sign in sign up
<<
Home , Megatsunami

INVITATION TO 7TH EDITION PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Paul R Pinet | --- | --- | --- | 9781284057072 | --- | --- Invitation To Oceanography 7th Edition | Rent |

Want to Read Currently Reading Read. Other editions. Enlarge cover. Error rating book. Refresh and try again. Open Preview See a Problem? Details if other :. Thanks for telling us about the problem. Return to Book Page. Preview — Oceanography by Tom S. Garrison takes you on a vivid exploration of the --from submarine canyons to zooplankton, global warming, the growing plastics problem, and our changing coastlines--and explains oceanography's most important concepts. Garrison's engaging, reader-friendly approach helps you understand the complexities involved in how we study and use the ocean. You'll explore topics like Hurricane Katrina; the devastating December in the Indian Ocean and the resulting ; the moon and its connection to the ocean; the power of the ocean to influence weather; and uses and abuses of the ocean. Gain an understanding of the wonders of the and the scientific questions that surround it with this enjoyable, fascinating book! Get A Copy. Hardcover , pages. Published September 1st by Cengage Learning first published October 28th More Details Other Editions Friend Reviews. To see what your friends thought of this book, please sign up. To ask other readers questions about Oceanography , please sign up. Lists with This Book. This book is not yet featured on Listopia. Community Reviews. Showing Average rating 3. Rating details. More filters. Sort order. As life in the ocean is incredibly diverse, this list simply cannot cover all the great books written on the subject. However, above marine biology books would give a reader a good idea on the marine biodiversity and complexity and would help raise awareness about the dangers our and the planet face every day as a whole. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. By using this form you agree with the storage and handling of your data by this website. Animal Cells Prokaryotic Cells Vs. Eukaryotic Cells Amphibians Vs. Reptiles Anatomy Vs. Physiology Diffusion vs. Osmosis Mitosis Vs. Meiosis Chromosome Vs. Bio Explorer. Biology Books. Marine Biology 9th Edition. This book has several excellent advantages: The textbook is suitable for students who do not major in Marine Biology. This book can be a good read for people who are just interested in science. The text is accompanied by high-quality illustrations. The textbook has good quizzes and tasks that can be given to students. The material covered also includes physical sciences and the basics of the scientific method. The readers also report some minor disadvantages: The quality of the material is uneven. The online testing software affiliated with the book does not always work correctly. Not all text is clear and concise enough for learners. Check Price at Amazon. The textbook is praised both by professors and students alike because: The textbook uses a practical teaching approach, explaining marine biology from the ecological point of view. The textbook contains good illustrations. The style in the book is both conversational and scientific, making learning pleasant. The textbook can be helpful both for students without any background on the subject and Marine Biology majors. The textbook also includes many data from modern papers. One should be aware of some drawbacks as well: Some readers have found several factual errors, mostly biology-related. Not all students like the style and consider the textbook boring. Marine Community Ecology and Conservation 1st Edition. The content of the book reflects that: The book explains how the marine communities are shaped by physical and biological forces within given constraints. The authors also discuss several specific benthic communities. The textbook also includes chapters devoted to conservation and management. The present edition is an extensively upgraded version of the book, with much novel content based on current research. As it is a textbook, the new edition also offers an online resource for instructors with all the relevant material needed for lectures and presentations. The only potentially negative feature of the book is a rather advanced content — it is not suitable for learners without a solid background in marine biology. Marine Life of the Pacific Northwest 1st Edition. The book has several attractive features: The book illustrations depict species from Southern to Southern Oregon. Each illustration is accompanied by a short introduction on habitat, range, appearance, and behavior. There are images of species that were never featured in print before. The book is easy to use as a reference source because of a convenient color code. Despite all the advantages, there are also minor drawbacks: The book is rather heavy to take on trips for example, for scuba divers. It is meant as a field guide, not an educational resource for learning about marine animals and plants. There are several reasons why this book was chosen as the best non — fiction of The author describes various species from tiny microbes to giant squid and sharks. The book covers not only species descriptions but also various interactions between species. The book has excellent illustrations that accompany the text. The sea life is organized by strata — from the upper levels to the deep-sea vents. There are some cons to this book, though: The author covers not only deepwater fauna but the animals found at all levels in the . Half of the book volume are photographs and not text. This book is a popular choice due to several features: The textbook does not contain several advanced topics, making it suitable for introductory courses. The textbook explains how processes in the ocean are linked to the main four sciences: chemistry, biology, physics, and . The style is natural for the students to read. There is a companion website for students that contains additional information and quizzes. There are also some disadvantages to this particular edition: The book is not suitable for reading on Kindle. United States and many other countries See details. This amount is subject to change until you make payment. For additional information, see the Global Shipping Program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab This amount includes applicable customs duties, taxes, brokerage and other fees. For additional information, see the Global Shipping Program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab. Delivery times may vary, especially during peak periods. Start of add to list layer. Add to Watchlist Add to wish list. Sign in for more lists. Dec 10, PST. Seller's other items. Sell one like this. Related sponsored items Feedback on our suggestions - Related sponsored items. Almost gone. Last one. MyMathlab Access Code, minutes delivery. Top 15 Marine Biology Books | Oceanography Books | Biology Explorer

Gain an understanding of the wonders of the sea and the scientific questions that surround it with this enjoyable, fascinating text! Tom Garrison Ph. Garrison also held an adjunct professorship at the University of Southern and won multiple teaching and education awards during his career. He was a founding member of the Consortium for Ocean Science Exploration and Engagement, wrote a regular column for the journal Oceanography, and enjoyed writing for National Geographic magazine. Garrison was an Emmy Award team participant as writer and science advisor for the PBS syndicated Oceanus television series, and writer and science advisor for The Endless Voyage -- a set of television programs in oceanography. His widely used textbooks in oceanography and marine science are the college market's best sellers, and 42 years of teaching allowed him to pass his oceanic enthusiasm to more than 65, students in his career. Convert currency. Add to Basket. Book Description Brooks Cole. Condition: new. Seller Inventory thinkX. More information about this seller Contact this seller. Book Description Brooks Cole, Condition: New. Satisfaction Guaranteed! Book is in NEW condition. Seller Inventory X Seller Inventory HolzX. Start of add to list layer. Add to Watchlist Add to wish list. Sign in for more lists. Dec 10, PST. Seller's other items. Sell one like this. Related sponsored items Feedback on our suggestions - Related sponsored items. Almost gone. Last one. MyMathlab Access Code, minutes delivery. Learn for foreigners learning Japanese with this! Kanji dictionary Handwriting: Printing Workbook Paperback or Softback. Similar sponsored items Feedback on our suggestions - Similar sponsored items. Investigating Oceanography 3rd Edition, paperback by Sverdrup and Kudela. Invitation To Oceanography by Paul Pinet. Essentials Of Oceanography - by Trujillo. Invitation To Computer Science - by Schneider. Seller assumes all responsibility for this listing. Item specifics Condition: Very Good: A book that does not look new and has been read but is in excellent condition. No obvious damage to the cover, with the dust jacket if applicable included for hard covers. May be very minimal identifying marks on the inside cover. Very minimal wear and tear. Wade, Tavris, Sommers & Shin, Invitation to Psychology, 7th Edition | Pearson

Seller's other items. Sell one like this. Related sponsored items Feedback on our suggestions - Related sponsored items. Almost gone. Last one. MyMathlab Access Code, minutes delivery. Learn for foreigners learning Japanese with this! Kanji dictionary Handwriting: Printing Workbook Paperback or Softback. Similar sponsored items Feedback on our suggestions - Similar sponsored items. Investigating Oceanography 3rd Edition, paperback by Sverdrup and Kudela. Invitation To Oceanography by Paul Pinet. Essentials Of Oceanography - by Trujillo. Invitation To Computer Science - by Schneider. Seller assumes all responsibility for this listing. Item specifics Condition: Very Good: A book that does not look new and has been read but is in excellent condition. No obvious damage to the cover, with the dust jacket if applicable included for hard covers. May be very minimal identifying marks on the inside cover. Very minimal wear and tear. See all condition definitions - opens in a new window or tab Read more about the condition. Back to home page Return to top. Back to home page. Pollutants from the nearby landmasses are introduced into marginal in concentrations that are thousands of times greater than in open oceans. Pollutants enter marginal seas by way of water discharge and airborne deposition. Biological growth of marine organisms in marginal seas can be either stimulated or inhibited depending on the nature and concentration of the particular The and the Black Sea are marginal seas found in proximity to one another. The color difference shown here is due to a phytoplankton bloom occurring in the Black Sea. For example, the discharge of domestic sewage leads to elevated nutrient concentrations, which could result in increased primary productivity for phytoplankton, possibly including those species responsible for harmful algal blooms. Biomass is comprised of plants, herbivores plant-eaters , carnivores animaleaters , and omnivores. Marine biomass production originates with primary productivity, which in turn is affected by the availability of sunlight, carbon dioxide, nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates, and trace elements. Marginal seas generally exhibit intermediate levels of primary production, with the highest rates found in coastal regions and the lowest primary production occurring in open ocean regions. Hence, the highest biomass production rates occur in coastal upwelling zones, the lowest in open oceans regions, and intermediate rates in marginal seas. Regional variations in primary productivity primarily occur as a result of water column chemistry e. For nearshore regions such as coastal waters and marginal seas, the dominant physical processes influencing primary productivity are river runoff, water column mixing, and turbidity. River runoff and water column mixing introduce dissolved nutrients, trace elements, and suspended particles into the photic light zones of nearshore regions. Although the addition of dissolved nutrients and trace elements to coastal waters and marginal seas serves to increase primary production, the addition of suspended particles increases water turbidity, which results in reduced sunlight penetration and decreased primary productivity. Water circulation patterns in marginal seas depend largely on , fresh-water input e. If river runoff and precipitation exceed evaporation, as is the case in the Black and Baltic Seas, the excess fresh water will tend to flow seaward near the sea surface, diluting the marginal sea. If evaporation exceeds river runoff and precipitation, as in the Mediterranean Sea, the marginal sea water becomes saltier, then sinks and flows towards the less salty openocean region. Within marginal seas, these general water circulation patterns are often modified by the local bathymetry, which in some instances serves to restrict water flow. The water circulation patterns of four major marginal seas are described below. The Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins, which exhibit maximum depths of approximately meters 1, feet and 2, meters 7, feet , respectively, both possess sills that restrict subsurfacewater circulation. While the surface waters of the Black and Baltic Seas are able to flow over the sills and introduce lower salinity water into the open ocean, the flow of the saltier subsurface waters is blocked by these bathymetric features. This type of subsurface-water restriction often leads to stagnation, which may eventually result in local oxygen depletion. In the Black Sea, this oxygen depletion process has led to subsurface anaerobic conditions and significant decrease in biomass with depth. Due to the shallowness of the Baltic Sea, anaerobic conditions only exist in the deepest areas, where stagnation occurs. water enters this marginal sea through the Straits of Gibraltar as a surface flow. This ocean water replaces a fraction of the water that evaporates in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. During the winter as the remaining Atlantic Ocean water continues to flow towards Cyprus, it sinks to a depth ranging from to meters to 1, feet , where it forms the Mediterranean Intermediate Water. Because of its density, upon introduction into the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean Intermediate Water sinks to approximately 1, meters 3, feet , where it mixes with Atlantic Ocean water. This mixing process results in the formation of the Mediterranean water mass. The circulation between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean is typical of closed, restricted basins in which evaporation exceeds precipitation. As such this type of circulation pattern is often referred to as Mediterranean circulation, which is opposite of estuarine circulation. The Gulf of possesses an extensive, broad and a maximum water depth of approximately 3, meters 11, feet. Surface water in the Gulf of Mexico is as shallow as 90 meters feet in the winter and meters feet during the summer. Surface salinities values for this marginal sea generally range between In the northern Gulf of Mexico region, Mississippi River runoff influences surface waters as far as meters away from the shore, resulting in salinities as low as Pickard, George L.

Marginal Seas - river, depth, oceans, plants, marine, salinity, oxygen, human

Condition: new. Seller Inventory thinkX. More information about this seller Contact this seller. Book Description Brooks Cole, Condition: New. Satisfaction Guaranteed! Book is in NEW condition. Seller Inventory X Seller Inventory HolzX. Garrison, Tom S. Publisher: Brooks Cole , This specific ISBN edition is currently not available. View all copies of this ISBN edition:. About the Author : Tom Garrison Ph. Buy New Learn more about this copy. Other Popular Editions of the Same Title. Search for all books with this author and title. Customers who bought this item also bought. To contact Jones and Bartlett Publishers directly, call , fax , or visit our website, www. Jones, Jr. Holland, Jr. Kane V. Bruno, Jr. Printing and Binding: Courier Kendallville Cover Printing: Courier Kendallville Photo credits appear on pages —, which constitute a continuation of the copyright page. ISBN alk. P55 Hyman, a wise, passionate, caring partner who shares her life with me living on a special parcel of land on a large Earth in a vast universe. The Process of Science. The Scientific Process. The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Marine Archeology. Science by Numbers. Powers of Probing the Sea Floor. Zones. Plate-Tectonic Model. The Opening and Closing of Ocean Basins. A Summary of Global . The San Andreas . Sea-Floor Spreading. The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The Red Sea. Sea-Floor Spreading Rates. Parts per Thousand. Chemical Techniques. Other Physical Properties of Water. The Sea-Surface Microlayer. Order of Magnitude. Dust . Climate Variability and Change. Catastrophic Meltwater Scouring and Deposition. The Drying Up of the Mediterranean Sea. Sedimentation Rates. Current-Measuring Techniques. Hurricanes and . Volume Transport. Underwater Weather and Waterfalls. -Measuring Techniques. Wave Celerity Speed. Tiny and Giant Waves. The Megatsunami of December 26, Currents through Tidal Inlets. Speed of the . Tidal Rhythms in Organisms. Depth of the Bay of Fundy. Larval Dispersal and Settlement. Sampling the Biota. Killer Whales. Ecology of the Giant Kelp Community. Doubling Rates. Large Sharks. Satellite Oceanography. The Oregon Coastline. Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Padre Island, Texas. San Diego County, California. Sand-Budget Study. Ocean City and Assateague Island, Maryland. Katrina Drowns New Orleans. Chesapeake Bay. Salt-Marsh Evolution. San Francisco Bay. Global Decline of Coral Reefs. Residence Time. Bottom Feeding by Whales. Sargassum Gulfweed. The Torrey Canyon . The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Steady State. Collapse of the New England Fisheries. Red . Offshore Oil and Gas in the Gulf of Mexico. Antarctic Krill. Polar Bears. The Great Barrier Reef in the 21st Century. The approach used is a broad one, relying on basic concepts to explain the ocean's many mysteries. Anybody—whether sailor, surfer, beachcomber, or student —can learn about the processes and creatures of the oceans. No background in science is required to grasp the many important ideas that are relevant to the working of the oceans. Wherever appropriate, the underlying science is first explained clearly, and only then is it used to account for ocean processes. In the glossary, important words are clearly defined and are accompanied by page numbers that refer you to the critical section of the book where the term in question was first introduced. The figures and their accompanying captions do not merely illustrate but also supplement the written text. Many photographs have been added to this new edition. All the drawings have been beautifully and accurately rendered by a team of talented artists and illustrators in order to present in visual form ideas that are at times necessarily abstract. They should be studied carefully before advancing to the next section of the chapter, because they help provide concreteness to the ideas discussed. This will take a bit of time, but it is time well invested. This means that the organization of the material, the xiv development of the ideas, and the quality of the prose and illustrations are better than ever. We are always working to improve each succeeding version of the book, and so we welcome all comments and criticisms from our readers. Both faculty and students agree that the development of key oceanographic concepts flows logically and systematically from chapter to chapter, as well as from section to section. The first two chapters review the long history of and research and the fundamental structure of the Earth's interior and its exterior ocean basins. An imaginary trek across the sea bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean, beginning in New Jersey and ending at the very top of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, is the highlight of Chapter 2 for many readers, including the author. Chapters 3 through 10 examine the geology, chemistry, physics, and biology of the sea, highlighting the key scientific concepts and latest discoveries in these subdisciplines of oceanography. In some sense, the material and concepts in these seven chapters represent the core ideas of the ocean sciences, and when comprehended and synthesized, they provide the framework for understanding ocean habitats as whole, functional ecosystems—the chapter topics of the remainder of the book. For example, Chapters 11 and 12 examine the intriguing intricacies of dynamic coastal environments, including beaches, dunes, barrier islands, estuaries, deltas, salt marshes, mangrove swamps, lagoons, and coral reefs. Two chapters are devoted to coastal ecosystems, because we are most familiar and come in regular contact with the shoreline rather than the open ocean. It is likely that many of us as voting citizens will be in a position to influence regulatory legislation and management practices of these fragile habitats. Chapter 13 provides an overview of the many fascinating and exotic ecosystems that are found far offshore, either in open water or on the deep- sea floor. Chapter 14 surveys the ocean's abundant resources, both living fish and nonliving petroleum, metals, phosphate , that are vital for the modern human world. Chapter 15 presents a balanced appraisal of the environmental stresses brought about by human activity, showing the nature and alarming extent of this impact and providing examples of groups of concerned citizens who are striving hard and successfully to reverse environmental despoilment. Throughout the book, local and regional examples are drawn from all parts of the U. Examples from foreign seas are used where appropriate. Chapter 16, a new addition to the book, examines a most timely global issue—climate change. How will warming of the atmosphere and oceans affect the processes and biodiversity of marine ecosystems? Students will find lecture outlines, review questions, key term reviews, animated vocabulary flashcards, and figure labeling exercises. The site also includes math tutorials and critical thinking exercises. The buoy identifies topics that are matched to relevant independent web sites that students and instructors can visit through OceanLink. These Web sites, run by research institutes, scientists, educational programs, and government agencies reinforce and enhance the topics in the book. The starfish icon can be found next to many critical thinking questions at the end of each chapter. The icon indicates that students can find—within Tools for Learning—tips for researching the question and links to additional resources. The Math Tutor icon means that Tools for Learning has an area in which the author, Paul Pinet, patiently guides the student through the mathematical solving process without giving away the answer. OceanLink offers various Web links and activities to make the study of oceanography more current and more enjoyable. In addition to the areas described above, OceanLink has an on-line glossary and links to sites offering the latest oceanography news. For links to other sites, we provide a brief description to place the link in context before the student connects to the site. Jones and Bartlett Publishers constantly monitors the links to ensure there will always be a working and appropriate site on-line. They consist of four types, based on the principal subfields of oceanography: biology, chemistry, geology, and physics. Each is identified as such by a colorful and distinctive logo placed near the title of the box. The boxes serve several purposes. Some review common research techniques employed by oceanographers to investigate the seas. Some flesh out a concept www. Others spotlight case histories in which the oceanography of a specific place is presented in concrete terms from the standpoint of an idea introduced in the text. A few featured boxes review a concept that is simply interesting, and that otherwise could not be integrated easily into the main text of the chapter. They are like eating dessert after finishing the main course of a meal. Enjoy them! Six new boxes have been added to this edition. Here is a list of each box in the book and where each appears in the respective chapters. The first set, the Review Questions, is just that. The questions address the main notions developed in the chapter. The second set, the Critical Thinking Essays, requires more thought because you must synthesize ideas, sometimes drawing from concepts developed in previous chapters. In other words, verbatim answers might not be found anywhere in the book. However, you can develop an answer by thinking deeply about the question posed and applying common sense and logic to the information provided in the book. The third set of questions, Discovering with Numbers, deals with making straightforward calculations about ocean processes. The questions rely on basic mathematics, the kind that any high-school graduate has mastered. In order to assist you, math boxes called Science by Numbers teach the art of computation and are included in most chapters. Each box deals with a basic mathematical concept and provides a step-by-step solution to a specific problem. The trick to answering math questions is to understand conceptually what it is you are trying to solve. These math boxes will help you upgrade your math skills and develop self-assurance about reasoning with numbers. With the proper learning attitude, the math problems actually become fun to solve and provide the insights into ocean processes that www. The fifth edition contains many new questions that are designed to help you master the chapter topics. A reading list is provided at the end of each chapter and includes both classical, but still relevant, references and more recent writings on the ocean's dynamic processes and diverse habitats. Some are books; most are articles. They should prove valuable for delving deeper into an area of oceanography that intrigues you and for writing term papers. Over 90 new reference citations have been added to this edition of the book. Also, the appendices at the end of the book provide important ancillary material including conversion factors, a geologic time chart, map-reading techniques, a discussion of the deflection, and the classification of marine organisms. Additional information and review copies of any of the following items are available through your Jones and Bartlett Sales Representative. All the files are cross-platform for Windows and Macintosh systems and ready for online courses using WebCT or Blackboard formats. With the Microsoft PowerPoint viewer, you can quickly and easily copy individual images or tables into your existing lecture slides. The PowerPoint Lecture Outline Slides presentation package provides lecture notes, graphs, and images for each chapter of Invitation to Oceanography. Instructors with the Microsoft PowerPoint software can customize the outlines, images, and order of presentation. Animations of 19 key illustrations in the text provide dynamic presentations of difficult concepts xvii such as the Coriolis deflection, , and the motion of water particles beneath waves. Gardner, Memorial University, provided as a text file, includes chapter outlines, teaching tips, sample syllabi, learning objectives, and additional concept and essay questions. The Test Bank, prepared by Grant A. Gardner, Memorial University, is available as straight text files and contains approximately 1, multiple-choice, fillin-the-blank, essay, and research questions. Many of the labs are group-based activities that demonstrate principles typically discussed in lecture. The exercises require just minimal knowledge of science and math. Jones and Bartlett makes the Laboratory Exercises available with the text, or it can be purchased separately. Acknowledgments Jones and Bartlett Publishers is committed to producing the finest introductory textbook in oceanography possible. During my long association with these professionals, I was impressed by their patience, their creativity, their willingness to listen carefully and critically to my perspectives, and their attentive concern for visual and written aesthetics. The outcome of our collaborative effort is what you have in front of you. Also, Shoshanna Goldberg, who was recently promoted, was instrumental in getting this version of the book underway. A textbook of this ilk succeeds only if there is a dynamic balance among syntheses, coverage, and details, which was achievable because of our collaborative effort. The few remaining errors and unintentional misrepresentations in this fifth edition are my own alone. I am truly privileged to be working as an author with Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Paul R. Pinet Hamilton, New York Many colleagues at numerous institutions reviewed and constructively criticized drafts of the various editions, vastly improving their quality. Chauffe St. Louis University G. Dexter University of Delaware Charles M. Drake Dartmouth College Walter C. Browne Rider University Robert W. Hinds Slippery Rock University www. Meyer Winona State University A. Richardson U. The record stretches back over several millennia to the time when ancient mariners built boats and ventured boldly onto the sea to explore the unknown. However, a brief sketch of maritime history is needed in a book that deals with the physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes of the ocean in a scientifically rigorous manner. Knowledge that is commonplace today 1 required painstaking investigations by numerous seafarers throughout centuries of exploration. Many intended to become rich by exploiting resources and by controlling sea routes for commerce. All were driven by a yearning to understand the mysteries of the Earth and its seas. They owe a huge debt to the courage and vision of earlier mariners, who by slow increments replaced ignorance and myth with knowledge. B efore delving into the science of oceanography, we should understand exactly what the word means. The first part of the term is coined from the Greek word okeanos, or Oceanus, the name of the Titan son of the gods Uranus and Gaea, who was father of the ocean nymphs the Oceanids. The second part of the term comes from the Greek word graphia, which refers to the act of recording and describing. Oceanographers investigate, interpret, and model all aspects of ocean processes, using the most modern and sophisticated techniques of scientific and mathematical enquiry. The distinction between oceanography and oceanology is similar to that made between geography the physical description of the world and its biota and geology the scientific study of the Earth and its processes. The word oceanology has not, however, displaced oceanography, because the latter term is solidly entrenched in the minds of the laypeople as well as the Western practitioners of the science. Hence, this book will follow convention, using the more familiar term to denote the scientific study of the oceans. A common misconception is that oceanography is a pure science in its own right, practiced by women and men who are specifically and narrowly instructed in its investigative methods. Most oceanographers are, in fact, trained in one of the traditional sciences physics, chemistry, biology, and geology or a related field engineering, meteorology, mathematics, statistics, or computer science and choose to apply their research expertise to the study of the oceans. This diagram organizes oceanography into four principal categories—biological, geological, physical, and chemical oceanography—that are linked to one another by cross-disciplines. Recently, new career opportunities in oceanography have developed in marine policy and management, marine law, resource and environmental assessment, and other related fields. Marine studies commonly rely on collaboration among many types of scientists, mathematicians, engineers, technicians, and policymakers. It is customary to subdivide oceanography into the four fields of physical, geological, chemical, and biological oceanography Figure 1—1. These fields are in turn linked to one another by the crossdisciplines of geochemistry, biochemistry, geophysics, and biophysics. Although this book stresses the most current ideas championed by marine scientists, these attitudes and impressions did not suddenly appear out of an intellectual vacuum. They grew out of—and evolved from—the ideas and www. Marine scientists are well aware of the fact that all of their work rests on the contributions of the innumerable investigators that came before them. But, obviously, this does not mean that all the conclusions of those early investigators have been validated. The lesson from history is clear-cut. Our ideas of the oceans today, which seem so appealingly final and are written about and taught with so much fervor and certainty, will be refined by the findings and thoughts of future generations of marine scientists. The history of oceanography has not always been the gradual and systematic development of a body of thought. Rather, bold concepts and opinions have often burst onto the scene, necessitating critical reexamination of the wisdom of the past, and stimulating fresh insights into the workings of the oceans. A practical means of organizing the historical record of oceanography is to arrange the events into three broad stages. During this time of ocean exploration, 3 the very limits of the world were sought. The second includes the early systematic attempts to use a truly scientific approach to investigate the oceans. The third covers the growth of modern oceanography that has resulted from the widespread application of state-of-the-art technology and the international collaboration of scientists. We will conclude this historical review with an assessment of future prospects and try to predict the nature of oceanographic investigations in the middle part of the twenty-first century. A limited number of the innumerable events that contribute to the rich history of oceanography can be highlighted in a single chapter. Although the details of only a few of the many important research cruises and studies are elaborated here, synopses of many others are cataloged chronologically in Table 1—1. Also, books that discuss the historical context of ocean exploration and the science of oceanography are listed at the end of the chapter. Anthropologists suspect, for example, that the ancestors of aboriginal people reached Australia by sea-going vessels some 40, to 60, years ago, an incredible feat requiring courage, skill, and determination. They lived through a glaciation and deglaciation, following the shoreline as dropped and then rose to its present position. These events are recorded in their powerful myths and art. In many respects the Polynesian migration to the many large and small islands of the Pacific Ocean Figure 1—2 , completed well before the birth of Christ, ranks as one of the most spectacular exploration feats ever. Their canoes, which they sailed and paddled, were made by hollowing out logs or by lashing planking together with braided ropes. These seaworthy vessels were built with simple tools made of rock, bone, and coral. Polynesian seafarers could depend on accurate, detailed lore of local wind, wave, current, and weather patterns as well as on the position of key navigational stars in making a planned landfall after a deep-sea crossing of hundreds, even thousands, of kilometers. The ability to explore and chart the seas safely depends on navigation. Records of sailing vessels indicate maritime activity in Egypt as far back as B. It is likely that the extent of these voyages was restricted, with mariners remaining well in sight of land, probably in the immediate vicinity of the Nile River and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. By the sixth century B. Historians suspect that Phoenicians, around B. True ocean navigation was difficult at the time. Navigators charted the courses of their vessels according to the stars. Undoubtedly, sailors steered their craft in sight of the coastline whenever possible, relying on distinctive landmarks to find their way and establish their position. This process is called piloting. By the third century B. A notable sea adventurer of the time was Pytheas, the first Greek to circumnavigate England and gauge the length of its shoreline. Although his travels are not documented by firsthand accounts, some historians believe that Pytheas may have voyaged as far north as and as far west as Iceland. If he did, this stands as an incredible navigational accomplishment. Historians have established that Greek mariners estimated latitude Appendix IV by the length of the day, correcting for the time of the year. However, without mechanical timepieces accurate chronometers it was impossible for them to determine longitude. Marshall Is. Solomon Is. Egyptians developed the arts of shipbuilding and coastal piloting. Most islands of the Pacific Ocean settled by Polynesians. Phoenicians explored the entire Mediterranean Sea, sailed into the Atlantic to Cornwall, England, and probably circumnavigated Africa. They navigated by familiar coastal landmarks and by the stars. The Greek Herodotus compiled a map of the known world that centered on the Mediterranean region see Figure 1—3. He developed a means of determining latitude from the angular distance of the North Star and proposed a connection between the phases of the Moon and the tides. Aristotle published Meteorologica, in which he described the geography and physical structure of the Greek world, and Historia Animalium, the first known treatise on marine biology. The Greek Eratosthenes, a scholar at Alexandria, determined the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy using trigonometry and noting the specific angle of sunlight that occurred at Alexandria and at Aswan then known as Syene in Egypt. Ingmarson and W. Wallace, Oceanography: An Introduction, Table 1. McConnaughey and R. Louis, Miss. McCormick and J. Thiruvathukal, Elements of Oceanography, Tables 1. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Navy ship logs and summarized his findings in The Physical Geography of the Sea. Fish Commission was established with a modern laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Blake. Charles Otis Whitman served as its first director. Scientists used an echo sounder extensively for the first time. Andersen, reached the North Pole under the ice. Congress adopted the Sea Grant College and Programs Act to provide nonmilitary funding for education and research in the marine sciences. The Mediterranean Sea prominently occupies the center of the map and is surrounded by three landmasses of enormous proportions—Libya northern Africa , Europe, and Asia. The polar limits and coastline configurations of the latter two continents were unexplored at the time and are not marked on the map. All of the familiar land is surrounded by enormous expanses of ocean that the Greeks believed extended to the very ends of the world. Throughout the Middle Ages between and a. Between the ninth and the twelfth century, Scandinavians extended their influence over Europe and across the Atlantic Ocean by acquiring new lands. These Viking outposts eventually were abandoned because of the harsh climates. The Norsemen—the most adept and experienced navigators in the Western world at that time— sailed westward by maintaining a course on a predetermined line of latitude. They accomplished this navigational feat by sailing to a coastal point along Norway and measuring the angular height of the North Star. They then kept it at the same angle on the starboard beam of the vessel throughout the night. Economic, political, and religious motives encouraged western Europeans to undertake long The Greek world. Herodotus compiled a map of the known world around B. Large tracts of ocean in turn surrounded this land, extending to the very edges of the world. Reproduced from an Challenger Report, published in Great Britain. This Viking map, dated at about , demonstrates how extensive the knowledge of the North Atlantic Ocean was at that time. Familiar land features include Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, and a portion of the northeastern shoreline of Canada. Portuguese sailors were particularly successful explorers during this time. Perhaps the crowning achievement of this age is the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand Magellan. Departing from Spain in late September of , Magellan proceeded southwestward with his flotilla of five age-worn ships to the northeastern coast of Brazil Figure 1—5. There he began to search for a seaway to the Pacific and, in the process, lost two of his vessels, one by desertion. They eventually reached Guam on 6 March After proceeding to the Philippines later that month, Magellan was killed on 27 April on the small island of Mactan while participating in a dispute among local tribes. Sebastian del Cano eventually completed the circumnavigation under www. Of the original seamen, only 18 reached Seville and completed their three-year-long circumnavigation of the globe. The British were preeminent during this stage of ocean investigation. Captain James Cook best represents the British seafaring adventurer of that day. Cook constructed accurate charts of coastlines and made important observations about the geology and biology of unexplored regions, as well as of the customs of native populations. In , on his first major voyage commanding the HMS Endeavour, Cook sighted the coast of New Zealand and charted much of its shoreline. Ferdinand Magellan embarked on a three-year-long voyage in , intent on discovering a seaway to the East Indies. In he rounded the Straits of Magellan and continued to the Philippines, where he was killed during a skirmish with natives. Sebastian del Cano completed the journey as leader of the expedition. He then proceeded westward to Australia and explored and mapped its eastern coast, almost foundering on the Great Barrier Reef. That there may be a continent or large tract of land near the pole, I will not deny. On the contrary I am of the opinion there is. John R. After returning to , Cook was killed while attempting to recover a large boat stolen by a group of natives. A useful and revealing way to display data is to plot the information on a graph. A data plot summarizes the information quickly and reveals trends and relationships among variables. Sometimes the relationship between variables is direct, meaning that an increase in one leads to an increase in the value of the other, and a decrease leads to a corresponding decrease. Other times, the relationship is inverse, meaning that an increase in one leads to a decrease in the other, and vice versa. In many cases relationships between variables are not linear, but are curved in some complicated way. Also, scientists may choose not to use linear scales for one or both variables plotted on a graph. Oceanographers, for example, commonly graph a variable as a power of At first glance, it appears as if the concentration of tiny zooplankton suspended in the water above the Kurile-Kamchatka Trench of the northwestern Pacific Ocean decreases regularly with water depth, except near the sea surface, where the zooplankton are a bit more abundant than they are lower down in the water column the vertical extent of water from sea surface to sea bottom. The relationship between water depth and zooplankton abundance is inverse. To the unsuspecting, the plot suggests that zooplankton concentrations decrease gradually downward and that significant numbers of zooplankton exist even at depths below 5 kilometers. This impression is not, however, correct, because the zooplankton abundances are plotted on a scale that varies as the power of Thus, the minute quantities of zooplankton found in water deeper than 1 kilometer are amplified by the scale chosen to plot them. A conventional plot of the data using a linear scale for zooplankton concentrations shows a very different graph Figure B1—2. This reveals that zooplankton are essentially confined to water that is no deeper than 1 kilometer below the sea surface. Below 2 kilometers, there are virtually no zooplankton. Also, the sharp downward curve of the graph between 1 and 2 kilometers is masked by plotting the data along a scale that varies as a power of 10 compare Figures B1—2 and B1—3. The lesson to be learned from this is that one must always note the scale intervals that are used for all the variables plotted on a graph. Important work in marine science during the mid-nineteenth century was conducted by Matthew Fontaine Maury, director of the U. Naval Depot of Charts and Instruments. American materials are not sufficient to enable us to construct wind and current charts of all parts of the ocean, it has been judged advisable to enlist the cooperation of the other maritime powers in the same work. A s this chapter on the history of oceanography indicates, scientists make statements about the natural world; they assume that natural processes are orderly and therefore knowable by a rational mind. Statements made by scientists are not merely random opinions about the workings of the world. Rather they are logical explanations, termed hypotheses, that are grounded solidly on a set of observations and tested rigorously in order to evaluate their credibility. Scientific investigations are begun typically by people who develop an interest in answering a question about the natural world. Examples of such questions in oceanography might be: What is the geologic origin of a particular estuary? How does the chemistry of the in this estuary vary over time? What effect does lead dissolved in the water have on a species of clam in this estuary? The questions can be general or specific, theoretical or applied, abstract or concrete. Scientists interested in a question then conduct laboratory, field, or modeling mathematical experiments in order to generate accurate facts observations that bear on an answer to the question being investigated. A legitimate answer the hypothesis to a scientific question is one that can be tested. A hypothesis is always considered to be a tentative explanation. Scientists first and foremost are skeptics, trying to disprove hypotheses in order to eliminate falsehoods from the scientific understanding of the natural world. Depending on the results of tests, hypotheses may be verified, rejected, or modified. When a hypothesis is tested recent scientific findings about the ocean. His book went through eight editions in the United States and nineteen editions in England and was translated into several languages. The Beagle embarked on a five-year voyage, beginning in late December of ; Darwin spent the bulk of that time studying the geology and biology of the South American coastline Figure 1—6. For example, Charles Darwin proposed his hypothesis of biological evolution by natural selection during the middle part of the nineteenth century. Today, after repeated tests and countless facts that support the idea, his hypothesis of biological evolution by natural selection has been elevated to the status of a theory. In summary, scientists are not, as many believe, primarily concerned about discovering and gathering facts. Rather, researchers ask crucial questions about the natural world and then try to answer them by proposing hypotheses— creative insights about what the truthful responses to those questions might be. What really separates the scientific method from other ways of knowing is its reliance on the rigorous testing of each hypothesis by experimentation or by the gathering of additional observa- of the coastal environments of South America. After the successful completion of the voyage, Darwin spent the next twenty years examining and reflecting on his copious data. He eventually developed a most elegant theory of organic evolution, suggesting that the appearance and evolution of new species result by natural selection,which operates slowly over very long periods of deep geologic time. His arguments, observations, and conclusions led to the publication of his seminal work, On the Origin of Species, in One of the more successful and significant scientific voyages of the nineteenth century was tions; the explicit intent of the test is to determine whether the hypothesis is false or true. If the test results disagree with the prediction, then the hypothesis being evaluated is disproved, meaning that it cannot be a legitimate account of reality. Then it is either modified into a new hypothesis that is compatible with the test findings or discarded altogether and replaced by other, still- to-be-tested hypotheses. Keep in mind, however, that agreement between expected and experimental test results is not proof that the hypothesis is true. Rather, it means only that the hypothesis continues to be a valid version of reality for the time being. It may not survive the next test. If a hypothesis repeatedly avoids falsification, then scientists regard it as a close approximation of the truth. A flow diagram of this version of the scientific method is presented as Figure B1—3. In this book, we describe the results of a long-standing interest among scientists in answering questions about the work- ings of the oceans. It is a current update of the facts, hypotheses, and theories of ocean processes. This is the way it must be; this is the Formulation scientific process. A version of the scientific method is presented as a simple flow diagram. Hypothesis is falsified Disagreement between expectation and observation Conduct a test OR Agreement between expectation and observation Hypothesis remains valid Visit www. A primary goal of the cruise was to resolve the controversy about whether or not life existed in the abyss of the oceans. A staff of six scientists tirelessly followed the dictates of the Royal Society of London, determining the chemical composition of seawater and the distribution of life forms at all depths, conducting observations of coastal and ocean currents, and www. This global approach to ocean studies represented a fundamental step in the evolution of marine science and heralded a new era in ocean exploration. Researchers were jubilant with the scientific success of the Challenger Expedition. The crew completed more than deep-sea soundings and raised an equal number of dredged samples off the bottom Figure 1—8a. Each specimen was described, cataloged carefully, and preserved for later laboratory analysis. The evolution of the Earth. Scientific American 4 : 66— Ambroggi, R. Underground reservoirs to control the water cycle. Scientific American 5 : 21— Atlas of the Oceans. New York: Rand McNally. Ballard, R. Dive into the great rift. National Geographic 5 : — Exploring Our Living Planet. Washington, D. Collins, J. Oceanus 42 2 : 16— Condie, K. Earth as an Evolving Planetary System. Dick, H. Oceanus 42 2 : 36— Dietz, R. The Pacific floor. Scientific American 4 : 19— Ellis, R. Encyclopedia of the Sea. New York: Knopf. Fornari, D. Bowen, and D. Visualizing the . Oceanus 38 1 : 10— Fryer, P. Mud volcanoes of the Marianas. Scientific American 2 : 46— Heezen, B. The origin of submarine canyons. Scientific American 2 : 36— The Face of the Deep. New York: Oxford University Press. The review area provides a variety of activities designed to help you study for your class. Tharp, and M. The Floor of the Oceans, vol. Special paper New York: Geological Society of America. Jeanloz, R. The core-mantle boundary. Scientific American 5 : 48— Lonsdale, P. Ridges and rises: A global view. Oceanus 34 4 : 26— Macdonal, K. The crest of the East Pacific Rise. Scientific American 5 : — Menard, H. The deep-ocean floor. Scientific American 3 : — Pinter, N. How builds mountains. Scientific American 4 : 74— Powell, C. Peering inward. Scientific American 6 : — Pratson, L. Panoramas of the seafloor. Scientific American 6 : 82— Reves-Sohn, R. Unique vehicles for a unique environment. Oceanus 42 2 : 25— Taylor, S. The evolution of continental crust. Scientific American 1 : 76— Watson, L. The Water Planet. New York: Crown. White, R. Volcanism at rifts. Scientific American 1 : 62— There where the long street roars hath been The stillness of the central sea. The hills are shadows, and they flow From form to form, and nothing stands; They melt like mist, the solid lands, Like clouds they shape themselves and go. The Earth is a pulsating planetary body, engaging in grand geologic cycles as its immense ocean basins expand and contract, and its towering mountains are raised upward and beveled downward. But change they do, as we will discover. According to current theories, the oceans and continents are continually created and recreated. This colossal geologic drama is the central topic of this chapter. O ne of the main concerns of marine is tracing the development of the ocean basins since their formation on the Earth. Despite the fact that these basins are composed of rigid rock, their shape and size change slowly but surely with time. How is this possible? Indeed they are—from year to year, and even from generation to generation. As you read this, the building where you are is drifting slowly, but relentlessly, with the continent on which it is located. Our maps represent merely still photographs of continents in motion over geologic time; the geography we see as so permanent is not. Prominent bulges of land are matched across the sea by equally imposing embayments with similar geometries. This parallelism is most noticeable in the opposing edges of Africa and South America Figure 3—1. In fact, careful matching of the edges of all the continents shows that they can be reassembled into a single large landmass of immense size. This implies that the continents have moved vast distances relative to one another, making the present geography of the Earth quite different from what it was in the geologic past. According to Wegener, geologic and paleontological fossil information indicated that the present continents had been part of a much larger landmass more than million years ago. He surmised that some million to million years before the present, this large landmass, which he called Pangaea Figure 3—1 , splintered apart, and the fragments the present-day continents slowly drifted away from one another, opening new ocean basins between them. Relying on detailed geographic and geologic reconstructions and abundant fossil and paleoclimatological ancient climates evidence, Wegener proposed that Pangaea broke apart along a global system of fractures, or geologic faults, that shattered the granitic crust of the land. Concurrently, fresh basalt was injected into the widening gap between the Americas and Africa-Europe, creating a juvenile Atlantic Ocean. During this drifting episode, the leading, western edges of North and South America were buckled into the Rocky and Andes mountains when the dense basalt crust of the Pacific Ocean resisted the drift. Just what caused the continents to drift was not apparent to Wegener. The notion that these huge continental masses of granite were adrift struck many scientists of the time as being a bit far-fetched, more like science fiction than natural science. Besides, the geophysicists showed that the driving mechanism for continental drift proposed by Wegener was not possible according to their calculations. Later work by geological oceanographers confirmed the mobility of the continents, elevating the continental-drift idea from the realm of the impossible to a status as certain as any theory in science can hold. What to make of it? How and when was it formed? Was this submarine mountain belt in some way connected to the formation of mountains on land, of which a great deal was known? Or did it originate in an entirely new and independent way? Much needed to be learned. It was apparent that the midocean ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, aptly called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge because of its position along the center line of the Atlantic basin, mimics clearly the shape of the continental edges of the bordering continents see Figure 2—2. Detailed geophysical surveys of this midocean ridge revealed a number of remarkable features. For example, the enormous flanks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge rise to a sharp crest. A prominent valley that is 50 kilometers 31 miles wide and 1 kilometer 0. The floor of this valley is composed of freshly crystallized young basalt and bounded by prominent normal faults—topographic scarps steep rock faces where crustal rocks have broken and dropped past one another creating the valley Figure 3—2a. Faulting at the ridge axis consists of normal faults of the rift valley and transform faults that offset the ridge crest. Clearly, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, as well as other midocean ridges, is geologically active, being the site of widespread volcanism, faulting, and . On land, large mountain belts such as the Appalachians, the Rockies, the Alps, and the Himalayas are the result of tremendous pressures that squeeze rocks together, causing them to be folded and faulted. Folds result from compressional forces Figure 3—2b. This is analogous to laying the palms of your hands flat on a tablecloth and bringing them together. This action results in the cloth being folded by compression. The rocks of the midocean ridges are not folded. Rather, all the geologic evidence indicates that these mountains have been stretched and pulled apart, creating the normal faults at the shoulders of the crestal rift valley and allowing molten melted basalt to rise along the cracks and spill out on the surface as lava. This www. Unlike the normal faults, where rocks have moved vertically, a careful examination of the transform faults indicates that the sense of relative motion of the broken rocks is lateral, or as geologists say, strike-slip. There are two distinct types of fault systems associated with midocean ridges see Figure 3—2a , and the two should not be confused. The normal faults that occur along the edges of the rift valleys are zones where the crustal rocks are displaced vertically in a relative sense. The transform faults offset the ridge axis and represent fractures in the crust where the movement of rocks is essentially horizontal. The oddest and most problematic feature of the midocean ridges pertains to their magnetic properties. To investigate these properties, magnetometers, instruments that detect and measure the intensity of magnetism, were towed by ships back and forth across the crests of the midocean ridges. Magnetic anomaly stripes run parallel and are symmetrically arranged on both sides of the midocean ridge axis. For example, anomalies B and C on the eastern ridge flank have counterparts B' and C' on the western flank that are the same distance from the crestal anomaly A. Each magnetic profile across this ridge showed alternating high magnetic readings positive peaks and low magnetic readings negative peaks. This means simply that positive magnetic anomalies are stronger than expected, negative readings weaker than expected. This is the case for the Reykjanes Ridge see Figure 3—3. Here distinct magnetic anomaly stripes are evident, running parallel to the ridge line. More surprisingly, these magnetic bands are symmetrically distributed about the ridge axis. That is, each magnetic anomaly on one flank of the ridge has a counterpart on the opposite flank at the same distance from the ridge crest. In Figure 3—3 note that the central anomaly A, located over the ridge crest, is flanked by anomalies B and B', C and C', each pair being equidistant from the ridge line. This regular, symmetric pattern of magnetic anomaly stripes has been found along most of the midocean-ridge system, and is seen as one of its fundamental properties. What created such regularity, and what could possibly be its significance? Answers to these questions awaited the study of the magnetic properties of rocks on land. This dipole creates a magnetic field, invisible lines of magnetic force that surround the Earth and are capable of attracting or deflecting magnetized material. The intensity of the geomagnetic field is strongest at the magnetic poles, where magnetic lines of force are vertically oriented. When lava extrudes and cools, minerals crystallize systematically out of solution as the lava solidifies into a rock, in the same way that solid ice crystals form in liquid water that is cooled below its freezing temperature. A few of these early forming minerals are magnetic and tend to align themselves with the geomagnetic field in a way that is similar to the pull on your compass needle. As other minerals crystallize, they lock in and trap, so to speak, the alignment of these magnetic grains. This means that the rocks record the strength and direction of the geomagnetic field at the time they crystallized into a solid. As paleomagnetic measurements on sequences of basalt flows were collected from a particular area, something quite odd appeared in the data. What could this possibly mean? All these data taken together could mean only one thing—the geomagnetic field had flipped repeatedly back and forth over time see Figure 3—4b , sometimes oriented as it is at present normal polarity and sometimes oriented in the opposite direction reverse polarity. This information led to the development of a paleomagnetic polarity time www. During any reverse polarity, the northseeking compass needle would point to the south rather than to the north geographic pole.

https://static.s123-cdn-static.com/uploads/4638407/normal_601fa700c0b84.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9590527/UploadedFiles/A5BDFA8D-2342-902D-90E4-A525F3692203.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9593603/UploadedFiles/023CB4DC-982C-705D-484B-B3E75AFC368D.pdf https://uploads.strikinglycdn.com/files/4cbcdd71-5f23-422c-955d-61a48088133c/von-hirschen-lammern-und-loewen-295.pdf https://static.s123-cdn-static.com/uploads/4638969/normal_601f35a7dc2bb.pdf https://files8.webydo.com/9586779/UploadedFiles/A7303D47-E8FA-35BE-3667-3F4724D265EA.pdf