Geographical Literacies and Their Publics: Reflections on the American Scene

Bucknell University Bucknell Digital Commons

Faculty Journal Articles Faculty Scholarship

January 2013

Geographical Literacies and their Publics: Reflections on the American Scene

Karen M. Morin Bucknell University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/fac_journ

Part of the Human Geography Commons

Recommended Citation Morin, Karen M.. "Geographical Literacies and their Publics: Reflections on the American Scene." Progress in Human Geography (2013) : 3.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at Bucknell Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Journal Articles by an authorized administrator of Bucknell Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Viewpoint

Progress in Human Geography 37(1) 3–9 ª The Author(s) 2012 Geographical literacies and Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav their publics: Reflections on the DOI: 10.1177/0309132512466800 American scene phg.sagepub.com

Karen M. Morin Bucknell University, USA

I Introduction In this commentary, I examine how such slip- page around geography’s content presents a The well-known geographer Harm de Blij (in problem for studies of American geographical Murphy et al., 2005: 168–170), author of Why literacy and awareness, and raises serious Geography Matters: Three Challenges Facing questions about relationships between academic America (2005) and its later iteration Why geography and various publics. I also draw Geography Matters: More Than Ever (2012), attention to the fact that such discussions around was interviewed in summer 2011 on a Boston geographical literacy carry significant implica- WGBH radio program about the sorry state of tions beyond American borders, specifically in American geographical awareness. In the inter- how arguments for tackling illiteracy are often view, De Blij warned that Americans’ persistent associated with particular ‘pro-American’ nar- geographic illiteracy constitutes nothing short ratives and ambitions. of a national security risk. ‘We’re in a shrinking For starters, we might consider how public world’, De Blij asserted, and ‘our competitors knowledge and awareness about de Blij’s know about us, but we don’t know about them’. (2005) themes of climate change, the rise of As evidence, De Blij recalled that when he China, and global terrorism may be quite a bit speaks to audiences he routinely finds that only different than that of any number of ‘map about half of those present know whether China borders’ or ‘longest river’ questions. Thus, borders Afghanistan, one of his ‘litmus test’ whenever a researcher or study defines geogra- examples that confirm over and again a pattern phy as an array of such place facts, the effect is of geographical illiteracy. Yet, later in the to reaffirm a definition of the subject from interview, De Blij asserted that such ‘place which most geographers want to distance them- naming’ is not what geography is about anyway. selves. (And in case you were not sure, China What geography is really about are pressing and Afghanistan do share a border.) That said, global issues such as disparities in wealth it seems axiomatic to most that Americans, between cores and peripheries, globalization, except those ensconced in the university Ivory and climate change. In fact, the subtitle to De Blij’s 2005 book identifies the challenges facing Americans as climate change, the rise of China, Corresponding author: and global terrorism. (He added others such as a Department of Geography, Bucknell University, destabilized Europe and the ascent of India and Lewisburg, PA 17837, USA. Brazil in his 2012 volume.) Email: [email protected] 4 Progress in Human Geography 37(1)

Tower, are grossly ignorant of the geography of definition of our discipline. I suggest that it is the planet. Indeed, an extensive body of scho- not so much that ‘the public’ is ignorant of geo- larly research beginning in the 1990s (but with graphy, but that studies that purport to measure roots much earlier) avowed concern not only geographical literacy are inappropriate and/or that American geographical literacy (informa- have suspect goals. As Gregory (in Murphy tion, knowledge, skills) was ‘stuck’ in the Ivory et al., 2005: 184) and Barnett (2008) have Tower, but also that Ivory Tower geographical argued, literate or other kinds of ‘publics’ do not knowledge itself was somehow disconnected pre-exist discourse – they are brought into being from and irrelevant to real-world economic, and formed through it. Thus, associated with social, and environmental problems. Discussion various geographical (il)literacies are various among geographers about this disconnect today publics that exist or might be brought into being has largely shifted to a critique of the pros and by various studies, actors, policies, or events. cons of ‘public geographies’ and academic geo- Many who fret over geographical illiteracy graphy’s effect on policy (e.g. Fuller, 2008), appear mostly concerned that the USA retains notwithstanding the enduring perception that a dominant global position, and argue that a geographical literacy among the American pub- return to education in regional studies geogra- lic remains generally lacking. phy will help ensure it. My comments here pose questions about what is meant both by ‘geography’ and the illiterate American ‘public’ in such discussions, as II Geographical (il)literacy: the well as attempt to raise awareness about the ‘problem’ implications of both for those beyond US bor- Most studies that draw conclusions about Amer- ders. Many agree that ‘geography’ of a sort is ican geographical illiteracy have focused on extensively represented in the public domain, deficient primary and secondary (K-12) school but they claim that it is not the geography education. For instance, the National Assess- produced or informed by academic experts ment of Educational Progress found in its (Murphy, 2006: 2). The geographically illiterate 2011 survey that only one in three American ‘public’ is an even fuzzier category in such anal- students was proficient in geography (Hu, yses. I offer below some illustrative examples of 2011), ‘with most eighth graders unable to the many close linkages that indeed exist – for explain what causes earthquakes or accurately better and worse – between university geogra- describe the American Southwest’. Such illiter- phy and many publics (including federal, state, acy, so the argument goes, carries consequences and local governments, a vast array of busi- for an uninformed public of news anchors, nesses and corporations, and non-profits). Such voters, policy makers, city planners, business linkages challenge the notion that most of leaders, and others. A short surf through academic geography’s work sits alone in the YouTube shows the average ‘Joe on the Street’ Ivory Tower, unused and unusable by most, and made to look ridiculous in not being able to find allow us to ask what this implies about the Canada on a map. From the floors of Congress extent – and, for that matter, content – of to cable news networks, very little substantive American geographical awareness and knowl- connection seems to exist between such publics edge, a.k.a. ‘literacy’. and the intellectual products known as the My sense is that proponents of the illiteracy geography (especially human geography) of argument tend to either offer contradictory def- university men and women. Meanwhile, and initions of the subject, or advocate for a return to as others have noted (e.g. Fuller and Kitchin, a traditional regional geography or area studies 2004), there is oftentimes a subtext to such Morin 5 observations, which is that academic geography project goes hand in hand with the National is largely about creating useless theories that Geographic’s spearheading, along with three have no relevance to solving real-world major partners, a push for national legislation problems. to study and improve American geographical Many of the recent complaints about Ameri- literacy. According to the TGIF (Teaching can geographical illiteracy have as their source Geography Is Fundamental) Act, Senate Bill the results of the 2006 National Geographic 434 and House Bill 885, teaching geography is Society (NGS)-Roper Public Affairs survey that fundamental to addressing the two most critical studied the geographical knowledge and skills issues facing the USA today: (1) ‘To create jobs, of young American adults aged 18–24 (for curb the unemployment rate, and ensure that the methodology, see NGS, 2006: 5; see also U.S. retains its standing as the world’s largest Trivedi, 2002). The survey focused on three and most influential economy’; and (2) ‘To areas: (1) factual knowledge of population sizes resolve global conflicts for the benefit of U.S. and growth, trade, and natural disasters; (2) interests’ (TGIF, 2011). skills in map reading; and (3) an ability to find Importantly, the ‘geoliteracy’ coalition specific countries and significant natural land- behind the legislation, along with the NGS, marks on a set of maps (NGS, 2006: 4). The includes: CH2M HILL, a construction manage- results of the survey indicated ‘that young ment and design firm; ESRI, the world’s largest people in the United States, the most recent provider of GIS software; and the US Geospa- graduates of our educational system, are unpre- tial Intelligence Foundation (USGIF) – a group pared for an increasingly global future’. Admit- comprised of over 200 member companies and tedly, some of the results are rather unsettling: organizations ‘dedicated to promoting geospa- for instance, that three in 10 respondents esti- tial intelligence statecraft in support of national mated the size of the US population to be 1–2 and international security’ (TGIF, 2011: 4). billion people (NGS, 2006: 30). The survey This coalition of interests – business, military, found that 74% of respondents believed that professional geographical societies, and educa- more people speak English in the world than any tional networks – alerts us to the stake-holding other language; that 75% did not know that ‘publics’ that will be served (that is, created) Indonesia is predominantly Muslim; that 63% by the geographical knowledge ostensibly to could not find Iraq on a map; and only half or result from this legislation. That knowledge, fewer could identify the US states of New York moreover, fundamentally derives from the or Ohio on a map (50% and 43%, respectively; NGS-Roper survey’s definition of geography NGS, 2006: 4–7). as map-reading skills and area studies facts. In response to these ominous findings, a A number of university scholars apparently national-scale project called ‘Roadmap’ was support the coalition’s position on geographical launched in 2011, aimed at evaluating and literacy. Murphy (2006: 6–7), for instance, reforming the effectiveness of geographic edu- argues for re-embracing regional geography, cation in America. The project is funded by a which to him involves an understanding of ‘the US$2.2 million grant from the National Science history, environment, languages, cultures, and Foundation and is sponsored by the major geo- economies of different world regions’. De Blij graphical societies in the USA: the National similarly argues that those geographers who Geographic Society (NGS), the Association of practice traditional regional geography ‘fill American Geographers (AAG), the American classrooms’ and are highly prized by govern- Geographical Society, and the National Council ment agencies and private firms (in Murphy for Geographic Education (AAG, 2011). This et al., 2005: 167–168). Geography, De Blij 6 Progress in Human Geography 37(1) asserted, should regain its almost proprietary and tourism industries, and education and control of such information on global regions research institutions. Many of these sites of geo- and foreign areas. Such information, he graphical knowledge production are closely asserted, ultimately should be dedicated to linked with university departments. For instance, advancing American national security and Turner (in Murphy et al., 2005: 173–176) argues competitiveness (a theme he further stressed in that academic geographical thinking pervades his More Than Ever 2012 volume). discussion of global environmental change, risk-hazards analyses, sustainable agriculture, agroforestry, and environmental policy, inform- III Universities, geographical ing the likes of the Peace Corps, the Nature literacies, and publics Conservancy, and the Ford Foundation. Many scholars, but from many different One helpful distinction often raised about ideological perspectives, discuss the need for various real-world impacts is that between what university geography’s public, ‘real-world’ Burawoy (2005) has identified as policy versus application (Fuller, 2008; Fuller and Kitchin, public work. In the former, research produces a 2004; Murphy, 2006). Though crossing ideolo- type of instrumentalist knowledge, financed by gical divides, most of them share a core value a client or sponsor, whose purpose is to solve the that geographical research must be usable to a problem as presented by that client. Public constituency of people/users, must relate to or work, by contrast, produces knowledge out of solve real-world problems, and must detach conversation with various publics (Burawoy, from the confines of the Ivory Tower and 2005: 7), through interaction and dialogue. To engage citizens in university research. Fuller him, one type of public work is ‘organic’, refer- (2008: 834) sees a new field of ‘public geogra- ring to participatory work with area-based and/ phies’ taking shape. Many have complained, or single-interest groups. These he also refers to though, that university geographers do not influ- as active and local ‘thick publics’, which can be ence public policy in ways they should and are understood in contrast to ‘thin’ ones, which are equipped to do (e.g. Murphy, 2006). Of course, more amorphous and unintegrated with one and as others have pointed out (Fuller and another, such as media audiences. Thick and Kitchin, 2004; Harvey, 1984: 7; Ward, 2006: thin publics, in turn, require different types of 496), ‘influence’ or impact can mean many dif- interventions by academics (see also Barnett, ferent things, and thus pose questions about 2008; Fuller, 2008: 835; Ward, 2006: 499). whose interests are to be served. We need to Fuller and Kitchin (2004; along with scores of keep in mind, therefore, that geographies within other critical and feminist geographers) offer a and beyond the university will not only have useful discussion about participatory work that different ‘contents’ – what I am calling litera- is emancipatory and empowering and that chal- cies – but will also produce a wide range of lenges social inequalities. The authors contrast real-world manifestations among a wide this with the work of those who identify as spectrum of associated publics. applied geographers, who ‘serve the interests Many scholars maintain that geographical of the state and business through consultancy’ knowledge(s) quite obviously serve an array of and policy work, and who tend to reproduce the interested publics. Harvey (2001: 213–218) lists status quo rather than attempt to change it the gamut as extending from the state apparatus (Fuller and Kitchin, 2004: 5–6). ‘Applied geo- and military power to supranational institutions, graphy’, ‘business geography’, and ‘military non-governmental organizations, corporate and geography’, all specialty groups of the AAG, commercial interests, the media, entertainment can be similarly positioned. Morin 7

Many have noted the extent to which these activities aimed at entrepreneurship and envi- ‘applied’ types of university researchers are ronmental sustainability, and projects partnered locked into policy projects that reflect the priori- with various urban stakeholders (civic and ties of government and corporate institutions – a private-sector organizations, urban planners, ‘triumvirate’ fused since 1965 (Barnes, 2008). weather programs, and community groups, Actually the current revolving door connecting among others). GIS development offers one of business, government, and academic geography the most obvious examples of links between a dates to the mid-19th century, if not earlier corporate entity (the GIS software developer (Morin, 2011; Woodward, 2005). Within this ESRI), university geography, and a public of context, an important debate today surrounds users. ESRI both hires geographers and main- the extent to which academic geography is espe- tains extensive, albeit informal, links to the cially aligned with the US military-industrial- major players in university departments who complex (e.g. Inwood and Tyner, 2011). research GIS, and with whom they share confer- University geography has of course many ties ences, technology, and educational goals. The to government agencies at various scales. At the explosive growth of both applied geographical federal level alone the State Department, sciences/geoscience and VGI (volunteered Homeland Security, Environmental Protection geographic information, such as Google maps; Agency, Department of Interior, Pentagon, see Elwood et al., 2012) illustrates other vast Office of Naval Research, and the US Army publics created through these technologies and Foreign Military Office (among others) receive techniques. large amounts of funding for geographical research. Some of the most advanced geospatial research conducted today comes from the IV Rethinking American National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), geographical literacy which provides geo-intelligence to the Depart- My purpose in the above rough sketch of the ment of Defense and intelligence communities. many ‘geographical literacies’ we find through- The NGA also, not incidentally, has close ties to out American social life is to alert us to their the USGIF foundation mentioned above, one of vast extent, the various shapes they can take, the sponsors of the geographical literacy (TGIF and the various institutions with which they are Act) legislation. Military entities regularly spon- associated. Murphy’s (2006: 3) claim that these sor conferences and events that bring together geographies are not informed by the ‘fundamen- academics, professionals, and government per- tal geographical insights’ of university men and sonnel to study places and regions for purposes women also seems increasingly at odds with of developing military tactics and strategies current trends; the fact is that there are many, (Woodward, 2005: 722). In light of this, one oftentimes competing, types of real-world might question the motives behind the 2011 applications of academic geographical research. ‘World Human Geography Conference’ spon- Meanwhile, many geographers, particularly sored by the US Army Research Office and over the last decade, point to the pitfalls of such hosted by the University of Kansas Department policy-driven geography, particularly the cor- of Geography, American Geographical Society, poratization of research agendas (Bauder and and the Haskell Indian Nation; particularly as Engel Di-Mauro, 2008; Castree and Sparke, three of these four entities had just been 2000). Uncovering links and connections embroiled in an ethics controversy (Bryan, 2010). between university geography and business, Many academic geographers are rapidly government, and other entities and institutions changing research agendas to focus on applied is important, as employing academic 8 Progress in Human Geography 37(1) geography’s tools, methods, theories, and ideas ensuring measures of ‘national security’. As in addressing real-world problems creates an Harvey (2001: 211) usefully reminds us, ‘there informed public of users of such knowledge, may be a vested interest for certain kinds of and, again, for better and for worse. geographical ignorance’. With this admonition Given the few examples above, we can envi- in mind, it would seem that we could serve sion widespread geographical literacy impact- ourselves best by questioning the latest dismal ing a wide range of everyday social, spatial, geographical literacy test results as they come and environmental problems of which a great along: what type of public do they aim to bring number of ‘publics’ already are – or can be into being, and what national interests are they made – well aware, depending on the types of attempting to serve? knowledge about the problems that accumulates and circulates (Barnett, 2008; Harvey, 2001). Acknowledgements Barnett alerts us to the importance of these circuits of knowledge production in the creation My thanks to Lee Schwartz and his staff in the US of various publics themselves (see also Gregory, Office of the Geographer for taking a morning to discuss these themes with respect to State Depart- in Murphy et al., 2005). As Barnett (2008: ment activities. They likely will not agree with my 406–407) argues, putatively ‘public’ entities are views, but I appreciate their willingness to talk. I also constituted through the mediums of their appreciate Janine Glather’s valuable insights about representation. Thus, ‘the public’ or those in the GIS publics. A McColl Family Research Fellowship, ‘public sphere’ are as much brought into being American Geographical Society Library (Milwau- through networks of communication and kee), supported this research, and I am most grateful discourse as they are inhabitants of some for it. Thanks as well to Noel Castree and Sarah tangible space. Elwood for helping me sharpen the presentation. This insight inescapably points us towards a need to rethink and redefine who or what consti- References tutes a geographically illiterate American public. Ultimately, we should be concerned Association of American Geographers (AAG) (2011) NSF funds Road Map for 21st century. Newsletter 46(7): about what studies of American ‘geographical 1–4. literacy’ are actually measuring (Hu, 2011; Barnes T (2008) Geography’s underworld: The military- NGS, 2006), and, in turn, how models of geo- industrial complex, mathematical modeling and the graphical education based on such results – such quantitative revolution. Geoforum 39: 3–16. as the ‘Roadmap’ project – are envisioned and Barnett C (2008) Convening publics: The parasitical implemented. Such literacy studies tend to asso- spaces of public action. In Cox K, Low M, and ciate geographical knowledge and awareness Robinson J (eds) The SAGE Handbook of Political with an area studies or traditional regional Geography. London: SAGE, 403–417. geography definition of the subject, which Bauder H and Engel Di-Mauro S (2008) Knowledge grab: many, if not most, academic geographers Corporate appropriation and exploitation of academic (including myself) have dismissed as promoting geographers. Antipode 40: 729–735. superficial understandings of foreign places. Bryan J (2010) Force multipliers: Geography, militarism, and the Bowman Expeditions. Political Geography Many of those who advocate expertise in 29: 414–416. regional studies as tantamount to geographical Burawoy M (2005) 2004 presidential address, for public literacy itself approach ‘knowing’ foreign sociology. American Sociological Review 70: 4–28. places as a set of facts, skills, and other instru- Castree N and Sparke M (2000) Professional geography mentalist information that is aimed at procuring and the corporatization of the university: Experiences, American competitive economic advantage or evaluations, and engagements. Antipode 32: 222–229. Morin 9

De Blij H (2005) Why Geography Matters: Three Morin KM (2011) Civic Discipline: Geography in Challenges Facing America. New York: Oxford America, 1860–1890. Farnham: Ashgate. University Press. Murphy AB (2006) Enhancing geography’s role in public De Blij H (2012) Why Geography Matters: More Than debate. Annals of the Association of American Geogra- Ever. New York: Oxford University Press. phers 96: 1–13. Elwood S, Goodchild MF, and Sui DZ (2012) Researching Murphy AB, De Blij HJ, Turner BL II, Gilmore RW, and volunteered geographic information: Spatial data, Gregory D (2005) The role of geography in public geographic research, and new social practice. Annals debate. Progress in Human Geography 29: 165–193. of the Association of American Geographers 102: National Geographic Society (NGS) (2006) Final Report, 571–590. National Geographic-Roper Public Affairs 2006 Fuller D (2008) Public geographies: Taking stock. Geographic Literacy Study. Washington, DC: National Progress in Human Geography 32: 834–844. Geographic Society. Fuller D and Kitchin R (eds) (2004) Radical Theory/Crit- Teaching Geography is Fundamental (TGIF) (2011) ical Praxis: Making a Difference Beyond the Academy? Pamphlet made available at a ‘Geography Education Vernon and Victoria, BC: Praxis (e)Press. Briefing’ panel discussion, Washington, DC, 16 Harvey D (1984) On the history and present condition of November. geography: An historical materialist manifesto. The Trivedi BP (2002) Survey reveals geographic illiteracy. Professional Geographer 36: 1–11. National Geographic News 20 November. Harvey D (2001) Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Ward K (2006) Geography and public policy: Towards Geography. New York: Routledge. public geographies. Progress in Human Geography Hu W (2011) Geography report card finds students lack- 30: 495–503. ing. New York Times 19 July. Woodward R (2005) From military geography to militar- Inwood J and Tyner J (2011) Geography’s pro-peace ism’s geographies: Disciplinary engagements with the agenda: An unfinished project. ACME: An International geographies of militarism and military activity. Prog- E-Journal for Critical Geographies 10: 442–457. ress in Human Geography 29: 718–740.