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Home , Coverdale Bible, Matthew Bible, Tyndale Bible

The Protestant and Printing in the Vernacular

THE PRINTED WORD AND THE PERSECUTION OF PRINTERS 1 Leaf from the Complutensian Polyglot 1514–1517 Alcalá, Spain Arnao Guillén de Brocar (French, c. 1460–1523), printer University of Alcalá, publisher

This, the first multilingual edition of the entire Bible, has been called the most famous book of the sixteenth century. Each page appears in multiple versions; this passage from Deuteronomy, for example, is printed in four languages: the original Hebrew at the outer column; the of (the ) in the center; a new Latin translation following the Greek in the inner column; and an Aramaic (or “Chaldee”) version which appears at the bottom of the page with its own Latin translation. Cardinal Ximenez, the Arch- bishop of Toledo, commissioned the printer Arnald Guillen de Brocar (“master of the art of printing”) to produce the six folio volumes. The size and intricacy of the project is staggering—not least the difficulty of setting and printing the various typefaces with such boldness and symmetry. The monumental undertaking required fifteen years to produce, at the cost to the Cardinal of 50,000 gold ducats—estimated at well over ten million dollars today.

Gift of Father Edward Bader 1992.086a.01 2 Leaf from Luther’s Bible 1576 Wittenberg, Germany Hans Krafft (German, died 1578), printer

Martin Luther (1483–1546), the great theologian whose challenges to traditional church doctrines contributed to the Protestant Reformation, was also an influential translator of the Bible. In 1522, Luther completed an edition of the in High German, followed the next year by his , and by the first complete edition of his Bible in 1534. Though his translation was not the first to appear in German, Luther’s literary eloquence and his study of Biblical languages contributed to the sophistication of his translation. In fact, Luther himself argued that his Bible was more reliable (“clearer and more correct”) than the traditional Latin Vulgate. The first printed editions were illustrated with woodcuts by Luther’s friend and disciple, Lucas Cranach, whose work can be seen in the Bader Collection of the Museum. On display is a later edition of the Bible, printed in Wittenberg in 1576 by Hans Krafft; this leaf shows the book of Jeremiah, illustrated with a woodcut which has been masterfully hand-colored in shades of six colors and with brushed gold.

The Printing Museum Collection 1998.057.01 3 Leaf from the 1535–1536 Worms, Germany (English, c. 1494–c. 1536), translator

William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) was an English scholar, educated at Oxford and Cambridge. While at Cambridge, Tyndale may have studied under the great humanist , who prepared a series of influential editions of the Greek New Testament, the , begin- ning in 1516. (It was these editions which provided the source text of Luther’s German translation, and would also be used to create into English later in the sixteenth century.) After being ordained a priest, Tyndale became convinced that his calling was to produce a printed version of the Bible in the vernacular, so that ordinary people would be able to read and understand it. Since the beginning of the fifteenth century, English church authorities had outlawed the translation and reading of scripture in the common language. Tyndale realized that it would be impossible to print his Bible in England, so he departed for Cologne in 1525. He began printing the New Testament in secret, but was forced to leave the city with most of his printed sheets after word of the work leaked out, and he finished the printing in Worms. After the translation was smuggled into England in 1526, an extensive effort was made to suppress the work and persecute those who kept them; historians estimate that thousands of copies of the book were burned. But the public expressed great demand for Tyndale’s translation, partially because of its accuracy and beauty. Tyndale was eventually captured by authorities and burned at the stake as a heretic.

The Printing Museum Collection 1998.072a.01 4 Leaf from the 1535 Possibly , Belgium Miles Coverdale (English, 1488–1568), translator

Tyndale was executed before he was able to bring his translation of the complete Bible in English into print. The first full edition of the Bible to be printed in English was produced by Miles Coverdale (1488–1568), whose work first appeared in 1535. His version was not, however, taken from the original languages, as Tyndale’s had been; instead, it consisted of Coverdale’s translations of German and Latin texts, as well as an incorporation of Tyndale’s New Testament. Though Coverdale had been an Augustinian monk (like ), he was also an accomplished politician: two years after the Coverdale Bible appeared, it became the first Bible to receive approval of the throne, completely reversing the earlier law. Under the direction of Archbishop Cranmer and , Henry VIII’s advisor, the Convocation of Canterbury (1534) announced “that the Holy Scripture shall be translated into the vulgar tongue by certain upright and learned men, to be meted out and delivered to the people for their instruction.” Henceforth, the Coverdale Bible was printed with a license from King Henry VIII, sanctioning its use in England’s parish churches. This royal imprimatur appeared on printings of this translation until the appearance of another Bible edited by Coverdale, the of 1539. Coverdale retained his political approval after the reign of Henry; though forced from the country during the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary (July 1553–November 1558), Coverdale was able to return to England before his death during the regime of Queen Elizabeth I.

Gift of Donald and Nancy Piercy 1993.044.01 5 Leaf from Matthew’s Bible 1549 Antwerp, Belgium John Rogers (English, c. 1500–1555), printer

John Rogers (1500–1555), a friend of William Tyndale, published a completed version of Tyndale’s Bible under the name Thomas Matthew, a pseudonym printed on the Bible’s title page. The Matthew’s Bible contained Tyndale’s New Testament, but Rogers also completed the work which his predecessor had begun in produc- ing the Old Testament from Hebrew. Rogers based his version upon the books which Tyndale had published during his lifetime (the Pentateuch and ), and also appears to have obtained manuscript notes which Tyndale had made, consisting of the books from to 2 Chronicles. The Matthew’s Bible was issued in 1537, becoming the second complete English translation of the Bible. This edition was to become greatly influential on subsequent English versions. But even two decades after the death of Tyndale, the act of translating the Bible was considered by many to be a threat and sacrilege. After the ascension of Queen Mary (known by her opponents as “Bloody Mary” because of her executions of nearly 300 Protestant believers), Rogers became the first theologian to be put to death, on February 4, 1555. Rogers followed Tyndale, his predecessor and friend, in death, being publicly executed at the stake. Rogers left his wife and eleven children behind.

Gift of J. Burnham 1995.014a.01 6 The Rheims Bible 1582 Rheims, France Jean Fogny (French, 1535?–1586), printer

Because of the success of the Protestant translations of the Bible into common language, a Catholic version of the New Testament was produced in 1582. Gregory Martin, a teacher of Hebrew and Biblical study at the English College at Douai, France, is usually considered the central mind behind this version, though he worked with several other scholars. The English College, a center for expatriate Catholics who had left England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, had temporarily moved to Rheims at the time of the publication of this New Testament, which accounts for the popular name of this Bible. The edition appeared the year of Martin’s death. Unlike other scholars who translated into vernacular languages, Martin seems conflicted by his actions: in the preface to this publication, he cautions his readers from profaning the text of the scripture by wide acces- sibility. In the beginning years of Christianity, he writes, “men were neither so ill, nor so curious of them selves, so to abuse the blessed booke of Christ” by translating “ into the vulgar tonges...for euery prophane person and companie.”

Gift of Donald and Nancy Piercy 1992.002a.01 7 The Douai Bible (two volumes)

1609–1610 Douai, France Lawrence Kellam (English, died 1613), printer

The Douai Bible, the continuation of the Rheims Bible, was completed and published at Douai in 1609–10. The text of the Old Testament, which had been prepared by Gregory Martin, was edited by college scholars for this edition. Like the Rheims New Testament, the text from which the English version was prepared was not the original Hebrew and Greek, but the Latin Vulgate, which had been declared authoritative for Catholics by the Council of Trent in 1545. Many Catholic editions of the Bible today are based upon this translation, though the extensive stylistic revisions in the eighteenth century by Richard Challoner reduced its unnatural Latinate vocabulary and syntax.

Gift of Donald and Nancy Piercy 1993.030.01 8 Leaf from the 1598 England Miles Coverdale (English, 1488–1568), translator

The Geneva edition was produced by Protestants who had escaped England during the reign of Queen Mary, whose counter-Reformation activities affected many beyond theologians like John Rogers, who were exe- cuted for beliefs considered to be heretical. This Bible was produced by pastors of the exiled Protestants, including John Knox and William Whittingham, possibly with the assistance of Miles Coverdale; they based their work on Tyndale’s New Testament and the Great Bible, an adaptation of Matthew’s Bible edited by Coverdale (see items 3 and 4). The first edition appeared in 1560, but only in 1575, after being printed in England, did it become the most popular Bible in English. It has been noted that most of Shakespeare’s Biblical quotations were taken from this translation; in addition, it was the favored Bible of the Pilgrims who traveled to America and who carried it with them (which accounts for the name, “The Pilgrim’s Bible,” by which it is also known).

The Printing Museum Collection 1982.080.01 9 Leaf from the King James Bible 1611 , England Robert Barker (English, died 1645), printer

The King James Bible, or Authorized Version, was the result of King James’s desire for a uniform English translation of the Bible. Around 1609, James appointed a group of some forty-seven experts, the finest linguists and Biblical scholars of the time, who worked in six teams to produce the translation. They relied upon many earlier translations—in addition to their predomi- nate use of Tyndale, they also reviewed the versions of Coverdale, Martin, and the Greek and Latin texts. On display is a leaf from the book of Kings, which shows the book’s appearance: the majority of the text appears in black letter (or gothic) typeface, but words which were not literally included in the original languages are displayed in a smaller roman type. The first edition of 1611 became the standard English version of the Bible, through at least the nineteenth century; it remains the most frequently published book in history.

Gift of Donald and Nancy Piercy 1993.047.01 10 Pennyroyal Caxton Bible

1999 Austin, Texas Pennyroyal Caxton Press, printer

Fine press edition of The of The Holy Bible with engravings by Barry Moser and printed by Bradley Hutchinson of Austin, Texas. Produced under the Pennyroyal Caxton imprint by Barry Moser of Pennyroyal Press and Bruce Kovner of Caxton Corporation.

The Pennyroyal Caxton Bible is bound in two volumes, in an unnumbered edition of 400. Volume One contains the five books of Moses, the historical books, and the books of poetry. Volume Two contains the books of prophecy and The New Testament. The bindings are hand-crafted in full limp vellum with titles stamped in 24-carat gold on the cover and spine. Special types and lettering were developed for the text, and the paper was made in Germany for this Bible and bears the Pennyroyal Caxton watermark. The design of the Pennyroyal Caxton Bible owes much to the past. The arrangement of double columns of type recalls many of the great Bibles of the incunabula period (1450–1500), especially the 52-line Gutenberg Bible. The Pennyroyal Caxton Bible is the first fully and completely illustrated Bible produced since Gustave Doré’s La Sainte Bible of 1866, and the only one of the 20th century.

On loan from Pennyroyal Caxton Press L2000.900.01