequence boundary is placed on the contact between the Second Berea and Bedford Shale. The gamma-ray logs show a sharp shift from the minimum radioactivity of the Second Berea interval to high gamma-ray values in the Bedford Shale that increase upward to form a retrogradational 84 parasequence set marking the Bedford transgression event. The maximum flooding surface of the Bedford Shale is picked on the highest radioactive peak that separates between increasing and decreasing radioactivity upward. The HST is placed above the MFS. The sandstones within the Berea sequence that overlie the HST were deposited as an FSST. Near the top of the Berea Sandstone is the maximum regressive surface and represents a sequence boundary (Plint and Nummedal, 2000).

based on in Athens County in Athens

stones were deposited by stonesdeposited wereby interval Berea - equence stratigraphic model of the Bedford model stratigraphic of equence A s dominated deltas during forced regressions. dominated deltas during forced -

Figure 4.23: shoreface of detached series The Second Bereaof a consisted motif isolith, maps. the and isopach, Both sand sheet. Berea is a continuous Sandstone sandstoneswhereas the wave

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

The overall paleogeographic setting of the Berea Interval is one of an extensive basinward shift of facies of more than 121,000 km2 near the end of deposition of the

Catskill Delta (Pashin, 1990). The work of Pepper et al. (1954) interpreted the interval as an eastward prograding shoreline complex separated from the Appalachian

Mountains by a narrow seaway (their figure 32and Plate 12). In contrast, Pashin and

Ettensohn (1995) interpreted the Berea Sandstone as a westward prograding system with sources that included incised fluvial channels in West Virginia (their figure 19).

However, the same authors interpreted the Second Berea as an extension of the

Cussawego Sandstone of Pennsylvania and inferred a northern sediment source.

The data obtained from each of the different sources (e.g., core, motif maps, cross sections) can each be interpreted in terms of depositional environment but each must be incorporated into an internally consistent model. The justification for concluding that both Berea sandstones were deposited by wave-dominated deltas during a forced regression is presented below.

5.2 Tectonic Setting

The highlands formed during the Acadian orogeny are considered to be the sediment source for late Devonian strata (Walker and Harms, 1971; Woodrow et. al., 1973;

Maynard, 1988; Ettensohn, 2008). Sediment thickness in a foreland basin generally thickens toward the thrust belt, however, the cross sections and isopach maps in this 87 study show thinning from the northwest to the southeast (Plates 1 - 8; Figures 4.6 -

4.11). This pattern of thinning toward the source area can be explained by the presence of an uplift, such as a forebulge, located southeast of the study area and deposition of the Second Berea and Berea in a back-bulge setting (Figure 5.1;

DeCelles and Giles 1996).

The formation of the Appalachian basin as a result of thrust loading is well established (e.g., Quinlan and Beaumont, 1984) with longitudinal variations in depth and location of the thrusts a function of indenter and target plate geometries (e.g.,

Thomas, 2005). A first-order approximation of the deflection of a lithospheric plate in response to an applied load was calculated from the equations in Turcotte and

Schubert (1982) and published data on the thickness of the lithosphere under eastern

North America, the thickness of the Devonian section, and the location of the thrust load (Appendix A). Values for the thickness of the Devonian section, uncorrected for compaction, and of the underlying plate (Sevon, 1985) yielded a basin with a width varying from 25-65 km. These results compared favorably with those in the literature

(e.g., Filler, 2003).

The results of the modeling indicate that even if the location of the thrust load is placed at the Allegheny Front and the widest estimate of the basin is used the peripheral bulge is located east of the study area. Since both estimates are conservative, the forebulge during the Devonian was located to the southeast of the study area in West Virginia and the study area was located in the backbulge. The low

Berea -

. stratigraphic and tectonic model summaries of the Bedford stratigraphic of the model summaries and tectonic

5.1: A 5.1:

Figure County succession in Athens 89

total accommodation in a backbulge setting is one factor explaining the widespread nature of the Berea sandstones.

5.3 Depositional model: Wave Dominated Delta.

The data sets presented in Chapter 4 all indicate deposition of a prograding siliciclastic shoreline of some type. The preferred interpretation of the depositional system for the Second Berea and Berea Sandstone intervals is wave-dominated deltas with associated strandplains and beaches. This depositional model is consistent with examples from the modern and the stratigraphic record.

5.3.1 Modern Deltas

All prograding deltaic systems result in some form of coarsening upward profile (e.g.,

Coleman and Wright 1980). The geometry of sands within modern delta systems is controlled by grain size and which of the three energy systems, (river, wave, or tide) is dominant at a given location (Reading and Orton, 1993). Tidal delta systems typically form during transgressions when embayments allow amplification of the tide range (Plink-Bjørklund, 2012). Recognition of tidal deltas is based on the presence of distinctive structures, such as lenticular, flaser, and tidal sand bars. Because the overall pattern of the both Berea sandstones is progradational and no structures suggesting a tidal signature were identified in the core, a tidal delta is not considered a viable model. A fluvially dominated delta system could produce the structures seen in the core (Reading, 1996), however, the processes that operate in this setting result in a different geometry for the major sand bodies. The expansion of flow at the river mouth results in deposition of both a mouth bar and subaqueous levees. In the 90 absence of wave or tidal energy the levees extend basinward through time and define the boundaries of shoestring sandstones oriented more or less perpendicular to the regional shoreline trend.

Wave-dominated deltas are well documented in the modern (Psuty, 1967; Curray et al., 1969; Coleman and Prior 1980; Reading, 1996; Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003).

Modern examples are useful, however, a point to consider when comparing these deltas to the stratigraphic record is that all the modern deltas have formed in an early

HST when sea levels stabilized after the Late Pleistocene rise. Therefore, there is no exact analogue for the sequence stratigraphic setting of the Berea interval.

Wave-dominated delta deltas can occur over a wide range of wave energy

(Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003) depending on the grain size of the sediment.

Regions of fine- to very fine-grained sand with middle to low wave energy can build wave-dominated deltas (Davis and Hays, 1984). The typical vertical succession is a coarsening upward succession with a more abrupt transition from offshore mud to sand capped by a sandy shoreface deposit (Coleman and Prior, 1980). The data from the Sao Francisco Delta by Coleman and Prior (1980) describe the sands as well sorted and consisting of 95 - 97% quartz. Sand is reported to be present in 50% of the composite vertical section averaging 27 feet in thickness. Grain size data in Psuty

(1967) show the deposits of the Grijalva Delta (Gulf of Mexico) to be fine-grained and well sorted. The degree of longshore drift imposed by wave action results in plan geometries that vary from symmetrical, such as the Grijalva delta where drift is limited to asymmetrical, such as the Nile (Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003). All the 91 examples of wave-dominated deltas are associated with strandplains, which are a series of amalgamated sandy shorelines. The most commonly cited example of a strandplain is along the coast of Nayarit in Mexico (Curry et al., 1969). The coastline in that example has formed a sand sheet 15 to 200 m thick, up to 225 km long and which has prograded by 20 km since sea level stabilized (Figure 5.2).

5.3.2 Ancient examples

Examples of wave-dominated deltas in the stratigraphic record within a foreland basin setting are well documented. Two examples from the Cretaceous Western Interior of

North America are the Cardium and Dunvegan Formations (Plint, 1988; Bhattacharya,

1993). The Cardium Formation (Turonian) in Albertan is composed of medium- to fine-grained sandstone that varies from 6 - 18 m in thickness and covers an area of approximately 100,000 km2 (Plint 1988). The Cardium contains both coarsening upward and sharp-based shoreface deposits that crop out in the Foothills of the Rocky

Mountains and are described from core and gamma-ray logs (Plint, 1988; Plint and

Nummedal, 2000). The former typically vary up section from interbedded wave- rippled sandstones and mudstones to hummocky (HCS) and then swaley (SCS) cross- stratified sandstones. The sharp-based shoreface deposits are characterized by SCS and may also contain mudstone intraclasts. The upper portion of both may contain root traces (e.g., Plint, 1988). Up to 130 km of shoreline progradation into the basin has been documented (Plint, 1988). The Dunvegan Formation (Cenomanian) has been interpreted mainly form cores and gamma-ray logs (Bhattacharya, 1993). The unit consists of a series of interbedded sandstones and mudstones up to 30 m thick, extends up to 70 km down depositional dip, and covers approximately 40,000 km2. 92

Wave dominated delta representing the modern model of the Berea sandstone, coast of Berea the model sandstone, coast of the of modern representing delta Wave dominated : 2 Figure 5. al., 1969) Nayarit(Curray et

The core and well logs reveal a complex set of depositional environments including sandstones 6 - 10 m thick with gradational and sharp lower contacts. The former contain soft-sediment deformation as well as wave-rippled and HCS sandstones that vary in grain size from siltstone to fine-grained sandstone. The sharp-based sandstones have a blocky to coarsening upward motif. Cores show that the grain size is similar to the coarsening upward sandstones, however mudstone intraclasts are present.

Both the Cardium and Dunvegan are interpreted to be the products of forced regression. Plint (1988) and Plint and Nummedal (2000) argued that the sharp-based sandstones were formed as a result of an increase in wave energy scouring the shelf as a result of a eustatic drop in sea level. The result is an abrupt change in facies.

Bhattacharya (1993) interpreted the coarsening upward profiles in the Dunvegan as the product of highstand progradation of a shoreline with the sharp-based sandstones the product of a complex of fluvial channels and Lowstand, wave-dominated deltas.

The sharp-based sandstones were interpreted as the result of a drop in eustatic sea level.

These two examples are similar to the Berea in terms of sandstone body geometry and the type of gamma-ray log motifs present. The structures within the cores of the

Dunvegan Formation more closely resemble those described from the Berea core in this study, particularly with respect to soft sediment deformation. The primary difference in sedimentary structures between the Cardium and Dunvegan examples and the Berea is the absence of HCS or SCS in the latter. This absence is not a 94 function of difference in grain size and therefore is either a result of destruction during formation of the convolute lamination or suggests that overall wave energy in the basin during deposition of the Berea was not high. A lower wave energy scenario is not inconsistent with the presence of wave-dominated deltas because the modern wave-dominated deltas of low wave energy are recognized in several area around the world.

5.3.3The Berea Sandstones

The structures within the core of the Second Berea are similar to those described in prodelta settings of modern deltas described by Mulder et al. (2003) and ancient analogues such as the Dunvegan Formations by Bhattacharya and MacEachern

(2009). The well-sorted sandstones are consistent with a reworking by waves as part of a beach system. The presence of a thick section of convolute lamination within the sandstone is not typical of deltaic settings, however, it is common in the Berea of

Ohio (Pashin and Ettensohn, 1995) and is interpreted as a result of an external shock such as an earthquake.

The spatial distribution of sandstones within the Berea of Athens County (1200 km2) are similar in scale to the Sao Francisco Delta of Brazil (730 km2, Coleman and Prior,

1980) and the Grijalvadelta (1,700 km2; Psuty, 1967). The lateral extent of progradation of the Berea is similar is scale to the Dunvegan (44,000 km2) and

Cardium (100,000 km2) (Plint, 1988; Bhattacharya and MacEachern, 2009). In none of the ancient examples is there reference made to a sandstone pattern similar to that proposed for the Second Berea by Pashin and Ettensohn (1994). Although their study 95 had the advantage of seeing a more regional picture, this detailed study has shown that both sandstones have the same the isopach and isolith trends in Athens County.

Therefore, the depositional model of westward prograding wave-dominated deltas is considered applicable to both sandstones.

5.4 The Sequence Stratigraphic Model

The initial impetus for examining the study interval was the choice by Pashin and

Ettensohn (1995) of a lithostratigraphic datum, the top of the Berea, to correlate wells and sections. This datum would not show the stratal patterns associated with a forced regression(Figure 3.3) (Posamentier et al., 1992). By using a datum within the underlying Ohio Shale for this study, there was a possibility of finding patterns reported for forced regressive packages elsewhere (Posamentier et al., 2000).

The two sequences that comprise both the Berea sandstones show patterns in the log motifs that are consistent with a forced regressive sandstone. The basal sequence, which is composed of the Cleveland Shale/Ohio Shale and Second Berea Sandstone is characterized by progradational parasequence set (RPS) that downlaps to the northwest and pinches out to the southeast. The Second Berea formed as a series of detached forced regression shoreface sandstones. The most common motif in the lower sequence is the Type 1 shoreface that occurs in bands separated by intervals with zero gross sandstone. The occasional Type 2 shoreface typically occurs on the southeastern edge of the bands. This pattern of offlapping is consistent with detached shorelines formed during sea level fall (Figure 5.3). The Type 1 shoreface was a 96 result of progradation into water deep enough to preserve the lower shoreface whereas the Type 2 shoreface pattern is a result of wave erosion. 97

. shoreface types in forced regressive typessettings shoreface ariations in distribution of ariations in distribution 3: V 3: odified from (Posamentier et al., 1992). odified (Posamentier from M Figure 5.

The occurrence of the transgressive bar motif in the eastern portion of the map area may be a result of the rising sea level reworking sand from ridges into adjacent topographic lows.

The TST, MFS and much of the HST of the upper sequence are contained within the

Bedford Shale. The Bedford was not studied in detail for this project because much of the complexity reported by Pepper et al. (1956) and Pashin and Ettensohn (1994) is not resolvable with well logs. However, the isopach and motif maps of the Bedford show that the thickness of the unit is widely variable. In addition, the transgression event within the Bedford was not particularly significant within the study area because of the relatively low gamma-ray response in the shales. Data reported in

Pashin and Ettensohn (1995) indicates that the Bedford becomes more marine to the west in the outcrop belt.

The widespread occurrence of Type 2 shoreface in the Berea Sandstone suggests progradation into generally shallow water depths than was present when the Second

Berea prograded. The pattern of alternating Type 2 and Type 1 shoreface sandstones is consistent with a forced regression (Figure 5.3b). The upper sequence boundary is placed at or near the top of the Berea Sandstone. Detached shoreface sandstones occur in forced regression setting as a result of the combination of two factors, the dropping sea level and erosion upon the subsequent transgression (Plint and

Nummedal, 2000). Ainsworth et al.(2000) showed that the formation of detached and attached shoreface sandstones by involved factors including falling sea level and subsidence using empirical experiments and computer modeling. They concluded 99 that detached shoreface sandstones form initially as an attached shoreface, but the subsequent transgression is accompanied by wave erosion that creates gaps between sandstones. Based on the Ainsworth et al. (2000) model, the rising sea level associated with the Bedford transgression reworked and detached the sandstones within the Second Berea whereas the transgression of the Sunbury did not. The difference between the two transgressions was some combination of accommodation and the rate of sea level rise that prevented the Sunbury from significantly reworking of the Berea.

100

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS

The Berea interval in the subsurface of Athens County consists of two separate pulses of fine- to very fine-grained sandstones separated by the Bedford Shale. The data from one core and 295 gamma-ray logs show:

1) The Cleveland Shale pinches out completely and both the Berea and Second Berea sandstones thin to the southeast over a distance of 50 miles (80 km) in a pattern consistent with deposition in the back-bulge zone of the Acadian foreland basin.

2) The core, combined with the isopach and isolith maps indicate that both sandstones prograded to the northwest as part of a wave-dominated delta and strandplain that was more or less parallel to the eastern margin of the basin.

3) A high-resolution sequence stratigraphic analysis of the interval identified two sequences within the interval. The lower sequence is composed of the Cleveland

Shale and Second Berea and an upper sequence consists of the Bedford Shale and

Berea Sandstone.

4) The presence of the two shoreface patterns (type 1 and 2) and the spatial distribution of the gross sandstone isopach is consistent with the patterns found in deposits produced by forced regressions (e.g., Posamentier et al. 1992). The Second

Berea formed as a series of detached forced regressive shoreface sandstones, whereas 101 deposition and modification of the Berea Sandstone resulted in a more continuous sheet of attached forced regressive shoreface sediments.

102

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APPENDIX A: TECTONIC MODEL

The data from gamma ray log cross sections (Plates 1 to 8), the fence diagram (Figure

4.13), and the isopach maps (Figures 4.6 to 12) show that several units within the

Berea interval thin to the southeast toward what is interpreted to be the Acadian sediment source. The contrast in thickness within the study area can be explained by the presence of an uplift, such as a forebulge, located farther to the southeast in West

Virginia.

Modeling of the flexure associated with formation of the Acadian foreland basin was undertaken to determine whether or not an uplift, i.e., peripheral bulge, could be present southeast of the study area. The data used to construct the model include the following information. First of all, the location of the thrust loads from Acadian

Orogeny at Virginia Promontory based on the palinspastic reconstruction of the eastern margin of Laurussia (Thomas, 2005) and the location of the Appalachian basin (Ettensohn, 2008). This places the thrust loads 304 miles (490 km) east of

Athens County (Figure A.1).

Second, the maximum deflection within the lithosphere represents the maximum thickness of the isopach map of the Upper Devonian strata (Sevon, 1985) (Figure

A.2). Finally, the physical parameters and effective lithosphere thickness were obtained from Stewart and Watts (1997) and (Armstrong and Watts, 2001) based on their gravity analysis (Table A.1) and (Figure A.3). 110

Figure A.1: Palinspastic of the Acadian orogeny modified from Thomas (2005) and Ettensohn (2008). 111

Figure A.2: Isopach map of Upper Devonian strata in the northeastern United States (modified from Sevon, 1985). 112

Figure A.3: Topographic profiles used to calculate the lithosphere thickness. Athens County is located very close to profile eight of Armstrong and Watts (2001). 113

Table A.1: List of physical parameters for flexural modeling (Stewart and Watts, 1997).

Parameter Definition Value E Young's modulus 1011 N.m υ Poisson's ratio 0.25 g Gravitational acceleration 9.81 m s-2 -3 ρc Density of the crust 2670 km. m -3 ρm Density of the mantle 3300 kg.m H Lithosphere thickness 25, 40, 55, 65 km 114 seven and eight, therefore, the range of the lithosphere thickness in the two profiles are used in calculating the model. The flexural rigidity and flexural parameter needed to model the change in the deflection over the horizontal distance (Turcotte and

Schubert, 1982)were computed using

D= [E*H3/ 12(1-υ2)] (1)

Where D= the flexural rigidity, E= the elastic model of the lithosphere, H= the thickness of the lithosphere, and υ = Poisson ratio.

0.25 α= {4D/[(ρm-ρs)g]} (2)

Where α= the flexural parameter, ρm= mantle density, ρs= lithosphere density, g= gravitational acceleration.

The maximum deflection (W), height of the forebulge (Wxo), forebulge location (Xb), were calculated using

X0= (π/2)α (3)

Where X0= the distance from the loading point (thrust front) to the point of zero deflection (fore-deep side of the flexural bulge).

Xb= (3π/4)α (4)

Where Xb= the distance from the loading point to the forebulge crest.

(-X/α) W= W0 e [cos (X/α)] (5) 115

Where W= the change in deflection over X distance and W0= the maximum deflection in which sediments occupy.

-3π/4 Wb= W0.e [cos 3π/4] = -0.067W0 (6)

Where Wb= the plate deflection at thrust front X=0.

Wb/W0 = 0.067 (7)

If W0 is constrained, then Wb should not depend on the lithosphere thickness.

The positions and heights of the forebulge were calculated using a lithosphere thickness of 25, 40, 55 and 65 km while all the other physical properties constant

(Figure A.4 and A.5).

In a flexural model, the thicker the effective lithosphere the wider the basin and the lower the height of the forebulge. In this case the maximum effective lithosphere thickness of 65 km) resulted in a modeled basin width to of 195 miles (314 km) and a forebulge height of 630 feet (192 m). The location of the forebulge is estimated to locate during the early Famennian eastern West Virginia in another published paper

(Filer, 2003). If the palinspastic reconstruction of the location of Acadian thrust loads is also conservative, then the forebulge location was in West Virginia at the time of

Berea deposition and Athens County lies in the backbulge zone of DeCelles and Giles

(1996). 116

Figure A.4: The location of Athens County (in star symbol) relative to different forebulge locations where lithosphere thickness equals 25,40, 55, and 65 km. In each case Athens County lies in the backbulge zone. 117

Figure A.5: Possible forebulge locations in the Late Devonian for effective lithosphere thickness values of 25km (location 1) to 65 km (location 4).

APPENDIX B: TECTONIC MODEL CALCULATION

When H= 25 km When H= 40 km Parameters Value Unit Parameters Value Unit E 1E+11 Pa E 1E+11 Pa H 25000 m H 40000 m g 9.81 m.s^-2 g 9.81 m.s^-2 Ps 2675 kg.m^-3 Ps 2675 kg.m^-3 Pm 3300 kg.m^-3 Pm 3300 kg.m^-3 υ 0.25 — υ 0.25 — Calculations Calculations D1 1.38889E+23 N.m D1 5.68889E+23 N.m α 97565.12775 m α 138798.4463 m W0 9400 ft W0 9400 ft W0 2865.12 m W0 2865.12 m X0 153177.2506 m X0 217913.5606 m Xb 229765.8759 m Xb 326870.3409 m Wb -191.96304 m Wb -191.96304 m H= 25 km H= 40 km X (m) W (m) X/α W/W0 X (m) W (m) X/α W/W0 0 2865.12 0 1 0 2865.12 0 1 1.00E+04 2572.43442 0.102495638 0.897845263 1.00E+04 2659.041423 0.07204692 0.92807332 2.00E+04 2285.213434 0.204991276 0.797597809 2.00E+04 2454.931259 0.14409383 0.85683366 3.00E+04 2007.891034 0.307486914 0.700805214 3.00E+04 2254.497037 0.21614075 0.786877 4.00E+04 1743.891673 0.409982551 0.608662699 4.00E+04 2059.181637 0.28818766 0.71870694 5.00E+04 1495.752443 0.512478189 0.522055775 5.00E+04 1870.184869 0.36023458 0.65274225 6.00E+04 1265.239425 0.614973827 0.441600849 6.00E+04 1688.484497 0.4322815 0.58932418 7.00E+04 1053.457105 0.717469465 0.367683415 7.00E+04 1514.856593 0.50432841 0.52872361 8.00E+04 860.9500476 0.819965103 0.300493539 8.00E+04 1349.895109 0.57637533 0.47114784

119

9.00E+04 687.7963533 0.922460741 0.24005848 9.00E+04 1194.030573 0.64842224 0.41674714 1.00E+05 533.6926305 1.024956378 0.186272348 1.00E+05 1047.547865 0.72046916 0.36562094 1.10E+05 398.0304586 1.127452016 0.138922788 1.10E+05 910.6030088 0.79251608 0.31782369 1.20E+05 279.9644613 1.229947654 0.097714742 1.20E+05 783.2389555 0.86456299 0.27337038 1.30E+05 178.4722568 1.332443292 0.062291372 1.30E+05 665.400344 0.93660991 0.2322417 1.40E+05 92.40665392 1.43493893 0.032252281 1.40E+05 556.9472275 1.00865682 0.1943888 1.50E+05 20.54053943 1.537434568 0.007169172 1.50E+05 457.6677766 1.08070374 0.15973773 1.60E+05 -38.39503734 1.639930205 -0.013400848 1.60E+05 367.2899715 1.15275066 0.12819357 1.70E+05 -85.6790461 1.742425843 -0.029904174 1.70E+05 285.492307 1.22479757 0.0996441 1.80E+05 -122.5743643 1.844921481 -0.042781581 1.80E+05 211.9135388 1.29684449 0.07396323 1.90E+05 -150.3068109 1.947417119 -0.052460913 1.90E+05 146.1615056 1.3688914 0.0510141 2.00E+05 -170.0487681 2.049912757 -0.05935136 2.00E+05 87.82106668 1.44093832 0.03065179 2.10E+05 -182.9068535 2.152408395 -0.06383916 2.10E+05 36.4611952 1.51298524 0.01272589 2.20E+05 -189.9131227 2.254904033 -0.066284527 2.20E+05 -8.358725939 1.58503215 -0.0029174 2.30E+05 -192.019318 2.35739967 -0.067019642 2.30E+05 -47.08336097 1.65707907 -0.0164333 2.40E+05 -190.0937045 2.459895308 -0.066347554 2.40E+05 -80.15658273 1.72912598 -0.0279767 2.50E+05 -184.9200774 2.562390946 -0.064541826 2.50E+05 -108.0172911 1.8011729 -0.0377008 2.60E+05 -177.1985538 2.664886584 -0.061846818 2.60E+05 -131.0958408 1.87321982 -0.0457558 2.70E+05 -167.5478052 2.767382222 -0.05847846 2.70E+05 -149.8110305 1.94526673 -0.0522879 2.80E+05 -156.5084207 2.86987786 -0.054625433 2.80E+05 -164.5676086 2.01731365 -0.0574383 2.90E+05 -144.5471276 2.972373497 -0.050450636 2.90E+05 -175.7542483 2.08936056 -0.0613427 3.00E+05 -132.0616303 3.074869135 -0.046092879 3.00E+05 -183.7419506 2.16140748 -0.0641306 3.10E+05 -119.3858615 3.177364773 -0.041668712 3.10E+05 -188.8828321 2.2334544 -0.0659249 3.20E+05 -106.7954691 3.279860411 -0.037274344 3.20E+05 -191.5092573 2.30550131 -0.0668416 3.30E+05 -94.51339187 3.382356049 -0.032987586 3.30E+05 -191.9332789 2.37754823 -0.0669896 3.40E+05 -82.71540103 3.484851687 -0.028869786 3.40E+05 -190.4463493 2.44959514 -0.0664706 3.50E+05 -71.5355092 3.587347325 -0.024967718 3.50E+05 -187.3192691 2.52164206 -0.0653792 3.60E+05 -61.07116879 3.689842962 -0.021315396 3.60E+05 -182.8023432 2.59368898 -0.0638027 3.70E+05 -51.38820018 3.7923386 -0.017935793 3.70E+05 -177.1257126 2.66573589 -0.0618214

120

3.80E+05 -42.5254064 3.894834238 -0.014842452 3.80E+05 -170.4998377 2.73778281 -0.0595088 3.90E+05 -34.49884479 3.997329876 -0.012040977 3.90E+05 -163.116106 2.80982972 -0.0569317 4.00E+05 -27.3057383 4.099825514 -0.0095304 4.00E+05 -155.1475429 2.88187664 -0.0541505 4.10E+05 -20.92801905 4.202321152 -0.007304413 4.10E+05 -146.7496042 2.95392356 -0.0512194 4.20E+05 -15.33550503 4.304816789 -0.005352483 4.20E+05 -138.0610322 3.02597047 -0.0481868 4.30E+05 -10.48871781 4.407312427 -0.00366083 4.30E+05 -129.2047586 3.09801739 -0.0450958 4.40E+05 -6.341354178 4.509808065 -0.002213294 4.40E+05 -120.2888383 3.1700643 -0.0419839 4.50E+05 -2.84242926 4.612303703 -0.00099208 4.50E+05 -111.407402 3.24211122 -0.038884 4.60E+05 0.06188894 4.714799341 2.16008E-05 4.60E+05 -102.6416158 3.31415814 -0.0358245 4.70E+05 2.426730954 4.817294979 0.000846991 4.70E+05 -94.06063658 3.38620505 -0.0328296 4.80E+05 4.307239684 4.919790616 0.001503337 4.80E+05 -85.72255549 3.45825197 -0.0299194 4.90E+05 5.757522388 5.022286254 0.002009522 4.90E+05 -77.67532198 3.53029888 -0.0271107 5.00E+05 6.829816542 5.124781892 0.00238378 5.00E+05 -69.95764143 3.6023458 -0.024417 5.10E+05 7.573845776 5.22727753 0.002643465 5.10E+05 -62.59984176 3.67439272 -0.0218489 5.20E+05 8.036342846 5.329773168 0.002804889 5.20E+05 -55.62470468 3.74643963 -0.0194144 5.30E+05 8.260717747 5.432268806 0.002883201 5.30E+05 -49.04825826 3.81848655 -0.0171191 5.40E+05 8.286850346 5.534764444 0.002892322 5.40E+05 -42.88052842 3.89053346 -0.0149664 5.50E+05 8.150988402 5.637260081 0.002844903 5.50E+05 -37.12624752 3.96258038 -0.012958 5.60E+05 7.885733357 5.739755719 0.002752322 5.60E+05 -31.78551901 4.0346273 -0.011094 5.70E+05 7.520097921 5.842251357 0.002624706 5.70E+05 -26.85443757 4.10667421 -0.0093729 5.80E+05 7.079621028 5.944746995 0.002470968 5.80E+05 -22.32566484 4.17872113 -0.0077922 5.90E+05 6.58652737 6.047242633 0.002298866 5.90E+05 -18.18896095 4.25076804 -0.0063484 6.00E+05 6.059920209 6.149738271 0.002115067 6.00E+05 -14.43167284 4.32281496 -0.005037 6.10E+05 5.515997648 6.252233908 0.001925224 6.10E+05 -11.03918029 4.39486188 -0.003853 6.20E+05 4.968283913 6.354729546 0.001734058 6.20E+05 -7.995301132 4.46690879 -0.0027906 6.30E+05 4.427868468 6.457225184 0.001545439 6.30E+05 -5.282657202 4.53895571 -0.0018438 6.40E+05 3.903646991 6.559720822 0.001362472 6.40E+05 -2.883002667 4.61100262 -0.0010062 6.50E+05 3.402559283 6.66221646 0.00118758 6.50E+05 -0.777516736 4.68304954 -0.0002714 6.60E+05 2.929820179 6.764712098 0.001022582 6.60E+05 1.052937387 4.75509646 0.0003675

121

6.70E+05 2.489140366 6.867207736 0.000868774 6.70E+05 2.627585235 4.82714337 0.00091709 6.80E+05 2.082934805 6.969703373 0.000726997 6.80E+05 3.965543453 4.89919029 0.00138408 6.90E+05 1.712517084 7.072199011 0.000597712 6.90E+05 5.08564975 4.9712372 0.00177502 7.00E+05 1.378278651 7.174694649 0.000481054 7.00E+05 6.006318355 5.04328412 0.00209636 7.10E+05 1.079852297 7.277190287 0.000376896 7.10E+05 6.745418973 5.11533104 0.00235432 7.20E+05 0.816259739 7.379685925 0.000284895 7.20E+05 7.320177231 5.18737795 0.00255493 7.30E+05 0.58604343 7.482181563 0.000204544 7.30E+05 7.747094715 5.25942487 0.00270393 7.40E+05 0.387383028 7.5846772 0.000135207 7.40E+05 8.041886728 5.33147179 0.00280682 7.50E+05 0.21819716 7.687172838 7.61564E-05 7.50E+05 8.219435997 5.4035187 0.00286879 7.60E+05 0.076231276 7.789668476 2.66067E-05 7.60E+05 8.293760634 5.47556562 0.00289473 7.70E+05 -0.040867502 7.892164114 -1.42638E-05 7.70E+05 8.277994745 5.54761253 0.00288923 7.80E+05 -0.135487532 7.994659752 -4.72886E-05 7.80E+05 8.184380191 5.61965945 0.00285656 7.90E+05 -0.210000787 8.09715539 -7.32956E-05 7.90E+05 8.02426806 5.69170637 0.00280067 8.00E+05 -0.266720905 8.199651027 -9.30924E-05 8.00E+05 7.808128556 5.76375328 0.00272524 8.10E+05 -0.307870133 8.302146665 -0.000107455 8.10E+05 7.545568069 5.8358002 0.0026336 8.20E+05 -0.335554116 8.404642303 -0.000117117 8.20E+05 7.245352291 5.90784711 0.00252881 8.30E+05 -0.351743581 8.507137941 -0.000122767 8.30E+05 6.915434364 5.97989403 0.00241366 8.40E+05 -0.358261971 8.609633579 -0.000125043 8.40E+05 6.562987086 6.05194095 0.00229065 8.50E+05 -0.356778163 8.712129217 -0.000124525 8.50E+05 6.194438344 6.12398786 0.00216202 8.60E+05 -0.348803468 8.814624855 -0.000121741 8.60E+05 5.815508983 6.19603478 0.00202976 8.70E+05 -0.335692174 8.917120492 -0.000117165 8.70E+05 5.431252422 6.26808169 0.00189565 8.80E+05 -0.318644968 9.01961613 -0.000111215 8.80E+05 5.046095405 6.34012861 0.00176122 8.90E+05 -0.298714636 9.122111768 -0.000104259 8.90E+05 4.663879334 6.41217553 0.00162781 9.00E+05 -0.276813508 9.224607406 -9.6615E-05 9.00E+05 4.28790171 6.48422244 0.00149659 9.10E+05 -0.253722195 9.327103044 -8.85555E-05 9.10E+05 3.920957268 6.55626936 0.00136851 9.20E+05 -0.230099193 9.429598682 -8.03105E-05 9.20E+05 3.56537845 6.62831627 0.00124441 9.30E+05 -0.206491032 9.532094319 -7.20706E-05 9.30E+05 3.223074908 6.70036319 0.00112494 9.40E+05 -0.183342665 9.634589957 -6.39913E-05 9.40E+05 2.895571793 6.77241011 0.00101063 9.50E+05 -0.161007854 9.737085595 -5.61958E-05 9.50E+05 2.584046621 6.84445702 0.0009019

122

9.60E+05 -0.139759364 9.839581233 -4.87796E-05 9.60E+05 2.28936455 6.91650394 0.00079905 9.70E+05 -0.119798806 9.942076871 -4.18128E-05 9.70E+05 2.012111934 6.98855085 0.00070228 9.80E+05 -0.101265997 10.04457251 -3.53444E-05 9.80E+05 1.752628078 7.06059777 0.00061171 9.90E+05 -0.084247764 10.14706815 -2.94046E-05 9.90E+05 1.51103511 7.13264469 0.00052739 1.00E+06 -0.068786119 10.24956378 -2.40081E-05 1.00E+06 1.287265945 7.2046916 0.00044929

123

APPENDIX C: GAMMA-RAY LOG CROSS SECTIONS

A A’

NW SE

API# 34009217050000 API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009234920000 34009233050000 34009228090000 34009233030000 34009231050000 34009233040000 34009217690000 34009223940000 34009226250000 Cuyahoga Early Carboniferous Tournaisian

900 Sunbury Black Shale 950

1500

Berea Sandstone 1200 1200 1000 Cuyahoga

1550 950

1100 Sunbury Black Shale Tournaisian Early Carboniferous Bedford Shale 1250 1000 1250 1550

Berea Sandstone 1250 1250 1050 Bedford Shale Cussewago-Second Famennian 1600 Late Devonian Berea Sandstone 1000 1150 1050 50 ft 1300 1300 Famennian 1600 Late Devonian Cleveland Black Shale Cussewago-Second Berea Sandstone 1300 1300 25 ft Scale 1100 1200 1050 1650

1100 Ohio Shale 0 ft 1350 1350 1650 Ohio Shale

1350 1350 Datum 1150 Datum

1100 1250 1400 1150 1400 1700 0.8 Mi 0.4 Mi 0.9 Mi 1.2 Mi 7 Mi 1.5 Mi 1.2 Mi 2.4 Mi 1.5 Mi

Plate 1: Cross section A-A’

B B’

NW SE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009228570000 34009228490000 34009228490000 34009228930000 34009228980000 34009230420000 34009232390000 34009219000000 34009236750000 34009218740000 1100

Cuyahoga 1100 Tournaisian

Early Carboniferous Sunbury Black Shale 1100 1650 1200 1050 1150 Cuyahoga 1150 Berea Sandstone Tournaisian Early Carboniferous 1150 1350 Sunbury Black Shale 1050

Bedford Shale Berea Sandstone 1700 1150 1100 1250 1600 1200 1200 Bedford Shale

1400 Cussewago- Second 1200 Famennian

Late Devonian Berea Sandstone 1100 50 ft Cussewago-Second Famennian Late Devonian Berea Sandstone

1200 1750 Cleveland Black Shale 1300 1150 25 ft Scale 1650 1250 1250

1250 1450 0 ft Ohio Shale 1150 Ohio Shale

1800 Datum 1250 1350 1200 1700 Datum 1300 1300

1300 1500

0.74 Mi 0.65 Mi 0.67 Mi 0.83 Mi 0.62 Mi 1200 1 Mi 4.2 Mi 4.2 Mi 3 Mi

Plate 2: Cross section B-B’ 124

C C’

NW SE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009231860000 34009223660000 34009224860000 34009225610000 34009225680000 34009223580000 34009220890000 34009223610000 34009221110000

1500 1600 Cuyahoga 1200 1200 Cuyahoga Tournaisian

1250 Early Carboniferous 1250 Tournaisian Early Carboniferous Sunbury Black Shale 1350 Sunbury Black Shale 1800 1350 1505 Berea Sandstone Berea Sandstone 1650 50 ft 1250 1250 Bedford Shale Bedford Shale

1300 1300 25 ft Scale 1400 1850 Cussewago-Second Late Devonian Famennian Cussewago- Second 1400 Berea Sandstone 1600 Berea Sandstone 1700 0 ft Famennian 1300 Late Devonian 1300

1350 1350 Ohio Shale Cleveland Black Shale 1450 1900 1450 1650 1750 1350 1350 Datum Ohio Shale Datum 1400 1400 1500 4.2 Mi 0.57 Mi 0.17 Mi 0.7 Mi 0.6 Mi 1.8 Mi 2.8 Mi 4.9 Mi 1950 1500

Plate 3: Cross section C-C’

D D’

NW SE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009227220000 34009232610000 34009219650000 34009232640000 34009238020000 34009237900000 34009237200000 34009237770000

1300

Cuyahoga 1450 1450 Cuyahoga 1900 1350 1900 Early Carboniferous Tournaisian 1650 Sunbury Black Shale Sunbury Black Shale Tournaisian Early Carboniferous 1350 1800 Berea Sandstone

Bedford Shale Berea Sandstone 50 ft 1500 1500 1850 1400 1950 1700 Bedford Shale Cussewago- Second Scale Berea Sandstone 25 ft 1850 1400 Cussewago- Second Famennian Berea Sandstone Ohio Shale 0 ft 1550 1550 1900 1450 2000 Famennian Late Devonian Late Devonian 1750

1900 1450 Casing Ohio Shale

Datum 1600 1600 1950 1500 Datum Casing 2050 1800

0.76 Mi 1950 1.7 Mi 3.7 Mi 2.37 Mi 4 Mi 1.7 Mi 2.3 Mi

Plate 4: Cross section D-D’ 125

A D

NW SE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009219660000 34009225210000 API# 34009226990000 34009231860000 34009229000000 34009233210000 34009230080000 34009227220000 34009217050000 34009230360000 34009218740000 34009227350000 34009226980000

Cuyahoga Early Carboniferous Tournaisian 1100 900 1150

Sunbury Black Shale Cuyahoga 1100 1250 1150 1250 1450 1450 900 Berea Sandstone 1250 Tournaisian Early Carboniferous 1250 1300 Sunbury Black Shale 1150 950 1200

Bedford Shale 1150 1300 Berea Sandstone 1200 1300 1500 1500 950

1300 1300 1350 Famennian 1200 Bedford Shale Late Devonian 1000 Late Devonian 50 ft Cussewago- Second 1250 Famennian Berea Sandstone 1350 Cussewago-Second 1200 Berea Sandstone 1250 1350 Cleveland Black Shale 25 ft Scale 1550 1550 1000

1350 1350 1250 1400 1050 0 ft 1300 Ohio Shale 1400 Ohio Shale Casing

1250 1300 1400 1600 1600 Datum 1050 Datum 1400 1400 1300

1100 Casing 1350 4.3 Mi 0.67 Mi 0.7 Mi 1450 0.5 Mi 0.3 Mi 0.8 Mi 0.32 Mi 3.2 Mi 2 Mi 1.1 Mi 1.4 Mi 0.7 Mi

1300 1350

Plate 5: Cross section A-D

E E’

SW NE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009233030000 34009230360000 34009228660000 34009228850000 34009228890000 34009228790000 34009228670000 34009228930000 34009217640000 34009217590000 34009224850000 34009223660000 34009221630000 34009232610000

900 Cuyahoga 1100

Tournaisian 1150 1400 1250 Early Carboniferous 1150 1100 1300 Sunbury Black Shale 1000 1300 Cuyahoga

Berea Sandstone 950 1200 1250 1200 1150 Sunbury Black Shale Tournaisian 1450 1200 Early Carboniferous 1300 1350 1200 1150 Famennian 1350 1050 Berea Sandstone Bedford Shale 1350 Late Devonian 1000 1250 1300 Bedford Shale Cussewago- Second 1250 Berea Sandstone 1200 1500 1250 1350 Cussewago- Second 1250 1200 1400 Berea Sandstone Cleveland Black Shale 1400 50 ft 1100 1400

1050 Famennian Late Devonian 1300 1350 25 ft Scale 1300 Ohio Shale 1250 1550 1400 1300 Ohio Shale 1300 1250 1450 0 ft 1450 1150 1450 1400 Datum 1100 Datum 1350 1350 1300 1600 1350 1300 1450 1.3 Mi 1350 0.7 Mi 2.8 Mi 1 Mi 1.8 Mi 3 Mi 1500 0.3 Mi 0.3 Mi 0.3 Mi 0.4 Mi 1200 0.4 Mi 2.5 Mi 0.7 Mi

Plate 6: Coss section E-E’ 126

F F’

SW NE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009231050000 34009226860000 34009232390000 34009232470000 34009232400000 34009232410000 34009234240000 34009220890000 34009218800000 34009232640000 1450

Tournaisian Cuyahoga 1600

Early Carboniferous 1100 Cuyahoga

Sunbury Black Shale 1450

1350 Tournaisian

Sunbury Black Shale Early Carboniferous 1100 1300 Berea Sandstone 1350 1700 1500 1250 Berea Sandstone 1150 1650 Bedford Shale

1500Bedford Shale

1400 Cussewago- Second 1150 1350 Scale 1750 Berea Sandstone 1400 Cussewago- Second 50 ft Berea Sandstone Late Devonian 1550 Famennian

Famennian 1300 Late Devonian 1700 1200

25 ft 1550 Cleveland Black Shale 1450 1200 1400 1800 0 ft 1450 1600 Ohio Shale Casing 1350 1250 1750 Ohio Shale

1600 Datum 1500 Datum 1450 1250 1500 1650 1400 0.4 Mi 0.6 Mi 0.75 Mi 2.4 Mi 2 Mi 2.6 Mi 2 Mi 2.6 Mi 1300 1 Mi

Plate 7: Cross section F-F’

A’ D’

SW NE

API# API# API# API# API# API# API# 34009226250000 34009236750000 34009224140000 34009222100000 34009221110000 34009219560000 34009237770000 1500

1650 Cuyahoga Cuyahoga 1900 Tournaisian

Early Carboniferous 1550 Tournaisian

Sunbury Black Shale Sunbury Black Shale Early Carboniferous 1800 1500 Berea Sandstone 1550 1850

Bedford Shale Berea Sandstone 1700 1950 Cussewago- Bedford Shale 1600 Second Berea Sandstone 1550 1850 1600 1900 50 ft

Cussewago- 1750 Second Berea 2000 Famennian Late Devonian Famennian

Late Devonian Sandstone 25 ft Scale 1650

1600 1900 Ohio Shale 1950 1650 0 ft Ohio Shale Datum 1800 Datum 2050

1700

1650 1950

2000 1700 3.3 Mi 0.7 Mi 1 Mi 4 Mi 3.5 Mi 3.6 Mi

Plate 8: Cross section A’-D’ Legend

Cuyahoga

Sunbury black shale

The Berea sandstone

The Bedford

The Second Berea Siltstone

The Second Berea Sandstone

Cleveland black shale

Ohio Shale

Channels

Channels APPENDIX D: ISOPACH, ISOLITH, AND MOTIF DATA

Townships

the Berea the 2nd Berea

log measured from measured log Bedford - - - - Last 4digit API # API 4digit Last Longitude Latitude from Log measured Sunbury MFS Sunbury Berea The Sandstone 50% Berea Bedford 2nd Berea Sandstone 2nd Berea 50% Cleveland MFS Cleveland Shale Ohio Datum Datum Datum Datum Datum thickness Sunbury Berea thickness thickness Bedford thickness 2nd Berea thickness Cleveland Berea Motif Motif 2nd Berea 2147 -82.15 39.27 660 1121 1126 1134 22 1156 1167 18 1233 1238 1245 NA NA NA NA NA 13 22 11 66 12 A N 3304 -82.13 39.28 750 1223 1228 1236 26 1268 1272 4 1330 1332 1338 1378 628 142 110 106 13 32 4 58 8 C B 2394 -82.09 39.23 900 1547 1555 1560 22 1582 1600 12 0 0 1658 NA NA NA NA NA 13 22 18 58 0 C C

Alexander 1769 -82.12 39.26 708 1230 1236 1243 24 1271 1280 8 1351 1353 1356 1388 680 145 117 108 13 28 9 71 5 A B 1699 -81.98 39.43 660 1202 1218 1227 26 1254 1270 10 0 0 1308 NA NA NA NA NA 25 27 16 38 0 A D

1702 -81.97 39.43 650 1209 1218 1234 24 1259 1278 8 0 0 1326 NA NA NA NA NA 25 25 19 48 0 A D

Ames 1712 -81.98 39.42 700 1237 1244 1262 24 1287 1310 8 0 0 1357 NA NA NA NA NA 25 25 23 47 0 A C 1713 -81.97 39.42 655 1224 1232 1248 19 1272 1288 8 0 0 1338 NA NA NA NA NA 24 24 16 50 0 A D 1722 -82.02 39.38 822 1332 1350 1352 23 1379 1392 34 0 0 1458 1486 664 134 107 94 20 27 13 66 0 B C 2486 -82 39.39 656 1210 1218 1234 20 1259 1272 15 0 0 1330 1366 710 132 107 94 24 25 13 58 0 D A 2475 -81.99 39.39 700 1263 1271 1286 22 1307 1328 13 0 0 1390 1410 710 124 103 82 23 21 21 62 0 C C 3711 -81.95 39.41 721 1336 1346 1357 22 1380 1392 12 0 0 1449 1482 761 125 102 90 21 23 12 57 0 A C 1739 -82.01 39.37 747 1292 1307 1312 24 1348 1354 14 0 0 1420 NA NA NA NA NA 20 36 6 66 0 C C 3047 -81.97 39.38 740 1387 1400 1410 13 1431 1448 15 0 0 1505 1536 796 126 105 88 23 21 17 57 0 A C 1704 -81.96 39.42 680 1239 1249 1264 25 1290 1308 8 0 0 1355 1390 710 126 100 82 25 26 18 47 0 A C 2722 -81.96 39.44 918 1453 1466 1479 28 1507 1524 14 0 0 1571 1608 690 129 101 84 26 28 17 47 0 A C 3321 -82 39.44 790 1263 1279 1285 22 1307 1320 10 1386 1388 1392 1420 630 135 113 100 22 22 13 66 6 A C 3005 -81.98 39.43 748 1279 1288 1303 22 1327 1346 10 1392 1395 1398 1428 680 125 101 82 24 24 19 46 6 A D 1714 -81.97 39.42 650 1218 1226 1242 24 1266 1284 6 0 0 1333 NA NA NA NA NA 24 24 18 49 0 A B 2128 -81.96 39.37 670 1319 1329 1346 24 1370 1384 16 0 0 1442 NA NA NA NA NA 27 24 14 58 0 A C 1716 -81.94 39.44 705 1290 1300 1315 22 1338 1355 14 0 0 1403 NA NA NA NA NA 25 23 17 48 0 A C 2366 -82 39.4 780 1328 1345 1352 21 1374 1388 12 0 0 1442 1480 700 128 106 92 24 22 14 54 0 D C 1509 -81.99 39.41 947 1479 1488 1502 24 1526 1542 28 0 0 1608 NA NA NA NA NA 23 24 16 66 0 A C 2568 -81.99 39.37 660 1245 1252 1266 22 1288 1300 14 0 0 1370 1398 738 132 110 98 21 22 12 70 0 C C 3008 -81.97 39.44 935 1456 1467 1480 18 1505 1520 12 1572 1576 1577 1610 675 130 105 90 24 25 15 52 5 B C 2900 -82.02 39.45 815 1292 1309 1312 20 1336 1348 20 1411 1414 1418 1434 619 122 98 86 20 24 12 63 7 A C 2575 -82.06 39.42 1012 1406 1422 1424 19 1444 1460 15 1517 1521 1524 1560 548 136 116 100 18 20 16 57 7 B D 3011 -81.97 39.38 700 1341 1354 1363 14 1383 1396 16 0 0 1456 NA NA NA NA NA 22 20 13 60 0 C C 3007 -81.98 39.43 780 1330 1341 1355 24 1381 1390 9 0 0 1436 1480 700 125 99 90 25 26 9 46 0 A C 3186 -82.05 39.45 884 1244 1260 1265 16 1285 1296 7 1348 1352 1355 1398 514 133 113 102 21 20 11 52 7 B B 3717 -81.94 39.43 728 1329 1337 1353 22 1377 1393 16 0 0 1438 NA NA NA NA NA 24 24 16 45 0 A C 128

1504 -81.99 39.42 970 1513 1523 1537 23 1562 1574 12 0 0 1620 NA NA NA NA NA 24 25 12 46 0 B B 1662 -81.95 39.38 771 1426 1440 1450 18 1471 1487 18 0 0 1536 NA NA NA NA NA 24 21 16 49 0 A C 2127 -81.96 39.37 732 1390 1398 1412 22 1435 1454 17 0 0 1508 NA NA NA NA NA 22 23 19 54 0 A C 2159 -81.96 39.38 870 1502 1518 1526 22 1549 1570 20 0 0 1620 NA NA NA NA NA 24 23 21 50 0 A A 2163 -81.95 39.4 700 1308 1321 1333 24 1358 1378 18 0 0 1428 NA NA NA NA NA 25 25 20 50 0 A C 2179 -81.97 39.37 830 1501 1510 1522 19 1544 1566 14 0 0 1621 NA NA NA NA NA 21 22 22 55 0 C C 2178 -81.97 39.37 880 1485 1502 1509 20 1530 1556 14 0 0 1603 NA NA NA NA NA 24 21 26 47 0 C D 2305 -81.99 39.38 737 1288 1302 1312 20 1336 1342 14 0 0 1413 1458 721 146 122 116 24 24 6 71 0 D C 2237 -81.96 39.4 666 1304 1319 1326 22 1350 1370 16 0 0 1421 NA NA NA NA NA 22 24 20 51 0 A C 2485 -82.01 39.4 665 1181 1195 1202 26 1234 1252 16 0 0 1304 1338 673 136 104 86 21 32 18 52 0 C A 2474 -81.98 39.41 985 1540 1547 1564 22 1587 1606 14 0 0 1656 NA NA NA NA NA 24 23 19 50 0 A C 2561 -82 39.38 648 1202 1212 1226 22 1250 1268 12 0 0 1316 1364 716 138 114 96 24 24 18 48 0 D C 3111 -82.14 39.36 785 1188 1185 1199 18 1224 1242 2 1286 1293 1300 1346 561 147 122 104 14 25 18 44 14 B N 3239 -82.08 39.32 824 1338 1334 1348 16 1371 1390 6 1449 1451 1453 1502 678 154 131 112 14 23 19 59 4 C C

3106 -82.13 39.33 643 1080 1073 1086 22 1114 1133 4 1172 1178 1183 1228 585 142 114 95 13 28 19 39 11 B N 2686 -82.1 39.32 640 1224 1120 1130 16 1153 1170 30 1234 1236 1237 1272 632 142 119 102 10 23 17 64 3 B A 3039 -82.12 39.36 650 1076 1068 1082 16 1104 1126 2 1174 1176 1184 1226 576 144 122 100 14 22 22 48 10 B N Athens 3105 -82.15 39.3 645 1088 1082 1095 22 1121 1142 8 1190 1192 1198 1246 601 151 125 104 13 26 21 48 8 A B 3024 -82.14 39.37 728 1112 1107 1123 26 1160 1168 9 1218 1220 1228 1272 544 149 112 104 16 37 8 50 10 B C 3025 -82.15 39.38 718 1080 1073 1088 16 1112 1128 2 1170 1176 1184 1240 522 152 128 112 15 24 16 42 14 D C 3030 -82.12 39.37 750 1150 1143 1158 20 1180 1196 28 1258 1260 1266 1316 566 158 136 120 15 22 16 62 8 B C 3031 -82.12 39.37 845 1244 1237 1252 30 1288 1300 32 1357 1360 1365 1412 567 160 124 112 15 36 12 57 8 C C 3020 -82.14 39.37 735 1120 1108 1130 18 1151 1168 0 1212 1218 1224 1281 546 151 130 113 22 21 17 44 12 D C 3247 -82.07 39.32 950 1488 1474 1490 20 1514 1530 10 1590 1592 1594 1638 688 148 124 108 16 24 16 60 4 C C 3042 -82.11 39.37 650 1058 1050 1065 32 1104 1112 24 1171 1174 1176 1218 568 153 114 106 15 39 8 59 5 A A 3021 -82.15 39.37 845 1230 1222 1240 24 1270 1278 8 1332 1336 1344 1390 545 150 120 112 18 30 8 54 12 D N 3601 -81.91 39.42 695 1350 1361 1376 20 1397 1414 22 0 0 1467 NA NA NA NA NA 26 21 17 53 0 A C 3400 -81.91 39.43 888 1552 1562 1577 20 1599 1616 24 0 0 1659 1707 819 130 108 91 25 22 17 43 0 C C 3511 -81.87 39.44 940 1670 1680 1693 20 1714 1726 6 0 0 1772 NA NA NA NA NA 23 21 12 46 0 C D 3647 -81.93 39.45 645 1232 1244 1256 24 1282 1308 14 0 0 1343 1396 751 140 114 88 24 26 26 35 0 A D

1970 -81.9 39.4 976 1685 1695 1710 16 1728 1750 22 0 0 1800 NA NA NA NA NA 25 18 22 50 0 C D 3308 -81.94 39.39 680 1330 1339 1351 20 1373 1394 20 0 0 1428 NA NA NA NA NA 21 22 21 34 0 A D Bern 3345 -81.86 39.39 930 1716 1729 1740 20 1766 1778 0 0 0 1828 1878 948 138 112 100 24 26 12 50 0 A N 3499 -81.85 39.44 922 1646 1658 1671 28 1701 1723 0 0 0 1765 NA NA NA NA NA 25 30 22 42 0 A N 3261 -81.93 39.4 660 1320 1328 1343 22 1366 1386 20 0 0 1433 1476 816 133 110 90 23 23 20 47 0 A D 2272 -81.94 39.37 920 1615 1627 1639 22 1662 1679 16 0 0 1731 NA NA NA NA NA 24 23 17 52 0 A D 3559 -81.89 39.43 984 1687 1697 1712 20 1734 1756 20 0 0 1806 1852 868 140 118 96 25 22 22 50 0 A D 3101 -81.89 39.45 831 1470 1479 1495 18 1515 1528 26 0 0 1588 NA NA NA NA NA 25 20 13 60 0 A A 1982 -81.87 39.38 705 1472 1484 1492 23 1514 1536 0 0 0 1582 NA NA NA NA NA 20 22 22 46 0 A N 1968 -81.87 39.37 658 1429 1441 1453 22 1482 1496 0 0 0 1543 1590 932 137 108 94 24 29 14 47 0 C N 2540 -81.9 39.36 938 1672 1678 1692 18 1710 1722 24 0 0 1784 1826 888 134 116 104 20 18 12 62 0 A C 3592 -81.86 39.39 921 1701 1710 1723 20 1749 1760 0 0 0 1811 NA NA NA NA NA 22 26 11 51 0 C N 3516 -81.85 39.43 876 1628 1644 1657 28 1685 1693 0 0 0 1750 1794 918 137 109 101 29 28 8 57 0 C N 1965 -81.9 39.38 648 1346 1356 1370 21 1392 1404 18 0 0 1463 1500 852 130 108 96 24 22 12 59 0 A D 1959 -81.89 39.42 978 1682 1693 1706 21 1728 1746 26 0 0 1797 1842 864 136 114 96 24 22 18 51 0 C A 129

3408 -81.88 39.39 650 1398 1410 1423 22 1446 1461 4 0 0 1504 NA NA NA NA NA 25 23 15 43 0 C C 3342 -81.92 39.39 961 1650 1661 1676 20 1698 1710 18 0 0 1768 NA NA NA NA NA 26 22 12 58 0 C C 1788 -81.93 39.41 744 1403 1413 1428 23 1451 1466 21 0 0 1516 1560 816 132 109 94 25 23 15 50 0 C C 1789 -81.93 39.41 762 1404 1416 1430 22 1452 1466 21 0 0 1520 NA NA NA NA NA 26 22 14 54 0 C C 1969 -81.88 39.41 926 1656 1765 1679 18 1700 1717 26 0 0 1760 1816 890 137 116 99 23 21 17 43 0 C A 2855 39.402 -81.9 870 1575 1564 1588 20 1611 1622 24 0 0 1679 NA NA NA NA NA 24 23 11 57 0 A A 2951 -81.92 39.44 690 1302 1312 1326 18 1350 1366 15 0 0 1421 NA NA NA NA NA 24 24 16 55 0 A C 2086 -81.97 39.36 695 1346 1358 1370 8 1386 1404 18 0 0 1460 1500 805 130 114 96 24 16 18 56 0 C D 2087 -81.97 39.36 925 1568 1578 1590 12 1609 1630 16 0 0 1682 1720 795 130 111 90 22 19 21 52 0 C D 2089 -81.97 39.33 926 1612 1622 1633 20 1654 1687 12 0 0 1730 1776 850 143 122 89 21 21 33 43 0 C D 2092 -81.96 39.34 717 1396 1406 1418 22 1440 1460 14 0 0 1512 1554 837 136 114 94 22 22 20 52 0 A D 2094 -81.96 39.34 775 1456 1464 1479 20 1500 1506 12 0 0 1586 1620 845 141 120 114 23 21 6 80 0 C C 2286 -81.96 39.36 769 1430 1442 1454 30 1478 1502 20 0 0 1556 1574 805 120 96 72 24 24 24 54 0 A C

2358 -81.98 39.36 700 1336 1346 1359 22 1382 1408 12 0 0 1458 1490 790 131 108 82 23 23 26 50 0 A C 2467 -82.01 39.3 883 1524 1532 1545 16 1562 1580 6 0 0 1640 1672 789 127 110 92 21 17 18 60 0 A B 2544 -82 39.29 650 1294 1300 1312 22 1336 1350 20 0 0 1394 1460 810 148 124 110 18 24 14 44 0 C C Canaan 3236 -82.01 39.34 661 1260 1270 1280 20 1300 1314 28 0 0 1382 1426 765 146 126 112 20 20 14 68 0 A C 3240 -82.06 39.33 784 1356 1368 1372 14 1392 1406 4 1471 1473 1475 1520 736 148 128 114 16 20 14 65 4 C C 3241 -82.05 39.33 674 1225 1238 1242 24 1272 1280 20 1329 1330 1332 1380 706 138 108 100 17 30 8 49 3 A C 3352 -82.01 39.33 671 1282 1290 1302 20 1322 1334 8 10 0 1390 1436 765 134 114 102 20 20 12 56 0 B C 3418 -82 39.34 745 1352 1360 1374 20 1394 1406 12 0 0 1460 1510 765 136 116 104 22 20 12 54 0 A C 3424 -82 39.33 670 1294 1302 1316 18 1336 1346 32 0 0 1411 1460 790 144 124 114 22 20 10 65 0 C C 3706 -82.01 39.31 890 1514 1526 1536 20 1556 1576 10 0 0 1630 1670 780 134 114 94 22 20 20 54 0 C D 3707 -82.02 39.29 860 1507 1516 1527 20 1548 1572 12 0 0 1630 NA NA NA NA NA 20 21 24 58 0 B C 1907 -81.96 39.29 815 1554 1564 1575 14 1593 1610 10 0 0 1668 1711 896 136 118 101 21 18 17 58 0 A D 2504 -81.99 39.34 813 1450 1460 1472 18 1492 1522 12 0 0 1568 1606 793 134 114 84 22 20 30 46 0 B D 2107 -81.85 39.2 807 1790 1798 1805 6 1813 1834 0 0 0 1891 1928 1121 123 94 94 15 8 21 57 0 C N 2111 -81.9 39.2 867 1788 1792 1804 14 1822 1850 0 0 0 1899 1939 1072 135 89 89 16 18 28 49 0 A N 3185 -81.91 39.27 780 1582 1592 1602 10 1614 1638 0 0 0 1692 1734 954 132 96 96 20 12 24 54 0 A C 2383 -81.94 39.27 761 1553 1562 1573 12 1590 1609 16 0 0 1662 1706 945 133 97 97 20 17 19 53 0 A B 2396 -81.88 39.27 871 1756 1770 1777 14 1792 1819 4 0 0 1866 1915 1044 138 96 96 21 15 27 47 0 A C Carthage 2514 -81.94 39.26 795 1590 1600 1611 6 1626 1642 4 0 0 1700 1742 947 131 100 100 21 15 16 58 0 C B 3760 -81.85 39.25 855 1820 1830 1838 6 1847 1874 0 0 0 1898 1975 1120 137 101 101 18 9 27 24 0 C N 3758 -81.85 39.26 628 1574 1582 1590 8 1600 1612 0 0 0 1674 1728 1100 138 116 116 16 10 12 62 0 C N 3763 -81.84 39.22 818 1798 1808 1816 6 1824 1848 0 0 0 1906 1958 1140 142 110 110 18 8 24 58 0 C N 3726 -81.85 39.24 890 1860 1876 1873 6 1882 1903 0 0 0 1962 1992 1102 119 89 89 13 9 21 59 0 A N 2001 -81.87 39.22 870 1820 1826 1834 14 1848 1876 0 0 0 1926 1966 1096 132 90 90 14 14 28 50 0 A N 1759 -82.06 39.43 710 1120 1135 1140 16 1160 1174 10 1227 1232 1234 NA NA NA NA NA 20 20 14 53 7 A B 1836 -82.07 39.43 750 1148 1150 1168 18 1190 1200 2 1248 1252 1258 NA NA NA NA NA 20 22 10 48 10 A B

1874 -82.16 39.46 870 1101 1104 1119 20 1144 1153 4 1204 1206 1216 1257 387 138 113 104 18 25 9 51 12 C C 2566 -82.07 39.4 1023 1430 1440 1446 18 1465 1478 8 1531 1536 1539 1586 563 140 121 108 16 19 13 53 8 C C 1670 -82.09 39.42 805 1160 1170 1178 18 1199 1216 20 1272 1280 1293 NA NA NA NA NA 18 21 17 56 21 B C Dover 1763 -82.08 39.43 782 NA 1140 1146 20 1170 1178 22 1236 1238 1244 1286 NA NA NA NA NA 24 8 58 8 C C 1821 -82.16 39.46 772 995 999 1016 21 1039 1050 0 1084 1090 1104 1150 378 134 111 100 21 23 11 34 20 B N 1966 -82.15 39.46 1008 1256 1261 1274 25 1298 1310 14 1356 1365 1373 1426 418 152 128 116 18 24 12 46 17 D C 130

2835 -82.15 39.45 890 1129 1133 1146 27 1170 1178 6 1227 1230 1240 1292 402 146 122 114 17 24 8 49 13 A C 1664 -82.11 39.45 717 1034 1040 1050 18 1070 1083 0 1127 1135 1144 NA NA NA NA NA 16 20 13 44 17 A C 2270 -82.07 39.41 890 1302 1316 1320 12 1341 1358 5 1409 1414 1416 1456 566 136 115 98 18 21 17 51 7 A B 2134 -82.11 39.42 670 1006 1013 1022 14 1043 1068 36 1111 1116 1124 1167 497 145 124 99 16 21 25 43 13 C C 1688 -82.08 39.42 887 1279 1285 1290 28 1319 1330 18 1386 1389 1395 1434 547 144 115 104 11 29 11 56 9 A C 2029 -82.1 39.43 680 1012 1020 1030 30 1052 1066 0 1116 1122 1126 1170 490 140 118 104 18 22 14 50 10 A C 2031 -82.11 39.42 673 NA NA 1008 20 1027 1038 16 1106 1110 1112 NA NA NA NA NA NA 19 11 68 6 A C 2066 -82.09 39.43 690 1032 1034 1048 16 1066 1074 0 1128 1131 1136 NA NA NA NA NA 16 18 8 54 8 C B 2327 -82.11 39.42 666 978 986 996 14 1020 1040 2 1100 1102 1106 1149 483 153 129 109 18 24 20 60 6 B C 1818 -82.16 39.45 822 1066 1070 1084 16 1106 1120 0 1165 1170 1179 1224 402 140 118 104 18 22 14 45 14 B C 1764 -82.08 39.41 875 1271 1282 1290 18 1315 1326 2 1376 1381 1385 1438 563 148 123 112 19 25 11 50 9 A B 1777 -82.16 39.46 974 1202 1205 1220 16 1243 1257 14 1308 1309 1320 1358 384 138 115 101 18 23 14 51 12 B C 1780 -82.07 39.44 721 1080 1102 1108 12 1128 1138 10 1196 1199 1205 1244 523 136 116 106 28 20 10 58 9 C C 2282 -82.06 39.44 891 1254 1269 1274 18 1294 1308 24 1374 1377 1380 1420 529 146 126 112 20 20 14 66 6 A C 3201 -82.16 39.45 946 1194 1196 1211 14 1228 1235 0 1292 1294 1306 1351 405 140 123 116 17 17 7 57 14 A C 3202 -82.17 39.45 886 1124 1128 1142 18 1168 1180 0 1216 1218 1232 1272 386 130 104 92 18 26 12 36 16 B N 3368 -82.16 39.45 890 1149 1152 1166 16 1187 1194 4 1249 1250 1261 1305 415 139 118 111 17 21 7 55 12 B C 3054 -82.07 39.4 890 1304 1312 1320 20 1342 1360 6 1418 1420 1424 1460 570 140 118 100 16 22 18 58 6 A B 3059 -82.13 39.44 747 1031 1039 1050 20 1073 1082 8 1142 0 1149 1186 439 136 113 104 19 23 9 67 7 B C 2857 -82.15 39.43 875 1141 1143 1157 20 1180 1196 0 1238 1244 1252 1300 425 143 120 104 16 23 16 42 14 B C 3076 -82.12 39.45 740 1012 1020 1030 16 1050 1060 0 1124 1128 1134 1182 442 152 132 122 18 20 10 64 10 C N 3092 -82.08 39.44 935 1274 1284 1292 19 1312 1328 6 1379 1383 1389 1426 491 134 114 98 18 20 16 51 10 C C 3093 -82.08 39.44 877 1228 1233 1238 18 1260 1270 0 1324 1330 1334 1378 501 140 118 108 10 22 10 54 10 A C 2898 -82.12 39.39 655 1032 1039 1048 20 1070 1088 4 1134 1138 1145 1191 536 143 121 103 16 22 18 46 11 A C 2992 -82.16 39.43 975 1200 1204 1213 20 1240 1258 0 1302 1308 1318 1356 381 143 116 98 13 27 18 44 16 D N 3022 -82.12 39.38 885 1258 1264 1274 20 1298 1306 0 1361 1364 1371 1408 523 134 110 102 16 24 8 55 10 B B 3026 -82.12 39.38 655 1060 1065 1072 16 1095 1107 4 1160 1163 1170 1208 553 136 113 101 12 23 12 53 10 B C 3027 -82.13 39.38 825 1221 1228 1237 18 1261 1272 2 1321 1324 1331 1367 542 130 106 95 16 24 11 49 10 A C 3051 -82.08 39.44 918 1262 1271 1279 20 1302 1316 12 1365 1370 1377 1412 494 133 110 96 17 23 14 49 12 C C 2885 -82.16 39.41 870 1156 1162 1174 18 1199 1207 0 1268 1272 1280 1327 457 153 128 120 18 25 8 61 12 B C 2887 -82.13 39.42 690 980 986 1000 18 1020 1025 1 1081 1085 1092 1134 444 134 114 109 20 20 5 56 11 B C 2888 -82.15 39.38 790 1146 1148 1162 14 1181 1194 0 1253 1256 1268 1320 530 158 139 126 16 19 13 59 15 B N 2889 -82.15 39.41 885 1182 1190 1198 18 1223 1238 16 1288 1290 1298 1338 453 140 115 100 16 25 15 50 10 B C 2892 -82.14 39.41 750 1038 1045 1052 20 1077 1088 14 1144 1149 1156 1202 452 150 125 114 14 25 11 56 12 D C 2893 -82.13 39.41 810 1118 1120 1132 14 1154 1172 44 0 0 1237 1276 466 144 122 104 14 22 18 65 0 B C 2868 -82.13 39.41 700 997 1001 1014 22 1037 1048 4 1103 1108 1115 1150 450 136 113 102 17 23 11 55 12 B C 2869 -82.14 39.41 890 1180 1185 1199 26 1224 1240 0 1282 1284 1294 1339 449 140 115 99 19 25 16 42 12 D N 2871 -82.15 39.41 920 1220 1226 1238 22 1262 1281 20 1344 1348 1356 1400 480 162 138 119 18 24 19 63 12 D C 2872 -82.16 39.41 803 1054 1060 1072 22 1098 1109 0 1160 1164 1176 1226 423 154 128 117 18 26 11 51 16 D N 2873 -82.17 39.42 895 1145 1153 1164 17 1185 1193 0 1252 1257 1268 1314 419 150 129 121 19 21 8 59 16 B N 2879 -82.15 39.41 885 1186 1190 1202 20 1227 1242 0 1284 1286 1297 1348 463 146 121 106 16 25 15 42 13 B N 2858 -82.16 39.42 940 1193 1198 1214 18 1234 1252 12 1306 1310 1321 1376 436 162 142 124 21 20 18 54 15 B C 2860 -82.16 39.41 958 1236 1239 1252 14 1276 1292 10 1341 1344 1354 1434 476 182 158 142 16 24 16 49 13 B C 2864 -82.15 39.43 925 1192 1196 1208 24 1236 1254 6 1306 1312 1317 1374 449 166 138 120 16 28 18 52 11 D C 2866 -82.15 39.42 880 1135 1142 1152 14 1174 1186 50 0 0 1266 1304 424 152 130 118 17 22 12 80 0 B A 131

2867 -82.14 39.41 820 1126 1130 1142 22 1163 1180 22 1231 1237 1246 1288 468 146 125 108 16 21 17 51 15 A A 2847 -82.14 39.4 750 1084 1092 1101 16 1122 1137 0 1182 1185 1192 1246 496 145 124 109 17 21 15 45 10 B N 2849 -82.14 39.42 870 1130 1136 1146 20 1168 1178 26 1238 1245 1254 1292 422 146 124 114 16 22 10 60 16 B N 2850 -82.14 39.42 885 1132 1135 1148 18 1170 1183 0 1242 1245 1256 1305 420 157 135 122 16 22 13 59 14 B N 2851 -82.15 39.42 860 1133 1141 1150 10 1176 1190 1 1252 1257 1267 1304 444 154 128 114 17 26 14 62 15 C A 2852 -82.17 39.42 925 1164 1167 1180 22 1210 1226 26 1286 1290 1299 1330 405 150 120 104 16 30 16 60 13 C N 2853 -82.14 39.42 695 981 984 996 22 1021 1042 0 1045 1063 1088 1138 443 142 117 96 15 25 21 3 43 B A 2838 -82.11 39.44 840 1182 1187 1197 20 1224 1243 0 1256 1275 1286 1324 484 127 100 81 15 27 19 13 30 A N 2839 -82.14 39.44 725 988 995 1004 16 1027 1040 0 1086 1089 1101 1154 429 150 127 114 16 23 13 46 15 A N 2840 -82.14 39.44 878 1126 1138 1148 18 1167 1196 34 1240 1246 1254 1300 422 152 133 104 22 19 29 44 14 A C 2841 -82.12 39.42 670 936 948 958 22 974 992 22 1046 1057 1060 1092 422 134 118 100 22 16 18 54 14 B C 2844 -82.16 39.43 980 1228 1234 1246 20 1270 1286 0 1324 1332 1340 1382 402 136 112 96 18 24 16 38 16 D N 2845 -82.16 39.43 923 1168 1171 1184 20 1206 1226 32 0 0 1297 1324 401 140 118 98 16 22 20 71 0 B C 2818 -82.13 39.43 890 1171 1178 1197 16 1218 1232 12 1286 1289 1298 1336 446 139 118 104 26 21 14 54 12 A C 2824 -82.12 39.43 805 1116 1130 1140 9 1160 1172 0 1224 1230 1237 1278 473 138 118 106 24 20 12 52 13 A N 2828 -82.11 39.44 800 1114 1121 1131 16 1147 1162 4 1214 1217 1227 1267 467 136 120 105 17 16 15 52 13 C N 2829 -82.15 39.38 725 1076 1080 1094 16 1115 1130 4 1174 1186 1194 1254 529 160 139 124 18 21 15 44 20 B N 2836 -82.14 39.44 965 1236 1240 1252 20 1275 1283 0 1334 1338 1348 1392 427 140 117 109 16 23 8 51 14 A C 2837 -82.12 39.42 693 1002 1009 1021 16 1046 1078 0 1092 1094 1106 1162 469 141 116 84 19 25 32 14 14 A C 2806 -82.14 39.45 962 1196 1200 1216 16 1236 1244 14 1304 1307 1319 1367 405 151 131 123 20 20 8 60 15 B N 2807 -82.14 39.43 860 1119 1123 1135 20 1156 1176 0 1224 1228 1236 1280 420 145 124 104 16 21 20 48 12 A C 2808 -82.13 39.42 860 1126 1134 1144 16 1160 1197 62 0 0 1284 1295 435 151 135 98 18 16 37 87 0 A C 2812 -82.12 39.42 805 1113 1117 1126 22 1160 1178 0 1208 1212 1220 1266 461 140 106 88 13 34 18 30 12 D N 2813 -82.13 39.42 847 1124 1128 1141 18 1163 1175 0 0 0 1232 1276 429 135 113 101 17 22 12 57 0 B N 2814 -82.1 39.43 800 1135 1149 1160 16 1175 1189 0 1243 1248 1254 1296 496 136 121 107 25 15 14 54 11 C N 2737 -82.14 39.46 940 1186 1194 1206 38 1232 1246 0 1278 1288 1298 1347 407 141 115 101 20 26 14 32 20 A N 2757 -82.1 39.45 665 972 982 990 16 1008 1026 8 1042 1050 1070 1130 465 140 122 104 18 18 18 16 28 C C 2778 -82.11 39.46 905 1208 1214 1226 12 1242 1266 38 0 0 1312 1372 467 146 130 106 18 16 24 46 0 A C 2801 -82.09 39.44 830 1172 1181 1188 10 1205 1218 16 1275 1278 1284 1325 495 137 120 107 16 17 13 57 9 C C 2804 -82.15 39.44 922 1182 1185 1198 24 1226 1244 22 1308 1311 1314 1364 442 166 138 120 16 28 18 64 6 D C 2805 -82.15 39.44 940 1194 1198 1212 16 1234 1248 0 1290 1294 1306 1361 421 149 127 113 18 22 14 42 16 B C 2719 -82.13 39.45 900 1168 1171 1185 16 1205 1222 0 1254 1260 1272 1317 417 132 112 95 17 20 17 32 18 B N 2731 -82.13 39.46 945 1229 1235 1246 14 1268 1277 8 1328 1330 1342 1376 431 130 108 99 17 22 9 51 14 B C 2733 -82.13 39.46 850 1132 1139 1152 32 1172 1180 0 1234 1236 1246 1282 432 130 110 102 20 20 8 54 12 B N 2734 -82.14 39.45 890 1129 1138 1148 18 1170 1188 42 1248 1256 1260 1306 416 158 136 118 19 22 18 60 12 B C 2735 -82.14 39.46 895 1172 1174 1189 26 1212 1235 0 1283 1286 1291 1334 439 145 122 99 17 23 23 48 8 D C 2736 -82.15 39.45 907 1152 1160 1174 18 1196 1212 28 1278 1283 1286 1338 431 164 142 126 22 22 16 66 8 B C 2658 -82.13 39.46 915 1186 1191 1203 16 1223 1238 20 1294 1296 1306 1343 428 140 120 105 17 20 15 56 12 B C 2430 -82.17 39.41 700 996 1010 1014 18 1040 1052 0 1100 1108 1116 NA NA NA NA NA 18 26 12 48 16 C C 2519 -82.13 39.45 945 1230 1234 1247 18 1270 1283 18 1335 1356 1339 1392 447 145 122 109 17 23 13 52 4 B C 2520 -82.15 39.46 961 1197 1202 1214 18 1236 1252 30 1312 1315 1320 1374 413 160 138 122 17 22 16 68 8 D C 2521 -82.14 39.46 985 1228 1230 1245 18 1270 1280 12 1335 1337 1348 1395 410 150 125 115 17 25 10 55 13 A C 2525 -82.12 39.45 902 1193 1198 1210 20 1230 1245 0 1298 1305 1308 1340 438 130 110 95 17 20 15 53 10 D C 2576 -82.07 39.42 876 1268 1280 1286 17 1306 1327 14 1385 1386 1392 1428 552 142 122 101 18 20 21 58 7 A C 2662 -82.12 39.46 758 1058 1063 1076 16 1099 1112 0 1162 1166 1172 1220 462 144 121 108 18 23 13 50 10 B N 132

2694 -82.14 39.45 860 1138 1142 1156 16 1179 1194 0 1204 1216 1242 1286 426 130 107 92 18 23 15 10 38 B N 2698 -82.11 39.46 890 1166 1170 1182 20 1208 1220 22 1264 1272 1278 1317 427 135 109 97 16 26 12 44 14 C C 2699 -82.12 39.46 875 1133 1142 1151 14 1167 1178 0 1230 1232 1242 1274 399 123 107 96 18 16 11 52 12 A C 2701 -82.13 39.45 740 1009 1014 1028 20 1049 1060 0 1116 1120 1124 1166 426 138 117 106 19 21 11 56 8 B N 3062 -82.08 39.43 895 1286 1292 1297 14 1317 1334 20 1387 1392 1397 1442 547 145 125 108 11 20 17 53 10 A C

3053 -82.22 39.21 765 1217 1224 1230 24 1256 1270 0 1325 1330 1340 1384 619 154 128 114 13 26 14 55 15 A N Lee 3786 -82.27 39.21 860 1261 1266 1276 28 1305 1317 4 1374 1377 1380 NA NA NA NA NA 15 29 12 57 6 A C 2210 -81.97 39.21 691 1480 1490 1501 10 1516 1534 10 0 0 1588 1629 938 128 113 95 21 15 18 54 0 C D 2368 -82 39.24 850 1544 1550 1560 20 1581 1608 12 0 0 1662 1698 848 138 117 90 16 21 27 54 0 A D 2379 -82.04 39.24 823 1474 1488 1490 12 1510 1530 6 0 0 1575 1618 795 128 108 88 16 20 20 45 0 C D 2380 -81.98 39.26 853 1577 1586 1597 8 1612 1636 8 0 0 1686 1723 870 126 111 87 20 15 24 50 0 A D 2406 -81.96 39.27 898 1630 1640 1651 18 1669 1690 12 0 0 1742 1782 884 131 113 92 21 18 21 52 0 A D

Lodi 2260 -81.96 39.26 930 1682 1690 1704 12 1720 1738 10 0 0 1795 1834 904 130 114 96 22 16 18 57 0 B D 2623 -82.05 39.22 880 1578 1582 1593 20 1618 1634 10 0 0 1685 1722 842 129 104 88 15 25 16 51 0 A D 2414 -81.99 39.21 778 1550 1558 1569 12 1582 1608 10 0 0 1656 1694 916 125 112 86 19 13 26 48 0 A D 2784 -81.98 39.24 879 1632 1640 1650 6 1662 1684 8 0 0 1738 1781 902 131 119 97 18 12 22 54 0 C D 3688 -82.02 39.19 779 1492 1498 1507 22 1530 1560 4 0 0 1614 1648 869 141 118 88 15 23 30 54 0 C C 3675 -82 39.21 942 1667 1674 1685 18 1704 1730 6 0 0 1774 1808 866 123 104 78 18 19 26 44 0 A D 2797 -82.06 39.26 742 1344 1356 1359 12 1381 1406 2 0 0 1445 1486 744 127 105 80 15 22 25 39 0 B D 2823 -82.07 39.23 920 1556 1568 1571 14 1592 1620 4 0 0 1657 NA NA NA NA NA 15 21 28 37 0 C N 1900 -82.04 39.26 933 1562 1570 1581 18 1603 1622 4 0 0 1670 1704 771 123 101 82 19 22 19 48 0 C D 2625 -82.07 39.21 854 1533 1440 1545 22 1572 1600 8 0 0 1630 1684 830 139 112 84 12 27 28 30 0 A D 2653 -81.98 39.27 833 1539 1550 1560 12 1577 1613 8 0 0 1652 1688 855 128 111 75 21 17 36 39 0 A D 2510 -82.04 39.23 836 1502 1505 1519 38 1560 1572 8 0 0 1612 1654 818 135 94 82 17 41 12 40 0 B C 2508 -82 39.2 740 1492 1502 1512 14 1527 1553 8 0 0 1600 1634 894 122 107 81 20 15 26 47 0 C D 1901 -82.06 39.2 929 1605 1610 1620 20 1646 1662 22 0 0 1718 NA NA NA NA NA 15 26 16 56 0 A C 2338 -81.93 39.36 890 1610 1620 1630 18 1653 1671 12 0 0 1732 NA NA NA NA NA 20 23 18 61 0 A C 2361 -81.94 39.28 729 1524 1536 1545 20 1568 1582 6 0 0 1616 1684 955 139 116 102 21 23 14 34 0 C D 2374 -81.95 39.3 722 1478 1482 1500 34 1538 1550 6 0 0 1598 1640 918 140 102 90 22 38 12 48 0 C D

1880 -81.92 39.34 946 1670 1678 1692 18 1713 1724 18 0 0 1786 1830 884 138 117 106 22 21 11 62 0 A D 2124 -81.94 39.31 885 1644 1654 1664 14 1681 1700 12 0 0 1754 1804 919 140 123 104 20 17 19 54 0 A D

Rome 2299 -81.84 39.3 745 1692 1694 1704 8 1717 1736 0 0 0 1784 1842 1097 138 125 106 12 13 19 48 0 C N 2464 -81.9 39.29 916 1734 1746 1753 10 1764 1774 0 0 0 1819 1886 970 133 122 112 19 11 10 45 0 A N 2466 -81.92 39.28 645 1445 1454 1465 10 1480 1499 0 0 0 1552 1600 955 135 120 101 20 15 19 53 0 A N 2498 -81.92 39.36 800 1506 1514 1528 20 1550 1574 6 0 0 1626 1668 868 140 118 94 22 22 24 52 0 A C 2511 -81.93 39.3 840 1611 1618 1628 14 1647 1664 12 0 0 1722 1768 928 140 121 104 17 19 17 58 0 A N 2651 -81.9 39.32 831 1634 1642 1652 12 1668 1678 0 0 0 1742 1788 957 136 120 110 18 16 10 64 0 C N 3264 -81.88 39.35 670 1452 1460 1473 18 1491 1512 0 0 0 1560 1610 940 137 119 98 21 18 21 48 0 A N 3802 -81.85 39.28 863 1812 1816 1824 8 1836 1852 0 0 0 1912 1966 1103 142 130 114 12 12 16 60 0 A N 1956 -81.83 39.2 811 1836 1842 1850 4 1856 1876 0 0 0 1900 1968 1157 118 112 92 14 6 20 24 26 C N 3797 -81.75 39.26 780 1872 1880 1889 2 1898 1912 0 0 0 1940 2011 1231 122 113 99 17 9 14 28 23 C N

Troy 3777 -81.76 39.2 783 1905 1912 1920 0 1927 1946 0 0 0 1974 2046 1263 126 119 100 15 7 19 28 26 N N 3720 -81.81 39.25 666 1653 1660 1666 2 1672 1694 0 0 0 1720 1798 1132 132 126 104 13 6 22 26 28 A N 133

3575 -81.75 39.23 830 1942 1946 1958 2 1968 1982 0 0 0 2004 2080 1250 122 112 98 16 10 14 22 24 A N 3579 -81.73 39.23 730 1848 1856 1865 0 1876 1896 0 0 0 1918 2000 1270 135 124 104 17 11 20 22 31 C N 3544 -81.73 39.25 830 1941 1948 1956 2 1964 1978 0 0 0 2004 2086 1256 130 122 108 15 8 14 26 22 A N 3552 -81.74 39.22 845 1984 1990 2001 2 2006 2026 0 0 0 2053 2134 1289 133 128 108 17 5 20 27 25 C N 3790 -81.83 39.27 828 1790 1796 1805 2 1815 1836 0 0 0 1860 1935 1107 130 120 99 15 10 21 24 31 C N 3780 -81.79 39.27 620 1649 1656 1664 2 1668 1687 0 0 0 1715 1794 1174 130 126 107 15 4 19 28 23 A N 3755 -81.83 39.24 848 1833 1840 1850 2 1858 1874 0 0 0 1901 1976 1128 126 118 102 17 8 16 27 24 C N 3743 -81.76 39.19 668 1794 1800 1810 0 1816 1840 0 0 0 1858 1934 1266 124 118 94 16 6 24 18 30 C N 3773 -81.73 39.26 738 1832 1840 1850 0 1862 1882 0 0 0 1906 1996 1258 146 134 114 18 12 20 24 32 N N 1945 -81.82 39.23 855 1863 1874 1880 2 1884 1906 0 0 0 1935 2010 1155 130 126 104 17 4 22 29 26 C N

2013 -82.23 39.34 911 1216 1224 1234 18 1268 1278 32 1336 1348 1350 1402 491 170 134 124 18 34 10 58 14 C C Waterlee

2672 39.44 -82.2 662 884 900 904 12 922 943 4 986 996 1012 1080 418 176 158 137 20 18 21 43 26 C C 2115 39.452 -82.2 872 1094 1199 1112 18 1134 1153 0 1190 1194 1206 1264 392 152 130 111 18 22 19 37 16 D C 3036 39.411 -82.2 680 929 934 944 19 973 990 18 1067 1070 1073 1106 426 162 133 116 15 29 17 77 6 B N 1972 39.456 -82.2 698 914 922 932 20 954 970 12 1014 1026 1038 1080 382 148 126 110 18 22 16 44 24 B C

1705 39.459 -82.3 762 899 908 925 24 954 976 0 1014 1026 1043 1080 318 155 126 104 26 29 22 38 29 C N 3492 39.444 -82.3 789 940 950 965 28 993 1016 9 1062 1074 1083 1118 329 153 125 102 25 28 23 46 21 A C York 3140 39.44 -82.2 664 884 892 906 10 927 945 0 983 990 1008 1066 402 160 139 121 22 21 18 38 25 D N 3315 39.43 -82.2 686 902 910 924 16 942 957 0 997 1004 1018 1082 396 158 140 125 22 18 15 40 21 A N 2567 39.462 -82.2 682 888 994 906 17 926 942 0 985 996 1005 1048 366 142 122 106 18 20 16 43 20 B N 3245 39.44 -82.2 685 917 924 940 20 968 979 0 1019 1030 1040 1098 413 158 130 119 23 28 11 40 21 D N 3095 39.428 -82.2 922 1174 1180 1189 18 1216 1239 0 1262 1270 1282 1336 414 147 120 97 15 27 23 23 20 D N 2972 39.415 -82.2 695 948 956 966 22 992 1004 0 1049 1056 1066 1118 423 152 126 114 18 26 12 45 17 C N 3431 39.437 -82.2 755 983 990 1004 10 1018 1034 14 1079 1090 1105 1156 401 152 138 122 21 14 16 45 26 D C 2809 39.428 -82.2 990 1184 1194 1208 19 1230 1244 0 1284 1294 1308 1348 358 140 118 104 24 22 14 40 24 C N 3293 39.443 -82.2 705 926 936 950 14 964 986 8 1030 1038 1052 1106 401 156 142 120 24 14 22 44 22 C C 2524 39.396 -82.3 960 1131 1140 1156 24 1182 1206 10 1285 1292 1302 1348 388 192 166 142 25 26 24 79 17 C N 3200 39.456 -82.2 786 1009 1016 1028 16 1051 1066 0 1112 1120 1131 1195 409 167 144 129 19 23 15 46 19 D N 3242 39.443 -82.2 818 1069 1076 1087 16 1116 1129 0 1164 1170 1186 1226 408 139 110 97 18 29 13 35 22 A N 3299 39.439 -82.2 745 950 958 972 18 992 1010 17 1063 1072 1086 1142 397 170 150 132 22 20 18 53 23 A C 2523 39.39 -82.3 895 1110 1120 1134 23 1159 1186 0 1248 1252 1257 1306 411 172 147 120 24 25 27 62 9 A C 3305 39.439 -82.2 1005 1184 1190 1208 23 1233 1245 0 1286 1286 1313 1346 341 138 113 101 24 25 12 41 27 A N 3303 39.408 -82.2 745 988 994 1009 16 1027 1043 10 1086 1096 1109 1168 423 159 141 125 21 18 16 43 23 A C 3367 39.44 -82.2 790 1010 1016 1033 10 1050 1076 28 1150 1151 1152 1194 404 161 144 118 23 17 26 74 2 A C 3370 39.449 -82.2 693 892 900 916 18 936 957 8 1021 1025 1027 1076 383 160 140 119 24 20 21 64 6 C C 3035 39.419 -82.2 762 994 1102 1012 16 1034 1058 18 1092 1094 1100 1172 410 160 138 114 18 22 24 42 0 B C 3094 39.419 -82.2 896 1116 1124 1134 20 1163 1179 27 1224 1230 1240 1314 418 180 151 135 18 29 16 45 16 C N 3490 39.449 -82.2 912 1079 1090 1103 22 1132 1142 0 1184 1196 1207 1256 344 153 124 114 24 29 10 42 23 A N 3472 39.444 -82.2 930 1113 1124 1137 18 1158 1182 0 1217 1230 1242 1290 360 153 132 108 24 21 24 35 25 C N 3199 39.456 -82.2 776 996 1004 1013 14 1038 1050 0 1093 1100 1108 1158 382 145 120 108 17 25 12 43 15 A N 134

C 2929 39.43 -82.2 686 902 910 924 22 949 966 0 1000 1010 1020 1074 388 150 125 108 22 25 17 34 20 C i

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