IPCSIPCS SpecialSpecial ReportReport 134 August 2012

MalaysiaMalaysia

Majority Supremacy and Ethnic Tensions

Pranav Kumar

SOUTHEAST ASIA RESEARCH PROGRAMME (SEARP)

Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies

B‐7/3, Safdarjung Enclave New Delhi 110029 91‐11‐4100 1900 www.ipcs.org

About the Author

© 2012, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS)

The Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies is not responsible for the facts, views or opinion expressed by the author.

The Institute of Peace and Conflict Pranav Kumar Studies (IPCS), established in August 1996, is an independent think tank devoted to research on peace and Dr. Pranav Kumar is a PhD from School of International security from a South Asian Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University. The areas of his perspective. research interests are Southeast Asia and South Asia. His recent research works deal with China’s engagement in Its aim is to develop a comprehensive South and Southeast Asia. He is currently working as an and alternative framework for peace Assistant Professor at Motilal Nehru College, University of and security in the region catering to Delhi. the changing demands of national, regional and global security.

Address: B 7/3 Lower Ground Floor Safdarjung Enclave New Delhi 110029 INDIA About "Inside Southeast Asia" Series Tel: 91‐11‐4100 1900, 4165 2556,

4165 2557, 4165 2558, 4165 2559 The Southeast Asia Research Program (SEARP) within the Institute, as a part of its activities, undertake Fax: (91‐11) 4165 2560 research and organise events under "Inside Southeast Email: [email protected] Asia," aimed at exploring issues and challenges in Web: www.ipcs.org contemporary Southeast Asia covering economic IPCS Special Report 134, August 2012

Malaysia Majority Supremacy and Ethnic Tensions

Pranav Kumar

Malaysia consists of thirteen states and that for all intents and purposes being a the three federal territories of peninsular Muslim remains an essential condition for Malaysia. The population of Malaysia being Malay. (2010 census) 28,250,500 is socially divided on two bases. The racial and I religious divides are the most prominent THE HISTORY OF ETHNIC AND divisions in Malaysia’s plural society. The RELIGIOUS DIVIDE three big racial groups of Asia are present in Malaysia (Chinese, Indians and Malays). Islam, the dominant religion of Malaysia, In 2010 (The Department of Statistics, was brought to Malay Peninsula by 2010), the Malays were 51 per cent, Guajarati traders after 12th century Chinese 22.9 percent, and the Indians 6.8 (Marshal Cavendish Corporation, percent of the total population. Various 2008:1177). Islam absorbed the existing other ethnic groups, such as different beliefs in coastal areas and by 15th indigenous population mostly situated in century it became the dominant religion in the Borneo region and Eurasian and Malay Peninsula. The large scale migration migrant workers make up the remaining of of Chinese and Indian population is a population. feature of British era in Malay Peninsula. The colonial powers brought Indian and On the basis of ethnicity, Malays with some Chinese labourers to work on various other indigenous groups (11%) make the plantations and tin mines. Gradually their privileged bumiputera (son of soil) number increased and they settled in population (61 percent). The Population Malay Peninsula (Hooker, 2003: 13‐33). and Housing Census 2010 figures show approximately: 61.3 percent are Muslims, Till the mid twentieth century, there were 19.8 percent are Buddhists, 9.2 percent are negligible ethnic and religious tensions Christians, 6.3 percent are Hindus and 1.3 between Malays (bumiputeras) and other percent follows Confucianism, Taoism and migrant groups. There are two important other traditional Chinese religions. reasons behind this: one, generally migrant settlements were in cities and In Malaysia the ethnic and religious close to mines and plantations. So there affiliations are overlapping. Almost all the was less direct interaction between these Malays are Muslims, most of the Chinese groups. Two, the British did not interfere are Buddhists, and most of the Indians are in the religious and cultural matters of Hindus. But there is a growing penetration Malays. Hence, Malays were left with a of Christianity among indigenous tribes perception of dominance in their own land. and Chinese people. One can safely assume The Malay scene started changing with the

Malaysia: Majority Supremacy and Ethnic Tensions

Second World War. When the British returned in 1946 (after the Second World War) they organized the colony into Malay The Malaysian independence in 1957 Union. This brought a sense of fear among also brought the question ‘what type Malay elites about losing their privileged of state Malaysia wants to be?’ The position in Malay union as equal rights Malaysian constitution recognized were provided to Chinese and Indian Islam as an official religion of subjects. In the wake of these events the Malaysia, but nowhere had it tried to United Malay National organization (UMNO) was established in May 1946, to make the federation of Malay a fight for Malay rights and privileges. theocratic state.

The Malaysian independence in 1957 also brought the question ‘what type of state Malaysia wants to be’? The Malaysian constitution recognized Islam as an official religion of Malaysia, but nowhere had it tried to make the federation of Malay a battle over Malay identity between Islam theocratic state. The constitution provides as conceived of in the new wave of Islamic every religion the right to establish and activism‐nationalism and traditional maintain its own institutions (Art.12). At conception of the Malay community tied the same time the Malay dominance was with sultans and rooted in language and ensured through various constitutional custom (adat). The Islamic resurgence and legal measures. during that decade was rooted in the race riots of 1969, which ignited interested in The 1969 riots emboldened the Malay Islam as an important distinguishing efforts to secure benefits for Malays dimension of Malay identity in Malaysia's through various government policies (New polyglot society. The relationship of Economic Policy, New Cultural Policy, and patronage between the state and the Malay New Education Policy). The riots not only community reinforced Malay identity just exposed the existing fissures within as it distinguished between Malays and Malaysian society but it also set the tone non‐Malays’.” for future acrimony between the ethnic‐ religious groups. During the 1970s, there were rapid social changes, creating new social cleavages and II concretizing the old ones. In the EMERGENCE OF ISLAMIC MOVEMENT meantime, the Malay middle class was disappointed with its position and In the early years after independence the situation in modern society. The Chinese government never made any serious dominance in economy was detrimental attempt or pursued any well‐built plan to for Malay‐Muslim interest. Socially, make the state 'Islamic'. However the uprooted from their traditional villages, Islamic tradition was deep rooted in the the city culture was a mirage to the Malay social set up. The currents of Islamic Muslim class. activism, which were present in society, came to the surface as the process of Finding their present bad and future worse Islamic resurgence in 1970s. Nasr, V. the Malay middle class saw religion as the Seyyed (Seyyed, 2001: 82) observes: “the last resort. The great force of social unrest 1970s witnessed an intense ideological turned the wheels of Islamic resurgence or IPCS Special Report 134, August 2012

revivalism with both positive and negative the scope of the dakwah activity, however, features. Here the golden Islamic past was expanded significantly in the 1970s and seen as the only solution to current moreover, involved students (Seyyed, problems. So, the challenge was to revive 2001:82). the golden Islamic past. The emergence of numerous ‘dakwah’ organizations have Greg Barton (Barton, 2002: 99‐102) been identified as "The most significant identifies “three categories of the Islamic feature of the Islamic revivalism in movement in Malaysia, the first is called Malaysia. According to John Funston 'dakwah' or missionary movement (Funston, 1981:165) although including group as Jamat‐Tabligh and 'dakwah' (means‐ to call or invite) is Darul‐Arquam. The second category loosely translated as missionary activities includes the activist organizations that in the Malaysian context this refers to the reach into the university campuses and task of making Muslims better Muslims involves university graduates. The most than converting the non‐believer. prominent organisation here is ABIM (Angktan Belia Islam Malaysia; the All dakwah activities in Malaysia had Malaysian Islamic youth movement). mainly two aims‐ to make Muslims more Finally there is category of political parties vigilant in the observance of their faith and in which PAS, the Islamic Party of Malaysia to do social work in Malay society. is the single most important example". Although the dakwah activity emerged soon after independence to emphasize the These organizations are in a way, the importance of Islam in Malay life, the epicenter of the Islamic movement in Islamic resurgence added a new dimension Malaysia. They follow a dual strategy, one, to these activities. Moreover the dakwah they take any issue and derive their organizations were now working with a connection from the ummah (Islamic new vigour and vitality. UMNO (United brotherhood) and two, sometimes they Malay National Organization) and the become nationalistic. Amongst the dakwah government had encouraged it as the groups the degree of assertion varies from means of spreading Islam in Borneo, one organization to another. Some of the especially through PERKIM, whose important dakwah and other organization population was counted as bumiputras to involved in the movement are: Jamat bolster the number of the Malays vis‐à‐vis Tabligh, Darul Arquam, Angkatan Belia the Chinese and Indians. The number and Islam Malaysia, or ABIM,and Parti Islam se Malaysia or PAS. Even the mainstream political party UMNO tends to cater to the sectional interests of Malay‐Muslim All dakwah activities in Malaysia had community. mainly two aims‐ to make Muslims Faced with a tough competition from the more vigilant in the observance of PAS, the UMNO involves itself in an their faith and to do social work in Islamization drive. After independence, the Malay society. Although the dakwah UMNO became the most dominant political activity emerged soon after party and in a way it has a monopoly over independence to emphasize the the political power in Malaysia. In an importance of Islam in Malay life the ethnically and religiously divided society, where the political parties mainly Islamic resurgence added a new represent the group interest, UMNO is dimension to these activities. basically a Malay political party. However,

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UMNO is not a communal party like PAS. But in response to PAS's communal In the face of this PAS challenge, the political strategies, it too had shown some UMNO has realized that previous tendencies towards adopting group‐ oriented policies. Especially after 1982 policies that "domesticated" Islam there started a kind of "race" between and did not intermingled in politics UMNO and PAS to win over Malay‐Muslims had to change. Under Mahathir, Islam through their intense Islamization policies was brought to the forefront of UMNO and programs. In this process, UMNO itself and Malaysian politics. UMNO has became an important player in the Islamic adopted a two pronged strategy to movement. Now it not only reacted to PAS' policies but also adopted a pro‐active counter the PAS. approach towards Islamization. The "islamization race” is an important study to understand the Islamic movement, because the so‐called race is both a cause and product of the movement. UMNO leaders as infidels. PAS leaders have been unyielding in their belief that the Between 1977 and 1982, the UMNO and Islamic state is both a viable and necessary PAS competed over ABIM's support. In alternative to the UMNO‐ dominated 1982, UMNO came out victorious. In that secular state, and this is enshrined in their year Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad party manifesto. In a direct challenge to persuaded Anwar to join UMNO. At that UMNO's script for Malay supremacy PAS time Anwar was the most important leader has criticized the new economic policy and of ABIM. Anwar resigned from ABIM and constantly stressed Islam’s recognition of along with many of its leaders, joined the equality among races. ruling party and various state institutions. Both Mahathir and Anwar tried to In the face of this PAS challenge, the UMNO transform the nature of the Malaysian has realized that previous policies that state without transforming Malaysia in to "domesticated" Islam and did not an Arabic Islamic state. But the process intermingled in politics had to change. was not so simple and there were other Under Mahathir, Islam was brought to the important players in the game, which forefront of UMNO and Malaysian politics. made the issue very complex. UMNO has adopted a two pronged strategy "Unfortunately however this led to a kind to counter the PAS. One, portraying of "arms race” or "islamicity race" between themselves as the progressive and UMNO and its opponents with each trying moderate protectors of correct Islam, as to prove themselves more Islamic than the opposed to the Islamic opposition who are other. Ultimately, PAS was outflanked and conservative, radical and even deviationist could only retreat to a claim for itself the proponents of wrong Islam. Second, the distinction of greater ideological purity UMNO has tried to champion the Islamic and an unparalleled track record of cause through the government policies and supporting the interest of Islam” (Barton, programs. Due to the preponderant 2002:119). majority of UMNO the policies and programs of UMNO get translated into The PAS opposes the government polices government policies. In Mahathir era this criticizing it as un‐Islamic. It finds trend is more palpable. So, from another nationalism and secularism of UMNO angle the state is getting actively involved against the interest of Islam. It labels in the islamizaton process. IPCS Special Report 114, February 2012 IPCS Special Report 134, August 2012

III Malaysia” (Gomes, 1999:81). MALAY‐MUSLIM ASSERTION Islam, from the colonial period remains the Malaysia is a multi‐ethnic and multi‐ potent force in every aspect of Malays life. religious nation. The tourism promotion After independence, together with campaign of Malaysia government depicts nationalism, Islam became a critical Malaysia as ‘Truly Asia.’ In a way Malaysia element in Malaysian cultural identity and is ‘Asia in microcosm’ as it contains the a potent organizing force in the country. three most important races and religions Thus when Islamic resurgence swept of Asia. One of the distinctive features of across most of the Muslim world in the the Malaysian social system is the close 1960s, it was no small surprise to find link between Islam and Malay culture and Malaysia also participating in the process. politics. Ever since it was introduced some In contrast to other Muslim countries, 700 years ago, the religion has served as Islamic resurgence in Malaysia was an core element of Malaysia culture. One can ethno‐religious phenomenon, in the sense safely conclude that for all intent and that it was largely the Malays who was purposes being Malay is being Muslim. actively engaged in raising and revitalizing the people’s interest in Islam, its teachings, However the Malay is not a truly laws and values. homogenous group. The ethnic label Malays, covers a range of people from By 1980s, there were clear signs of Middle‐Eastern descent to Indonesian resurgence; even this was visible in peoples such as Achene’s, Boyanese, Bugis, people’s daily life. The spread of hejab Javanese, Minarg Kabau, Rawa and among Muslim women in the country’s Mandailing, and Muslims who trace their urban centers; the segregation of sexes; roots to the Indian subcontinent. “The the tremendous proliferation of Islamic Malaysian constitution defines Malays as literature and cassette tapes; the renewed Muslims who follow Malays customs interest in the pure Islamic way according (adat) and speak the Malaysia language. to the Quran and Sunnah; the ever‐ Islam is the most important factor in the growing presence of religious Malays identity as a source of solidarity organizations, the Islamic form of among members of the community and a greetings and Quotations embellished form of ethnic differentiation from non‐ speeches of leaders; etc. These were some clear and palpable signals in society about the reach of the resurgence.

During the last two decades, both the Malay dominated state structure and Malay majority society has tried to impose Islam right from the colonial period its will on minority communities. There remains the potent force in every are various incidences and controversies aspect of Malaysia life. After which have led to further rise in religious independence, together with and ethnic tensions in Malaysia. These nationalism, Islam became a critical have also deepened the fear among minorities about the intention of the element in Malaysia cultural identity majority community. and a potent organizing force in the country. In 2006, the Malaysian government started a nationwide campaign to demolish

Malaysia: Majority Supremacy and Ethnic Tensions

unregistered Hindu temples (Asia Times, 2006). Starting in 2006, many temples were demolished. On April 21, 2006, the Malaimel Sri Selva Kaliamma temple in There are regular controversies Kualalumpur was reduced to rubble. regarding religious conversion in According to the Hindu Rights Action Malaysia. The laws related to Force (HINDRAF), these demolitions are conversion in Malaysia are tilted in unlawful and an atrocity on the favour of Islam. For example a non‐ underprivileged and powerless Hindus of Malaysia. HINDRAF have organized a Muslim person who wishes to marry a number of demonstrations in response to Muslim person must convert to Islam increasing atrocities against the Hindu before the marriage can be community. However, the Malaysian recognized as legally valid . government and the Malay majority have tried to suppress and curb the demands of the Hindu minority. Hence, the minorities feel powerless and frustrated which marriage can be recognized as legally valid further deepens the divide in Malaysian (Malaysia Government Official Portal, society. 2011). Further, it is very difficult both legally and socially to convert from Islam In 2007, the Malaysian authorities banned to any other religion. The legal process of a weekly catholic newspaper (The Catholic conversion is also unclear, and it all Herald, n.d.) due to its use of the word depends on sharia court to give Allah. According to the authorities, the permission. Hence, in practice it is almost word Allah can exclusively be used only by impossible for Muslims to change their Muslims. The ban was later challenged and religion legally. The cases of Lina Joy, overturned in a court of law. However, the Revathi Massosai, T. Saravanan and Chang court’s decision was followed by Ah Mee are some of the controversial widespread protests supported by famous cases regarding the conversion majority groups and political party. The problem in Malaysia. protests further escalated in to attacks on churches and other religious places. Even many leading Muslim clerics, UMNO leaders and government ministers IV questioned the soundness of court’s IMPACT ON MALAYSIAN SOCIETY judgment. The non‐Muslims in the Malaysian society fearfully watch the In Malaysia, religion is very closely reaction of Muslims in such cases. The identified with ethnic background. Some reaction of Muslim groups, leaders and 98.8 per cent of Malays are Muslims, individuals sends signals of growing almost 100 percent of Chinese are extremism in Malaysian society. adherents of the Chinese religions and about 99.0 percent of Indians are Hindus. There are regular controversies regarding “Islamic faith has always been identified as religious conversion in Malaysia. The laws a Malay religion in that the two are quite related to conversion in Malaysia are tilted synonymous with each other, although, in favour of Islam. For example a non‐ doctrinally, race, still more racism, is Muslim person who wishes to marry a anathema to Islam. Hence Islam has always Muslim person must convert to Islam been perceived as benefiting only one before the marriage. Only then the group of Malaysian society, namely IPCS Special Report 134, August 2012

Malaysia” ( Mutalib, 1994:119). 1989, some states declared that Khalawat laws (laws regulating the closeness and In the initial period of resurgence, the mingling between persons of the opposite effort of Islamists (like ABIM, PAS) was to sex) and morality issues in general are to bridge the ethnic divide through Islam, to Include‐non‐Muslims too. There were restructure Malaysian Society. They extremist’s actions, such as the desecration projected Islam as an all‐encompassing of a Hindu temple in 1979, the attack on a and non‐racial religion that provides police post in Batu Pahat in 1980, and an solutions to all the problems. The initial attempt by PAS government in Kelantan to response of non‐Muslims, non‐Malays implement sharia for Muslims and non‐ were also not hostile towards their Muslims alike. These laws advocated activities. ABIM’s talks were attended by cutting off the limbs of thieves, and the non‐Muslims. Even there was some stoning of adulterers. participation of Chinese in PAS’s Ceramah (talks). “Nevertheless, after some time, the At times, the government’s decisions and non‐Muslim Chinese and Indians who polices also created apprehension in the were originally responsive to the Islamist’s minds of non‐Muslims. The government’s call and who lent their ears to their Islamization Campaign not only limits the exhortations began to evince greater racial legal rights of ‘deviant’ Muslims, but it also consciousness. Apparently, the logic used encourages negative social attitudes by the dakwah activists to explain the toward non‐Muslims. Government’s many wisdom of embracing Islamic cause did not initiatives, such as the Islamic Bank, appeal to them” ( Abu Bakar, 2001:70). Islamic University, Islamic pawnshop and Islamic economic foundations imply that It can be argued that the minority religious non‐Malays, Chinese in particular need to groups started feeling a kind of fear from double up their efforts and become more the activities of Islamic groups. competitive. These are the parts of ‘Malay Incidentally, this fear perception was not first’ policy of NEP, which puts Malaysia baseless. ‘Islam first, Malay Second’ has Muslim interest above all others. Since been ABIM’s motto since its inception. 1980s the Islamic assertion has even Although, its leaders talked about Inter‐ complicated the economic redistribution Civilizational dialogue, but the Common process. Cadres was not so liberal and tolerant. In Some strict conservatives in the Islamist party PAS have criticized ‘Malay – first programme’ as un‐Islamic, because it is based on racialism which is antithetical to Islam. But here we must remember that being Malay means being a Muslim. PAS’s Government’s many initiatives, such stand on this point seems contradictory. as the Islamic Bank, Islamic Because when it advocates the University, Islamic pownshop and establishment of Islamic state it commits Islamic economic foundations, imply itself to the conservative notion of that non‐Malays, Chinese in citizenship. According to this principle, the citizen’s rights in a Muslim dominated particular need to double up and state should be differentiated by religion. become more competitive. These are Among other things this means that as the parts of ‘Malay first’ policy of “protected minorities” (dhimni), non‐ NEP. Muslims must accept Muslim dominance

Malaysia: Majority Supremacy and Ethnic Tensions

or face persecution as enemies of Islam spiritual embrace in their respective “However most of these theoretical beliefs. Many Christian groups of various notions have little direct appeal among the denominations, Buddhist organizations, Malaysian public, deflection with UMNO and Hindu associations that had remained and prime Minister Mahathir, not least of dormant before, were revived and sprang all after the sacking of the popular vice‐ into action. Adherents of these non‐Islamic premier Anwar Ibrahim in 1998, may faiths Congregate in large numbers continue to wind in PAS’s sails, giving it a especially in cities and towns to organize political influence disproportionate to its their activities. Christians, Hindus, and ideological resonance less society. The Buddhists have invested much energy and Recent events have boosted the influence money into expanding their organizations of ideologically conservative Islamic partly to meet perceived threats stemming organizations” (Hefner, 2001:52). from growing Islamic activism. In orchestrating their campaign against the With the growing clout of these Islamist government’s drive at greater Islamization, forces their influence is now felt in every several of them formed a united front‐ the aspect of life. The debate about the vision Malaysian consultative council of of Islamic state is now taking place not Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism and only between political leaders and political Sikhism‐ in 1984 and had petitioned the parties; but in every day political authority for its “un Malaysian” tendency. discourse; it comes up in newspapers and The Council condemned the efforts to magazines, people talk about it in forums Islamize the existing laws. and there is more discussion about it. The probability and possibility of actualizing To summarize, “The most obvious political this vision is felt inimical by the religious consequence of Islamic revivalism, and minorities. Malaysia, where there is a certainly the one given most prominence multiplicity of religions and ethnic groups, in the international press, is its the growing assertiveness of one religious implications for communal relations in group is bound to have an immediate Malaysia” (Funston, 1981:117).The impact on other religious communities and increased dangers of communalism always when Malaysia Muslims demand an outweigh the positive role of dakwah Islamic State, this leads to a corresponding organization. The activities and counter‐ increase in religiosity on part of the activities by religious groups are widening Christians and Hindus and Buddhists. In the already existing fissures in society. The reaction to the perceived Islamic threat, growing menace of Islamic terrorism “many of them entered the fray by across the world shakes the confidence of activating their own organizations, minority religious groups in Malaysia. mobilizing their members, or forming their Today, the need of the hour is to build own societies in order to champion the confidence among different groups in cause of their co‐religionists in the face of society. The hollow talks of democracy and the Islamist’s challenge. For some, it was secularism may not be beneficial for a time to regroup in order to propagate their traditional Malaysian society. The need is various religious and cultural ideals” (Abu to search for a Malaysian solution for the Bakar, 2001:69). Malaysian problems. Acknowledging the religious differences, the Social groups In the course of confrontation, they resort needs to come closer for a kind of to forming bonds of solidarity to maintain “Civilizational dialogue”, which was their religious identity or revise their envisaged by Anwar Ibrahim. We must cultural heritage, or seeking a new remember that fear starts in the minds of IPCS Special Report 134, August 2012

the people and it must be countered at the on society. But it would be rather harsh to outset. And the fight against communalism say that the resurgence has overpowered must be a combined effort. In this direction the unique Malaysian way of life. the efforts of Anwar Ibrahim must be acknowledged. Shamshul (Shamsul, In the last three decades, the government 2001:221) observes: has developed a unique way of Islamic capitalist development model. “At the national level, Anwar promoted the Interestingly today, this model is not only concept of masyarakat madania, Muslim widely accepted in Malaysia, but also seen version of civil society). He argued that, as a future model for other modern Muslim not unlike the individual in the western nations. Whether Malaysia can maintain its civil notion, individuals have right in the unique way of development and its native eyes of Allah, as documented clearly in the Muslim Malay culture against the Quran; these must be respected at all costs. onslaught of both the western and Middle Anwar also emphasized that the concept Eastern influences is the most important and practice of masyarakat madani are question. If certain negative trends are not rooted in the notion of Social justice. checked, for example, allowing ulema to Domestically and internationally, Anwar gain power, if Malaysia becomes more also encouraged what he Called ‘inter exposed to ideas from countries like civilization dialogue’ as illustrated for Pakistan, Afghanistan, if it creates a more example, in the Islam‐Confucianism and more conservative society, a more de‐ conference held in 1994. However with the politicized society then the prospects for fall of Anwar all these projects were stalled having a working healthy democracy will or slowed down. A Centre for civilizational diminish naturally. And this will go against dialogue was set up at the University of the Muslim Malay ethos. Malaysia in 1995 to serve, this intellectual interest with Prof. Chandra Muzaffar, a So Malaysia should take care that the well‐known Social activist and the bounder Malay Muslim culture should not get of ALIRAN, Anwar published his speeches submerged in the Muslim civilization by and writings on these ideas in his Asia the fallouts of resurgence and assertion; Renaissance.” and it must maintain its autonomous identity. That is, a Malaysia in which, even a non‐Muslim, non‐Malay can say that yes! ‘We are fortunate to live in Malaysia'. Any VI plural society is not immune from social ETHNIC HARMONY FOR 'TRULY ASIA' and political differences arising from communal lines. But the success lies in The ethnic harmony in Malaysia is based harmonizing those differences. on a delicate balance between different communities. Sometimes, the majority Along with the civil society the state also community wants to impose its own way will have to play an important and of nationalism, i.e. Malay‐Muslim impartial role. The cultural differences nationalism over Malaysian nationalism. In within society should be accepted and such dangerous times the society might celebrated. Then only Malaysia can claim become victim of sectarian contestations. to be ‘truly Asia’. Here, the political forces seem to fuel the fire of sectarianism and communalism. During the period of Islamic resurgence and assertion, there were pervasive effects

Malaysia: Majority Supremacy and Ethnic Tensions

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Southeast Asia Research Programme (SEARP_ Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies B‐7/3, Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi 110029 91‐11‐4100 1900 www.ipcs.org SEARP is supported by SAEA, Singapore