Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture CONTENTS

Chapter 7 Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture CONTENTS

Page Introduction...... 221 Common Uses of Aquatic Species...... 221 Ecology of Coastal and Nearshore Habitats ...... ,222 History and Present Status of Resource Use ...... 225 Common Constraints to Fisheries and Aquiculture Development . ....,...230 Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries Development ...... 230 Constraints to Aquiculture Development ...... 232 Other Constraints to Marine Resource Development ...... 233 Common Opportunities ...... ,...235 Expanded Use of Underexploited or Migratory Species ...... 235 Collecting and Gathering ...... , ...... 235 Aquiculture ...... 236 Potential Strategies for Nearshore Fisheries Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...... 237 Introduction ...... 237 Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery Exploitation Efficiency ...... 237 Potential Strategy: Increase Support for Subsistence and Small-Scale Commercial Fisheries Aimed at Underutilized Stocks ...... 238 Potential Strategy: Develop Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at Migrating Pelagics ...... 240 Potential Strategy: Manage Nearshore Fisheries for Sustained Yields ....240 Summary ...... 248 Potential Strategies for Aquiculture Development...... 249 Introduction ...... 249 Potential Strategy: Develop Sea Ranching ...... 251 Potential Strategy: Develop Extensive Culture unnatural Waters ...... 251 Potential Strategy: Culture of Marine Fish in Enclosures...... 253 Potential Strategy: Pond Culture ...... 254 Summary ...... 257 Summary of Marine Resource Status and Potential Resource Management Goals ...... 259 Research ...... 260 Extension ...... 263 Regional Coordination and Cooperation ...... 264 Chapter 7 References ...... 265

Box Box Page 7-A. Culture of Tridacnid Clams ...... 243 Chapter 7 Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture

INTRODUCTION Common Uses of Aquatic Species Since prehistoric times, coastal and insular cultures have harvested tropical aquatic organisms for a wide range of utilitarian, symbolic, and ornamental functions. The sea was traditionally and chiefly important as a source of food; it was estimated to supply, 90 percent of the Pacific islanders’ animal protein (81). Fish- ing was an integral part of traditional high island socioeconomy and essential to life on atolls. Today, as in the past, consumption of large quantities of marine organisms, including finfish, algae, mollusks, crustaceans, echin- oderms, and turtles is essential to life throughout the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Nonfood resources of the marine environment were traditionally used as fuel; currency; ornaments; weapons; medicinal; religious, magic, and funerary symbols; and construction materials for dwellings, roads, and vessels. Con- temporary nonfood uses also include a range of biomedically and industrially important compounds, including pharmaceuticals and hydro- carbons (48,49,114). Harvesting technologies range from use of simple dugout canoes to deep- diving, manned submersibles. The shells of marine mollusks have been valued as ornamental objects since prehistoric times. Various cultures and societies have at- tributed powers of magic, religion, and virility to shells and valued them as currency and curios (1,38). Shells were also harvested as raw from the nacre of several families of gastropod materials for the manufacture of tools, uten- and bivalves, particularly Pteriidae. Mother-of- sils, weapons, and ornaments. Turtle shells pearl was also harvested for use in producing were used in the manufacture of fishhooks and ornamental items, and was highly prized on the other items (106). Pearl shell (mother-of-pearl) European market for jewelry, buttons, and was one of the most important raw materials other ornamental objects. Today, souvenir hun- for the manufacture of fishing tackle in tradi- ters purchase shellcraft at resorts throughout tional systems. Hooks and lures were made the world.

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222 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Precious corals have been highly treasured try: coastal environments (beaches, sheltered for millennia. Approximately 95 percent of the lagoons, coral reefs) are among the islands’ pri- world harvest has come from the Pacific. The mary attractions. skeletons of precious corals (including Coral- lium, Gerardia, Lepidisis, Acanella, and An- Ecology of Coastal and tipathes) are hard and dense enough to be Nearshore Habitats polished to a high luster suitable for jewelry manufacture. Stony corals (Scleractinia), al- The biological complexity and variability of though too porous to be polished for jewelry, tropical nearshore environments are exceeded are sold as curios and decorations in many parts only, perhaps, by tropical rain forests (168). Tax- of the world (85) and used industrially for build- onomic composition, overall community struc- ing materials and lime production (172). Simi- ture, topography, and oceanographic condi- larly, the large amount of calcium carbonate tions vary widely within and among islands, contained in mollusk shells has given them a even over short distances (60). Nevertheless, number of industrial uses, primarily as constit- nearshore ecosystems in the islands commonly uents of fine pottery glazes, toothpaste, and comprise three distinct, but intimately inter- poultry food (171). dependent habitats: mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows and unconsoli- Marine plants or seaweeds are used for hu- dated sand or mud bottoms (60,139,159). Some man and livestock food, fertilizer, soil con- atolls, however, may not support mangroves ditioners, and as a raw material for various or seagrass beds (99). The ecological and eco- chemicals. Many marine organisms produce nomic importance of these habitats extends be- compounds that are pharmaceutically active. yond the particular exploitable species within Extracts from brown algae have been used as them. hypotensive drugs in oriental medicine for centuries (10). Neurotoxins from other algae are being studied for their potential as anesthetics Corals and Coral Reefs (34). Certain marine algae produce polysaccha- Corals and coral reefs are a dominant ride thickening agents (phycocolloids) used as shallow-water feature of tropical marine envi- additives in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, ronments that are remote from major upwel- paints, and ink. lings or freshwater inflows (118). Broadly defined, a coral reef is comprised of both the A variety of biological and inanimate re- physical structure formed from calcareous se- sources are harvested from coastal waters for cretions of corals and other marine organisms. uses as either construction materials (sand and Large coral colonies may contain tens of thou- limestone), fuel for biomass conversion (algae), sands of individual polyps, and reefs can be building materials (mangrove species, coral) or hundreds or thousands of years old. It is the food and artifacts. Several mollusks are harvested for shells in the Caribbean including carbonate skeletons of these shallow water marine organisms that form the massive reef struc- conchs, helmets, volutes, cones, tritons, spiny tures protecting coastlines and creating habitats oysters, and scallops. Many tropical fish are for the associated biota (168). harvested for sale in the aquarium and curio trade. Colorful fish from coral reefs are prized Coral reef ecosystems are productive biolog- by aquarium hobbyists around the world. Sev- ically and geologically. An active reef can build eral exotic species from the Pacific command islands such as the Micronesia atolls, and high prices. Pufferfish, for example, are killed, erode by wave action to create sand deposits inflated, varnished and mounted for sale in and beaches. If the reef-building processes are curio shops locally or on the U.S. mainland. disturbed, however, erosion will dominate and the reef will deteriorate (35). In addition to providing an important source of food and other products, nearshore marine Reef fisheries are considered highly produc- resources are a vital part of the tourist indus- tive, yielding up to 65 tons of biomass per —

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 223

included under this definition of the fishery. Commonly harvested reef components include hard corals, mollusks, crustaceans, echino- derms (e.g., sea urchins), fish, and marine plants. The dietary preferences and economic desires of the fishing communities thus define the nature of the fishery (118). Representatives of virtually every major animal and plant group are associated with coral reefs and, in many cases, are exploited (168). For example, as many as 500 fish species are found in coral reef areas of Kosrae, some 200 of which are harvested for consumption; at least Photo credit: C. Wah/e 300 fish species are found in Puerto Rican reef The coral reef ecosystem is comprised of the physical areas, of which 180 are harvested for human coral structure and an array of other marine species. consumption (56,61). Also, many reef-dwelling Interaction among these reef community members gives rise to the high biological productivity animals are preyed on by migrating and pelagic associated with coral reefs. fish which constitute a major portion of worldwide commercial fisheries. square mile per year in American Samoa (170). Average yields of coral reef fisheries are esti- Mangrove Forests mated at nearly 43 tons of biomass per square Mangrove forests consist of salt-resistant mile per year at depths less than 100 feet (99). trees with stilt roots or pneumatophores grow- The high biological productivity is maintained ing in the intertidal range along ocean shores by efficient retention and recycling of ecosys- or estuaries (35). Mangroves are an integral tem nutrients (35). component of coastal ecosystems and fulfill Coral reefs serve at least three functions of profound economic importance. The physical structures serve as barriers to storm waves and debris, are an important tourism attraction, and create complex habitats for a variety of economically important organisms. A species that contributes measurably to the trophic structure and energy flow of the reef ecosystem can be considered a member of the reef community. Species that feed in adjacent areas (e.g., seagrass meadows) but shelter in or on reefs and thereby transfer energy to the reef system also are considered part of the reef community. Sec- ondary consumers which prey on reef animals but move to other areas when not feeding are part of the reef system as well (118). Coral reef fisheries include activities at a commercial, subsistence, or recreational level, which exploit aquatic organisms associated with hermatypic (reef-building) corals. Thus, all edible, marketable or otherwise “useful” components of the coral reef community are 224 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

many fundamentally important functions in is- haps as soil amendments on some islands), the land ecology and economy (159). associated sand, coral rubble, fish, and invertebrates commonly are harvested for materi- Mangroves supply wood and other forest als and food throughout the U.S. tropical islands products on some islands and contribute to the (168). productivity of lagoons and reefs. As prop roots develop and spread, they trap and stabilize ter- The sand and mud bottoms on which seagrass rigenous sediment, building land and protect- beds form create habitat for many burrowing ing reefs and lagoons from agricultural and and benthic organisms. The leaves and inter- urban pollution. Like coral reefs, mangrove woven roots provide extensive shelter for small forests protect coasts from storm damage; sup- organisms and grazing surfaces for a variety port an extremely diverse and ecologically im- of species. Many species migrate to and from portant community of marine plants, inver- seagrasses either daily or at a fixed stage dur- tebrates, and seabirds; and provide shelter and ing their lifecycle. For example, although many nursery for a range of commercially important food fish live and are harvested in the coral reef fish. Mangrove detritus provides an important areas as adults, they pass the critical larval and nutrient base for food webs leading to commer- juvenile phases in the protection of seagrass cially important food fish and invertebrates, meadows (168). Seagrass beds provide addi- and augments the growth of adjacent seagrass tional feeding areas for species on nearby reefs, and coral reef communities (168). and the variety of fish tends to be higher on reefs close to these habitats (61). If mangrove forests are carefully managed, they can sustain a high fisheries output and Seagrasses promote settlement and consoli- some limited forestry production. Mangroves dation of sandy sediments, thus helping to pre- are harvested in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific vent coastal erosion. They accumulate sand on islands for fuel and building materials. How- which mangroves further consolidate the land ever, they have been removed in many areas, (168). To some extent they can absorb organic often to gain access to sites used for sand min- wastes and sediment. However, heavy sedimen- ing; navigation channels; waste dumping; and tation can cut off light to bottom communities the construction of buildings, docks, and ma- and eventually smother them. Seagrasses are rinas (35). Storms may damage mangroves, although they tend to regenerate quickly. Human- induced stress can, however, be disastrous. Mangroves are often killed by changes in land runoff or water circulation which alter the salinity balance. Oil pollution, as in postwar Truk lagoon, can degrade mangrove areas for years. Stressed mangroves will drop their leaves and may die if stress is not alleviated. If conditions permit seedling reestablishment, the forest can

regenerate in 10 to 15 years (35,47)0

Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows and mud bottoms within lagoons and between the shore and reef crest Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment serve many crucial ecological functions of di- Seagrass meadows are an integral part of the island rect and indirect economic importance to in- nearshore ecosystem. Like mangroves, seagrasses may enhance nearshore fishery potential by providing sular peoples. Although the seagrass itself is habitat and organic matter, and contributing to of little intrinsic economic value (except per- stabilization of bottom sediments. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 225 particularly vulnerable to dredging and to an- lines, Marshalls, Marianas, and by Polynesians chor and propeller damage; holes cut in the bed in American Samoa (20). may take years to regenerate (35,153). Under natural conditions, it takes from 6 to 100 years Seldom in traditional island economies was for a seagrass bed to recover from a stress once fishing practiced for its recreational value alone, although sport and competition was impact has ceased (153). sometimes involved, Skilled fishermen enjoyed The mangrove, seagrass meadow, and coral social prestige; fishing knowledge was handed reef ecosystems commonly are adjacent and down through generations and was a form of mutually interactive. Mangroves, for example, highly valued property not lightly shared. The trap sediment from terrestrial runoff that can market system did not exist nor did monetary be highly detrimental to coral reefs and seagrass profit motivate fishermen. Fish were distrib- beds. Similarly, coral reefs function as break- uted by complex systems of exchange and bar- waters, protecting seagrass beds and man- ter between and among extended families (76). groves from the full impact of sea waves. More- Today, most fish caught by Pacific island fisher- over, a number of animals of subsistence and men do not reach monetary markets (96,85,113), commercial importance migrate among these Although the elaborate and diverse tradition ecosystems during their lifecycles (35). of fish cultivation reported to have existed in the Hawaiian Islands (93,150) and Nauru (131) History and Present Status of apparently did not develop in this region, evi- Resource Use dence of stone structures and fish pens suggest Pacific some fish culture was practiced in the mangrove areas of Yap, in the lagoon at Pingelap, Despite low nutrient levels common to trop- and possibly near a mangrove area in Guam. ical oceans, the nearshore marine ecosystems Natural coral reef productivity appears to be of Micronesia are among the most productive more than sufficient in the aggregate to meet in the world (119). Since the arrival of the first inhabitants of the Pacific islands some 3,000 the subsistence needs of island populations. Regionwide generalization maybe inappropri- years ago, the marine environment has supplied ate, however, because it fails to consider the most of the food of the islanders as well as many diversity of reef organisms and their dispersion material needs. (See Lal (97) for an extensive among widely scattered islands, as well as hu- list of nonfood products.) Subsistence harvests man population densities on certain islands. continue to make a major contribution to the standard of living even in the most urbanized On high volcanic islands, which normally islands. Given the limited land mass of the is- have abundant freshwater and other land-based lands, the oceans will continue to play a sig- resources, fishing is usually combined with nificant role in economic development. agriculture. On low coral islands, which have a paucity of freshwater and arable land, fish- Pacific islanders have traditionally relied on ing may be the primary source of animal pro- the resources of nearshore waters; fishing and gleaning of shallow water benthic invertebrates tein. Villages commonly are located on the lee side of islands at sites with suitable access to from the reef have been the primary means of the sea, lagoon, and reef resources. A variety obtaining food from the sea. Traditional fisher- of village activities may be based on the fish- men of all islands possessed precise knowledge ery, including boat building, repair, net and trap of fish behavior, food preferences, spawning making, processing, and distributing. patterns, predator-prey relationships, and cli- matic and oceanographic influences (82,84,85). Despite great differences in language and cul- Rich vocabularies for describing fishing and ture among island populations, each group maritime activities exist within the many lan- evolved a distinctive set of traditions which re- guages spoken by Micronesians in the Caro- flect a keen awareness of local ecological rela- 226 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas tionships. Harvest, distribution patterns, and gan in Palau during the German administra- customs differed, but often were designed with tion. As merchants eagerly sought pearl and resource conservation as one objective and mother-of-pearl for the European market, har- functioned as effective resource management vests were unmanaged and stocks were over- systems (81). The islanders traditionally prac- exploited. By the 20th century, natural popula- ticed principles of property and use rights, re- tions of pearl oysters were depleted throughout source ownership, and limited entry. Exploi- their Pacific range (123). Exhaustion of pearl tation rights were carefully controlled by taboos oyster stocks led to a search for methods of im- to ensure a sustained yield (87). proving productivity and for new nacre sources. On Yap, for example, the right to fish near- The commercial topshell Trochus niloticus shore waters was subdivided, with particular was found to produce nacre suitable for button families controlling reef flat areas and tracts material. Japanese scientists successfully trans- inside the reef. The Yapese considered these planted topshells in the Caroline and Mariana sea resources along with associated land re- Islands in the 1930s (6,7,8). Truk was the only sources (i.e., taro patches, gardens, forests) as area that produced commercial harvest before a single unit. The highest ranked “Chief of the World War II suspended the fishery (108), Village” exercised ultimate control over near- During the Japanese mandate, four Japanese shore waters. The second ranked “Chief of Fish- companies cultured pearl oysters in Palau, In ing” led communal fishing in the open sea, 1938, these companies produced more of the while the “Overseer of Fishing” directed com- introduced gold-lipped pearl oyster, Pinctada munal fishing inside the lagoon (149). Some maxima, than any region in which natural pop- areas were closed to fishing until fish popula- ulations of the species were exploited (115). tions returned to preharvest levels, and per- However, pearl oyster culture operations ended mitted fishing methods were carefully defined for different social classes. For example, the as World War II moved into the Pacific. lowest ranked Yapese class owned no fishing Disrupted by war, harvest of pearls and grounds, were allowed only the most primitive mother-of-pearl never regained its place of im- fishing gear and were allowed to gather sea- portance in island economies. The culture food only in streams and estuaries. methods developed by Japanese scientists in Palau before the war were regarded as propri- Magellan’s landfall at Guam in the 16th cen- etary information. Without transfer of this tech- tury marked the beginning of an era of Euro- nology to local inhabitants, natural stocks of pean exploration and exploitation in the Pacific. pearl shell were not sufficient to support the From the 17th through the 19th centuries, industry. Spain, England, and Germany exerted varying degrees of influence on Micronesia. Iron was In the more urbanized district centers and introduced and quickly replaced natural prod- ports, commercial exploitation of topshell re- ucts as the raw material for everything from sumed under U.S. Administration. Because the fishhooks to adzes. Traditional tenure systems war prevented commercial harvest, overex- were modified or outlawed in favor of owner- ploited populations had recovered to some ex- ship, which frequently resulted in uncontrolled tent, and harvests were greater in the years fol- abuse of resources (44,135). For the most part, lowing the war than they were just prior to its these nations were primarily concerned with outbreak (108). However, populations began to land-based resources, agriculture, and trade. decline again by the mid-1950s, leading to estab- These colonial powers paid little commercial lishment of reef sanctuaries in which no har- attention to fisheries. vest was permitted (109). Important nonfood marine products in early The topshell continues to be a major item of trade, however, were found in pearls and export for several island groups (72). For ex- mother-of-pearl from shells of the Pteriidae fam- ample, Yap has an ongoing trochus seeding ily. Small-scale, hand harvest of pearl shell be- project for the outer islands (162). Steady in- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 227

Photo credit: M Vitarelli

Nonfood resources gathered from the islands’ nearshore waters continue to be important in island cultures and economies. Shown here are Marshall Islands shell necklaces and tortoise shell and mother-of-pearl jewelry from Palau. creases in market prices in the last decade have of the Midway beds combined to raise world resulted in the trochus harvest becoming an im- trade in precious corals to at least $50 million portant sector of island economy. It is a prin- (U.S. dollars] in 1982. cipal source of subsistence income, especially in remote areas, and as one of the few natural Excluding whaling, fishing in a commercial product exports, it is an important source of sense began only in the 20th century with the foreign exchange for island governments. arrival of the Japanese and Americans. Most fishermen today are part-time, and almost all Good quality Corallium reportedly was har- contribute heavily to the nonmarket sector vested off the southern coast of Peleliu in Palau (84,113,126). Semicommercial fishing is, how- and north of Pagan in the Marianas before ever, developing. Problems of overcapitaliza- World War II (145). A temporary glut of pre- tion and habitat and resource degradation are cious corals depressed world markets after ex- apparent and become more complex as popu- tensive new grounds were discovered near Mid- lations grow and a market economy penetrates way in 1980 (63), However, the continued into the lives and cultures of traditionally sub- decline of other stocks and the rapid depletion sistence people. 228 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Urban development generally has concen- In the quest for those species most preferred trated in coastal areas of the Pacific islands. by the urban dwellers, less commercially valu- Urban centers grow as rural, or outer island able resources may be unintentionally overhar- dwellers migrate to them for better education vested (23]. and employment opportunities. Commercial fish markets, commonly cooperatives, are estab- The above scenario is in various stages of lished to serve the centers emerging cash econ- realization throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Guam (2), American Samoa (173), and omies. Increased subsistence and commercial fishing, along with habitat degradation, stress the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas urban center nearshore resources. As marine (CNMI) (126) find themselves in the later stages products become scarce locally, on a seasonal of the scenario. Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of the Mar- and annual basis, market prices are driven up- ward encouraging even more intensive harvest shall Islands (RMI) seem to be in the earlier stages (23). Legislation has been passed to con- efforts. serve and manage remaining nearshore re- As urbanization continues, reef resources are sources, and national policies have attempted overharvested in an ever-widening area ema- to redirect resource use away from the more nating from the urban center (118). The radius heavily exploited nearshore areas toward com- of depletion depends in part on the relative paratively underexploited outer reef and prices of fish in the district center markets and pelagic resources (151). on costs of harvest and transport from rural and outer island areas. When urban fish prices The number of disputes over access to fish- rise (with depletion of resources), less expen- ing grounds in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands sive foreign imports begin to flow into island also is growing as populations increase and fish markets. Urban consumers benefit from pressures on resources push yield potentials to the limit. Unprecedented levels and kinds cheap imports, but fishermen are trapped be- of waste discharge (104) pose still more prob- tween a fixed price for their product and ever- lems. Although some reports exist that popu- increasing costs of exploitation. Their only so- lation densities of specimen shell species have lutions are to turn to other occupations or to decreased where tourism has developed in the harvest more fish more efficiently. If govern- Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), ments subsidize such efforts, the circle of resource depletion widens. If the numbers of full- it is not clear if the reduction is caused by overexploitation or by increased runoff and pollu- time fishermen decrease, part-time fishermen tion associated with urban development (70). begin to take over the fishing sector, joined eventually by recreational fishermen. Because the tropical environment is near the upper tolerance limits of temperature for many In attempts to establish more equitable in- reef organisms, thermal effluent from power- come distribution, island governments some- plants has disrupted reef communities in some times subsidize shipment of resources from areas (88,120). Chlorine, used to control biofoul- outer islands to the urban center. The full-time ing in powerplants, is also very destructive in subsistence fisherman becomes a part-time tropical ecosystems (14). Toxic chemicals such commercial fisherman whose efforts are tuned as pesticides and herbicides used in agricul- to rising market prices rather than to traditional ture also enter coastal ecosystems via storm reef tenure systems and subsistence needs. Old runoff. resource management systems are circum- vented. With government subsidies for gear, ice, Nearshore resources are the social security freezing, and transport, and the lure of partici- reserve and unemployment insurance fund of pation in a cash economy, the fisherman may many island people. Further damage to these now harvest far more of the resource than he resources, and/or resource depletion through needs and otherwise would have. Modern, but overcapitalization of fisheries, may have an often less selective equipment aids this effort. extremely high opportunity cost in terms of Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 229 public assistance and food imports. Social costs marine resources takes place primarily near include diminished self-esteem, which accom- coral reefs and seagrass beds where it is rela- panies reduced self-sufficiency. tively easy to deplete many stocks. Traditional fishery resources typically are harvested with- Caribbean out true knowledge of resource levels so harvests in excess of maximum sustainable yield Caribbean waters have supported continuous may occur (94). subsistence-level exploitation since prehistoric times (64). There is ample evidence that fish- Combined technology transfer and increased ing played a significant part in the lives of market demand have accelerated harvesting Amerindians who inhabited the Caribbean is- pressure and pose potentially serious ecologi- lands prior to European settlers, though fish- cal consequences for tropical coastal ecosys- ing was never a major occupation during the tems. Fiberglass boats, outboard motors, scuba colonial period (148). Fish was, however, an im- apparatus, and (to a lesser extent) deep-diving portant food for plantation populations in the submersibles not only have significantly in- Danish West Indies. Planters and slaves dined creased harvesting within previously exploited on locally caught fish and shellfish, as well as habitats, but also have led to exploitation of en- on salt fish imported from Denmark and the tirely new habitats and organisms. Recent ef- United States in exchange for plantation pro- forts directed toward deep reef resources in duce (157). Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands may have significantly depleted these stocks. Commercial fishery development in Puerto Rico began in 1941 under the Department of In 1974, the waters of Puerto Rico were char- “very nearly overfished” and Agriculture. Local demand for fish increased acterized as with the influx of military personnel and has “heavily exploited” (90,92). Between 1975 and been perpetuated by tourist hotels. After World 1980, catch per unit effort declined at least by War II, the program was transferred to the 50 percent: a classic indication of overfishing Puerto Rican Agricultural Development Corp. (25). Fisheries Division which emphasized offshore Fisheries development efforts have been fisheries; the program was terminated in 1947. much less intensive in the USVI. But even mod- Since then, the Puerto Rico Corp. for the De- est increases in fishing effort coupled with tech- velopment of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) nological innovations may have exceeded nat- and the U.S. Virgin Islands Division of Fish and ural productive capacity, The growth of the Wildlife have established fishing gear distribu- fishing fleets in Puerto Rico and the USVI cou- tion centers, a fishery credit scheme, and con- pled with a small resource base has had a pre- structed facilities for gear storage and landing dictably negative impact on target stocks. of boats (94). While information is not adequate to permit Historically, coastal resources have shown definitive evaluation, spiny lobster and shallow a consistent pattern of use: exploration, discov- reef fisheries [and possibly conch and some ery, exploitation, and finally, depletion (64,102). deepwater fisheries) in Puerto Rico and the Between 1974 and 1976 some 30 modern fiber- USVI seem to be fully or overexploited. Impor- glass boats were introduced to the Puerto Rican tant Eastern Caribbean fishery species such as fishing fleet. Between 1976 and 1982 the num- the spiny lobster (Panularis argus) and queen ber of fishermen on the island rose from 1,230 conch (Strombus gigas) are highly vulnerable to 1,872; the number of vessels rose from 865 to overfishing. Stocks of spiny lobster in the to 1,449 (25,90). USVI and Puerto Rico may depend on produc- The multimillion-dollar nearshore fishing in- tion in other locales. dustry of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Is- Major habitats, including coral reefs, man- lands (USVI) produced some 7 million pounds groves, and seagrass beds are threatened by de- of seafood in 1982 (25), Harvest of nearshore velopment as well as exploitation patterns not 230 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas consistent with sustained use. The Puerto Rico useful compounds has generally proved more Coastal Management Program states that three- cost-effective than continued large-scale har- quarters of the island’s original mangroves have vesting, residuals are a problem in synthesized been destroyed (160). Water contamination and compounds, and organically grown compounds dredging and shoreline modification associated are desired at premium prices. Future eco- with tourist development are also a major threat nomic conditions or biomedical demands could to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico and the easily lead to large-scale harvesting of benthic USVI. organisms in the Caribbean. Levels of harvesting and exploitation of non- Finally, the tropical western Atlantic Ocean food resources still are relatively low among is only about one-tenth the size of the tropical the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands as com- western Pacific ocean, and so the Caribbean pared to the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands pri- has a more regionally integrated marine spe- marily because of the development pressures cies pool. The biota of the western Pacific accompanying tourism, particularly on the Vir- shows a decrease in species diversity along a gin Islands. However, the future of the habitats gradient between Indonesia and French Poly- is by no means assured. Poaching in federally nesia. Thus, ecological processes in the Carib- protected parks and recreation areas and small- bean, such as population blooms or die-offs, will scale personal collecting continue and ulti- have regional influence on marine resource mately may pose a serious threat to the sustaina- management. For example, a recent mass mor- bility of some aquatic populations. tality of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum had a widespread effect on benthic communities Traditional methods of extracting medicinal throughout the Caribbean. In contrast, mass substances from shallow water organisms mortality of the urchin Echinothrix in the Pa- (mainly by boiling hand-picked algae) are giv- cific remained confined to the Hawaiian Is- ing way to large-scale harvesting using snor- lands (15). keling, scuba, and remote or manned submersibles (168). Although laboratory synthesis of

COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries turies, it has only been in the last three Development decades–since the advent of scuba gear–that The major constraints to nearshore tropical rigorous field research was possible. As a con- fisheries development include: inadequate sequence, less is known about these ecosystems knowledge of complex ecosystems, the inher- than about any other of comparable extent and importance. ently limited productivity of waters around tropical islands, and the vulnerability of tropi- Capture fisheries are based on resources cal fisheries to a variety of natural and human which are ultimately finite, and no development disturbances. Equipment maintenance and strategy can result in an open-ended stream of servicing, and problems of transporting inputs benefits. Typically, greater pressure exists to and exports also hinder development. “develop” than to obtain information on actual development potential. Inadequate Knowledge of Coastal Ecosystems and Species The complexity of coastal ecosystems, and our scant knowledge of the most basic ecologi- Although there has been intense interest in cal characteristics of their components, virtu- subtidal tropical marine communities for cen- ally preclude successful community manipu- Ch. 7–Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 231 lations. Before communities or even single (see below), the productivity of potential fish- populations of benthic organisms can be eries is assumed to follow a gradient related manipulated predictably toward some desired to the factors influencing primary productivity y end, further basic research on abundances, dis- of nearshore waters (118). tributions, life history characteristics, diseases, Harvest in the nearshore marine environ- and ecological interactions must be conducted. Progress in the comprehensive management of ments of the U.S.-affiliated islands is also constrained by the limited physical size of produc- corals and other sedentary or sessile animals, for example, will depend ultimately on the active nearshore areas. Puerto Rico and the USVI have a continental shelf of less than 3,000 quisition of basic biological information on longevity, reproductive capacity, larval and pop- square miles and less than half of this area is highly productive (116). The U.S.-affiliated Pa- ulation dynamics, and environmental stability. cific islands are based on steeply sloping sub- Scientific information on the current status merged mountains and reef slopes and have no of nearshore marine resources is fragmented continental shelves or substantial ledges. Po- and inconclusive, and generalizations about tential harvest is correspondingly small. such a vast and diverse geographic area can lead to faulty conclusions. Concise information Lack of Economies of ScaIe on resource distribution and abundance also is lacking. In the absence of such data, the con- The nonuniform distribution of highly pro- cept of optimum sustainable yield is mere tech- ductive habitats, the immense diversity and nical jargon. seasonality of reef ecosystems, and the mixture of high-value and less desirable species in most Most research and classical models of ma- fishery stocks require great versatility of capi- rine biological systems have been based on con- tal and labor for harvest and precludes the de- tinental shelf areas of the Northern Hemi- velopment of single-species fisheries. The rug- sphere. The physical differences between reef ged topography and potential for extensive slopes of oceanic islands and continental degradation of coral reefs precludes use of non- shelves, and the diversity and complexity of selective, towed gear in many commercial fish- tropical fisheries reduce the applicability of eries. The need for versatility, coupled with geo- these biological and bioeconomic models in graphic remoteness and small island size, tropical areas. The effects of selectively har- results in high production, preservation, and vesting certain species, of fishing the same spe- distribution costs which are not easily reduced cies at different depths, and the relationships through economies of scale (23). Size and iso- between nearshore and offshore stocks, and the lation are even more constraining in the Pa- fish population dynamics, are less well under- cific than in the Caribbean. With a combined stood in tropical than in temperate waters (95). land mass less than one-half that of the State of Rhode Island, the FAS are analogous to oases Inherent Restrictions to Productivity in an oceanic desert. The nearshore waters of many islands have high nutrient levels and are highly productive Vulnerability to Disruption compared to the surrounding oceanic waters. Tropical ecosystems are vulnerable to a num- The primary productivity of island nearshore ber of natural and manmade disruptions, and waters is a function of several interacting fac- this vulnerability represents an impediment to tors including: island size, island height (influ- resource management and development efforts. encing rainfall and terrestrial runoff), area of Natural disturbances result from both physi- submerged bank, coastline complexity (e.g., em- cal and biological processes. Physical distur- bayments supporting mangrove forest growth) bance agents include: hurricanes, earthquakes, (111,118), and nearshore bottom communities extreme low tides, extreme water temperatures (e.g., seagrass meadows). Barring disturbances (e.g., El Niño), extremes of freshwater runoff 232 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and terrigenous sedimentation. Biological dis- Similar patterns and similar potential for turbance agents include predator outbreaks problems affect the Caribbean islands because (e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish), pathogen epi- of their small size and the small “buffer” ca- demics (e.g., black band disease in corals), fish pacity of ecosystems like reefs. Few or no ad- poisoning (ciguatoxins), introduced competi- jacent areas exist to which fishermen or tourists tors, and unusual drastic population pulses of can move when nearshore environments are ecologically important species (e. g., the recent seriously damaged. Caribbean-wide die-off of sea urchins and the resultant destructive bloom of their algal prey). Although most major disturbances—natural and human—are relatively rare, virtually any Coral reef communities are disturbed by nat- program of resource exploitation and manage- ural events, such as the tropical cyclones com- ment will eventually experience their effects mon in the CNMI and Caroline Islands, so often (86). Knowledge is still being collected about that few develop a climax community (32). Epi- rates or sequences of recovery processes, and sodic catastrophes have also been related to will be essential to management plans dealing tidal phenomena (177). Rainstorms coinciding with disturbance. with spring low tides killed up to 92 percent of reef invertebrates at Enewetok Atoll, RMI Constraints to AquacuIture (loo). Development Large-scale biological disturbances have been Despite potential for aquiculture in the U. S.- generated on coral reefs by population explo- affiliated islands, progress in aquiculture de- sions of the coral predator Acanthaster planci, velopment has been slow. Because of the phys- or crown-of-thorns starfish. Initial outbreaks ical and biological characteristics of the small of Acanthaster are associated with high islands islands, only certain kinds of aquiculture are and are probably related to increased terres- practical, and some of these require a better trial runoff (16). Recovery of the coral communities requires a decade or more, but may be base of scientific knowledge and more practi- interrupted by secondary outbreaks (30,31). cal experience than exists today (58). The development of aquiculture in the U.S.-affiliated Sources of human-induced disturbance in- Pacific and Caribbean islands faces other com- clude: increased sediment runoff from agricul- mon constraints, including: ture and construction; thermal and chemical ● effluents from industry; oil spills; ship damage dearth of suitable land for pond construction; (grounding and anchors); dredging and blast- ● ing during channel construction; nutrients and small freshwater supply; ● high energy costs for pumping seawater; toxins from sewage and solid waste disposal; ● low levels of nutrients in the sea (and con- direct removal of exploited species; and in- sequent lack of food for filter-feeding discriminately destructive fishing methods species); (chlorine, dynamite, grenades, etc.) (168). ● scarcity of protected bays and estuaries for Manmade disturbances, including cutting, pen, raft, or rack culture systems; clearing, and filling of the mangrove swamps, ● logistical problems and generally high can be even more devastating than natural ones. costs of supplying inputs (feed, equipment, Regeneration of mangroves in clear-felled areas supplies, and technical assistance) and dis- of Southeast Asia has not been successful (146). tributing the products to distant markets; (Sustained yield mangrove forestry, on the other ● potential for serious conflicts between hand has been quite successful, for example, in aquaculturalists and other users of publicly Malaysia.) The destruction of important fishing owned areas (155). grounds and traditional fish pens has resulted ● high cost of culture (materials, land, labor) from dredging and filling for airport extension relative to value of production (43,122), cre- in the absence of thorough environmental as- ating difficulty in competing with artisanal sessments (86). fisheries (162). .

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 233

• lack of appropriate tested technology for ture and mariculture research programs and many species; funding. Cultural settings and levels of tech- ● lack of security of cultured stock from nological development, moreover, ‘vary greatly poaching; among island groups. ● lack of social and traditional context for aquacultural practices; and Increased activities in mariculture may cause ● lack of trained personnel capable of oper- degradation of the reef and lagoon environ- ating sophisticated systems, ments from increased boat traffic, physical impacts on adjacent areas, impacts from placing These constraints are particularly severe on structures on reefs, and intensive grazing by the smaller islands. American Samoa, for ex- fish penned in shallow reef areas. Heavy sup- ample, comprises an area of less than 100 plemental feeding required by some intensive square miles on three mountainous islands. cage or pen culture programs also may increase Freshwater is scarce and lagoon/reef areas are the nutrient load in lagoon waters. The increase communally held. Culture systems beyond the of suspended organic matter may have adverse scale of small family or subsistence farms thus impacts on adjacent reef areas (118). Further, are ruled out in such settings. there exists the potential for introduction of disease. In areas like the CNMI, Yap, Pohnpei, Truk, Kosrae, and the RMI (all small volcanic islands Other Constraints to Marine or atolls with limited land and freshwater, low populations, and undeveloped infrastructure), Resource Development aquiculture potential probably is limited to spe- Risk cies which obtain their own food or can be fed on locally available feeds. The culture of dol- Capture fisheries, based on multispecies re- phinfish, groupers, or snappers would be tech- sources, are inherently more flexible than aqui- nically feasible in those islands with protected culture, which focuses on a particular product. waters, but the cost of importing feeds and of Aquiculture, however, permits more control transporting the product to distant markets of production and harvest of a particular spe- could be prohibitive. (In some cases, fish not cies, whereas capture fisheries generally de- used for human consumption and fish scraps pend on natural abundance. Risk is inherent might be available for economical culture of in both activities, posing a common constraint these species.) Similarly, aquiculture in the to credit and insurance, and both activities are USVI probably will be limited to marine spe- vulnerable to competition from imports. cies raised in the sea (e. g., marine plants, queen Many small-scale fishermen are unwilling to conch, dolphinfish, groupers, or snappers), or engage in capital risk-taking in order to achieve in coastal ponds (e. g., marine shrimp). Since higher profits, preferring the comparative secu- none of these species have been grown in the rity and familiarity of simple, inexpensive meth- USVI, a period of adaptive research and pilot- ods even if they yield only subsistence levels scale testing would be needed in order to de- of income. Those few fishermen who are will- termine applicability of culture methodology ing and can afford to use improved technology used elsewhere. may come to dominate the fishery, while the Other impediments to sustainable develop- standard of living for the rest may stagnate or ment of aquiculture include technical difficul- decline (81; app. F). Others may seek more ties in applying the culture system to the lucrative or less stressful employment in non- selected site, lack of local sources of juveniles productive sectors. and post-larvae, prohibitive shipping costs, lack of aquiculture extension programs and marine Equipment Maintenance and Servicing advisory services, lack of regional planning and Fisheries and aquiculture development com- coordination, and lack of sustained aquicul- monly are hindered by inadequate supplies and 234 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas high cost of replacement parts (i.e., for freezers, portunities that have often been overlooked by motors, and other gear). Metal structures dete- western-trained fishery managers (81). It is dif- riorate rapidly in the tropics due to internal ficult for researchers and decisionmakers to sweating, poor ventilation, corrosion, and elec- predict and assess social impacts of develop- trolytic action (137), In addition, equipment ment activities and projects objectively, since maintenance sometimes is beyond the opera- these may involve changes in the way of com- tors’ skills. munity life, perceptions, and values that are partly products of history and group culture. Transportation It is particularly difficult to assess the social impacts of changes in marine resource uses, Transportation in general is a problem in the It is difficult to observe fishing activities at sea, Pacific islands (see ch. 8). Even routine mail data on marine resources are scarce, and rela- deliveries are jeopardized at times by the lack tionships between socioeconomic and marine of airline service. The costs of air freight within resource systems are complex. the region together with the general lack of airline services greatly hinders development of ex- In areas where traditional ownership and use port fisheries and aquiculture in this region. systems have lapsed or never existed, it is very In Guam, for example, export operations in the difficult to maintain exclusive rights to produc- aquarium trade have been relatively short lived, tion from certain ventures (e.g., sea ranching primarily because of problems related to the and habitat enhancement) because these activ- airlines. Neglect and flight delays have resulted ities involve resources which are traditionally in losses of entire shipments, and shipping ex- considered common property, penses are extremely high. Absence of Federal Agency SmalI Size or Lack of Formal Markets Representatives No formal market structure exists for the non- Most Federal agencies with oversight respon- food products of the Pacific islands. Collection, sibility for development of marine resources analysis, and dissemination of market informa- in the Pacific are not actually present. Federal tion and trends are absent. Usually this means representatives, usually based in Hawaii, make the islands receive less than market value for occasional visits to the islands, but may have their resources (146). little understanding of the islands’ needs. The lack of Federal officials to enforce Federal laws Although ornamental shell industries already poses a severe problem for renewable resource exist in some U.S.-affiliated islands, most of the management in many island areas (155). Bud- handicrafts sold in tourism centers are im- get constraints are cited as the rationale for this ported from the Philippines, where greater va- situation. rieties of products are available at lower prices. Carleton (26,27,28) noted poor organization of Progress in tropical coastal management is handicraft industries in the Pacific. The major handicapped by jurisdictional ambiguities cre- constraints identified were intermittent produc- ated by incomplete and nonspecific laws and tion and lack of business and financial ex- regulatory statutes (50,64,65,159), low levels of pertise. enforcement of current practices leading to overexploitation, insufficient recognition of the regional nature of ecological issues, and lack Resource Use and Ownership Customs of scientific cooperation among Caribbean pol- Fishing customs and rights are intimately en- ities, Due to these limitations, many current or meshed in local social and religious practices potential levels of exploitation already exceed on some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. This cre- the capacity to either analyze, regulate, or en- ates management impediments as well as op- force resource management programs. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 235

COMMON OPPORTUNITIES Significant opportunities exist for aquatic re- sea uses, developing these fisheries is likely to source development in the U.S.-affiliated is- have a long-term negative impact. However, po- lands of the Pacific and Caribbean including: tential exists to maintain or enhance nearshore enhancement of artisanal fisheries, develop- fishery productivity through such mechanisms ment of pelagic fisheries, development of small- as preservation of mangrove, seagrass bed, and scale collecting and gathering, and aquiculture. coral reef ecosystems, placement of artificial These opportunities result from substantial nat- reefs, restocking and reseeding programs, and ural stocks, growing markets for fisheries prod- development of markets for underused marine ucts, the favorable climate which permits year- species. Species that currently seem underex- round growth of tropical species, and the avail- ploited include sharks, some outer-reef fish, ability of clean seawater. As with agriculture, deepwater shrimp and crabs, and migratory opportunities include the three main catego- pelagic species. The latter form the basis for ries of import substitution, increased produc- large commercial fisheries in both regions, but tion of domestically consumed products, and the islands are little involved in these in- export promotion. dustries. 1 Although clearly significant as a million- dollar industry, the fishing industry of Puerto Collecting and Gathering Rico and the USVI falls far short of meeting The islands of Micronesia and American local demand for fresh seafood. Demand has Samoa lie within the Indo-West Pacific region increased markedly with expanding tourism in which is characterized by having the most di- the region. Nearly 60 million pounds of seafood verse fauna and flora in the world (46). For this valued at $48 million are imported annually to reason the Pacific islands are also in a position the islands (25). Some island products, besides to supply an expanding specimen market with serving a burgeoning domestic market, would species of shell and corals that are not avail- likely find ready acceptance in mainland mar- able from other sources. However, extreme vul- kets, Because Puerto Rico and the USVI import nerability to overexploitation requires harvest more from the mainland than they export, on a small-scale, selective basis. Long-term sus- favorable haul-back rates are possible for island tainable exports may not be justified, but coral products. and shells have some economic potential for American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the small-scale, tourist-oriented sales. Northern Marianas, and Guam also have been Bans on exports of coral and shells, some of net importers of protein for some time. Guam which play a vital role in the health of coral annually imports at least 390 tons of fresh and reef communities (84,86), have resulted from frozen whole fish (23). The successful Japanese reef destruction caused by overexploitation in fisheries in Micronesia during the mandate some areas (27,28,110,172). However, the value period suggests that a great deal of potential of unprocessed deepwater precious corals for economic development of marine resources ranged from $33 to $2,200/lb (U.S. dollars) in is currently unrealized. 1981 (63); thus even small beds of precious coral could provide important revenues when har- Expanded Use of Underexploited vested on a sustainable yield basis. and Migratory Species An examination of historical catch data in- Because nearshore fisheries of many U, S,- dicates that the Micronesia reefs are capable affiliated islands seem to be near or beyond of sustaining far greater numbers of topshell maximum sustainable yield, and nearshore marine ecosystems are vulnerable to and already 1An assessment of commercial fisheries development for migra- adversely affected by inappropriate land and tory pelagic species is beyond the scope of this report. 236 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas than presently are harvested. Parkinson (130) decrease dependence on imported seafoods. estimated that Palau’s reefs should yield sus- However, many aquiculture projects have been tainable harvests of some 200 tons/year. How- unsuccessful. ever, the few records available for recent years Species that have been identified as having indicate an average harvest of about 100 particular potential for aquiculture develop- tons/year (146). ment in the U.S.-affiliated islands include Current supply does not satisfy demand in sponges, freshwater prawns, marine shrimp, the aquarium fish trade, particularly in the giant clams, pearl oysters, rabbitfish, milkfish, United States. Demand worldwide is expected tilapia, and macroalgae (seaweeds). Much aqua- to increase 10 to 15 percent per year in the fu- culture research has been done on species such ture (26). The Caribbean islands and those Pa- as bait fish which can be more profitably cific islands with direct flights to Hawaii or Ja- produced by capture fisheries. Attention also pan are suitably located to establish small has been given to species, such as marine aquarium fish businesses to take advantage of shrimp, that command high prices in foreign this situation. When nondestructive methods markets. However, the expense and logistical of collecting are used, small-scale fisheries of difficulties of transporting the product to mar- this kind can be developed without upsetting kets may preclude culture of these species. the ecological balance on the reef. Aquiculture Other factors that adversely impact on aqua- of high-value aquarium species may offer an culture include the high cost of imported in- alternative to capture techniques; however, the puts, difficulty in procuring juveniles, and lack general constraints to aquiculture would still of marketing and technological assistance. apply. The potential for development of viable aqua- Sea cucumbers offer some export potential culture also varies with the physical character- today, as they did under the Japanese adminis- istics of the island groups, their location in tration, although several past attempts to de- relation to sources of inputs and markets, avail- velop export industries have failed. Asian mar- ability of suitable sites, cost of production, in- kets require a consistent high-quality product vestment capital, and quality of project man- of a particular species, dryness, size, shape, and agement. color. It has not proved possible to provide the The phycocolloid seaweed industry is rap- required volume of that product; natural abun- idly growing and, for the most part, is still dances may have to be supplemented with mari- limited by the supply of raw materials (the sea- culture to provide long-term economic viabil- weeds) (39,40). The economic situation and the ity, but not enough is known of the biology of growth of the phycocolloid industry have re- commercially valuable species to begin culture. sulted in a worldwide interest in seaweed cultivation, particularly those containing agar or Aquaculture carageenan. Such cultivation maybe well suited While fishing is an important source of jobs to remote islands, since the thalli can be sun- dried and stored for many months (119). The and food protein in the pacific, the supply of fish is variable and sometimes small (163). In- value of the world phycocolloid industry was creases in population have resulted in a higher reported to be about $1 billion (U. S.) in 1978, demand for marine resources than local waters and gel extracts were estimated to be essential often can supply on a sustained basis. Under to some $22 billion (U. S.) in the U.S. gross na- these circumstances, opportunities to increase tional product. marine harvest become increasingly important Pearl oyster cultivation and edible seaweed in the Pacific and Caribbean regions. Aquicul- mariculture offer some export potential. The ture operations have been examined as an op- Japanese administration pursued both of these portunity to remove some pressure from near- endeavors in Micronesia. Japanese technology shore fisheries, reduce unemployment, and and marketing participation would likely be re- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 237 quired for success in export markets today. Joint transport to market (in comparison with the ventures may warrant investigation. costs to competitors), considering the cost of alternative uses of the resource, and evaluat- The challenge is to select species and culture ing the social acceptability of this activity in systems appropriate for subsistence or commer- view of land and water requirements, It also cial use in a given area by: evaluating the local is important to evaluate the environmental im- environment, analyzing the labor and energy pacts of aquiculture projects. requirements and the cost of production and

POTENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR NEARSHORE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS Introduction and values of coastal communities are considered depends on the degree of interaction be- An increase in fishery production in the U. S.- tween administrators and coastal communities affiliated tropical islands can be realized in sev- on such policy considerations (95). eral different ways, including: ● increased efficiency or intensity of nearshore fisheries; Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery ● development of subsistence and small-scale Exploitation Efficiency commercial fisheries aimed at underuti- To increase the efficiency or intensity of fish- lized stocks; ● ing efforts in the U.S.-affiliated islands, further development of large-scale fisheries aimed improvements are needed in technology related at migratory pelagics; to boat and gear design and construction, credit ● management of nearshore fisheries for sus- availability, subsidies for or reduced taxes and tained yields (fish aggregation devices, arti- duties on fuel and supplies, landing and stor- ficial reefs, restocking, conservation); and ● age facilities, and local and foreign distribu- farming (aquiculture) of selected species tion and marketing capacity (151), However, (95). care should be taken not to oversubsidize the The technical capabilities of fishing commu- commercialization of nearshore fisheries. An nities are major determinants of the appropri- overcapitalized nearshore fishery will encour- ateness of technologies. Sociological factors, age depletion—adding to the income of mar- such as the nature and strength of extended ket participants while reducing the lifestyle of family systems, also play major roles in iden- subsistence participants. Such income redis- tification of technologies appropriate for de- tribution may not lead to desirable long-run re- velopment within the region. sults (174,175). Increasing exploitation of marine resources Given the susceptibility of nearshore marine may be seen by administrators as a method to resources to overexploitation, technologies that alleviate some economic and social problems, would materially increase nearshore harvest- through improvement of exports and balance ing efficiency can be expected to have a nega- of payments, increased local food supply, pro- tive long-term impact in the Caribbean and Pa- vision of employment, stemming of rural drift, cific island areas. In most Pacific island areas, increased profits for local entrepreneurs, and little potential exists for expansion of nearshore improved welfare of coastal communities. fisheries beyond that which may occur natu- Thus, the identification and implementation of rally as island populations increase (127), In- fishery technologies may be determined by the creased pressure on the resource will occur if direction and priorities of local government pol- an increase in harvest efficiency is not met with icy objectives. The extent to which the needs a corresponding decrease in harvest effort (95). 238 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

If currently harvested resources are being har- Thus, methods to reduce waste of current harvested at or beyond maximum sustainable yield vest levels can offer an alternative to increased (as seems to be the case in many localities), ef- exploitation levels in boosting fisheries’ pro- fort within the fishing fleet must either be reduction. Avenues to reduce waste include im- duced or diverted to other stocks. proving storage and processing techniques, increasing efficiency in transportation to markets, Evidence from Puerto Rico and the USVI and developing markets for bycatch (see ch. 8). strongly suggests that availability of harvest technology is not a problem. Rather the need is to apply appropriate technology at a level Potential Strategy: Increase suited to the productive capabilities of natural Support for Subsistence and SmaIl- systems. Continuation of a development style directed solely toward capitalization and har- Scale Commercial Fisheries Aimed vest efficiency without regard for sustainable at Underutilized Stocks yields can only result in resource depletion and The importance of small-scale fisheries lies adverse socioeconomic impacts. in their income- and employment-creating po- A large proportion of total fishery produc- tential and their use of appropriate forms of tion is lost to wastage in many tropical areas. technology. As nearshore resources come un- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 239 der greater pressure, however, fishermen are Sharks represent a potentially important and increasingly moving offshore and/or making virtually underutilized resource in the tropical more use of migratory pelagic fish sometimes Pacific. In spite of the seeming abundance of found in nearshore environments. Pelagic re- sharks, Pacific islands supply only a small sources probably offer an opportunity in the proportion of the market. Sharks are harvested U.S. Caribbean and Pacific for the expansion primarily as a bycatch of Taiwanese tuna long- of small-scale island fisheries—commercial, liners landing at Pago Pago, and the fins are recreational, or subsistence. Proper manage- the only product currently retained (26). ment of these resources can also provide opportunities for economies of scale. Markets for shark products are expected to continue a recent trend of gradual expansion A relatively small number of marine organ- (26,244). Market growth, particularly for shark isms comprise the preferred fishery target in leather, appears to be limited by the supply of most countries. Commonly this occurs because hides (27,135). Novelty products such as jaws the species are plentiful and easy to catch (e.g., and teeth have a ready market in tourism, while a schooling fish which is easy to net), or be- new products such as artificial skin for burn cause a social preference exists for a particu- victims are still in the development stages (3). lar species (95). The identification and devel- Shark resources also are generally underuti- opment of alternative underused stocks may lized in the Lesser Antilles, but are particularly be expected to increase economic benefits from vulnerable to overexploitation because of low the nearshore fishery. reproductive potential, slow growth rates, and greater age at maturity than other fishery stocks. Current Puerto Rico and USVI fisheries development policy emphasizes underutilized off- They can quickly be depleted if commercially developed (61). shore resources (e.g., swordfish) (24) and recreational fishing (61). Although the status of stocks Deepwater species beyond coral reefs may is not known, it is expected that considerable be suitable for development of new fisheries. amounts of pelagic swordfish can be harvested The exact magnitude of the resource is not (45). This approach has considerable merit, and clear, and large-scale harvest and marketing might help divert some fishing effort from problems have not yet been solved (23). Two stocks that currently are overexploited, thus in- species of deepwater shrimp (Heterocarpus creasing economic benefits from the nearshore ensifer and Heterocarpus laevigatus) are fairly fishery. However, while an increase in the har- abundant at depths of nearly 700 feet on the vest of underutilized species is possible, these seaward faces of fringing reefs and probably species can support relatively few fishermen barrier reefs and atolls throughout the U. S.- (94), and there is no reason to suppose that these affiliated Pacific islands. Rough terrain and the stocks are less vulnerable to overexploitation potential for habitat destruction make trawl- than others if reliable estimates of sustainable ing unacceptable, and trapping has not yet yields are lacking (61). proven economically viable. Pacific island Similarly, Pacific island government agencies fishermen recently have been encouraged to have encouraged commercial harvest of iden- exploit forereef deepwater snapper (family Lut- tified offshore resources as it has become clear janidae). The distance of these fish from cigua- that there are relatively few, if any, nearshore toxin sources make them less likely to be con- resources remaining underutilized in the U. S.- taminated with ciguatera (95). affiliated Pacific islands (23). Further, nearshore The development of new fisheries may re- schools of fish provide a food reserve for local quire the introduction of new fishing technol- populations in the event of natural calamities, ogies as well as the surmounting of social making underexploitation preferable to com- prejudices. It may be possible to develop ex- mercial overexploitation. port fisheries for species that have little local 240 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas value but constitute a desirable export com- of pelagic species, primarily tuna (161). Any sig- modity, or to develop export fisheries for highly nificant commercial fishery resource potential valued products. For example, holothurians rests with offshore pelagic resources, not near- (sea cucumber or beche-de-mer) are gathered shore resources. in several Pacific island areas; a particular spe- Highly migratory species—tuna, dolphinfish cies (Microthele nobilis) of this family com- (mahimahi), and billfish–are the major com- mands a high price in Southeast Asian markets. mercial offshore resources in the U.S.-affiliated Fisheries based on tropical lobsters also have islands. Most of the world’s tuna stocks prob- been developed on some Pacific islands (95). ably already are exploited close to maximum Squid and deepwater crab may be underex- sustainable yields (61). An important exception ploited in the Caribbean (124). are the huge Pacific skipjack tuna stocks which still apparently are not exploited at levels close Potential Strategy: DeveIop to those they could sustain (80). Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at Migrating Pelagics Potential Strategy: Manage The Japanese have been lauded for achiev- Nearshore Fisheries for ing a sound degree of economic progress based Sustained Yields on indigenous island resources in many of the Although attempts at marine resource man- Pacific islands during the mandate period (121). agement were made as long ago as the Middle After more than 2% decades of Japanese fish- Ages (64), serious scientific concern for the con- eries development in Micronesia, exports from sequences of uncontrolled and unplanned ex- nearshore fisheries were relatively small. In ploitation is a relatively recent development. fact, during the Japanese administration near- Primitive efforts to manage coral and mollusk shore production was only sufficient for sub- fisheries involved rotation of harvesting beds sistence needs and supply of local markets for to allow recovery (64,65). Rigorous scientific Japanese immigrants; at least 90 percent of the efforts to manage these resources have emerged exports by weight and value were composed only recently. Management of marine fishery resources commonly involves regulatory measures to conserve individual fishery stocks and critical habitats. More recently, attempts have been made to increase harvestable stock through fish aggregation devices (FADs), artificial reefs, habitat restoration, and restocking programs,

Opportunity: Develop Fish Aggregation Systems One promising technology for augmenting small-scale, nearshore pelagic harvests is the FAD; usually an anchored buoy placed a mile Photo credit: A. Vargo or more outside the reef. Buoys may be con- Pelagic resources around the U.S.-affiliated islands structed of metal, wood, or even bamboo, and form the bases of many foreign commercial fisheries sometimes nets or short ropes are attached to and could offer an opportunity for increased food the buoy and anchor line. production for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Except for a few tuna processing facilities in the U.S.-affiliated It is well known that pelagic fish are attracted Pacific islands, the industry remains largely in the hands of foreign operators. Shown here, a Korean tuna to and congregate around floating debris in boat in Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa. the ocean (23). Tuna purse seiners commonly Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 241 search out floating logs and other debris and Opportunity: Construct Artificial Reefs may stay with a particular log for some time, In recent years, efforts have been made to setting the net around the log. Floating debris enhance the productivity of reef flats through clearly provide a reference point for excursions of highly mobile pelagic predators, Hundreds the introduction of artificial habitats. It seems that natural production may be enhanced by or thousands of fish may aggregate around a the provision of suitable substrates for coloniz- single log or other floating object, ing sessile species that provide food for near- A variety of mid-water FADs are being used shore fish, resulting in greater harvests than experimentally in the Lesser Antilles (61). would be possible without artificial enhance- Studies by the USVI Division of Fish and Wild- ment (23). Whether artificial reefs in fact en- life have shown that catch rates are significantly hance overall production or merely increase increased by deployment of FADs. Units in- local populations by attracting fish from other stalled close to the edge of the coastal shelf are areas is not yet known, although evidence ex- reported to attract many migratory pelagic spe- ists supporting both theories. cies, but the impact of this technology on fish Old automobiles, ship salvage, and other stocks, and sustainability of high catch rates scrap structures have been placed on Pacific have not been evaluated. Because of the limited island reefs over the years in an attempt to in- nature of nearshore marine resources, the long- crease fish abundance. Wave action and silta- term impact of most innovations is likely to be tion due to steep reef slopes limits the applica- negative unless implementation is consistent tion of this technology beyond natural reefs (23). with the productive capacity of the stocks to Prototype artificial reef projects in Montserrat, be harvested (61), and unless there is adequate regulation of exploitation (12) British Virgin Islands, and the USVI suggest 0 that increased production of shallow-water fish Manufactured FADs can be costly, which is possible using scrap automobiles and tires. may preclude their use in some areas. Materi- Another approach involves the use of structures als and placement costs for a raft can be as high designed specifically to increase production as $8,000; most FADs to date have been in- of selected species. A recent study in Florida stalled through government subsidy. Life ex- indicates that fish biomass on Japanese “de- pectancy currently is between 12 to 24 months signed reefs” was two to six times greater than and FADs frequently break loose and are lost. on scrap metal “reefs” (141). Many fishing communities are reluctant to re- place those initially provided under aid. Re- search efforts could be undertaken to increase Opportunity: Restore Mangroves and longevity and lower the fabrication costs, al- Seagrass Beds lowing standardization and mass production Mangroves and seagrasses constitute impor- of FADs (147). tant fish habitats and contribute to sediment Other problems with FADs include: difficul- stabilization in nearshore ecosystems. In many ties establishing ownership of FADs or of the areas, including the U.S.-affiliated islands, nat- fish attracted by FADs, conflicts between com- ural and human perturbations have altered the peting fishermen, presentation of navigational species compositions of mangroves and sea- hazards, possible interruption of normal pelagic grass beds, or seriously damaged and even de- migration patterns, and attraction of fish away nuded these habitats, Depending on the extent from customarily entitled nearshore fisheries of degradation, natural or induced recovery (151). As knowledge is gained on the “catch- may or may not be possible. ment areas” of FADs, deployment methods that Mangrove plantings to restore degraded man- minimize their adverse impacts on nearshore grove habitats or to stabilize unvegetated areas fisheries will develop. For example, subsurface is a management option. Planting large tracts FADs, which do not hinder navigation, maybe is expensive; however, natural recovery of par- as effective as surface FADs (78). tially degraded areas can be accelerated at more 242 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas modest costs by planting in bald spots. Stresses that take up to 100 years to reestablish naturally to the ecosystem must be removed for success- in many locations and may be impossible to ful restoration. reestablish in others. Where possible, restoration can be costly and success is not guaranteed. An acid sulfate condition may develop in degraded mangrove area soils that have been Opportunity: Restock Nearshore exposed to air and disturbed for agriculture or Habitats aquiculture. This condition further hinders reclamation of mangrove areas (68). Farming of marine organisms (mariculture) may become important not only to supplement Nearly three-quarters of Puerto Rico’s man- food resources but to remove pressure from and groves have been destroyed (179), and little at- replenish depleted stocks of fish and inver- tempt currently is being made to restore them, tebrates. For example, although attempts to Replanting mangroves has been practiced in mass-culture pearl oysters in the laboratory Florida, however, at costs equivalent to refor- have failed in French Polynesia, recent success estation on land). Successful rehabilitation of with artificial spat collectors is expected to end a mangrove area damaged by an oil spill has the harvest of wild stocks, permitting recovery been carried out on Guam. of natural populations (29). Techniques for artificial seagrass restoration As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and have been developed and used with some suc- Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or cess in U.S. coastal zones. Recovery of seagrass degraded, the idea of regeneration and “reseed- beds may depend on such factors as cessation ing” of these resources is gaining attention. of stress, level of degradation, availability and Breakthroughs in the spawning and culture of quantity of seed or vegetative tissue, and tur- trochus (Trochus niloticus) and giant clam (fam- bulence level of site. ily Tridacnidae) offer the possibility of reef Restoration methods include plugging; seed- reseeding (see box 7-A) (71,73). Of course, with- ing; sodding; and planting of seedlings, sprigs, out appropriate controls on subsequent har- or shoots. While replanting may be possible, vests, a reestablished population may be ex- it is technically difficult to stabilize the bottom ploited at a greater than optimal rate and sufficiently to prevent the loss of plantings (35). possibly reextinguished (154). However, information necessary for the under- Giant Clams.—Farming of giant clams for standing and use of restoration procedures has the purpose of restocking natural habitats has been inadequately reported. Recovery rates, been compared to resource management in for- both natural and artificial (e.g., transplants of estry (176). The meat and the large shells of the root plugs, shoots, and turf), are poorly docu- Tridacnidae family represent a potential export mented as are return rates of animal popula- if reseeding and grow-out techniques can be tions. Lack of knowledge about the physical perfected. In some of the Pacific islands, tech- environmental factors affecting seagrasses may niques and skills for limited husbandry of clams impede successful restoration efforts (153). already exists and may have useful application Costs of planting seagrass may vary depend- for expanding clam mariculture (154). An Aus- ing on species selected, experience and source tralian government-funded project to develop of labor, and type of equipment needed, as well and transfer giant clam breeding to Pacific is- as geographical factors. The cost of seagrass lands coordinated by the James Cook Univer- restoration may range from nearly $1,200 to sity of North Queensland is nearing comple- $12,000/acre and, the success rate of past at- tion (43). tempts has been less than 50 percent (153). Giant clams, sometimes reaching weights of From an ecological viewpoint, the best strat- 220 pounds, have been overharvested by both egy is to protect mangroves and seagrasses from local inhabitants and poachers from Southeast adverse impacts. They are valuable resources Asian countries to the point of extinction near ———

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 243

Box 7-A.—Culture of Tridacnid Clams Considerable interest exists in the Pacific ~cm;~~ tha dams (Tridacnidae family) in order to r~plenish and manage nktu@ iittockit [II%] and *O ckmsity culture opportunity. Although most dams require adequeta ‘-lies of @mMng cuiture in the tropical iskmds to cwtain areas with wleq@a tridwmids darive most of their nutrfents from symbiotic id@ ~8u8 w@hl ~~ ~@#!!!..sWMA the@oN survive and grow on coral reefs with low populations of dg~e. R@$a_ in @*! ti~~ *m the f@@@W’owinfJ witb mi@mal input (74) bivalve mollush; they provide larga quimtitiea uf .. =

Tridacnfd cuhurecurrtmtlyis practkadma pilot scd~~n ~alau, Yap, and Pohnpei and is planned in Truk and Kusrae. At prwent ody exparimwtxd hwtc~er~ exist; development of local hatcheries is required for widespread application. ,. Metlmds for hatchery culture of four of fha six a-”-of Tridacnidao have been developed and transpkmts have been mada to Guam, Hawaii, M-- pi, Yap, and the U.S. mainland; re- quests hav~ been received from governme nt h~~~“ in American Samoa, Mexico, and the Caribbean ?egion [74), @tplanting of trial shiprn-ti of j~wniles produced in a hatchery in Palau appear promising, but the t~chmology far more intmwive of Ttidacnid clams has not yet been fully developed or tested. Clams require a suitable s@stmte md ~tM readily in off-bottom culture systems. Therefore clam farming of of cl@m~ VVOU~d ~quire careful site selection. Nevertheless, cbrnsrnightbegro~h vtmtwwain isolated island areas and contribute to local food supplies as well as income.

some islands (95). The two largest clams, Tri- meat per acre from giant clams exceeds that dacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been provided by tilapia and nearly reaches that of placed on the International Union for the Con- mussels (75)0 servation of Nature and Natural Resources The basic technologies for both intensive and (IUCN) endangered species list (154). Tridacna extensive giant clam farming now exist. Hatch- gigas still live in the RMI and Palau, but are no longer are found near Pohnpei or in the ery techniques developed at the Micronesia Marianas, although fossil shells have been seen Mariculture Demonstration Center (MMDC) in in these areas (80). Palau employ natural spawning of clam broodstock and rear clams to the juvenile stages (0.4- Giant clams are unique among farmed ani- to 0.8-inch shell size) in seawater raceways. By mals in that they are autotrophic—they feed using plankton-rich lagoon water there is no themselves—through symbiosis with algae need for feeding, but the success rate in breed- embedded in their mantle. Exposure to sunlight ing and rearing juveniles to the macroscopic allows the algae to synthesize food for the clam, stages varies. Little capital investment beyond thus they do not require artificial feeding as the cost of juveniles and protective clam cages do other species (154). This capability also for the earliest stages is required for the ocean makes giant clams well-adapted to the sunlit grow-out phase of giant clams, This phase waters of low nutrient coral reefs, especially seems technically simple and clams of “grow- near atolls. The annual production of edible out size” appear to have few predators. Tim- 244 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

sites during the turtle nesting season, hatch- lings could be captured and retained in mesh pens or tanks, maintained until they pass the stage of high vulnerability, and then released to the ocean. Turtles are raised for release at the MMDC. While wild turtles take between 20 and 50 years to reach sexual maturity, turtles in artificial culture systems may reach sexual maturity in 10 to 12 years (33). The ecological impact of releasing large numbers of young, sexually mature turtles to the ocean has yet to be studied. Queen Conch.–Most reseeding efforts in the Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Caribbean have focused on the queen conch. Giant clams, immortalized incorrectly as “diver-trapping” Natural stocks have declined due to heavy fish- denizens of the deep in children’s cartoons, have been ing pressure throughout the region. Conch overharvested throughout a significant part of their hatcheries have been established in the Turks range. Research on culture techniques for giant clams are ongoing in a number of U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caicos, Bonaire, Venezuela, Mexico, and islands. at the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez). To date, the viability of restocking operations for queen conch has not been demonstrated, ing of the outplanting of clams to maximize ben- though it is technically possible to develop efits of nonreproductive periods of major clam hatchery operations adequate to support a re- predators (e.g., the snail Cymatium muricinum) lease program (143). Preliminary data indicate and, if required, manual removal of predators a possible positive impact of stocking, but only from nursery trays can ensure low predation if the stocked cohort has adequate habitat and mortality rates (145). Still, with a normal grow- is protected from fishing pressure until after out phase of 3 to 5 years, the effects of giant it reaches reproductive age (4,11,79). clam reseeding efforts will not be apparent for at least a decade (154). Coconut Crab.—Populations of coconut crab (Birgus latro), highly prized throughout the Pa- Trochus.—Technology for mass culture of cific, have decreased considerably and may be trochus also was developed at MMDC (72). It extirpated on some islands. The adult crab is being transferred to Pohnpei where it could spends most of its life ashore, while the larval be applied to reseed the regions depleted reefs stages are thought to be spent in lagoons or through a program similar to trout fishing en- within reefs. Thus, changes in these environ- hancement programs in the United States. ments may affect the coconut crab. The ma- However, reseeding trochus could conceivably ture animal possesses a large claw which it uses lead to reductions in populations of herbivorous to open coconuts and extract the coconut meat. reef fish as a result of depletion of standing al- An on-going research program funded by the gal crops. Although trochus has been widely Australian Centre for International Agriculture introduced without obvious disruptions, no Research (ACIAR), is investigating the poten- data are available on interactions between pop- tials of farming this species and reintroducing ulations of large herbivorous snails and her- it regionally (95). bivorous reef fish. Work to gather these data could be undertaken. Opportunity: Conserve Nearshore Resources Sea Turtle.—All four species of sea turtle found in the U.S.-Affiliated islands are listed Ultimately, maximum economic yield can- as threatened or endangered species; thus, ex- not be attained in an open access fishery (129). ploitation is prohibited or regulated. At selected Development efforts directed toward increas- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 245 ing the catch without regard for sustainable of overexploited resources and identifica- yield in the Caribbean appear to have resulted tion of underexploited stocks. in overfishing of shallow-water reef fish stocks, and probably of conch and spiny lobster as well, Restrict Efficiency of Harvest Efforts.-The Black coral fisheries are currently under study Caribbean Fishery Management Council has and/or management in the USVI and Puerto jurisdiction over Puerto Rico and the USVI, and Rico, and harvesting of corals and other ses- has prepared management plans for spiny lob- sile or sedentary animals is restricted in these ster and shallow-water reef fish fisheries. These islands by various Federal and commonwealth plans place restrictions on types of gear that statutes. All four species of sea turtle commonly may be used for harvest, and establish mini- occurring in the islands are protected by liv- mum permissible sizes for harvested individ- ing within Federal waters, or by their status uals of particular species, (Other restrictions, as threatened or endangered species. Other e.g., closure of seasons or fishing areas, are also methods of restricting harvest of particular spe- possible, but have not been enacted.) These cies include: plans provide an excellent starting point for sustained development of nearshore marine re- ● restricting access to fisheries; sources in Puerto Rico and the USVI. Their pri- ● restricting efficiency of harvest efforts; mary shortcomings have been that they are ● restricting harvest seasons, sexes, or sizes; intended to focus on single species or groups and of species rather than entire systems, and must ● restricting markets for products derived address currently exploited species before con- - from certain species. sideration can be given to underexploited re- In addition, many critical marine habitats fall sources. Also, these plans must be adopted and within protected parks and recreation areas enforced by the respective island governments and, thus, certain populations are protected (94). from overexploitation (168). Identification and Harvest Restrictions.—Experience with over- protection of habitats critical to maintenance exploitation has also led to measures to con- of important fishery stocks is a method of conserve marine resources in Micronesia. For ex- serving nearshore resources to ensure a sus- ample, a few years after discovery of topshell tainable yield. as a source of nacre, harvests began to decline Restrict Access.—Action to prohibit a por- in a pattern similar to that of pearl oyster. Is- tion of current fishermen from further partici- land governments attempted to sustain popu- pation in local fisheries politically is not real- lations at fairly constant levels by imposing reg- istic; freezing participation at current levels ulations that controlled the length of the harvest might be more acceptable. More rigorous con- season and the minimum size of shells that straints such as fishing licenses could be ap- could be harvested (107,108). plied to resources not heavily utilized now. Although most island governments have reg- Such restrictions could obviously be modified ulations on the harvest of edible or other com- from time to time as better information became mercially valuable shells, few have enacted pro- available on resource abundance, tective measures for species involved in the Common objections to limited entry meas- ornamental shell trade. Monitoring of this trade ures are reduction in available jobs and possi- among FAS is nonexistent, Additionally, there bly reduced supply of seafood due to decreased is essentially no management of the aquarium numbers of fishermen. These objections do not fish trade, apply to the activities proposed here because: Restrict Market for Certain Species.—Over- 1. the number of fishermen would be stabi- exploitation of corals and shells in some areas lized, not decreased; and have adversely affected the associated coral 2. the supply of seafood should be expected reefs and resulted in bans on exports of corals to increase due to improved management and shells (27,110,172), Most island govern- 246 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ments have legislatively restricted harvest of in New Caledonia. Parts of the barrier reef are coral for commercial purposes, and only a few closed sequentially for 3-year intervals, thereby small-scale coral specimen enterprises cater to allowing each area a 3-year regeneration period the tourist industry (70). There is now no com- and continually maintaining an accessible reef mercial export of specimen corals from the area (36). U.S.-affiliated pacific islands. Ideally, the marine park core area should be Harvest of precious corals in American large enough to be self-replenishing for all spe- Samoa and Guam is regulated by a fishery man- cies the reserve is designed to protect; the im- agement plan under the Magnuson Fishery plication then is to establish a core area with Conservation and Management Act of 1976. the highest degree of diversity (140). If success- However, enforcement of regulations is rare. fully sited, established, and managed, marine The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Re- parks and reserves may not only protect criti- sources has established permit requirements cal habitats but also provide a source of recruit- for coral harvesting and harvest site restric- ment for restocking exploited surroundings. tions. Harvesting is monitored as closely as As yet few such areas exist in the U.S.-affil- possible under current manpower restrictions iated islands. A wildlife preserve in Palau (155). (Ngerukewid Wildlife Preserve or the Seventy Protect Critical Habitats.—Ultimately, some Islands Park) contains considerable marine extremely sensitive areas and critical habitats areas in addition to the Limestone Islands, and may have to be given special status as marine a federally designated marine sanctuary has re- parks and reserves. Coral reefs, which are cently been established in American Samoa highly vulnerable to degradation, are prime can- (Fagatele Bay). Trunk Bay (St. John) and Buck didates for such protection. Mangroves, Island (St. Croix) and the Virgin Islands Na- seagrass meadows, and other important fish tional Park (St. John) have protected marine spawning and nursery areas are also excellent areas in the USVI, and several sites are pro- site candidates. posed as Federal or State marine sanctuaries in Puerto Rico (e.g., Mona Island). The establishment of protected areas for ecosystem preservation has long been applied to Marine parks can serve numerous purposes. land areas. In recent years, interest in the estab- National marine sanctuaries are designated to lishment of marine parks and sanctuaries has serve the multiple purposes of research, pub- grown. However, definition and protection of lic education, recreation, and preservation of marine parks can be difficult because of the in- ecological or esthetic values. Sanctuaries are terrelated nature of island ecosystems. Marine designed to provide protection and beneficial park definition must consider not only the near- use of distinctive marine resources that require shore habitats (coral reefs, seagrass meadows, comprehensive, geographically oriented plan- shallow bottoms, and mangrove and estuarine ning and management (158). The Fagatele Ma- environments) but also the terrestrial habitats rine Sanctuary in American Samoa may have that are inextricably linked to and ultimately considerable potential for environmental edu- affect the reserve’s quality. Thus, watershed cation and visitor recreation (9). management becomes highly important to the However, the needs for nearshore ecosystem integrity of the marine park (140). protection, public education, and research must Additionally, sociocultural factors, including be carefully balanced. Overuse, for whatever traditional use rights and subsistence gather- purpose, can degrade nearshore ecosystems. ing, may further complicate successful siting For example, tourism impacts in Trunk Bay, of marine reserves for some islands. Opportu- USVI, have resulted in severe degradation of nities exist for developing flexible reserves that corals. Regulations to control access and activ- may ameliorate these constraints. For example, ities are extremely important. In the Pacific, a rotating marine reserve has been established such regulations may be patterned after tradi- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 247 tional customs that effectively conserved the animal protein and because the marine re- environment prior to westernization (81). sources around small, isolated islands are so vulnerable to overexploitation (81). While fishing efforts might be limited by any or all of the above methods, effective policing Basic marine conservation measures associ- of domestic or foreign fishermen is extremely ated with TURFS include closed seasons and difficult (151), particularly in tropical areas areas, and gear size and catch restrictions (85). where there is an abundance of species, large TURFS continue to play a major role in some numbers of fishermen and boats per unit of island cultures (e.g., Yap, Palau, the outer Caro- catch (relative to western commercial fisheries), line Islands); a diminished but significant role and a paucity of catch and market data. Biolo- in others (e.g., Truk, Samoa); and have lapsed gists also know much less about tropical spe- entirely in others (e.g., Marianas, Pohnpei, Kos- cies than they do about temperate marine food rae). Knowledge of these reef and sea tenure fish and are thus poorly equipped to make use- systems is fragmentary and studies performed ful decisions concerning their conservation. as little as 10 years ago may not reflect ade- Government enforcement of environmental quately the state of affairs today because of the laws is lax in some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands rapidly changing island economies. and may be further impeded by fishermen who may resent the loss of their traditional fishing Traditional management and conservation rights and the imposition of strange new laws. systems have been seriously disrupted by the In many cases regulatory regimes do exist, but introduction of modern fabrication, harvest, control of fishing effort may require a more co- preservation, and transport technologies. New herent arrangement than the existing pattern materials and technologies have obviated the of fishing agreements (151). Establishment of traditional long apprenticeship period. Conse- the Forum Fisheries Agency Regional Regis- quently, the social status of fishermen has ter represents a major advance insofar as it has diminished and traditional teachings on the in- provided a regional sanction ensuring compli- terdependence of men and the environment ance by foreign vessels with the fisheries laws may no longer be passed on. This disruption of island governments (151). has been accelerated by the economic pressures of commercialization which accompany fast- Opportunity: Learn From Traditional growing urbanization. The public property, Conservation and Management open-access philosophy embodied in U.S. ma- Systems rine law directly conflicts with traditional island conservation mechanisms; thus, the effec- Fisheries science is a relatively modern dis- tiveness of modern conservation legislation has cipline in western societies; however, manage- been constrained from the outset and probably ment measures have been traditional village has been diminished in effectiveness (81). activities in many Pacific islands (95). Fisheries regulations in developed countries usually are Regulations recognizing traditional marine directed simply towards protecting the target tenure in the islands could be established. To species, whereas many traditional measures be successful, management schemes must be were designed to manage the species’ habitat socially acceptable. Furthermore, any legisla- and ecological relationships (95). Despite at- tion that weakens marine tenure laws also re- tempts to protect overexploited resources, west- duces the ability of the owners to police these ern culture techniques may be inappropriate resources—something they do voluntarily at no for management of multispecies tropical reef cost to the government if their rights are se- fisheries. Traditional use rights in fisheries cure. Such legislation therefore would increase (TURFS) is effectively the principle of limited the government’s regulatory responsibilities entry traditionally practiced by the Pacific is- and place serious new burdens on already un- landers. This developed almost certainly be- derstaffed and underfunded fisheries depart- cause they depended on the sea for most of their ments (81). 248 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Management schemes could formally recog- Opportunity: Emphasize Local nize traditional marine tenure in the islands. Management of Marine Resources Sea tenure and exclusive reef ownership un- derlie traditional island fisheries management, Even in places where traditional authority and private enterprises, such as seaweed and does not exist, is faltering, or has disappeared, local management initiatives, if instituted, giant clam farming, pearl culture, and trochus fishing, probably would respond appropriately could have a positive impact not only on fish- to exclusive ownership. Further, families, clans, eries, but also on recreational and tourism sec- and communities might be more willing to in- tors. Enforcement responsibilities probably vest in the protection and acquisition of ma- would be assumed by villages and other local rine resources and might engage in more inno- organizations if the groups firmly believe that vative resource development efforts due to a the management strategy was beneficial. For greater confidence in their chances for a re- example, village councils in American Samoa turn on investment (23). could take a more active role in conservation and management (170). Where they currently exist, formal recogni- Fisheries cooperatives are another possible tion of TURFS may contribute to fisheries con- means of using nontraditional but still local au- servation in the FAS, but they cannot guaran- thority to pursue management objectives. The tee it. Systems of traditional fishing rights are Japanese took this route, gradually transferring very diverse, and some are more useful in fish- TURFS from traditional village leaders to eries management than others. While TURFS work against maximizing employment in the village-based cooperatives. However considerable expertise—cultural, biological, and short term, in their absence, employment might economic—is required to adapt cooperative be affected much more severely in the long forms of enterprises to island social settings term. Where TURFS impede full exploitation (23). of marine resources, but have strong community support (a characteristic of subsistence Of particular relevance are the activities of economies), it probably would be politically un- the Virgin Islands Resource Management Co- acceptable to abolish them. Where weakly held operative (cf:139), which is currently involved TURFS impede full exploitation, they might be with developing management strategies for the modified to facilitate greater harvests, but Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. A variety of hastening their demise would rarely be justified. potential benefits to nearshore fisheries are TURFS do pose an impediment to commer- associated with this activity including improved cial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish from information on major stocks and ecosystem processes, establishment of breeding reserves TURFS. The formalities of requesting and grant- for heavily exploited or threatened species, and ing permission take considerable time and some provision of information needed for rational tuna fishermen have become so frustrated they have left valuable resources unharvested (83). development of underutilized species. Because of the commonality of marine resources, these TURFS also may impede nearshore harvest of migratory pelagic species. A fisheries “progress benefits may also be significant to other Lesser Antillean countries, and prospects for a multi- report” for Truk (133) reported that fishermen site regional Biosphere Reserve are being in- did not buy nets to catch abundant mackerel vestigated. that traveled in schools in the lagoon because the ownership of fishing grounds prevented their pursuing the schools. One possible solu- Summary tion to this is to interest representatives of different TURFS in cooperative arrangements— Considering the limited extent of nearshore for example, in the joint purchase of a single resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands and in- net to be used cooperatively to harvest the dications of probable” overfishing, credit, and migrating fish. incentive programs for purchase of vessels and Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 249 gear (e.g., the program for Fishery Credit con- shortsighted. Development has been viewed as ducted by the Puerto Rican Agricultural Credit being synonymous with the commercialization Corp.) probably are not conducive to sustaina- of the subsistence fisherman. Little attention ble development of fisheries unless the fishing has been paid to either the long- or short-run effort being capitalized is directed toward un- opportunity costs of this “development.” Man- derexploited resources or areas (e.g., offshore agement and conservation regulations have banks or seamounts). usually pursued a species-specific, gear specific, or seasonal format. Enforcement costs The approach to nearshore fisheries devel- have been high and results negligible, opment in the Pacific islands also has been

Introduction Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, began at least 2,000 years ago in China and developed into a widely accepted procedure for producing food in India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia (58). A primitive form of aquiculture—holding juvenile fish in coastal impoundments, sometimes with supplemental feeds—was practiced traditionally in various island groups, including Hawaii. The remnants of early fish traps and impoundments can be found on many islands, but few are currently in use (58), Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment This experimental giant clam hatchery in Pohnpei Aquiculture can range from the culture of employs culture techniques developed at the simple (e. g., single-cell algae) to complex organ- Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau. Success of this experimental hatchery may lead isms (e. g., sea turtles). Similarly, systems range to expanded operations in Pohnpei. from nearly self-sustaining extensive ponds to high energy-, capital-, and labor-intensive hatch- ture. Goals commonly cited for aquiculture de- eries and raceways. Markets are as diverse as velopment include: products: species may be maintained in ponds as a means of storing protein for subsistence 1. to increase the availability of animal pro- consumption, or cultured to supply local de- tein to improve nutrition; mand (e.g., tilapia) or distant specialty markets 2 to increase job opportunities and income (e.g., phycocolloids). Aquiculture’s history and generation in rural areas; range of potential uses, however, conceal a con- 3 to create an additional tax base to gener- siderable number of modern failures; it should ate government revenues; not be viewed as a ready solution for social and 4. to generate export dollars; and economic problems faced in the islands today 5. to supplement marine resources by provid- (163). ing seed stock for reseeding nearshore areas that have been depleted by overex- Most U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have an ploitation (163), and to compensate for de- active interest in the development of aquacul- creasing fish catches, 250 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Although benefits in total dollar value would be any other significant aquiculture develop- be greatest on large islands like Puerto Rico and ment in the USVI. However, the potential for Guam, and least on the small islands and atolls, development of saltwater hatcheries and cage/ on a percentage basis a small increase in em- pen culture of fish in coastal waters has not ployment or food supply on the small islands been adequately researched. might be of greater relative importance (58). In spite of the long-term interest and previ- A large number of tropical and temperate spe- ous work, few commercially viable aquiculture cies have potential for aquiculture in the U. S.- ventures exist in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific is- affiliated Pacific islands. A Pacific islands mari- lands at present. A few have developed in culture conference (69) was convened some Guam, which has a relatively large local mar- years ago to advise in the development of aqua- ket and sophisticated technological base. Sig- culture in this region. Notably, aquiculture has nificant research efforts are under way to de- been proposed for food production, phycocol- velop cultivation of phycocolloid-bearing loid production, water treatment, and bait fish seaweeds (Guam, Kosrae, and Pohnpei), fresh- production. A number of Federal and local water prawns (Guam), giant clams (Palau), and agencies and educational institutions have rabbitfish (Guam and Palau) (119). Other spe- funded aquiculture research in each of these cies identified as having particular potential for areas. Guam has even completed an Aquacul- aquiculture development in the region include ture Development Plan (52) and funded feasi- marine shrimp, pearl oysters, milkfish, mullets, bility studies for the operation of a multispe- tilapia, and bath sponges. cies hatchery (cf:5,154). Many aquiculture projects have failed in the Neither Puerto Rico nor the USVI has an ex- U.S.-affiliated islands. Many efforts were de- tensive history of aquiculture development, al- signed as research and development or dem- though both seem to have good potential for onstration projects and, as such, were not de- aquatic farming. Aquiculture development in signed to show a positive cash flow, Others, Puerto Rico began around 1970 when research although workable, were poorly executed and was initiated with tilapia, catfish (Ictalarus some projects have been supported even when punctatus), and freshwater prawns (Macro- impractical or when they exhibited a subop- brachium rosenbergii). The island has excel- timal use of available resources (33). Most re- lent potential for development of viable aqua- sulting ventures have been unable to market culture projects involving a variety of species products profitably, eventually develop cash (59,128). In general, it has a stable, well-devel- flow problems and subsequently fold. Aquacul- oped infrastructure. Materials and services, in- ture projects supported by international assis- cluding research, extension, and skilled and un- tance agencies commonly are developed by skilled labor are available. temporarily assigned, outside consultants. On their departure, projects may fold due to lack Overall, Puerto Rico has a number of suit- of follow-on assistance, or lack of local technical able sites for pond, pen, and raft production and business management skills (163). Compo- units for freshwater and especially marine spe- nents such as training, economic analysis, com- cies. The USVI seem to have much lower po- mercial development, and technology transfer tential for land-based aquiculture development, often were missing in the failed aquiculture being much smaller. In the USVI, research and projects (163). development have largely focused on a project in St. Croix to evaluate the potential of using Local residents who want to grow food or in- nutrient-rich deep ocean waters pumped to crease their income by raising fish or shellfish shore to grow algae for feeding to various spe- need ambition and a real interest in aquacul- cies of shellfish (138). While technically feasi- ture, as well as a simple, thoroughly proven low ble, the economics of the system and species capital cost system for growing the selected spe- were not promising. There does not appear to cies, readily available low cost inputs (feed and .

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 251 labor) and a local market. Commercial-scale species potentially suitable for restocking also farms require a thorough feasibility study, are considered for sea ranching. Tropical in- sound business and financial management, ade- vertebrates, mainly mollusks, are candidates for quate financing, enough land at an acceptable tropical island sea ranching, in contrast to the cost, identified markets, and adequate techni- temperate zone where migratory fish (salmon) cal staff with culture expertise. are the primary target (12). For example, in Ma- The primary adverse impact of past aquacul- nus (Papua New Guinea), giant clams are col- ture activities has been the introduction of ex- lected and held in walled reef areas until fish- otic species, such as tilapia and the Malaysian ing is bad, providing a secure food source and freshwater prawn into the wild in Puerto Rico. a limited form of conservation. This form of culture does not promote growth, but it does The introduced Oreochromis mossambicus is now considered a pest because its inferior qual- establish property rights, which may result in it y as human food has created consumer resis- the mollusks being held longer before harvest than if they were not in “ranches” (154). A 1982 tance to the cultured species (Tilapia nilotica). There may also be ecological consequences review of recent conch mariculture efforts (13) from introduction of exotics, such as the dis- indicated that commercial conch culture was placement and extinction of endemic species, not a viable proposition, but conch ranching particularly since island species generally may offer potential. However, success with this evolved under less severe competitive pressures technology carries with it the risk that natural than continental species. stocks will be collected at a rate faster than otherwise, leaving few for breeding in common Such scenarios are even more likely in the areas (154). relatively fragile and little understood inland aquatic habitats of the islands. Pests or diseases The success of sea ranching depends on the also can be introduced along with the desired availability of wild broodstock, accessibility of exotics, which can have significant effects on individuals to collect and ranch, property rights local related species. Therefore native species to the species within an area, incentives to con- are preferred to introduced species for aqua- serve breeding populations, and enforcement culture whenever possible (119). measures to protect wild and ranched populations from poaching. To foster success, such Aquiculture activities require a source of programs could be accompanied by strong juveniles for stocking. Juveniles can be supplied measures to control fishery pressure, possibly from broodstock matured and spawned in cap- with habitat protection and/or enhancement, tivity or collected from the wild. Because most locally available species already are exploited Potential Strategy: DeveIop to some degree by the local populace, hatch- Extensive Culture in Natural Waters ery production of young rather than collection from the wild is desirable for most aquiculture Low technology extensive culture systems in the U.S.-affiliated islands. While hatchery, may be most appropriate where available nat- nursery, and grow out can be integrated for ural nutrient abundance is adequate, and mini- large operations, commonly hatcheries are cen- mization of capital expenditures and produc- tralized to provide juveniles for a variety of tion costs are major concerns. However, the grow-out situations and farms (33), reduced inputs and lower stocking densities of extensive culture systems generally is accom- Potential Strategy: Develop panied by reduced yields, In a true extensive Sea Ranching culture system all of the species’ nutritional requirements are derived from natural sources One form of sea ranching involves taking without human intervention. Thus, islands with juveniles or other stock from the wild and grow- greater terrestrial resources and therefore ing them under managed conditions (154), Most greater levels of available organic matter may

63-222 0 - 87-9 QL. 3 252 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas have larger potential for extensive culture sys- Oysters require substantial quantities of tems. A number of species have been identi- phytoplankton, and waters slightly less saline fied as appropriate for extensive culture sys- than those of the high seas. Thus the potential tems including oysters and seaweeds (58). for their culture is higher in the temperate than the tropical zone. Nevertheless oysters occur Opportunity: Bottom and Near-Bottom in isolated tropical locations, especially near Culture of Sedentary Species the large mountainous islands which provide substantial amounts of terrigenous nutrients Intertidal or subtidal culture of high densi- and freshwater to nearshore areas. These areas ties of sedentary species on or off bottom is may have considerable potential for develop- attractive, but practical only where natural sup- ment of family, collective, or commercial oys- plies of phytoplankton provide adequate nutri- ter farms. tion—both quantity and quality—for filter-feeding mollusks or substrates that are suitable for The establishment of oyster farms requires seaweed culture. This generally occurs only in careful site selection and preferably pilot-scale areas receiving nutrients from the land (58). tests. Also the method of culture will depend Aquiculture on coral reefs, or of reef-dwelling on the suitability of the substrate, the exposure organisms, is in the early stages of development to storms, and other biological factors. In some places, off-bottom culture is used to avoid pre- and few species of animals or plants are currently cultured on a commercial scale. dators and to increase growth rate. In this case the oysters can be suspended below fixed racks At present, a red algae (Eucheuma sp.) is cul- or floating rafts (59). Parasite infestations have tivated commercially in the Philippines and a terminated most oyster culture projects in the few other areas for the production of carragee- Pacific islands (162). nin (39,40). Techniques for cultivating Trochus Aquiculture in Puerto Rico includes a small have been developed (72), and hatcheries are oyster fishery and some low-technology efforts planned or operating on a pilot scale in Palau, to develop oyster farming based on research Australia, New Caledonia, and the Cook Is- in the 1970s (169). The limited suitable area, lands. Members of the Tridacnidae family can mainly in Boqueron Harbor, precludes the de- now be cultivated in sufficient numbers for velopment of a large oyster industry. commercial purposes (75,117). In the Bahamas, a significant recent development has been the Pearl Oyster Culture.—Potential exists for recognition that the giant Caribbean king crab profitable farming of pearl oyster species at (Mithrax spinosissimus) is herbivorous, feed- various places in the Pacific islands. These spe- ing mostly on algal turfs, is easily reared, and cies have been important items of commerce grows to at least 2.2 pounds in its first year (134). in Oceania for centuries (123). This type of cul- —The culture of edible oysters tivation is especially suited to atoll lagoon envi- Oyster Culture. ronments. Spat are reared in polyethylene net is a traditional form of aquiculture through- baskets until they reach 3.5 inches in diameter. out Asia, and methods now in use could be readily applied anywhere that the aquatic environ- Then, they are affixed to strings suspended ment is satisfactory. Inputs are relatively simple from underwater platforms where they are left since oysters obtain their own feed from the to grow for 3 years (145). water. In most cases native species can be used, Research was conducted over a period of ap- although some are too small for the market. The proximately 3 years by scientists at CNEXO introduction of acceptable species from simi- (now EFRIMER) in Tahiti to develop technol- lar tropical environments may also be possi- ogies for the mass production of pearl oyster ble, although care should be taken to avoid in- spat. However, oyster hatchery technologies de- troduction of parasites, diseases, predators, veloped for other species apparently were not pests, or competing species. successful when applied to the pearl oysters, Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 253 so the research was discontinued (119). Since industry is limited by the supply of seaweed, hatchery techniques for pearl oysters have not the market situation for seaweed cultivation been developed, seed stock is obtained from nat- seems promising. However, high freight costs ural spatfall. One problem with this method is restrain the financial return to growers, and that spat of the desirable pearl oyster, P. mar- Asian nations may have an insurmountable garitifera, is often mixed with and, at a small advantage over small Pacific islands in terms size indistinguishable from, spat of smaller, un- of scale economies and labor costs (95), that may desirable species (119). affect the long-term economic viability of commercial seaweed mariculture. Some attention Although some attempts have been made to has been given to the cultivation of seaweed develop this industry in Palau, no pearl culture as food for other organisms (53) (i.e., rabbitfish activities are ongoing in the U.S.-affiliated Pa- grown in association with algal turfs), however, cific islands today. The success of this indus- this is likely to remain only a peripheral activity. try in Polynesia, however, and the research under way there indicates that the culture of pearl The Smithsonian Institution’s Marine Sys- oysters has potential to contribute to develop- tems Laboratory (MSL) has been active in mental efforts in other areas of the Pacific, in- mariculture research in Caribbean reefs. Re- cluding Micronesia and American Samoa. The search efforts have led to development of tech- development of this industry in Micronesia or niques for algal turf farming on artificial sur- Samoa would require training in the techniques faces. While the harvested algae has a variety of inducing the oysters to form pearls. The Ta- of purposes a primary interest exists in using hitian Government is sponsoring experts to it as a food source for the Caribbean king crab train culturists in these techniques so, presum- (Mythrax spinosissimus). ably, the technology could be transferred to The MSL and the Puerto Rico Corporation for other areas (119). Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) Queen Conch.—The most important edible and the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez) mollusk in the eastern Caribbean, the queen will be cooperating in the Caribbean king crab conch (Strombus gigas), is seldom found below mariculture demonstration project sited on Vie- 100 feet, and is highly vulnerable to overfish- ques. Puerto Rico’s Secretary of Natural Re- ing. There have been several efforts to develop sources has committed funding to the project. technologies for conch culture, but a review The U.S. Navy has given tentative approval de- of progress in the field (13) concluded that com- spite the project’s siting in a naval training area mercialization does not seem economically fea- on Vieques. The techniques involved in Carib- sible and a similar conclusion was reached at bean king crab mariculture also maybe appli- the November 1985 meeting of the Gulf and cable to culture of other marine species. Fur- Caribbean Fisheries Institute (61). ther, the demonstration project may provide information necessary for increased develop- Seaweed Cultivation.—Some 10 species of ment of Puerto Rico’s mariculture efforts (134). marine benthic algae reported from the U. S.- affiliated islands may have the potential to yield harvestable commercial products (156). Sea- Potential $trategy: Culture of weed cultivation may be particularly well suited Marine Fish in Enclosures to remote islands, since the thalli can be sun- The culture of marine species in floating net dried and stored for many months. pens or cages is applicable to any island where The red algae genus Eucheuma has been space can be obtained in estuaries or bays pro- farmed successfully on a pilot scale in Pohn- tected from storms. This system requires no pei (41) and Kosrae (146), but no marketing has pumping of seawater and has low initial costs been conducted. Eucheuma is used as a source (58). This culture method is used in many other of carrageenin gel in the food, pharmaceutical, coastal areas (i.e., Japan, Norway, Scotland, the and cosmetic industries. As the phycocolloid United States, and Canada], and several tropi- 254 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas cal species might be grown in cages or en- in Martinique where preliminary results indi- closures in the Pacific or Caribbean islands. cate that yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysu- However, the potential for conflict between rus), permit (Trachinotus falcatus), palmometta mariculture practitioners and other reef and (Trachinotus goodei], and European sea bass lagoon users exists (155), and may require de- (Dicentrarchus sp.) have commercial potential. velopment of mechanisms to ameliorate or pre- Other species under investigation elsewhere vent such conflicts. and deserving attention for the U.S. Caribbean include redfish, epinephilid groupers, striped Dolphinfish, for example, could be grown at hundreds of sites on the islands of the Pacific bass and its hybrids, tilapia, dolphinfish and Caribbean, since it occurs throughout the (Coryphaena sp.), and amberjack. tropical seas. Field trials indicate good potential for growing dolphinfish in large floating Potential Strategy: Pond Culture nets or cages. However, the viability of such culture has not been determined. The chief Traditionally, freshwater fish and shellfish unknowns are the availability and costs of in Southeast Asia were grown in large shallow feeds, the feasibility of operating local hatch- ponds supplied with fresh or brackish water. eries, and the logistics of supplying inputs and The modern version of this system is a series processing and marketing the products. of ponds from less than 1 to as many as 50 acres each with a depth of 2 to 3 feet, supplied with Several species of grouper (Serranidae fam- freshwater at 10 to 50 gallons per minute per ily) are grown commercially or for home use acre from wells (bore holes), streams, or irriga- in enclosures or cages in Southeast Asia. tion canals (58). Groupers occur throughout tropical and subtropical seas and are well accepted as food. A Freshwater ponds are used for growing vari- need exists for research to determine if meth- ous fish and crustaceans including freshwater ods used in Southeast Asia are applicable and prawns, tilapia, catfish, carp, ornamental fish, to evaluate markets, availability and cost of feed crayfish, etc., in monoculture or polyculture and other inputs, development of locally pro- systems. Freshwater pond culture of eels, carp, duced feed, and wild stock availability. and freshwater prawns has been developed on Guam and could be expanded (58). Since water Puerto Rico has an extensive shoreline of is scarce, several species might be cultured in nearly 300 miles with numerous inlets and the same pond and the water reconditioned or small bays which provide protected waters that reused. may be suitable for anchoring floating pens or cages. Guam, surrounded by a surf-swept fring- In Southeast Asia and in some of the Pacific ing reef, has few such areas, precluding most islands such as Hawaii, marine or estuarine fish forms of floating net pen cultures there. On the and some shellfish were grown in shallow other hand, hundreds of narrow channels and coastal ponds which could be flooded at high bays exist between individual islands of Palau. tide. This technology has now been applied in There is potential there for floating net pen cul- many countries to provide low-cost ponds for ture of several species; local experience with aquiculture of marine shrimp and various ma- rabbitfish culture would provide a sound basis rine or brackish water fish. for culturing this species. Sites are available, Coastal farms should be sited on clay or other but to a considerably lesser extent, in the USVI, relatively impermeable soil. Many ponds built the CNMI, FSM, and the RMI. Because of heavy earlier in mangrove swamps were found to be reliance of some of these islands on fish im- unusable. The swamps’ acid sulfate soil made ports, evaluation of this means of increasing pond waters highly acid, which was detrimen- domestic production could have merit. tal to fish health and growth. To avoid this, Most investigations of cage culture potential ponds must be constructed inshore of man- for Caribbean finfish appear to have been done grove forests, even though ponds must then be Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 255 pumped full (58). Recent studies in the Philip- Two early prawn farms failed in Puerto Rico, pines have developed methods of pond-building following extensive flood damage in 1975 and in acid soils (162). 1979 (58); a third discontinued operations in 1982, but was reactivated by Sabana Grande Freshwater Prawn.—The culture of the gi- Prawn Farms, Ltd., and is now in operation ant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosen- with 86 acres of ponds and a hatchery (57). bergii on a small commercial scale has been There is considerable interest in expansion with accomplished in Guam, and pond production export to the United States and other markets. of the species has proven satisfactory (55). M. rosenbergii has also been cultured on an experi- Marine Shrimp.—Potential exists in Puerto mental scale on Palau. Areas especially suitable Rico for farming marine shrimp (Penaeus sp.), for Macrobrachium culture occur on Pohnpei but few large coastal tracts are available. Farms and Palau as well as Guam, although freshwater would need to include hatcheries with facilities is in severely limited supply during the dry sea- for maturation of brood stock, since no wild son. In Pohnpei, freshwater might be adequate stocks occur in the area. Adaptive research and for small-scale prawn farming. Since the de- pilot-scale tests to determine the applicability velopment of hatchery techniques for mass pro- of Latin American technology for marine duction of post-larval stages, interest in prawn shrimp culture would be advisable, culture has been considerable. However, no Technical potential also exists for marine operating hatcheries exist in Guam or Palau at shrimp culture in the Pacific; preliminary trials present, and pond operators have been dissat- have been conducted in Guam and American isfied with Hawaiian supplies of post-larvae. Samoa (119). Juveniles are not available, how- In addition, past trials have exhibited relatively ever, and stocks of the shrimp in shallow near- poor performance and interest has waned (162). shore waters are too small to supply a hatchery. There is some potential for growing marine Although M. rosenbergii occurs naturally in shrimp on the island of Babelthaup (Palau). Al- Micronesia only in streams of Palau (112), sev- though suitable land is limited, small-scale eral endemic species of Macrobrachium occur farms might be established for the local mar- in freshwater habitats of the region, including ket and for air shipment to Guam, another large species, M. lar. Work has focused on this species with the idea that ponds could The technology of broodstock maturation is be stocked with post-larvae and juveniles from developing slowly for marine shrimp. The de- local streams. The simultaneous introduction velopment of this technology will stimulate ex- of predators and competitors poses problems pansion of marine shrimp farming in the Carib- (166), but to date no other source of the post- bean islands, and possibly in the Pacific islands. larvae exists. This species requires higher sa- The MMDC in Palau has facilities for marine linities than M. rosenbergii and is more aggres- shrimp culture and could be activated with new sive, but is worthy of attention for cultivation broodstock maturation technology develop- on a cottage scale basis in areas where M. rosen- ment (33). bergii cultivation is not feasible. Mangrove Crab.—Another crustacean with Because of rapidly increasing prawn culture potential for cultivation in the Pacific region within the Pacific region, prawn culture in is the mangrove crab Scylla serrata. Potential Micronesia probably can be developed only to for its culture has been examined in Guam, but fulfill local demand. Prawn aquiculture in the no commercial development has been realized Indo-Pacific area is predicted to triple by 1990, and little interest in the species exists elsewhere in the region (119). This species is successfull which may result in an oversupplied market. y Only 100 tons of the total estimated 140,000 tons cultured in Taiwan and Japan (33). is expected to be produced on Pacific islands Rabbitfish.—Several species of rabbitfish (95). (Siganidae), a prized fish throughout the Pacific 256 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas are attractive candidates for aquiculture (98, be economical because mullet feed largely on 103) in ponds, as well as in natural enclosures pond biota, requiring only fertilization. Mul- or cages, or in association with algal turfs. They let culture in the region deserves further con- are herbivorous, juveniles can be collected from sideration. Sources of fry need to be identified reef-flats in large numbers (91), will readily ac- as an initial step. cept and thrive on commercially available pelle- tized diets, and survive in brackish water as Redfish.—The redfish (Sciaenops ocellata) is well as seawater. Research efforts currently are attractive as an aquiculture species since it can underway in Guam and elsewhere. tolerate salinities from nearly 0 to as much as 45 parts per thousand. It can be grown in shal- Since the abundance of juveniles is extremely low ponds similar to those used for marine variable from year to year, the availability of shrimp and prefers temperatures of 68 to 92° C. stable supplies will eventually depend on mass Although predacious in nature, redfish can be production in hatcheries; the development of conditioned to feed on formulated pellets with hatchery technologies is under way and sev- acceptable conversion ratios. The redfish is eral species have already been spawned and highly esteemed as a food fish. Juvenile redfish reared in captivity (89,132,167). Juveniles were could be obtained from a commercial hatch- consistently produced on a small scale at a ery in Texas and raised to adults at the site hatchery of the MMDC in Palau for several selected for the culture operations to provide years. Further work on reducing hatchery mor- brood stock (58). talities, and on the development of grow-out technologies is warranted since siganids bring Tilapia.—Tilapia, a staple food in many de- a higher price than most other reef fish. veloping countries, are perhaps the easiest fish to grow in tropical aquiculture systems. They Milkfish.—Milkfish (Chanos chanos) are are extremely resistant to disease; withstand hardy and tolerate a range of environmental high density; and tolerate low dissolved oxy- conditions from freshwater to saltwater, al- gen, a wide range of salinity levels, and other though they are most often cultured in brack- adverse environmental conditions (58). ish ponds. Milkfish have been successfully cultivated in several adjacent regions and are being cultured in ponds in Guam. However, wild stocks are too small to support a fry fishing industry. Areas with sufficient wild stock (e.g., Palau) have not developed milkfish culture, and export of fry from the Philippines, where milkfish culture is an economically important industry, has been banned by the government. Recently, however, aquaculturists have been able to spawn pond-reared broodstock, hatchery techniques are being developed (42), and it seems the availability of fry will increase, removing a major constraint to culture. Mullet.—Several species of mullet may have considerable potential for development and have received some attention in Guam. Growth Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment rates are slower than those of milkfish, but tech- Intensive aquiculture systems, employing supplemental niques for induced spawning and grow-out of feeding and high stocking density, may increase the larger species such as the grey mullet (Mugil production significantly. Shown here is commercial tilapia aquiculture in Guam; peletized feed is cephalus) have been well developed (142). The discharged periodically from a homemade automatic culture of juvenile mullet to market size can feeder at the right edge of the pond. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 257

Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are cul- ever, this form of aquiculture is attractive be- tured fairly successfully on a small commer- cause of the high value of the product, the short cial scale in Guam and will probably continue time required to reach market size and the small to serve the local market. However, this spe- quantity of feed required (58). cies can readily establish itself in a variety of Bait fish.—Extensive efforts to culture bait aquatic habitats, and the introduction of tila- fish have taken place in American Samoa with pia into islands where it does not already exist monies, and in the RMI and Kiribati with milk- may have undesirable consequences (119). Tila- fish (58). Results of the work in American pia eradication projects are underway in Samoa and test fishing at sea show that mol- Kiribati and Nauru (162). lies are acceptable as live bait for skipjack and One commercial venture based on this spe- yellowfin tuna but culture has been uneconom- cies was started in Puerto Rico in about 1980 ical under experimental conditions (22,165). but was unsuccessful because of a poorly de- Similar results were obtained from the Kiribati signed culture system. Research and develop- experimental farm. The milkfish were accept- ment by the University of Puerto Rico has able for pole and line fishing for tuna, however, shown that tilapia culture with well-designed an economic analysis of the project indicated systems has much potential. Many areas in little or no profit margin existed (163). There Latin America and the Caribbean islands are also is the possibility of growing native marine ideally located for large-scale culture of tilapia species such as the nehu or anchovy (Stole@ o- which might enter the world trade as frozen rus purpureus), the apagons (Apogonidae), and boneless fillets (58). the white goby (Glossogobius giurus) or other species which are captured in the lagoons by The efficiency of tilapia culture on a com- tuna fishermen. mercial scale depends on establishing the natural biota which provides part of the food and The emergence of purse seine fishing as the supplementing this with artificial feeds contain- dominant technology for pelagic tuna harvest ing about 20 percent protein. Tilapia can be has reduced the importance of pole-and-line grown at lower density in family or subsistence fishing, for which live bait is essential. If the farms without supplemental feeds or fertiliza- technology for culture of native marine species tion with animal manures. Production can be could be developed, a stable aquaculture indus- increased to at least 6,000 lbs/acre/year by stock- try could be developed in many islands of the ing at high density and providing supplemen- Pacific and the pole and line tuna fishery could tal feed (58). be expanded. Again, this probably could expand only to fulfill local demands as the more Ornamental Fish.—Potential for growing efficient purse seiners are driving down inter- various species of freshwater and marine trop- national tuna prices (105). Alternatively, col- ical fish for the aquarium trade exists in the lecting fees for baitfish harvest may provide a Caribbean and Pacific regions. While fresh- source of income for bait ground owners and water tropical fish commonly are cultured, ma- local governments, although this probably is rine tropicals usually are collected from the hindered by difficult negotiations (95). wild. Species already are imported from Guam, American Samoa, the RMI, and Hawaii. To be competitive, such ventures would need to un- Summary dercut production and shipping costs from other countries and production costs in Florida. Freshwater and saltwater pond culture, cul- In practice, most tropical aquarium farms raise ture in net pens, cages, and intertidal or subti- several species and carefully select the best dal culture (on or off the substrate) are all appli- specimens for breeding purposes to maintain cable to tropical environments and species of high quality of the product. This requires con- the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the siderable expertise and strict procedures. How- Caribbean. Adaptive research will be required 258 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas to test the applicability of culture systems to In Puerto Rico, the lower elevations of the local environments and species. Although sea- coastal plains are generally considered primary water is plentiful, site availability is still a prob- locations for aquiculture. Coastal lands near lem, and economic feasibility uncertain. Logis- urban areas commonly are unavailable or pro- tical constraints plague nearly all island groups hibitively expensive, but large areas of agricul- (58). tural and rural lands could be used for aquaculture. For example, property abandoned from Neither the U.S. Caribbean nor U.S. Pacific islands have the large expanses of low-cost sugar cane production may be suitable for aquaculture. The south and southwest coasts pro- coastal land and wild seed resources necessary vide the most protected areas for onshore and to support significant “extensive” commercial offshore culture. Areas below 700 feet gener- pond aquafarms. Extensive aquiculture is char- ally have high enough temperatures to support acterized by low stocking density, little or no year-round production of certain warm-water supplemental feeding, low yields per unit area, species. More cold-tolerant species such as and high labor inputs. These systems are appro- channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) could be priate to Southeast Asia, where many devel- reared at somewhat higher altitudes (58). oped, but are less suitable for the Pacific islands where marine farming is not a common tradi- In the Pacific islands, aquiculture operations tional activity (95). Extensive aquiculture on which employ simple methods to culture highly a family scale may be possible, however, and desired species for local businesses (hotels and could supplement family diets. tourist facilities) or species to restock depleted Both island areas; however, have sites suit- areas may have the greatest potential. Produc- able for “semi-intensive” commercial operation costs most likely would raise the price of tions, which are characterized by smaller, more products above the financial reach of many lo- engineered and managed ponds, supplemen- cal islanders participating in market economies tal feeding and fertilization, higher stocking (95). However, aquiculture as a supplement to density, and heavy or complete reliance on a subsistence activities and contributor to non- hatchery for supply of seed. Some aquafarm market economies may be practible (33). development of this type is already under way It is apparent that the availability of technol- in Puerto Rico (e. g., Sabana Grande Prawn ogy itself is inadequate to stimulate develop- Farms, Ltd.), and semi-intensive pond culture ment. The technology must be economically of various species is likely to be a major area feasible and socially acceptable. Most aquacul- of commercial aquiculture development for the ture projects that have been initiated in the is- island in the future. lands attempted to prove the technology–a Intensive culture, involving a high degree of risky proposition—and many did not address environmental control (i. e., tanks and race- economic or social issues. Thus, even if tech- ways), high stocking densities, complete reli- nical difficulties were overcome, the project ance on commercial feeds, high energy inputs, had little chance of developing into a sustaina- considerable technical expertise, and very high ble operation (163). Unfortunately project fail- productivity per unit area remains in the ex- ures have had an unfavorable impact on the perimental or pilot phases of development and development of aquiculture: in the long-run, probably is not yet feasible for most U.S. failures discourage governments and agencies islands. from going into aquiculture. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 259

SUMMARY OF MARINE RESOURCE STATUS AND POTENTIAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GOALS Few, if any, nearshore resources remain un- Optimum use of nearshore marine resources derused in the U. S.- affiliated tropical islands. in the U.S.-affiliated islands probably requires Based on past trends of fisheries development, attention to both aquiculture and capture fish- future development of nearshore fisheries in eries. The climate and traditions of the tropi- the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands might be cal Pacific islands are well-suited to many types guided by several underlying concepts: of aquacultural development. Although the potential for such development remains largely ● that growth embody the idea of smallness unrealized, a high level of interest exists in and technical appropriateness, ● aquiculture and mariculture within the region. that import substitution and long-run self- This method of food production is appealing sufficiency be the foremost development as a result of the traditional reliance of the is- goals, and ● lands on the resources of the nearshore waters. that export of nearshore marine products Most island groups have operated experimental be fostered only when it does not have neg- or pilot-scale culture operations of one form ative impacts on present or anticipated fu- or another. ture subsistence activities and only when such exports result in a significant local Aquiculture ventures have had mixed success retention of revenue (175). in the U.S. Caribbean, but with increasing do- Management and conservation concerns are mestic (including tourist) demand for seafood, critical. An overcapitalized nearshore fishery opportunities exist for aquiculture develop- will encourage depletion—adding to the income ment. While the USVI has little potential for of market participants while reducing the land-based aquiculture, some sites might be lifestyle of subsistence participants. Such in- available for culture of marine fish in offshore come redistribution may not lead to desirable enclosures. Puerto Rico has much greater po- long-run results (174,175). tential for both land-based and offshore aquaculture. A number of stocks appear to be overexploited in the U.S. Caribbean (61). Little em- Wild stocks are needed to supply seed or pirical evidence exists of the present status of brood stock for many aquiculture operations; marine resources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific some aquiculture operations (sea ranching) are islands, but circumstantial evidence leads to essentially manipulations of natural processes the strong suspicion of an ever-growing sphere in the wild, Aquiculture can provide adjunct of resource stress surrounding population or alternative opportunities to fishing enter- centers (17,127). prises which currently are marginal, and may have the potential to rehabilitate overexploited Fisheries development and management stocks. could be carried out more in harmony with traditional social institutions. Cooperative orga- While future development of nearshore fish- nizations present a potential mechanism for ac- eries is likely to continue to emphasize small complishing this. However, considerable operations, aquiculture may be developed as expertise—cultural, biologic, and economic— individual or commercial enterprises depend- is required to adopt the western cooperative ing on the species being cultured. Certain econ- form of enterprise to the island social setting. omies of scale, for example, make small prawn 260 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas farms less desirable than larger ones. Aquacul- general responses to this problem, neither ture projects have had a disappointing history novel: 1) obtain additional information, and 2) in part because of the lack of site-specific pilot encourage and support increased local involve- evaluations and logistic difficulties character- ment in marine resource management. istic of small islands. Aquiculture development largely has focused on proving the technology, Baseline BioIogical, Ecological, and and paying little attention to financial, market, Technical Research and socioeconomic aspects. Lack of attention to these aspects may result in failure of a tech- More baseline research on important marine nologically successful pilot project as it at- resources and on ecological processes in trop- tempts to transform into a commercial opera- ical marine habitats is needed, particularly for tion (162). Adequate planning with thorough resource management in the Pacific islands. feasibility studies are needed to select appro- Research projects that may not lead directly to priate species and sites and to reduce risks in commercial development still are valuable in new public programs or private ventures. Such that they may identify constraints to develop- planning studies should include sociocultural ments or indicate which fisheries or aquacul- and institutional factors which often have a mature activities are not feasible. Consideration jor effect on the success or failure of aquacul- of such information in project design may de- ture projects. termine and will increase the likelihood of project success. Positive impacts of aquiculture development include increased employment opportunities, Marine biological research in the U.S.-affil- strengthening of traditional subsistence econ- iated Pacific islands is centered at the Univer- sity of Guam Marine Laboratory (UGML). This omies, reduction of imports, development of export products, improved use of marginal agri- laboratory has a faculty of seven full-time researchers working in various fields within the cultural land, and potential increases in standing stocks of certain commercial fishery spe- discipline. Environmental impact studies, cies. The most probable negative impacts are studies in aquiculture techniques and species possible removal of a few coastal areas from potential, and resource assessment surveys have been performed by UGML personnel at general public access, and introduction or in- various islands throughout the region. Coop- advertent release of exotic species. Negative impacts may result from small or even unsuccess- erative research programs have been developed ful ventures, while the magnitude of benefits with Taiwan, Indonesia, and French Polyne- sia, and visiting scientists from around the will depend largely on the eventual scale of suc- world have conducted research at the facility. cessful aquiculture operations. Introductions The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Re- are best undertaken with caution and only af- sources (DAWR) is active in marine resource ter thorough studies of the potential impact on management and to that end performs pertinent the native fauna have been completed. Local research related to Guam’s marine resources. species are preferable to introduced species The DAWR uses annual fishery statistics to as- whenever possible. sess pressure on nearshore to offshore bank aquatic resources resulting from recreational, Research subsistence and commercial fisheries (66). Resource management problems in the U. S.- Additional marine research has been per- affiliated tropical islands are not only very com- formed at the MMDC in Palau. Although there plex at any one place or time, they also vary are no resident scientists at MMDC, a number greatly with space and time. Resource mana- of important advances in mass culture of tro- gers are simply not in a position to solve them chus and giant clams have been made by re- unilaterally; the biological and socioeconomic searchers visiting this lab. Most islands of the knowledge bases are too slim. There are two Federated States of Micronesia have plans for Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 261 small giant clam and trochus mariculture lab- programs, and could undertake these activities oratories which eventually will supply their in coordination with the CFMC. reseeding programs. Several general areas of biological research Fisheries biologists of the U.S. National Ma- are relevant to decisions involving marine re- rine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries sources in both the Pacific and Caribbean Center, Honolulu Laboratory conduct occa- regions: sional island resource surveys. However, their ● life history characteristics of important work has focused primarily on commercial food organisms, species. ● larval ecology, Fisheries officers employed by local govern- ● ecological interactions among species, and ments also have been involved in marine re- ● role of disturbance in community structure search. Generally these studies have been re- and development (168). lated to resource assessments of edible marine For planning, even more detailed informa- organisms and technologies such as artificial tion is required. For example, in order to de- reefs. termine the potential for development of rele- Local institutions in Puerto Rico and the U.S. vant aquiculture in each island territory or Virgin Islands have demonstrated capabilities nation, sufficient information must be collected for undertaking much of the work needed to to establish a database, including: realize opportunities related to the sustainable ● identification of land or site availability and development of marine resources. The College land use regulations; of the Virgin Islands through its Ecological Re- ● assessment of water availability and quality; search Station and the U.S. Virgin Islands De- ● recommendations for appropriate species; partment of Conservation and Cultural Affairs ● identification of current aquiculture proj- and the Fisheries Research Laboratory in ects; Puerto Rico have undertaken a number of ● existing tax structures and financial in- studies of local fisheries potential (cf:21,37,125, 152). Several activities of the Caribbean Fish- centives; ● availability and cost of transportation; eries Management Council (CFMC), comprised ● inventory of local energy supplies and cur- of the University of Puerto Rico and the Virgin rent costs; Islands Marine Resource Management Coop- ● identification of legal or institutional con- erative are relevant to development and man- straints; agement of nearshore marine fisheries, and ● identification of construction and operat- these institutions have the ability to gather in- ing costs; formation needed for preparation of develop- ● social, cultural, and environmental impact ment and management plans for nearshore ma- considerations; rine systems (61). ● assessment of potential markets for rele- However, further research is needed. For ex- vant species; ample, the University of Puerto Rico and Med- ● assessment of local technical capability ical University of South Carolina, in collabo- and available institutional support; and ration with other agencies and institutions in ● consideration of the prospects for man- Puerto Rico and the USVI could expand the cur- power training (164). - - rent research programs directed toward devel- Collection, assembly, and management of this oping a field test for ciguatoxic fish (61). Based information probably will require substantial on the recommendations of the CFMC, local external assistance (55). government, academic, and nonprofit institutions could prepare proposals to support rele- The research priorities of individual islands vant research activities under applicable funding rarely correspond to U.S. national priorities. 262 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

For example, research funds for aquiculture rent status of TURFS in the Pacific islands, have been difficult to obtain on a sustained ba- especially American Samoa, Truk, and the sis. Further, it requires several years to develop outer Caroline Islands. Biologists, geographers, a project from the experimental stage to a com- or anthropologists could carry out such studies. mercially viable operation. Many Federal grant- However, because resources within island fishing agencies restrict research proposals to short ing grounds are becoming increasingly valu- timeframes that are unrealistic for establishing able as human populations increase and trans- a database, developing management models, portation to export markets improves, the value and transferring technology to industry. Facil- of TURFS is increasing. Under the circum- ities are needed that could maintain a long-term stances it is not surprising to find that villagers financial commitment to an activity and fo- will invent “traditional” fishing rights. Infor- cus on transformation from pilot to commer- mation obtained from villages on their fishing cial scale (33). rights and customs is thus likely to be more reliable if it is elicited prior to the introduction Academic institutions in Hawaii could assist of plans for commercial fisheries development aquiculture development in the U.S.-affiliated in their waters. Pacific islands by conducting adaptive research to determine the applicability of culture tech- Needed, along with improved information on nology used in other areas and by conducting the contemporary status of traditional sea rights research to solve problems during production. practices, is more detailed local knowledge of The logical roles of academic institutions are the relevant aspects of marine resource use to provide such information and to train aqua- (locations, species, quantities harvested, meth- culture scientists and operators of aquatic ods used, distribution of the catch, the relation farms. Centralization of Federal support into between the size of the fishery and of the re- regional approaches and regional research and source base, the effects of adjacent or overlap- development centers would lead to more cost- ping commercial fisheries, etc.). No substitute effective expenditures. exists for detailed, locale-specific studies of current traditional sea rights and how they fit into In many cases it would be helpful for gov- the complex and varied sets of biological, po- ernments to support pilot-scale tests and dem- litical, economic, cultural, and geographic fac- onstrations of aquiculture systems conducted tors relevant to marine resource management. by local academic institutions. A program of adaptive research is, for example, needed to de- Assessment also is needed of the implications termine the applicability of culture methods for of TURFS for island aquiculture development. snappers, sea perch, breams, rabbitfish, and It should involve a review of the literature per- milkfish developed in Southeast Asia to the is- taining to other areas (Southeast Asia in par- lands of the Pacific and Caribbean. If success- ticular) and field research in the islands. One ful, this could facilitate the development of fam- main objective of field research could be to de- ily, cooperative, and commercial aquiculture termine whether past failures or successes in in many islands which lack adequate supplies aquiculture efforts were associated with tradi- of freshwater. tional tenure systems. A thorough examination of TURFS and their implications for manage- Social, Cultural, and Economic Research ment also could form a part of the training for resource managers in the Pacific islands. The management of biological resources demands the expertise of social scientists and bi- A number of writers have called for studies ologists, however, there has been almost no di- of the causes for the failure of many artisanal rect input from social scientists concerning the fisheries development and management pro- role of social and cultural factors in marine re- grams. Today, our understanding of those gen- source management in the U.S.-affiliated Pa- eral causes has increased. More valuable might cific. More needs to be known about the cur- be the identification and evaluation of programs Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture “ 263 that have succeeded. Factors supporting suc- Asian experience may not provide a good cess would be directly relevant to management model for the Pacific islands with respect to and extension efforts. For example, it may be markets and factors of production, Asia has that charisma, empathy, and patience count for large populations and markets that are easily as much as or more than scientific expertise. accessible by reliable transportation networks. In the Pacific islands, small populations mean small markets with unreliable and expensive Extension transport links. In Asia, the subsistence-level The ultimate value of information depends market is large, with people facing a real pro- largely on the degree to which the affected pub- tein shortage. In the Pacific islands, the diet lic, legislators, and enforcement personnel ap- is nowhere near the crisis level of Asia; there preciate the major ecological, social, and eco- are few starving Pacific islanders. In addition, nomic issues involved in management and land, labor, and water are abundant and cheap development of coastal resources, and on ex- in Asia. In the Pacific islands, labor and land tension of technical and managerial informa- are limited and freshwater supplies may be crit- tion to potential practitioners. Given the finan- ical (163). cial constraints on local enforcement (159), it The typical fisheries manager in the U. S.- is likely that public awareness and cooperation affiliated islands, whether indigenous or ex- will prove as important as regulation in pre- patriate, generally has responsibilities too nu- venting overexploitation. merous to allow much time to be spent on ex- The transfer of technology, often as part of tension activities. Carefully chosen individuals fisheries aid projects, sometimes has not been whose sole responsibility is to serve as liaison successful or appropriate. The term “appropri- between fishing communities and the govern- ate” could mean using materials that are locally ment are needed. Often such work would re- available, with a retention of local ways; or it quire living in fishing communities for weeks could mean using the most efficient methods or months at a time (cf:83 for a discussion available and adapting local conditions to these. of some of the practical aspects of such in- Truly appropriate technology transfer may lie volvements). between these extremes. Many initially enthusiastic aquaculturists be- Introduced technologies should fulfill the re- come discouraged as a result of management quirements of the territory or country and problems or inflated expectations. This prob- should not greatly exceed the general techno- lem could be alleviated through proper coun- logical level of the area (95). Additionally, train- sel from knowledgeable extension agents and ing of personnel in the use and maintenance marine advisory agents. Such services gener- of equipment is integral in technology trans- ally are lacking in most of the Pacific region. fer. Imported technologies generally are more The only formal marine extension programs successful when they can be adopted by arti- in the U.S.-affiliated islands are the Sea Grant sanal fishermen with a minimum of training. Extension Service, at the University of Puerto This is particularly so when the project is of Rico and the University of Guam Marine Lab- real interest to the participants and where in- oratory (a cooperative project of the University frastructure levels are sufficient to allow the of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program and the maintenance of imported equipment without University of Guam). Staffed by a single agent, creating an economic burden on the fishermen the latter program has concentrated on fisheries (95), development, marine conservation, and pub- While the technologies developed in South- lic information and awareness. east Asia may be more appropriate for the Pa- Local fisheries officers have been involved cific islands than technologies developed in in extension efforts from time to time. A num- Western temperate countries, the Southeast ber of fishermen’s training programs have been —

264 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

conducted through marine resources offices. be strengthened is the Coral Reef Symposium If significant development of nonfood marine which is held every 4 years; another is the Pa- resources is to occur, especially in the more cific Science Congress. The contacts made and remote islands, marine extension and advisory the information gathered at such international programs throughout the region will need to meetings could facilitate the development of be strengthened. aquiculture within the regions. Representatives could be sponsored to attend regional techni- Marine extension agents could be established cal conferences and appropriate international in major population centers, and could travel meetings whenever possible. regularly to more remote fishing communities. Working closely with the islanders, the agents Collaboration with other Lesser Antillean would transfer new and proven technical in- countries on management and development formation from researchers to the harvest sec- activities is also of great potential use to Puerto tor and facilitate research by relating problems Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Such collabo- encountered in the resource management sec- ration could provide for improved access to de- tor to the appropriate researchers. It would be velopments in other areas and to regional mar- useful to educate extension agents as well as kets and sources of supply; and help to improve administrators, scientists, and resource man- economic, social, and political ties between the agers from outside the area on local customs United States and the strategically important and cultures. To perform more efficiently, the countries of the Eastern Caribbean. extension agents could receive annual updates Many of the potentials and constraints to de- and training programs in technology and mar- velopment of capture fisheries and aquiculture ket developments. This effort could be coordi- in the U.S. Caribbean also apply to most of the nated on a regional basis through Sea Grant programs. The coordinator would be respon- other Lesser Antilles. As a result, important opportunities exist for joint marine resource de- sible for collection, analysis, and dissemina- velopment ventures between the U.S. islands tion of this information through the extension and the Eastern Caribbean countries. network. The U.S. territories might assist and benefit from efforts in other Caribbean countries to Regional Coordination manage common nearshore marine species. and Cooperation Some fishery stocks (e.g., spiny lobster), for example, have long larval lives which makes it Clear advantages exist in establishing a mech- difficult to determine the origin of adult popu- anism to promote active cooperation between lations. Consequently, stocks in Puerto Rico and the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the the U.S. Virgin Islands may depend on produc- Caribbean, and among islands within each area. tion in other locales. As is the case with dol- Since both areas rely on assistance from the phinfish fisheries, this potential interdepen- United States, especially in technical areas, dence offers substantial justification for joint programs could be helpful. collaboration with other Lesser Antilles coun- Regional coordination in the planning and tries in developing marine resource manage- development of aquiculture within the Pacific ment strategies. and the Caribbean regions might be highly Further, a regional approach to training for desirable. Regional technical conferences could maritime industries would mitigate costs for be convened for these purposes. Many island developing territories which lack investment groups have common interests in aquiculture capital for expensive training facilities and development which enhances the value of such equipment, and expedite reciprocal recognition conferences. These islands are under-represented of regional standards. However, difficulties at most international meetings dealing with may arise with this approach because of the aquiculture and other marine resources. One varying levels of development within the region setting where the regional representation could (101). Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 265

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144 Best, B. R., et al., “Effect of Chlorine on Some Review, and Environmental Impact Statement Coral Reef Phytoplankters and Invertebrate for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery of 266 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

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