FOR FATHERLAND, FREEDOM and MOTHER RUSSIA the Riga

CEU eTD Collection Astrov Professor Reader: Alexander Second Professor Alfred Rieber Supervisor: FOR FATHERLAND, FREEDOM AND MOTHER RUSSIA MOTHER AND FREEDOM FATHERLAND, FOR In partial fulfilmentthe of requiremen partial In The Riga Freedom Monument as Site and and Site as Monument Freedom Riga The Symbol of Resistance in Soviet Latvia Soviet in Resistance of Symbol Central European University European Central History Department History Budapest, Hungary Budapest,

Laura Kenins Laura Master of Arts Masterof Submitted to Submitted 2012 By

ts forof the degree

CEU eTD Collection

Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the with rests thesis this of text the in Copyright Details may be obtained from the librarian. Thispag thelibrarian. from obtained be may Details such copies made. Further copies made in accordance accordance in made copies Further made. copies such given by the author and lodged in the Central European theCentral in lodged and author the by given either in full or part, ma part, or full in either may not be made without the written permission of th of permission the written without made be not may y be made only in accordance with the instructions instructions the with in accordance only made y be

author. Copies by any process, process, any by Copies author. e must form a part of any any of a part form must e with such instructions instructions such with University Library. Library. University e author.

CEU eTD Collection res the Worexiled the abroad Second and diaspora Latvia the during in Latvians itin how high symbimportancegrew aspatriotism, of Latvian a era independence. theexpansion for Latvianof policies with Soviet and movement new the thein individual 198 glasnostera, until was mainly activity large, protest1980s, in to and, the grou by vocal immolation, to whopr silent flowers came lay in community, Latvian years.beacon of a monumentfor remained fifty Latvia The occupation Soviet in Latvia” Estonia similar in mon and Lithuaniastate.unfree lacked an freedom became thus a Thecountries. the monument three occupying justify use Worl theall Second to territory. the claims During relinquishing sovere countriesrecognizing the treaties signed their with Union between thewhich independence during wars, of successfulperiod an Estoniaindependence Russia and from achieved 1918 in Lithuania BalticStates thethe Unionfrom The to beginning. Soviet belonged thestrong remained in repub that sentiment beganthe an century in that nineteenth nationalist movement the of symbols. was landmarksandrepres national monument The recognizable (Latvian Monument d forced peace treatiesthe peace and Molotov forced d istance activity that occurred there, and why and how how was preserved. it there,that and and occurred activity why istance The monument was a unique case in the Soviet th Mostthe was caseunique a of in monument Union. The in the Latvia by the the independent of 1930s, Republic Built This thesis explores how the was builtthe as national a monument how thesis This explores of symbol Asobvious an

- speak, it is curious that the monument survived the Sovietsurvived the itspeak,that monument the is curious Br ! v ! bas Piemineklis the as the republic,“bourgeois known independent Abstract ) in in most Latvia’s ) of Riga is one

- lic throughout the interwar interwar throughout the period. lic Ribbentrop pact with Nazi to with Germany pact Ribbentrop

otest, protest by selfprotest otest, by ps. Though resistance Though ps. 0s it grew 0sit under d War, the Soviets Soviets War, d the ignty and “forever” and ignty of Latvia, Latvia, of ol for both for both ol the Soviet the d a d nationalist Freedom Freedom testament to testament uments. symbol in an an symbol in d had a had d for the for e republics ld War, ld entative entative -

i CEU eTD Collection

Anna Anna Thank you to the staff at the Open Society the to Archives, at staff Open you the Thank ValstsV Library for their patience andobscure d for assistance theirpatience tracking down in Library Thank you to Professor Rieber assistance,his to and insights, you Professor for Rieber Thank ! eni people tofor following their assistance res you the with Thank # " sturesArch a, a, George George suggestions, accommodations and other support:other and suggestions,accommodations Laila and Anna Gr Anna and Laila ! $ vs, and the “Letonika” department of the Latvian of Latvian the National department “Letonika” the vs,and eni " ! , Inga J Inga , Acknowledgments obscure discoveries. obscure # $ ruma, Jana ruma, J nberga Paldies!

, and David Schilter.and ,

# ruma

Latvijas ValstsLatvijas Arh - Gr $ nberga

interest in in my interest , Janis Janis ,

earch, earch, ocuments. $ vs, Latvijas vs, Gr $ nbergs

ii , CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Appe Conclusion Monument the at Activity Resistance V. Preserved? Monument the was Why IV. the of Symbolism III. the in Monument Republic Freedom the Interwar of Construction II. the and of Memory Nationalism Collective Framework: Theoretical I. Intro duction ndix: Images ndix: ______Table ofContents Table Br īvības Piemineklis, 1940 Piemineklis, īvības Freedom Monument Freedom

______

______- 1991

______22 92 86 82 61 4 37 iii 7 8 1

CEU eTD Collection 2002 of PennsylvaniaPennsylvania: University Park, Press, 1 beginning the creation of a German landowning clas various foreign powers. The Teutonic knights arrive the Soviet regime is best explained by fortuitousa become a gathering point for Latvian nationalists a structure and the process of it ideas of Latvian unity and freedom were built into national forsymbol Latvians, and how did it escape forbidden under the Soviet governm protests and less vocal forms of resistance like la to survive the Soviet occupation between 1940 and 1 its position as such an obvious landmark and n about various aspects of Latvian history and identi of itstime completion in 1935, the monument has de ideology was bound up in the monument fromthe earl Constructed in the independent republic of Latvia b metres, is an unmistakeable landmark for visitors a in Riga,the Latvian Freedom(LatvianMonument Daina Stukuls Eglitis, Towering over the square that divides the old town Latvia’s history prior to Imagining the Nation: History, Mode History, Nation: the Imagining

s construction; of somethe same thatelements led

the First World War was a chronicle of domination by ent. Introduction 1 Why didmonumentthe become such a strong ationalist monumentthesymbol, managed ying flowers at monument,the an activity ), ), 129. combination of factors. ty, tourist ty, brochures and more. Despite lso helped it survive. Its survival through nd residents of the city alike. Brīvības Pi Brīvības the monument,the both in its physical rnity, and Revolution in Latvia Revolution and rnity, d early in the thirteenth century, destruction by Soviet authorities? The 991, even while serving as a site for etween the two world wars, nationalist s that ruled the country for several corated postcards, calendars, books

ie st stages of planning. From the and the newer parts of the city emineklis ), at a height), of 41

(University (University it to

1 CEU eTD Collection peoples’ monument], n.d.1930s), (early 3 Riga. Arhīvs, Vēstures Valsts Latvijas 2 donations of little more than a few cents we monument’s construction would be possible with just citizens. The campaign framedmonumentthe as “the following the war, it was decided to fund the monum architects and other intellectuals. monument was taken over including by a committee go in early discussions. Originally proposed by an arc and 1920. The of name “Brīvības piemineklis,” the f fromthe First World War and the subsequent struggle politics and culture, and it was in this climateth put their ideas into practice. The interwar years w World War in 1918, the country’s nationalist elite f political force. When Latvia declared its independe nationalist movement began to emerge in the 1840s, the eighteenth century, all of Latvia’s territory majority of present falling to Swed becoming part of the Polish sixteenth century, the rule of Latvia was contested centuries and remained the mo Br Kabinetam” [Appeal Ministru “Iesniegums to the Cabinet īvības pieminekļa komiteja, piemineklis pieminekļa īvības “Brīvības The monument The was initially proposed as a memorial t en in the early seventeenth century. In 1721, Russi -

day Latvia in the Great Northern War. With the partit - Lithuania Commonwealth in the late sixteenth centur

st powerful class up until the later nineteenth cen

2 2575.7.1430, p. 86, Latvijas Valsts Vēstures Arhīvs, Arhīvs, Vēstures Latvijas Valsts p. 86, 2575.7.1430, Due to the shortages of federalmoney in the years re also collected from schoolchildren. This — tautas piemineklis” [Freedom Monument tautas piemineklis” became partbecame of the Russian Empire. Latvia’ at the FreedomMonument was built. Ministry], April 21, 1923, 21, April Ministry], ere characterized by strong nationalism in hitecture p nce from Russia at the close of the First between Sweden and Poland ormed the government and reedom monument, monument, quickly reedom took hold and by the 1890s, it was a strong ent byent private donations from Latvian a small donation from each family; against Russian forces between 1918 peoples’monument,” vernment representatives, artists, rofessor, the planning for the o o fallen w a won control of the 1307.1.989, p. 18, 1307.1.989, ar heroes in 1921, ions of Poland in 3 Riga. suggesting the were able to - Lithuania, tury. In the

— the y before

2 s CEU eTD Collection 4 the Baltic States as an occupation, and for knowled foryears, many who advocated for inde England, Sweden and Australia. Nationalism t became where they formed stronga network of exiles primar Latvian nationalists were either deported to Si changed through the imposition of Soviet rule. Over escaping the country. The surviving population now Jewish population), to somedeath fighting in the Germany,to death some atthe hands of the Soviets led to the loss of approximately thirda of Latvia’ followed by the invasion of the Nazis in 1941, foll population was divided by historical circumstances. that preceded the colla the Soviet government and demonstrations during the location and this monumentthe symbolism, an became monument stood as an obvious mark great era in Latvian history. This era remains roma improvements in living standards, helping to constr the education at thetime same system; concern. Nationalist sentiment was strong in the in campaign helped to create a perception of monumthe Andrejs Plakans, Andrejs Latvian identity changed during the course of the S The Latvians: A Short History Short A Latvians: The

pse of the SovietUnion.

er of the republic at this time. Between the geogra , Latvia, experienced economic growth and pendence,for recognition of the Soviet takeover of (Stanford, Calif beria by the Soviets, or escaped to the west,

s population, Red Army or Nazi forces, to some owed by reinvasi nticized in Latvian culture, and the terwar period, built into the culture and ge of Latvia. For Latvians living in the uct the idea of the interwar republic as a Invasion by the Soviet army in 1940, the course of the war,the bulk of lived either in exile or in a country or Nazis (including most of Latvia’s ily in the United States,Canada, nationalist ‘awakening’ in the 1980s he pursuit of the communities exile ent as everyone’s project and ornia: Hoover Institution Press, 1995), 152. 1995), Hooverornia: Press, Institution obvious choice for protests against econd World War as the 4 to someforced labour in on the by Soviets in 1944, phic 3

CEU eTD Collection 5 republics went straight from being part of tsarist monuments of independence under Soviet rule seldom independencecommemorate from Soviet rule.issu The Lenin and socialist realistmonuments, what to buil whether to keep or tear down communistmonume population regarded Soviet rule as illicit. ori the same need to build local support of the Soviet Union, policy in the Baltic States reflected elemen dispensed with in the media in the local language, and literacy. By the 1 culture. Soviet authorities helped non privileging local elites in government and giv the 1920s and 1930s, promoting a culture that was “ thing. Nativization policy, or belonged to families of the interwar intelligentsia werecommunity exile especially likelyto romantici their own lives or knew from west,monumentthe also served as a symbol, whether Olaf Mertelsmann, ed., ginally been pursued with: especially necessary in Within Latvia, Soviet policy towards the republics In the post - Soviet era, questionscomplex of what do to withmo

The Sovietization of the Baltic States 1940 States Baltic of the Sovietization The existing Soviet republics; however, as new arrival a picture their parents kept on the wall. Older me korenizatsiia

- Russians to develop national epics and operas, prin

, had been the official policy in the republics in ing local languages and arts status in schools and Russia to republics of USSR.the Latvia’s .

940s, the policies had more or less been government that nativization policy had ts of the earlier policies. national in form, Soviet in content,” d to replace and them, how to nts, what to do with dozens of displaced ze the interwar period, many ashad the Baltic States, where much of the it was one they remembered from appeared e e of what was done with - 1956 was a complex and mutable (Tartu: Kleio, 2003), 116 (Tartu: Kleio, 2003), : most: of the Soviet s to the Soviet numents arise: 5 This reflected mbers of the - 7.

t 4 CEU eTD Collection and Soviet early monuments in Estonia. Soviet 6 being forgotten, memories of history. Though Nora’s a repository of collective serving memory, to remin Halbwach’s Mémoire and accompanying interest in monuments has become p brings together its history in the Soviet era. Over country’s Estonian and Russian communities. commemorating struggles against the USSR led to an or relocate Sovietmonume 2000s, the so period. the Sovietsexecuted; did destroy many rural the bank accounts for the monument were liquidated, independence, but it had not been completed when th throughout the interwar. In Estonia, plans were u constructing new national architecture in Kaunas ha Kaunas instead temporaryabecame capital until the capital of Vilnius did not become part of the indep neighbours Estonia and Lithuania lacked similarmon See L’Heureux, Alice Marie “Representing Ideology, Designing M ization of the Baltic States 1940 States of the Baltic ization 6 In recent years, Estonia provides a case study of Despite the symbolism of the Latvian monument,ther is the key text onis thethe key text studymonuments of and memo - On Collective Memory On Collective called “War of Monuments” broke out, where Estonian

nts, reconstruct pre

- 1956

as framework,a Nora takes the ideamonuments of a (Tartu: Kleio, 2003), for informationmore on (Tartu: monumthis Kleio, 2003), and urban war memorials built in the interwar

- war statues, and build new monuments the past decades,the study memory of nderway to build a similarmonument to end d us of the now d remained a contentious issue 1940s; the issue of the capital and uments. In Lithuania,the historical work is built o the committee members deportedmembers the committee or e e Soviet army invaded in 1940, and exacerbation of tensions between the ent republic in 1918 and the city of emory,” in Olaf Mertelsmann, ed., opular. Pierre Nora’s the opposite situation: in the early e e is little ry.U - forgotten, or at risk of f case studies on places sing Maurice initiatives to destroy information that Les Lieux de de Lieux Les The The ent s 5 CEU eTD Collection ten new EU countries aboutmade films monuments. 8 7 wedding. Latvian lay flowers at both the Soviet monument and Second World War memorial in the post documentary monument during the independencemovement of the 19 the late 1990s, and giving an overview of somet of work, while looking more at the two restorations of Responsibility], published by monument’sthe restor aprūpēts un celts tautas monument’sthe history under the Soviets. Māra Caun construction, ideology and sculptor’s and architect monument.the Vaidelotis Apsītis’ 1993 a booklet printed looking by monumentthe committee The earliest of these, Jānis Siliņš’ 1935 the historical background of monument’sthe constru the interwar period for Latvians in the SovietUnio at collective longing for an earlier as thetime, F idea is certainly applicable to Soviet Latvia. S writes of the destruction in twentieth of memory in memory France, of similar logic can be applied t The was film produced join Nora, Pierre In Latvian, several works have been published on th

8 My research My aims to consolidate histo Realms of Memory, Volume I Volume of Memory, Realms Piemineklis

tly bytly a Latvian studio and a German television program wh [The Freedom[The Monument: The Peoples’ Construction a [The Monument] [The investigates th

(New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 3. 1998), Press, University Columbia York: (New Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības - Soviet era; atthe end, newlyweda Russian and

vetlana Boym’s writings on nostalgia also look reedomMonument served as a reminder of rical background from these Latvian - he protests and demonstrations at the century France: ’s ’s biographies, while scarcelymentioning n. o o the Latvian case, especially when Nora th

ation committee, usesation committee, some of Apsītis’ ction and symbolismthe of sculpture. the Brīvības Piemineklis after their e monument e in the early 1980s and e’s at the co 2002 work, 80s. Viesturs Kairišs’ 2006 e e interpretation of Riga’s Soviet e monument, e [The Freedom[The Monument] was similarly looks at the nstruction and meaning of 7 in a different way, this Brīvības Piemineklis: Piemineklis: Brīvības studying mainly ere directors from ere directors

nd - 6 CEU eTD Collection 9 to show how these competing ideologies played out Latvian freedom, and,metaphorically and physically Adolf Aleksandra ie remained unchanged. The name was not, in fact, part suggesting that the wasname “old and inappropriate statue was erected on Freedom to Street,Ļeniņa iela, Lenin Street, in Ju avenue that begins at the end of the square where t contention for Soviet authorities. I romanticized interwar period and as a co statue performed double duties between 1940 and 199 and 1991. references to the ideology of monumentthe in domes monument in the archives of Radio Free Europe at th construction at the Latvian National Archives,mor primary research on the ideology of monumentthe fr language sources, information on resistance activit Stukuls Eglitis, - Hitler Functioning as a repository of the

- Strasse under the Nazis. Caught between the “old an la, or Alexander forStreet, the tsar, before becom Imagining the Nation the Imagining

the same street,two blocks awaythe from FreedomM

, 135. ronically, Soviet authorities changed the namet of

- opted Soviet whichsymbol, remained a source of collective independent of memory Latvia, the y from y secondary sources, as well as ne 1950 (also the year that Riga’s Lenin he monumenthe sits from Brīvības iela, e e detailed information on protests at the in themonument. ,” , Lenin’s, watchfulthis eye, thesis aims icularly old: in the tsarist era, wasit 1, acting as both a symbol of the 9 e e Open Society Archives, and om historical documents on the tic and diaspora press between 1940 though the of name monumentthe ing Br d inappropriate” idea of īvības iela in 1923, and

onument), by onument), by he 7 CEU eTD Collection developed and changed from its creation to the late Soviet contexts. Together,these works can help to concentrating on the importance to Eastememory of Latvia. Svetlana Boym also uses Halbwachs’ and Nora consciousness. This idea can also be applied, comin experience in twentieth Mémoire de Lieux Les on collective and Pierre memory, Nora applies this the Second World War. Maurice Halbwachs’ its development, success in the interwar Latvian re social process modernism. of Ieva Zake has written seen too as a form of collective Miroslav memory. H Miroslav Hroch. Anderson posits that nationalism is ruling powers. In regards to nationalism, I will lo strong nationalism and strongly nationalistic era, interconnected roles: asmonuthe a sitememory, of both these concepts: as a nationalist icon, and as and collective The memory. roles of the monument in The FreedomMonument can be investigated through fr

Collective Memory of the the of Memory Collective I. Theoretical Framework: Nationalism and Nationalism Framework: Theoretical I. ; arguing ; that places replacedmemory of as memory - century France as the nati On ok atthe work of Benedict Anderson and Collective Memory Collective a site of collective Bothmemory. serve then condemned as “ Freedom Monument on ceased defining collective public and continuation in the west after explain how the monument’s memory g from a quite different history, to on the subject of Latvian nationalism, Soviet period. theory to the studymonuments of in ment came to hold came ment theof a memory an “imagined community”: this can be roch de rn Europe in the Soviet and post ’s ’s work in her writing on nostalgia, Soviet scribes it as a several - era Latvia are gr ameworks of nationalism

is the definitive text bourgeois” by the

lived ounded in - stage - 8 CEU eTD Collection 3. 1985), Press, 11 England:(Aldershot, 68. Ashgate, 2007), 10 standing once and for all, just as it is not possible to vie objective character of the nation with acoll fixed national group, Hroch s transformation characteristic modernity. of More so culture based on the local language. national self Hrochmovement. lists nationalism’s goals as creati finally majoritythe population responding by accep consciousness among intellectuals, then s a three activist deportations. symbolism again returned to the forefront, albeit a meaning, which took on new shape and importance aft SovietUnion: the version propagated by Soviet auth in its role in Soviet Latvia. Two competing symboli and its function as a that site of memory nation of the Daugava river as a national symbol. Both the na Miroslav Hroch, Miroslav Hroch, Miroslav - stage process to nationalism.These begin with a st Today, LatvianToday, tourism guides list the FreedomMonu Miroslav Hroch, studying the emergence of nationali outside concrete social relations.” -

administration or t Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe in Revival of National Preconditions Social Nation History: European Modern in Studies Comparative

ees this as simply a social feature. “One must not

erritorial independence, and establishing a nationa

10 Nationalism is,for Hroch, a social process, a preading that consciousness to new activists, and 11 Hroch defines the nation as a large social w the nation as an everlasting category, ection of features and attributes given alism’s zenith played an important part ccompanied ng a national achieving community, sms acted in the tionalist sentiment of monumentthe ting the demands of the nationalist orities, and the original nationalist than any inherent characteristic of a er 1940. Under glasnost,the original age of developing national (Cambridge: Cambridge University (Cambridge: Cambridge University sm sm in eastern Europe, suggests ment alongside oak by police clashes and , , Nationalis monument in the determine the m, Social Change Social m, l high trees and 9 CEU eTD Collection 13 12 cities and integration into professional spheres ha intelligentsia was not greatly separated fro the largest group including teachers, students and and ruling class, the second professionals such as countryside; Hroch separates this intelligentsia in the Germans and the Slavs. the develop asmovement having a short ‘phase of A’ cultural de begun developing decades earlier in both countries. the Latvians or Eston late nineteenth centuryto push aimed Baltic German nationalists were able to use structural reforms to to demand structural reforms. This d controlled for a long by anothertime power. Conseq idea of ethnicity. to form the base of development of Hroch’s first st not clearly defined, and suggests a sort of amorpho cultural. several sorts of relationships, including geographi group; nationalism is then the growth of certain se Hroch, Hroch, The nationalistmovement begins in the intelligents Nationalism differs in small nations; oppression be 12 Social Precondit Social Revival of National Preconditions Social Hroch’s use of the term “cultural” is problematic ment of a regional identity and an affirmation of t

ians in local government. However, a national movem ions Revival of National

iffered in different nations; in Latvia and Estonia m the m peasantry;migration of Latvians into the , 178. , 5.

c, economic, religious, linguistic artists, journalists and lawyers, the third d happened quite recently, with most to three groups, the their advantage as tsarist reforms in the office labourers. However, in Latvia,the ntiments within this group. They share Hroch characterizes the Latvian national us, intrinsic characteristic, one that tends age of nati velopment; uently, nationalist movements also had s out of power and instead privilege come structural in nations ia, distinguished fromthe here, however, as the term is onalism;this also neglects the he Latvians’ separation from 13 movement theinvolved first being the elites ent had already , and , 10 CEU eTD Collection 17 16 15 14 suchforms of community, as religious ki community, “deep, horizontal comradeship” nationalism of the ‘old nation’ of Russia within th ‘sub’ nineteenth century up until the present day, “old n v territory, language, and so on. Nationalist ideas, imagine their connections to a group across a regio group largely ‘im betweencommunity” a group of people bearing certai an increase ledmovement to the breakdown of barriers in educat ethnicity and those where they were different; in o the difference between development of education and through teachers in vi developing until the 1850s and 1860s, and in a way considers the nationalistmovem havingmembers grown up in rural areas or being onl arious forces modernism of and could be translated Anderson, Anderson, Anderson, Hroch, - nationalisms within their borders.” Anderson considers nationality to be a sort of “cul Benedict Anderson instead sees nationalism as the c Social Preconditions Revival of National Preconditions Social Imagined Communities Imagined Communities Imagined Imagined Communities Imagined in representation of the oppressed nationality amon agined’ by members its

nations where the upper class and lower class were

, 7. , 3. , 4. 16 ents of the Baltic states as comparatively ‘belated

that people are willing to struggle and die for. 15 — Latvia was among the nations chall the majority never come into contact, but instead , 189.

as Anderson theorizes, were a product of that was largelyfacilitated by the e e Russian Empire. The is community a n, based on shared factors of economy, ne, the development of a nationalist ations” found themselves “challenged by y a generation removed from it. Hroch llage and urban schools. Hroch notes into a varietyfrom the of contexts; ion between classes; in others, it led to n n similarities, but whose nation is a ngdoms (which, historically, had tural artefact.” reation of an “imagined g the upper classes. 17 Tradit of of the same enging the

ional ’, not’, 14

11 CEU eTD Collection 18 restrict cultural and religious freedoms of Baltic served as a model as well. The tsarist policy of Ru German universities; consequently, German nationali century meant that young Latvian intellectuals lear nationalists. As well,the existence of a German bo t of Russian nationalism was occurring through the Sl nineteenth century. Latvia was then a part of the R deter continuing struggles over governing such a large an does not fully explore the the complexity of issues century were a reaction to nationalist movements al demand. development of their nation, and entrepreneurs sati others. Publishers materials of in a language new t experience of communicating in the same language, r national creating community, a feeling of solidarit era to define a nation. Both spoken language and pr indistinct and uncontrolled borders), and especiall he heritage of the Russian peasant culture was one Anderson, minedly the by 1860s and becoming a powerful politi The nationalistmovement began in the 1840s in Latv 18 Policies of “official nationalism” as pursued by e Imagined Communities Imagined

, 75.

citizens of the Russian ssification fromthe 1880s, in seeking to o o print were bot y linguistic, developed over the modern d multiethnic state. y andy familiaritythrough sharing the urgeoisie in Latvia since the thirteenth within the Russian Empire and the tsars’ ussian Empire, where the development ned German and often studie int literature were used sfying a pre important influence on the Latvian ready emerging; howe avophiles. The Slavophiles’ emphasis on eading the same newspaper as many sm sm and its emphasis on the cal movement by the late mpires in the nineteenth ia, developing more - existing consumer h advocates of the

Empire, served to ver, Anderson to define the d in volk

12 CEU eTD Collection 9. 1981), Press, University Princeton 23 22 21 20 382 2001), 19 the population’s native languages. After 1865, an a as supportin some Russian authorities as a wayto stop Germaniza government over the traditional German mobility.Ru Russification meas gradual introduction of Russian administration, ins movements in Latvia and other Russian territories. the growth of Marxist consciousness in the republic The revolutions of 1905 Baltic Germans; Russian mandatorythebecame langua Russifying measures were made in the Baltic areas, been developing for decades in the Baltics,Ukraine tsaris to create a national print literature in which nati were inspired by national movements in other countr to bring young Latvians into the movement. bring the Latvian nationalist movement closer toget Anderson, Anderson, Benedict Anderson, Geoffrey Hosking, Edward C. Thaden , the, popular national mo t policy of Russification began only in the 1880s, Benedict Anderson points out that Russification dev Russfication, as a deliberatemeasure, dated back t - 4. Imagined Communities Imagined Communities Imagined

g greater unity of Russia, but other critics saw no , Russia: People and Empire and Russia: People Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1 Finland, and Provinces Baltic in the Russification Imagined Communities Imagined ures often aimedto support Latvians and Estonians

- 1907, so celebrated by Soviet authorities for their vements proliferating in Europe since the 1820s.”

, 87. , 87.

(London: Verso, 2006), 86. (London: Verso, 2006), (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, (Cambridge, HarvardPress, Massachusetts: University

onalist ideas could be circulated. Official dministrator to the region, Petr Shuvalov,

titutions and language. , Georgia and elsewhere. The first aiming to combat the supremacy t of s, helped galvanize her; ies; language was an essential element, tion of the Baltic populations, as well 21 ssification measures were seen by after nationalist movements had ge of instruction in state schools. 19 growth of education also helped o o Catherine the Great, aimed at a eloped “

need to promote Russian over 855 - 1914 after (Princeton, New Jersey: New Jersey: (Princeton, nationalist in education and demonstrations of , and, 23 theBy 1850s, 20 Nationalists in reaction reaction in 22 he 13

CEU eTD Collection 28 1980s to 1840s Latvia, 27 26 25 24 Russian population didoften so through joining the took on German names and lost their earlier identit integrated into the German or Russian mobility;tho resented this implication. German communities by virtue of their educations at Kronvalds and Barons had worked as teachers. this newspaper. Alunāns worked on researching Latvi students) which mocked the Baltic Germans. the Alunāns, Krišjānis Barons and Atis Kronvalds. Valde Latvian nation developed socially and intellectually. cultural Russification began “in earnest” in the 18 fromthe nineteenth century through the 1905 revolu and Estonian schools. Russian high schools and expansion of Russian langu compromises left German high schools and universiti aimedfor a process that included the use of Russia Ieva Zake, Thaden, Plakans, Andrejs Thaden, Thaden, Pēterburga Avīze Pēterburga Andrejs Plakans notes the existence of several gene The early nationalists were expectedto be able to Russification Russfication Russification Nineteenth - builders in the mid The Latvians: A Short History Short A Latvians: The , 209. , (Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2008), 34 New, TheYork: 2008), (Lewiston, Edwin Press, Mellen - , 214. , 36.

Century Nationalism and Twentieth and Nationalism Century

(St.Petersburg Gazette),for Latvians living in S

27 Prior to this, Latvians who had achieved an educat

- nineteenth century, including Krišj 25 The “Yo (Stanford, H California: 26

Barons ung Latvians” thebecame first group of 80s,the population had significantly n in teaching and government. - Century Anti Century army. y, whiley, those integrating with the mārs founded a pro age teaching in the German,Latvian se integrating with the Germ tion and up until 1918. By the time an history and developing the language; es, but mandated the building of new Russian and German universities, and and Alunāns also wrote articles for 28 assimilate into Russian or Balti rations of Latvian nationalists, Both German ideas of national oover Institution Press, 1995), 90. 1995), oover Press, Institution - Democratic Ideals: The Case of Case The Ideals: Democratic .

ānis Valdermārs, Juris t. Petersburg (mainly - Latvian newspaper, ion had

24 ans often Later c 14

CEU eTD Collection 34 33 32 31 30 29 enslaved by Germans for centuries. civilization would have reached the achievements of in texts schoolbooks, naming streets afteran them, work of these authors to build nationalism, promoti unique historical ev Zake calls the writing of Latvian history “an intel been considered as a separate, self or rather developing nationalism in the late nineteenth centu history of Latvia, inmany cases, more of mytholo a of by thethe Russiantime revolution, with 7 of Latvian education, art and journalism.The educa a desire to unseat the Baltic Germans, and the Germ those in power were often sympathetic to the Latvia at Russian or German universities, spent in citime However,the issue was complex: Latvian nationalist Slavophile ideas also proved useful to claim indepe Latvian case,Lutheranism rather than Orthodoxy)to spirit and the Slavophiles’ ideas of the simple pea Zake, Ibid. Zake, Ķeni Indulis Zake, Plakans,

Nationalism Nationalism Nationalism Early Latvian nationalist movements were based in c — The Latvians The inventing the history of Latv ņš , Latvijas Latvijas Vēsture , 43. , 42. , 37. idence as falsifications.”

, 92.

[History of [History Latvia]

- identified group earlier,there was no historical p 34 As well,the highly popular epic tale of ians as an ethnic group.” 33 The leaders of the interwar state used the 5 (Riga: Zvaigznes, 1993), 176. (Riga: Zvaigznes, 1993), % of the population literate. sant and importance lectual adventure filled with as much ndence fromthe Baltic Germans. ties like St. Petersburg and Moscow, and d so on. Juris Alun ry, as Ieva Zake remarks, “researching tion system was already well ancient Greece if Latvians had not been gy, gy, was a “crucial of element” s continued t ng their works culturally, excerpting n movement n ans out of a liberal ok root in Latvian nationalism.The ulture,focussing on the growth 32 Since Latvians had not — o benefit from educations Russian authorities from

of religion (in the āns suggested Latvian - minded support. 31 Creating the Lāčplēsis - developed recedent; 29

, 30 — 15

CEU eTD Collection 323. 35 develop tales of the great Latvian kings of the pas narrative of past victimization.Ulmanis The govern helped to create an exaggerated version of the past Soviet period and after. the of idealizedmyth Latvian state, used as a fram prejudices and the problematicUlmanis regime,the by the as modela of the ideal Latvian state through the S detractors, did not use any tactics of terror to co instituted himself as dictator. minister Kārlis Ulmanis, who declared all political positive image the republic held for Latvians was t culture, education and language. Latvi and were able to turn their nationalist ideas into the 1840s. Latvian nationalist intellectuals compri political events and the nationalistmovement that Latvian hero and the foundation of Riga, inspired b written by Andrejs Pumpurs and first published in 1 Gaston Lacombe, and “Nationalism Education in Latvia

strong nationalism of ethnic Latvians, to detrithe The independence achieved in November 1918 was a co Nationalist policies in education and the developme

Ulmanis’s dictatorship,though not friendlyexactly

a’s independence lasted only 21 years, and the , 1918 ntrol its citizens. The interwar state served government policies, especiallymanifest in sed majoritythe the of new government t and medieval Latvia. arnished the by 1934 coup by prime oviet and Nazi occupations, characterized , a, sense of national superiority, and a parties illegal, his own included, and ework for national identity throug had bee y other countries’ similar efforts. me 888 interwar period began to represent a - 1940,” nt nt supported historical research to , mythologized the idea of the mentminorities. of Despite the n building in the country since nt nt of a nationalist history

Journal of Baltic Studies Journal of Baltic nsequence both of external 35 These nationalist 28.4 28.4 to his

h the (1997), (1997), 16

CEU eTD Collection 39 38 37 36 of independentmemory the Latvian was not re Recollectionsmemory. are created through landmarks burden us,” choose whichmemories we want to focus on and n are likewise reproduced, creating this predominant arememories continually reproduced, perpetuating a predominant is amemory sortmutual of support and assistance; collective as memory a source of stability and norm always directly,remembered but shared within a com intangible forms shared shared memory, by a group such as the nation United States,Canada, England, Sweden and Australi other Soviet peoples brought in as workers, and a d living under Soviet rule in a cou collectivethe of Latvian memory citizenry,fragmen a disproportionate number of nationalists. This myt communities of Latvians exiled to the w ideas carried on in the generations that grew up in Halbwachs, Halbwachs, Halbwachs, Halbwachs, Maurice Halbwachs looks at collective as memory a s 38 On Collective Memory Collective On Memory Collective On Memory Collective On Memory Collective On memory of the of past,memory what is used to instead focusing on better times. The past is pres (a monument, (amonument, festival),a reinforce the sharedmemo

, 175. , 50. , 47. , 40. ntry increasingly populated by foreign

est during the Second World War, which contained membered membered directly Latviansby born in the the independent republic and in the construct the present. iaspora settling predominantly in the eglect others that are “inconvenient or memory of the of past.memory We are free to not an individual but the memory, ality in of change.times Collective h of the interwar period abecame ted during the war years into a group sense of identity. . National celebrations, in tangible or mon consciousness.mon Halbwachs notes a. , mental , or physical.

oci erved through social ally constructed idea of a - ry. Events are not born Russians and 37 36 Shared memories Individual 39 Consequently, 17 CEU eTD Collection 43 42 41 40 as a reminder of history. the pre tangible reminders of that which no longer exists e “The less is experiencedmemory from within, the gr original events will be forgotten. These places sit construction memorials of and the performance of ce longer itremember from within. The monument’s cons framework. consciousness; Nora note be needed if a population still had these memories. everyday experience,” he states. there are no long in an age where the idea of nationalism has changed Memory monument in Riga. families and other routes, such as Latvian language SovietUnion or the west, but was contained in a so Nora, Nora, Nora, Nora, Pierre - Realms of Memory Realms of Memory Realms of Memory Realms Pierre Nora a Sovietfarther freedom became and farther away,the Nora posits that places need to memory of be create . Monuments. represent a sort of symbolic history, a s that the nation is no longer the unifying framewo

Realms of Memory Realms 42 in Latvia after 1940, the nation as wasit known w er any settingsmilieux mémoire, de in which memory

pplies Halbwachs’ theory to the studymonuments of , Vol. I,, 7. Vol. I,, 6. Vol. I,, 1. Vol.

(New York: Columbia Un York: (New

41 Places signifymemory of an uprooting; they would somewhere between xcept xcept qua memory.” schools in the west, or the sight of the Writing of twentieth cial framework passed to throughthem . 40 iversity Press, 1997), Vol. I, xxiii. Vol. 1997), Press, iversity eater its need for external props and “Lieux de mémoire exist becausemémoire “Lieux de remonies at out them of a fear the truction falls into this context: the d because of a belief focus on “collective heritage” monument continued to serve rk that defines the collective as no longer a unifying memory memory and history. 43 is a real part of - century France, As theof memory in Realms of of Realms

we will no not 18 CEU eTD Collection 48 47 ofinstrument the nation’s interests.” 46 45 44 idealizations.” loss, more theit is overcompensated with co wasmemory a part of everyday she life, argues, but the institulization of nostalgia. “perfect Latvianness” of the interwar republic. and transitions.” who theirleft idealized notion of the past. Homesickness, too, sh nationalists in and outside Latvia in the Soviet er particularly Latvian grief, b dzimtenes equivalents for the word “homesickness” in various borders remained outside the n gained new strength after the war, when both Latvia outside the community rather than from within.” communist era in Eastern Europe. Nostalgia of Future Boym, Boym, Zake, Boym, Svetlana Boym, Nationalism In her writing on nostalgia, Svetlana Boym also con Boym describes the nineteenth The Future of Nostalgia Future The of Nostalgia Future The of Nostalgia Future The , to long , for homeland, is the implying,term, as i 48 homelands, but also people who “lived through major The Future of Nostalgia Future The In this way, one can read the monument as memori a 45 , 60: Latvia after 1918 was to was Latvia be , 60: after“a 1918 o perfect realization In the couldmonument, time stand still, reflectin

investigates the development of nostalgia in the co eing forever torn from land.the This could be used , 17. , 15 , 256. 47

ation that had been. Boym considers the etymology o

Nora’s work can be read as a nostalgia for the tim

Boym notes that “national awareness comes from

(New York: Basic Books, 2001), 12. Books, Basic 2001), York: (New - century drive mmemorations…the more it is prone to 46

a. Nostalgia is romantic, based on an 44 e notes, does not need to applyto those In the case of Latvia, national awareness this is paradoxical: “the stronger the languages. In Latvian, ns inside and outside the country’s to buildmuseums and memorials as siders collective memory. n otherBoym’s examples, a f Latvianness, and it was to be an

historical upheavals g theof the memory al for two losses: in mmunist and post ilgoties pēc pēc ilgoties both by e e f The The 19 - CEU eTD Collection 54 Monument have brought out betweentensions the exp communities, recent years, attacks on the monument by Latvian groups the Monument, Victory was a co 53 52 51 50 49 Monuments” between 2004 and 2007 again showed this onto which anxieties and anger were projected.” statues). first victims of the new order in the post argues. transformation. A monument is not necessarily somet memories. projects like the Soviet oral history initiative Me she attributes as majora cause for the collapse of Perestroika and the subsequent re between family and close friends, an “alternative v case, as open nostalgia would be prosecuted. Instea twentieth inmovement the 1980s, as memoriala for indepe 1935, as a memorial for those lost in the war, and Boym, Boym, Boym, Boym, Boym, In Riga, the Soviet monument commemorating the Second W 52 Boym paraphrases historians Jean Starobinski and Mi Monuments are “messengers of powe “Memorial places in the city have to be seen in the The Future of Nostalgia Future The of Nostalgia Future The of Nostalgia Future The of Nostalgia Future The of Nos Future The

New monuments were erected by the SovietUnion; .

- century nostalgia was privatized;

talgia ncrete monstrosity built nearncrete Sovietmonstrosity apartment in complexes , 89. , 70. , 63. , 61. , 53.

- opening of the past ledboom,” to a “memory - Soviet era 49 in the Soviet regime, this was certainly the r, and as such,frequently scapegoatsbecame lored lored by Viesturs and groups by ofcelebrations Russian pride Russian 54 morial brought out previously hidden the Soviet ndent Latvia. In Estonia, the so by the time of by thethe independencetime ision of the past, present and future.” d, “countermemory” d (or earlier, considering the case of Stalin orld orld War, the ‘GreatWar’, Patriotic known as h power monuments, of as Estonia ing petrified and stable,” Boym process of continuous Union, as Baltic protests and chael Roth as concluding that Kairi 53

these monuments were the š s in his 2006 documentary in 2006 s his - called “War of eveloped, passed a new suburb. In 51 which 50

20 CEU eTD Collection Ending World War,” ThreatIdentity and Maintenance in Estonia,” Monuments’ AnotherFrom Angle,” 55 beyond what their sculptors imagined. the Latvian protests of the 1980s both show the statues vandalism, cyber attacks by Russian hackers and rio popular gathe the centre of to themilitarya city on cemetery th to the Soviet ‘liberators’ in the early days of Sov April 2007 when a statue known aggravated pre vandalismtowards these monuments, and an t attempt tried to remove or relocate Soviet See monuments of the Baltic States in the twentieth ce Stuart Burch and David Smith, J. “Empty Spaces and the

ring place for the Russian andcommunity its remova - existing tensions between ethnic Estonians and Russ Journal of Baltic Studies Studies Journal of Baltic

Europe

as the “Bronze Soldier” in Tallinn, erected as a m - era monumen - Asia Studies Asia Journal of Baltic Studies Journal of Baltic

39.4 (2008). 39.4 59 59 iet power, was moved from locationa in ts in several municipalities in the wake of

(2007), (2007), e e outskirts of the city.The statue was a as nationalist battleground, showing that ting in Tallinn. Value ofEstonia’s ‘War Symbols: of ntury attained a power and role far o o erase the Soviet past. The removals Martin Ehala, “T 40.1 (2009), Marko Lehti, “Never (2009), 40.1 55 l culminated in ians, reaching a height in These These protests and the he Bronze Soldier: he Soldier: Bronze onument - 21 CEU eTD Collection north of the city centre. (See zināt,“Vai kur Rīgā atroda twenty wasIt later. stored years in fragment In an attempt to evacuate the statue tovia Russia th 243. of Latvian c. Art.]2002, Riga: Petergailis, 57 from Latvian translations All are my own no otherwise unless (‘Br 56 statue was removed in 1915. stood for only five years, however: as the front mo commemor place. The bronze equestrian statue was constructed a statue already stood. that monumentthe could stand at the Laube was offered a small amount money of to begin “Professor Laube’s fallen solider memorial project early 1920s to build a memorial. Initial govern had designed many of Riga’s Jugendstil buildings, p quickly took on grander ambitions. The architect Ei discussed in 1921. Though the original monument was began to be discussed. The fighting ended in 1920, the fallento commemorate in both the First World Wa Laila Brem Laila “Prof Letter from the 1922, 27, July cabinet ministry, ī v ī bas bas pieminek Shortly after Latvia gained independence and civil Prior to the Br š ate the 200 a, Aija Brasliņa, Dainis Bruģis, Stella Pelše and Stella Pelše Bruģis, Inta Dainis a, Brasliņa, Aija II. Construction of the Freedom Monument in the in Freedom Monument the of II. Construction ļ a’ projekts)” fonds, 1307.1.989, p. 13, a’ fonds,projekts)” 1307.1.989,

56 ī th v

anniversaryPeter of conquering the region of Vidz ī bas Piemineklis, a statue of thePeter Great stood 57 The plinth remaining fromthe Peter statue was to

Interwar Republic Interwar s until a restoration in 2001 and standss incurrently until inaa restoration 2001 pa

route of soldiers liberating Latvia, where a space e Baltic Sea, it fell in the ocean and was not ou pulled ment documents describe monumentthe as s Pētera I piemineklis?” [Do you know s Pētera I wherepiemineklis?” in Riga esora Laubes kritu esora Latvijas Valsts V Latvijas Valsts and the monument was already being ved closer to Riga during the war, the (‘Br etitioned the Latvian government in the ted. tsaristby authorities in 1910 to žens Laube, a well sugg work on the project. It was suggested ī Pujāte. v r and the war for independence ī bas piemineklis’ project)”, and

w ested as a war memorial, it ar ended, plans for a monument Latvijas Mākslas Vēsture Latvijas Mākslas š ē o kara v stures Arh stures ī ru pieminek - known architect who ī vs, Riga. in the same eme. The statue eme.

ļ

a projekts a projekts be be pull . [History [History . rking lot t until for ed 22 CEU eTD Collection V Valsts Latvijas 58 atrodas the Peter monument I is?], differed substantiallyfrom the one he submitted in not agree on a design, and a second contest was hel newspapers and at Riga’s universities and art schoo for the sculptor of the monument, open to any Latvi for those who signed it. Following the petition, th in the petition, Laube’s Baltic German heritage may Melderis, Burhards Dzenis,Teodors Za being encoded in the sculpture: artistically uninteresting. This petition sugg such an important monument. They also considered La requesting that other artists, specializing in scul ethnomusicologist Em intellectuals with quotations and portraits of the writers Krišj down. Laube’s project suggested a 27 “Iesniegums Ministru Kabinetam” [Petition Ministru to“Iesniegums the Cabi strangers have described our heroes’ p monument cannot give evidence to our future generat notice whichof, are scattered around the graveyard project is not li and our era. It should be a collective effort by ou monument…This must be a specific artwork that real - petera In April 1923, Latvian of aartists, committee writ The committee suggestedThe committee names of several artists wh - i (including painter Ansis Cirulis, poet K - piemineklis.d?id=40908719). ē stures Arh stures ke ke others, like the usualmonuments cemetery that n

ī Delfi, ls Melngailis and others), submitt ī vs, Riga. September 30, 2011, aculiecinieks.delfi.lv/n September 2011, 30,

- metre metre high obelisk in the place of the Peter I stat

ļ

kalns, and K ast struggles. ested the importance of a national ideology pture, should be chosen as the designers of net Ministry], April 21, 1923, 1307.1.989, p. 18, 1307.1.989, 1923, 21, April net Ministry], ānis Barons and Atis Kronvaldis. e e government decided t l. The jury for this initial contest could d in 1923), completed together with ā also have been a source of contention ā rlis Skalbe, composer and an citizen, which was advertised in rlis Z r best artists 58 1929, for which Z ube’s proposed 27 s of European cities. This

ed aed petition to the government ers, politicians, actors and other ā ions, or foreigners, that izes the spirit of our people le. Though it is notmentioned

o o should be included, Em ews/riga/vai - sculptors. This ā o o one takes o o create a contest - le’s design (which metre metre obelisk - zinat -

kur

- riga ue ue ī ls - 23

CEU eTD Collection 61 60 59 identity and European taste and achievement.” managed for the edification of the public, and as p Modern Europe was to be expressed in the monuments building in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth independent Latvia. Laurajane Smith notes the links monumentthe also‘freedom’, served an important ro nation’s authority. Acting not only as memoriala t universities, as well inaugurate the new nation through establishing inst Ulmanis’s 1934 coup suggest may that opinions varie majority. power, and the most widely heard views of Latvians views: Latvians had had little influence over the m Latvian or other sources, to what th extent education and culture. Andrejs Plakans notes that i sentiments of the nationalists in the pre in 1931. architect Ernests Štalbergs, was ultimately selecte Laurajane Smith, Thaden, Aps Vaidelotis 59 Nationalist feeling in Latvia was strong in the yea The monument The followed a tradition monumental of scu Russification

60

(The political(The dis ī tis, tis, The Uses of Heritage of Uses The Brīvības Pieminek Brīvības as public sculpture. , 208.

agreements of the Latvian government between 1918 a

lis (New York: Routledge, 2006), 18. Routledge, York: (New 2006), (Riga: Zinatne, 1993), 76. (Riga: Zinatne, 1993),

- war era now manifested in policies in government, e e Latvian population before 1917 held shared 61

d. Construction on the monument began ajority elites or interest in their shifts in hysical representations of national t ist difficult to ascertain, either from o fallen soldiers and signifier of Latvian itutions like theatres, archives and centuries: “The sense of the new between monuments and nation were not necessarily those of the d widely.)The new government had to le of nati that were to b

r s between 1918 and 1940. The on lpture built to establish a - building in the newly e e protected and nd the - 24 CEU eTD Collection 62 There were few events for Latvians to asremember a this symbolsmovement, from peasant culture, and th existed, led intellectuals by and grounded in cultu create its own traditions and draw on the history o there was no tradition of statehood to look back on provincial administration that did exist was domina which had its own parliament from 1809 empires achieved greater autonomy earlier people subjugated within larger states and empires. notable differentiation from the ruling classes had and after. Though works published in Latvian, Latvi where nationalismmovements developed without staa Latvian heritage to pass on to the people. to future generations.” to receive and revere what has been passed on and i war. Sm institutions like museums and theatres were quickly monuments and needed to construct a sense of nation until relatively recent

Smith, In 1918, as a nation whose majority ethnic group ha Consequently,the sculpture of the monument used th Latvia’s nationalism movement was similar to other The Uses of Heritage of Uses The ith notes thatmonuments imply a continuous heritag

ly, Latvia lacked the history that other nations ha 62 The Br , 19.

īvības Piemineklis was part of the construction a n —

Latvia did not have its own government;the — such as Finland within the Russian empire, re. existedfor centuries,they belonged to a While other na f thef nationalist movement that had n turn pass the inheritance, untouched, ted by Baltic G .The new nation in the interwar had to an schooling, cultural traditions and a

established in the years following the nation. The events and figures e e early history of the nascent nation. al history and tradition. Cultural te through the nineteenth cen d been almost entirely peasants nations of Eastern Europe, e: “The dutythe of present is e e imagery of the history of tions within European ermans. Consequently, d glorified in their ew tury 25 CEU eTD Collection 18, p. 16, 1307.1.989, 64 63 financed anthem, and quotations from nationalist writers Kri and inctexts ( of national symbols were discussed by monumentthe location at the beginning of Br however, an proposal and the conclusion of the second design co allusions to the German in peasant costume.The Latvian word the early twentieth century, and figures like the p most Latvians were not more than a generation or tw rather than simply an abstract idea. The allusions directly remembered the events depicted;this made fromthe early twentieth century. Most of the peopl been published just fortyyears earlier, with chara the 1905 revolution, the 1919 battle against the Be dep saulite “Profesora Laubes kritu “Profesora Plakans, icted on the monument existed in the living memory Due to financial shortages in the years after the w three ), stars (for Latvia’s three historic distric Alternate locations for a monument were discussed i principally by donations from Latvian citizens. Th The Latvians The d a historic square dividing the medieval and moder luding “God bless Latvia” ( Latvijas Valsts V Latvijas Valsts

, 90. š o kara v

volk . ī 63 ru pieminek ī

v

ī ē bas iela was ultimately agreed upon. Different sugg stures Arh stures tauta Dievs, svēti Latviju svēti Dievs, ļ a projekts ī vs, Riga. , folk , rmontian thearmy; epic of La cters reappearing in more (‘Br easant farmer and ‘Mother Latvia’ dressed

to the pe or people, carried similar romantic mpetition in 1929. As Riga’s main street, š e e seeing the monument in its first years it part of an actual collective memory, ī j v o o removed from peasant farmers in ts of Kurzeme, Vidzeme and Latgale) ā ī committee, includingcommittee, a bronze sun nis Barons and Atis Kronvaldis. bas bas pieminek ar, monumentthe was to be of of Latvians in the 1920s and 1930s: asantry were also important; e e donation campaign was ), the first), line of the national n then years between the initial n parts the of the city, ļ a’ fonds,projekts)” recent works č pl ē estions sis had 64

26 CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 and p. 84 86, fonds,projekts) 2575.7.1430, Laubes kritu Profesora 1933, tautas piemineklis,” 66 11. 2002), Monument: The Peoples’ Construction and Responsi 65 Latvian word for a gathering for collective work. collective work,” stated an advertisement, working together was also important: “Everyone must that will show us what route we take so that we do silent,that we and future generations will be remi techniques usedThe statue by the wascommittee. to newspaper advertisements and interviews with the mo our sons who donated with their lives,” independence. “Freedom was not given to us contribute and to honour those who died in the Firs monument” and “our Freedommonument.” campaign. Advertisements fromthe 1930s referred to whatever they could. printed with “Let’s build the FreedomMonument la up in towns across the country. Vouchers were issue advertised around Latvia from 1929 by advertisement “K Ibid “Br Br Br “Celsim rge to small, including donations of just a few cen ī ā v ī Br veidojas mūsu . v ī

bas Piemineklis committee, “K Piemineklis bas ī bas piemineklis bas Nationalist rhetoric and the idea of working togeth

ī v ī bas Pieminek bas

ī — v

ī tautas piemineklis,” 2575.7.1430, p. 86, 2575.7.1430, tautas piemineklis,” bas piemineklis,” 257 bas piemineklis,” ļ im!” Maraim!” Caune,

ā veidojas mūsu Br Latvijas Valsts V Latvijas Valsts 67 5.7.1430, p. 84, 5.7.1430, read one advertisement. Posters on the streets, Br š 69 o kara v ī v calling themonument a bility] (Riga: Br bility] ī — bas Piemineklis: bas 66 this hard workfrom the came sacrifices of Emphasis was placed on everyone’s dutyto ī v

ī ī ru pieminek nded of our arrival at our shared freedom, bas piemineklis” and “Br bas piemineklis” ē !” stures Arh stures not lose ts from schoolchildren; certificates were d for donations in amounts raging from t World War and str 65 the monument as “the peoples’ Latvijas Valsts V Valsts Latvijas s in newspapers and set by committees serve as “a voice that would not fall People were encouraged to donate nument’s creators we come to come work together on this Latvijas Valsts V Valsts Latvijas ī v

tautas celts un aprūpēts un aprūpēts celts tautas er was ī this freedom.” bas Pieminek bas ļ ī a (‘Brprojekts vs, Riga. strong in the donation

ē talka stures Arh stures ē stures Arh stures ī ļ v a Atjauno uggle for ī ī bas piemineklis bas v , an , ancient ī 68 b re among the as as pieminek The idea of ī vs, Riga. ī [The Freedom vs, Riga. š anas Fonds,

ļ a’ —

27 CEU eTD Collection 73 Japan and Other Countries], Canton, 3281 August 1934, 72 71 France, 2575.7.1430, 70 became independent, Z Vera Mukhina was among his peers in St. Petersburg. the chance meet withto artists like Vladimir Mayak duri latermoving to St. Petersburg in 1915. Zāle was in Lithuania, close to the Latvian border. Zāle studie into as memory a collective enterprise of the entir people turned out for the official unveiling on Nov people.” active role, to theirremember homeland country in contribute, writing, “I then also warmly invite EVE the former ambassador to China formed monument a Z publicity in France through a 1935 article in the m Latvian names, and foreign officials often donated target La Though the campaign was run through Latvian embassi abroad, including in France, Germany, Italy, Finlan Apsīti Kina, Japana, Ed.“Visiem Silgalvis, un Citas Dziv Zemes “L’Art à L’Étranger un konsulārās pārstāvniecības “Latvijas ā diplomātiskās ā le “surely one of most theinteresting sculptors of ng his student years, s, The dona Sculptor K 72 Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības tvians abroad, documents detailing donations in Fra The campaign successfully raised bot tion campaign was shared not only in the country, b Latvijas Valsts Vēstures Arhīvs, Riga Arhīvs, Vēstures Latvijas Valsts — ā En Lettonie, rlis Z

āle was frustrated with life and the art scene in R 73 ā , 42. le was born to a Latvian family in 1888 in a town i though he also studied other trends in art in the

”

Beaux - Arts , February 15, ,1935. 15, February .1.63, p. 42, .1.63, h money and awareness, and thousands of rzemēs” fonds, Brīvības Piemineklis committee in Piemineklis fonds, Brīvības rzemēs” . ojsiem Latvijiem” Latvijiem” [To Latviansall ojsiem inLiving China,

terested in realism and the human form d at art schools in Kazan and Moscow, agazine e e nation. money as well. ember 18, 1935. The site thus entered RY RY Latvian living abroad to take an d, Czechoslovakia d, and other countries. contemporary art in general.”) their hearts and feel love for their ovsky. The Riga Returning to Latvia after th committee for Latvians committee in Asia to es and consulates and aimedto Latvijas Valsts Vēstures Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Vēstures Latvijas Valsts Beaux

nce list both French and - arts 70

(Z - on Latvian art, calling born Russian sculptor ut with Latvians living ā le’s work also gained iga and travelled to world and had n present e e country 71 Even - day

28 CEU eTD Collection 75 74 includ the Soviet art journal agency and he was among artists mentioned in an art Štalbergs was briefl fair in banksRome, and train stations in various c pre facultyUniversitythe at of Latvia. education in 1914, and returned to Latvia in 1922 w Petersburg. He worked as an architect and taught ar also studied at the art school in Kazan, continuing in 1936) is similar in style and used somethe of s returned to Latvia. The sculpture of the Brothers’ Brethren or Warriors’ where fallen Cemetery), soldie on the Brothers’ Cemetery in 1923 to work on his proposal for the Brīvības Pi an interest in monumental sculpture as public art d as Ru the Bauhaus school and the Dutch movement De Stijl, Berlin in 1922 for seven months, studying construct M. Pavila, Ernests Štalbergs file summary, 95.1 apraksts, apraksts, p M. Pavila,95.1 Štalbergs summary, Ernests file Apsītis, - war Russia, he had worked on buildings including th ssian and other émigrés. ed rooms at Universitythe Latvia, of sanitoriums a Architect Ernests Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības y a member of they sculpturalmember a division of the Soviet

Communal Art Š , 43 talbergs was born in Liepaja, in the west of Latvia ( Brāļu kapi Brāļu 74 - 4

Zāle was interested in geometric forms and had dev

Š talbe . 75 Štalbergs’ other projects in Latvia in the 1920s , also translatedsometimes the of as Cemetery rgs also had an interest in Italian architecture. I ame ame imagery as the Br ities in Russia. After the revolution, emineklis, Zāle was also selec his stu Cemetery (begun Cemetery in . 10, Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Latvijas Valsts . 10, hen offered a position in the architecture uring his years in Russia. While in Riga ivism, architecture theory, the work of chitecture history after completing his icle by Mayakovsky in the first issue of rs fromthe war were laid to rest, and living among German artists as well e e Russian pavilion for a 1911 world’s dies in architecture in St. nd nd other functional buildings. Narkompros culture 1924 and completed ī v ī bas Piemineklis. , in 1883. He

ted to work eloped

n n

29 CEU eTD Collection 25. 2010), Hanovs,Deniss eds., 76 earlier avant artists trained in the same institutions and many w the 1910s and 1920s were limited to the Soviet prog regime. The generations of artists in the Soviet Un and educations in Russia, isit unclear whether eit for their positioning in Sovietthough texts; both regimes. of somethis of national iconography meant it cou The early idea of ‘fatherland’ was indistinct, but until the emancipation of the Baltic serfs in 1816: lacked much idea of either connection to or distanc concept was not as ancient as nationalists would su monument referred to a concept of historical “fathe Russian schools and Zāle was influenced by German a emphasizedcommittees the Latvianness of monumethe final design for the FreedomMonument. Though the s generations of Latvian nation Pauls Daija, ofDaija, “APauls theGenesis Concept of Statehood a Germanised atthebefore time the abolishment of se was never any question question of statehood and belonging was tied to Rus Latvian civilisation, culture and education was tie Latvian culture in the interwar republic drew heavi Zāle’s and Štalbergs’ studies and work in Russia we

-

garde. The sharp angles of constructivist work can Latvia and Latvians: A People and a State in Ideas, inIma Ideas, State a and People A Latvians: and Latvia

of the Latvian ever having been Russified or being - builders. This heritage was embodied in the sculptu

nd Perception in ofAusm Patriotism,” not tiedto Russia. The ambiguous heritage

her artist ever sympathized wi were obviously influenced by their time ld later be exploited by two occupying ion who followed the constructivists of ram of socialist realism; however, most ere taugh ggest: Latvian patriotism was cultural and ing from the Ger rland,” but Pauls Daija suggests this d to d to German elements, while the nd nd Russian art. The inscription o ymbolism was Latvian and the nt, the designersnt, had studied at sia; therethe sameat time rfdom. ly on the works of the preceeding re notable and clearly important t by or with the leaders of the be be found in many later 76 ges and Symbols and ges

mans or Russians up

a Cimdi th the Soviet

(Riga: (Riga: Zinatne, re of Zāle’s ņ n the a and 30 CEU eTD Collection 78 77 1920, to liberate the countryforeign from troops. Though Latvia’s independenc measures;they also resented, more historically, th dominated by Germans and Russians. Pre generations had resented the travelled to other countries to study and work. Lat war Latvia, as the country had only a polytechnic s and future. Zāle’s work: strong, streamlined human figures conj subjectivity and a new romanticism,” Groys points o from each other. “Like the 1930s in Euro SovietUnion and elsewhere in Europe in the interwa with a later dismissal of it and return to their ho this angle, however, an early idealistic support of surprising; later events and repressions would caus also interested in revolution and innovation, the s writers declaredimmediately their full support for Cemetery. sculp Groys, Groys, Groys, Boris tures and images, including Zāle’s work for the Brī Art historian Boris Groys notes that in 1917, ma “a Obtaining a broad educati The Total The

The Total Art of Stalinism of Art Total The Art of Stalinism of Art

need to obtain an education in the institutions of e e was declared on November 18, 1918, it took until

, 58. on would have been difficult for Zāle and Štalbergs

(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992 Press, Princeton University (Princeton, New Jersey: pe, Stalinist culture rediscovered human - war Latvians resented tsarist Russification me country. me the r upport of artists in 1917 is not altogether With wide support for an independent e e to change many their minds. Seen from e e dominance of the German bourgeoisie. vian nation the the new Bolshevik state.” chool, and artists have commonly uring up ideas of a romanticized past r were also not completely divorced ut. egime is not altogether incompatible 78 vības Piemineklis and Brothers’ This romanticism is apparent in jority of avant

Artistic developments in the - builders of differing - garde artists and 77 As a group the January 26, in pre ), ), 20.

31 - CEU eTD Collection 82 81 80 79 mythology. ‘Mother Latvia’, dressed in traditional base of the obelisk. Four sculptures encircling the Stars, created in 1924. symbolismthe of ‘three stars’ also Latvia’sbecame for Latvia’s fourth region, Zemgale, was discussed, Jānis Rainis, and they were adopted officially as a appears elsewhere,mentioned in a poem nineteent by Skulme, suggested. Sculptor Marta haveSkulmemay s Latgale.” Freedom goddess, who holds in her hands three stars advertisement as “a slim o of a young woman. The top portion of the sculpture of the French republic following the French Revolut The figure at the top of the obe monument used national and allegorical symbols to r Latvia’s eagernes country following the 1905 revolutions in Latvia an Ernests Štalbergs fonds, 95.1.8, p. 2, Latvijas Valsts Štalbergs Ernests fonds, 95.1.8, Apsītis, Caune, “Kā veidojas m The statue was built from granite, bronze and trave The text “Tēvzemei un “Tēvzemei brīvībai,”The text for fa Brīvības Pieminklis Brīvības 79 Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības The woman was nicknamed girls’ “Milda,” a common n ū su Brīvības piemineklis,” 2575.7.1430, p. 84, 2575.7.1430, piemineklis,” su Brīvības s to commemorate itss to commemorate new freedom was understandable 80

This section was cast in bronze. The idea of distr

, 43. belisk…with a sublimefigure atthe end: a bronze s , 110

-

1. lisk represented freedom, using a similar symbolism

erved as the model, her daughter, artist D Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, therland and isfreedom, engraved at the base represent Latvian history and national insymbol 192 82 Latvian clothing, holding a sword and a d exhaustion following years of war, national award,the Order of the Three but ultimately not added. The ion, embodying freedom in the form — was described in a 1933 campaign Latvijas Valsts Vēstures Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Vēstures Valsts Latvijas epresent the ideas of Latvian freedom. h symbols of Kurzeme, Vidzeme and - century nationalist poet and icon

rtine. The sculpture of the ame ame at the time. icts as stars also 1. .

81 A fourth star tatue of a žemma žemma to that

32 CEU eTD Collection Pennsylvania: PePark, 86 85 84 83 two modern Latvian soldiers together with medievaa future lies in the wisdomthe of past.” the famous work of its grandfathers.” awake Orpheus Latvian zither, in his hand. Vaidelotis appears sym of independence, becoming another icon of Latvian c celebration of L people. unresolved in the play, unlike the symbolizipoem, between the Latvians and the ruling powers during t Night), written in the German barons. L epic, able to kill a bear with his bare hands and f Lā an epic poem by Andrejs Pumpurs first published in breaking free fromthe chains of slavery. Another s Around the back,the ‘chain shield decorated with a sun design, p Daina Stukuls Eglitis, Quoted in Aps Aps Plakans, č pl ī ē tis, tis, ning: “After centuries the nation will awaken, and sis was vaguely defined in 83 Below, smaller figures at the corners are Vaidelotis, a L - Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības The Latvians The figure. ā č pl ī tis, tis, ē 84 sis was elevated to the status of national icon in āč Vaidelotis appeared in the L Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības pl 1905 but only performed in 1911, where he also embo nnsylvania State University Press, 2002), 63. 2002), nnsylvania State Press, University

pagan priest associated with ancient Latvia, holds ē , 107. Imagining the Nation: History, Modernity, and Revolut and Modernity, History, Nation: the Imagining sis Day annually, and the L āč pl

ē , 136. sis reappeared in Rainis’s famous play - breakers’

Latvian folklore and abecame national hero in Pump , 135. rotects the country at the base of fi the ‘freedom’ 85 86 ( va Together, figuresthe showed that “the way to the

žu rāvēji žu āč the ‘fatherland guards’ pl ighting the Black Knight, metaphora for āč bolically in folk songs as a sort of ē pl culpture represented the epic ) represented) a national awakening, sis epic as well, giving a message of ng an unending struggle of the Latvian he 1905 revolution. The battle was ē 1888. Literally “the bear ollective memory. l soldier with sword;‘work’, showing sis Order given for bravery in the war

regain its freedom/ Remembering the new republic, with the Uguns un Nakts un Uguns ion in Latvia ion a kokle, traditionala (

died the struggle t ēvzeme sargi ēvzeme - slayer,” (University (University Lāčplēsis

(Fire and gure. urs’ ), ), , 33 CEU eTD Collection 88 87 returning home after the war (the First World War an of Latvian history. Both depicted a group of figure the Soviets. independent state. These two struggles against hist centrists, were exiling or imprisoning thousands of Latvians. The tsarist authorities responded by instituting ma in,manors many of t and other cities in Latvia. Besides the strikes, wh strikes commencing several days after Bloody Sunday worker uprising against the tsarist aut Latvian forces and drive Soviet forces out of Latvi the Bermontians in October 1919 on a train bridge a ledarmy, by general Pavel Bermont andmade up ofm the Bermontians, or West Russian Volunteer a G Army, one depicting the ‘battle against the Bermontians,’ figure in the Brothers’ sculpture Cemetery ensemble “the Latvian mother who blesses our sons and daught darbnieki three inmen traditional occupations Plakans, “Br ī v ī bas piemineklis bas At the the bottom of obelisk, two reliefs showed im Around the base of monument,the reliefs on either The Latvians The ), a scientista ), and a writer;mothe a and ‘family’,

infuriated by Russia’s actions, and support grew f

— , 105. he Baltic Germans were burnt in Livonia and Kurzeme tautas piemineklis,” 2575.7.1430, 2575.7.1430, tautas piemineklis,”

— horities. The 1905 revolutions hit Latvia hard, wit a farmer,fisherman and labourer; ‘intellectuals’ 88 Latvians, from socialists to liberals to ich an estimated 316,000 people participated Latvijas Valsts V Latvijas Valsts a. The second relief represented the 1905 oric enemies were enemies later shared by a pivotala battle between the Latvians and s walking, one a group of Latvian soldiers rtial law and subsequently executing, cross the Daugava River helped to unify ), together ), with two sons. ers” in St. Petersburg, throughout Riga d war of independence), a ny ny Baltic Germans. The defeat of erman 87 r, the ‘guardian of the family’: (a echoing symbol the central portant side showed two other element - supported and ē or the idea of an stures Arh stures struggles in recent years: ī vs, Riga.

(Courland).

- karavīru karavīru directed

h ( gara gara 34 s CEU eTD Collection 95. 2010), Hanovs,Deniss eds., 89 1930s showed the monument prominently, defining it the SovietUnion and Nazi Germany. echoes of other contemporary government 15, 1934, decorating Riga for several days and orga square, a nationalistic production called other public displays of pomp and circumstance: a J were made, and folk songs and the national anthemw make a speech about Latvian freedom. Zāle and Štalb monument, with primeminister Kārlis Ulmanis arrivi soldiers, schoolchildren, and national dignitaries co covered by scaffolding, also used as an advertising hours of morning,the travellingsome from across t independence day of November 18, people began arriv traditional folk songs, a tradition which is shared annual festival founded in the nineteenth century w atgriešanas See Radzobe, Silvija “Song of Renewal nstruction, and was veiled with a fabric covering b The 1935 unveiling of monumentthe was a major even Latvians were proudimmediately of their new monume

, the other, showing a procession to the Latvian son Latvia and Latvians: A People and a State in Ideas, inIma Ideas, State a and People A Latvians: and Latvia

— And the in Tradition Mystery,” of Political 89

Song of Renewal of Song - directed mass spectacles in Europe wound down Riga’s streets towards the with Estonia and Lithuania. space, during the years of its nized for an audience of 50,000, with he country.monument The had been here choirs and dancers perform uly 1934 performance in the s efore the opening. Processions of ergs were honoured, other speeches ere sung. Ulmanis’ reign had used ng at ten o’clock in the mornin as “symbolical of the age ing at the monument from the early glorified Ulmanis’ coup of May t. Planned for the national g festival, a nt. Travel guides of the ges and Symbols and ges Ausma Ausma Cimdi major semi

, including -

old longing (Riga: (Riga: Zinatne, ame ame ņ a and g to - 35 CEU eTD Collection 92 91 90 identity. follow were also to p monument was clearly an important part of the const struggle and love for their fatherland and its free positive symbol: “constructed associatedmore with fascismthe natand extremism, pompous but relatively benign dictatorship. Though collective work, history,mytholog monumentthe quickly an became important symbol for understood by everyone and in every age.” of the people for freedom.” Aps Caune, Riga Capital of Latvia Capital Riga ī tis, tis,

Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības

Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības

rove important in inaugurating monumentthe as a sy

(Riga: (Riga: Galvas Pils , 214. , 9. 90

Z

as a symbol of Latvia’s freedom, witness to all the

āle stated, want“I the monument to be one which is y and patriotism of the interwar era, as well as Ul ē tas R tas ī 91 gas Valdes Izdevums, 1938), 21. 1938), Izdevums, Valdes gas With only few a years of life in a free Latvia, dom.” nationalismtends these days to be ionalism of monumentthe was a ruction. However,the events to 92 The nationalist symbolismthe of the country, recalling the

mbol of Latvian peoples’

manis’ 36 CEU eTD Collection 96 “Tēvzemei un brīvībai,” leaving at flowers the monument; however, eventthis does 95 23. 2007), 94 93 these ‘flower demonstrations’ and good that the laying of flowers and supporting the old r the army arrived,that “acti prohibited. The Soviet newspaper nationalist symbol. particular interest in the monument itself, apparent this would not be the case. Though the Naz people gathered around it as the German armymarche them Latvians believed the Nazis would ultimately restor when the Nazis invaded Latvia barely yeara after S freedomtook on new si Latvia went past monument.the Vaidelotis Apsītis notes the irony that, in 1944, t they occupied Latvia in 1940, “Aktišanas pie Brīvības pieminekļa jabeidz,” jabeidz,” pieminekļa “Aktišanas pie Brīvības in thearticle New York A 1985 Straume, Jānis Apsītis, as liberators. Mountains of flowers were placed at The idea of “freedom” was clearly a problematic one Fromthe earliest days of the Soviet regime, laying

Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības III. Symbolism of the the of Symbolism III. Latvija Otrajā Pasaules Karā Pasaules Otrajā Latvija

Laiks gnificance for its residents, its exiles and its oc , November 16, 1985, 4. ,1985, November 16, , 10. ons at the Brīvības Piemineklis must stop.” The art - based immigrant immigrant newspaperbased and again in 1944 following the Nazi invasion of 19

93 In a country thatwas no longer free, t monument a Cīņa Br issued an order on July 1, 1940, just two weeks af - Cīņa [Latvia in the Second World War] for ! 95 v - the So nothing actions.” , July 1, , July !

bas Piemineklis, 1940 Piemineklis, bas

not toseem be referenced anywhere See else. he procession of the Soviet ‘liberators’ of egime had to end. is “The time over for 1940, 1. 1940, viets recognized its potential as a oviet forces occupied the country, many e e Latvian independence and greeted Laiks i authorities did not to take seem any d past. the Br

r flowers at monumentthe was efers to schoolgirls jailed in 1943 for for in 1943 jailed toefers schoolgirls 96 for Soviet authorities after 94

īvības Piemineklis and many However, it quickly became (Riga: (Riga: Nacion cupiers. In July 1941, - 1991 icle noted 41. ā

lais Apg lais o o ā ter ds, 37 CEU eTD Collection 101 Arhī Vēstures Valsts 100 99 98 97 The street wasname not very old, either; it had and inappropriate,” to Ļeni beginning at the end of the square was changed in 1 capitalism, and retained its title of “FreedomMonu monument instbecame return again. To the Soviets,the idea of freedom w served as a constant reminder of this freedomthat that will show us what route silent,that we and future generations will be remi peopleto the came altar,” Vaidelotis Aps were drawn to the site, in spite of the risk. “Much were taken in by the KGB for questioning. monument, the night apparently reappearingsometimes in the m for the demonstrators. Flowers laid monumentatthe In Caune, Caune, Stukuls Eglitis, Stukuls Eglitis, committee, piemineklis “Brīvibas Piemineklis Brīvibas ņ The so Latvians did not forget thatthe statue was to serv Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības a iela, Lenin Street, suggesting in the official or Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības 97 after its 1950 construction. Those ap - Imagining the Nation the Imagining called ‘flower demonstrations’ co Imagining the Nation the Imagining vs, Riga. 101

though the namemonumentthe of and square remaine ead monumenta to Soviet liberation from imperialis

, 217. , 63. we take so that we do not lose this freedom.”

, 241. , 135.

ītis wrote of monumentthe in occupied Latvia. 98 In search people times, of better of memory a been Aleksandra iela, or Alexander Street, ntinued after 1940, but with consequences — nded of our arrival at our shared freedom, like a church, in search of comfort, proaching the monument with flowers tautas piemineklis,” 2575.7.1430, 2575.7.1430, tautas piemineklis,” had been, freedom people hoped would as both an ideal and troublesome. The 950 from Br ment.” Yet ment.” the the of name boulevard orning at the nearby Lenin were taken away, with those left in der that the previous name was “old e e as “a voice that would not fall īvības iela, Freedom Street, 100 The statue m m and d unchanged. p. 86, Latvijas p. 86, 99 38

CEU eTD Collection 102 Nonetheless, authorities remained apprehensive abou privately, and “ monument retained the original meaning for Latvian representing the “three Soviet Baltic republics.” power. The three stars were described by guides fro allow a Soviet takeover in 1940, and the subsequent as “bourgeois Latvia” epic hero L sufficiently in line with Soviet id The freedom figure Motherbecame Russia. Sculptures and other Germans, could also be seen in the contex to army formedfight the Bolsheviks in the terri tsarism.The relief of the ‘battle against the Berm solely in the context the of Russian 1905 to a increase in Latvian nationalism and call for i artwork. One relief depicted the worker uprising of lacked explicitly anti between 1941 and 1944, it had been Adolf for the tsar, in the tsarist era, before becoming B Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. See “Br The Soviet authorities reinvented an ideology for t The statue became symbol a of the ‘liberation’ from ā č pl Ļ ē sis and singers walking to the Latvian song festiva eni ņ

- a iela” remained “Br Soviet elements and could thus be re (the interwar republic), Latvia’s supposedly consen

eology. Elements from Latvian folk culture, includi ī v ī bas piemineklis bas - 1907 revolution andmovement for an end to - ī Hitler v ī bas iela” in common parlance among Latvians. 102 tory of the Baltics and comprised of Baltic - Strasse. rīvības iela in 1923. Under the Nazis ndependen — Despite these change ontians,’ a German baltie rigged elections that Sovietcemented m Intourist,m the Soviet travel agency, as 1905. Though this event had actually led t of Bolshevikt a struggle and victory. t its power as a symbol of people, discussed domestically and of and‘the family’ ‘workers’ were š

iem ide iem - hemonument. imagined as a Latvian ce, couldit also be interpreted what Soviet books referred to ā liem?” liem?” l were sufficiently neutral. - supported volunteer Laiks s the by Soviets,the sual decision t The sculpture , July 19, 1975, 2. , 1975, 19, July - Soviet ng the o

39

CEU eTD Collection Cleveland Song toWelcome 1973 address Festival, 2219.1v.67, 105 104 103 flowers. For those outside Latvia, either exiled to independent state and a their repertoire. of the traditionally longer festival, and Soviet after this;the song festival was an official celeb day.” folk songs, noting that the L the first Latvian song festival) youngby people ga demonstratio the World Association of Free Latvians, mentioned a to the 1973 Latvian song festival in Cleveland, Ilg asks, was the 47 own disinformation about it, and planning Soviet ev contradic regret that monumentthe had not been destroyed dur Pelše, party secretary of the Latvian communist par towards the mon independence. Vaidelotis Apsītis notes that it is d A wr traditional In Caune, Caune, 105 Spilners’ address and other documents make no ment For Latvians in Riga, monumentthe held dual meanin Some evide Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības tory, a combination of prosecuting celebration of t Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības n throughn folk songs” at the 1973 Riga song festiva th eath of oak leaves worn during andthe solstice ot summer anniversary of Soviet Latvia celebrated monat the ument. ument. Few Soviet documents are preserved or availa nce of other activitymonumentthe at also exists.

Soviet , 67. ā , 68 č

- pl

propagated story of freedomthat prosecuted carryin - 9. ē sis sculpture was “still wearing an oak crown the n

- era festivals had to include Soviet songs in ra tion, though it lasted only two days instead vars Spilners, a journalist and worker with the west or sent to Siberia, the statue ifficult to ascertain Soviet attitudes thering at the Br ty betweenty 1959 and 1966, expressed his ents there p. 138, Latvijas Valsts Arh Latvijas Valsts p. 138, “spontaneous nationalist ing the war. he monument, spreading their ion of negative repercussions — gs of freedom under an why,for instance, Apsītis l her celebrations. Ilgvars Spilners, Spilners, Ilgvars her celebrations. (the 100 103 ī v ī ument? Soviet attitudes were bas Piemineklis singing In a welcome address ble ble today. Arvīds th anniversary of ī 104 vs, Riga.

ext ext g 40 CEU eTD Collection 108 107 106 culture alive, publicizing issues in Latvia and organizations actively worked fromthe west for Lat monument, and the exile press reported on the condi Zedelgem, Belgium,for the November 18 independence miniature replica of monument,the at a height of t agains was, in itself, a sign of the strength of the Latvi symbolic sense. For manythe of Latvian exiles, the of their children (whether it was the actual homeland of older immigr The of image monumentthe was at once both a pictur depicting the to the west between 1940 and 1944. known in Latvian as and greeting cards with drawings or photographs of the 1950s, now held in the collection of the Occupa Latvia’s futu carried the meanings of free a of and memory a inde Caune, Ieva Zake, Caune, t the Soviet occupation. In November 1945, Latvian The Latvian exile communitie The of image mo the Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības American Latvi American re freedomthat they were struggling for. A collect monument could often be found displayed in Latvian ), and a symbol of the independent state they had l

trimdinieki ans , 66 , 70

(New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 201 Transaction Publishers, Jersey: New (New Brunswick, nument was a potent and prolific symbol for the dia

- 1.

, literally ‘exiles.’ An estimated 200 107 Postcards, calendars,framed pictures or other ite s around the world often used images of the petitioning their own governments to take a an people and their continued struggle continued existence of monumentthe tion Museum in Riga, shows postcards wo metres, built in a refugee camp in the monument.the vian independence, keeping Latvian pendent Latvia, as well as a symbol of ants, or the abstract imagined “home” tion of monument.the Exile e e of a common site at “home” day. exile J 108 ion of letters from Siberia in

ā nis Ju - 106 240,000 Latvians escaped eft ineft an actual and immigrants’ homes.

š k ē vics had a 0), 28. 0), spora,

ms ms 41 CEU eTD Collection had published an edited image of the statue, remove Germanythat monumentthe no longer stood in its pl “What has happened its changing symbolism. A 1950 article in the North called “T the New York marking the celebration of national holidays, or as and organizations, as a cover image for information that was now inaccessible, monumentthe often appea their home newsletters worked to provide Latvians abroad with withcamps), chapters in several countries, was als originally forme of these organizations. The Daugavas Vanagi Latvian (where England, Sweden and West Germany had the larg immigration, includ or PBLA), an umbrella organization composed of the in the cold war. The World Association of Free Latv obtaining freedomfor the Baltics, World War, organizations petitioned governments and stance against the Soviet occupation of the Baltic The immigrant press made sure people were kept up t ēvzemei un Brīvībai,” echoing the inscription on th land. As a symbol of the shared past of exiles,the - based immigrant newspaper d in 1945 as a support organization for former Latv ing the United States,Canada, Australia, South Ame with the Brīvības Piemineklis in Riga?” Rumours had though these early were attempts with met ambivale Laiks , hosted a radio show based out of Madrid states. the after SecondImmediately o o important. Exile newspapers and a logo. Ilgvars Spilners, later an editor of American newspaper leaflets, photographa or illustr dthe from base, without the ians Latvian Welfare Fund (Hawks of the Daugava, red in the publications of these media Latvian associations of areas major of ace, and the Soviet newspaper the United Nations for assistance in (Pasaules Br est communities) was the largest - e e Brīvības Piemineklis. language information about a space of placea of memory o o date on themonument and ian soldiers in refugee ī vo Latvie rica and Europe Laiks emerged in š asked u u Apvien

ation Cīņa nce ī ba, 42

CEU eTD Collection 6. 113 p. 89 2197.1.14, Europe,” n.d. (c. 1980), 112 111 2. 1975, 110 109 globe. symbolism remained similarly important to both grou former independence day and anniversaries of deport heightened secur monumentthe in the exile press and activitythe at commander of the last change of the guard at the Br commemorating writers and politicians in the 1930s, and lamented memorial complemented by a planned destruction of physical h Latvians mentioned that “fraudulently recorded Latv down fictions propagated the by Soviets and reported tha Union. the three stars repres untouched. three gold stars. The inscription “For Fatherland

“Miris virsnieks, kas komandēja mai virsnieks, pēdējo sardzes “Miris “Soviet PBLA, Union’s Compliance with Final Act of th “T “Br Br ar “Kas Noticis ē ī vzemei unvzemei Br this symbol of an “unfree time.”

v

110 ī bas Piemineklis bas Other articles reproduced images and quotations on In 1985, celebrating the monument’s fiftieth anniv s, historical sites, signs, painting, books, cemeta 109 Another 1975 article reported that a Swedish journ ity ity by Soviet police) both proliferated around impo ī v their struggles; one obituary fromthe 1950s descri ī ī bai” bai” [For Fatherland and Freedom], v ī

bas Pieminekli R Pieminekli bas ented the “dream”the of Baltic peoples to “volunta Laiks — ‘Baltie article reassured Latvians monumentthe was in fac and Freedom,” and holding a single Soviet star ins š u ide

- ā 90 liem’” liem’” [Br ī , Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, , Latvijas Valsts g ā ?” ?” 111 Laiks A 1980 reportfrom the World Association of Free ī v ī , May 13, 1950, 6. , 1950, May 13, bas Piemineklis bas ņ u pie Brīvības Pieminekļa,” u Pieminekļa,” pie Brīvības Laiks e Conference on Security and Cooperation in exiles’ lackexiles’ of a monument freedom monument in Riga t Soviet authorities still discussed tearing īvības Piemineklis.” ations, showing that the monument’s ian history the[of interwar] is , November 16, 1985, 4. 4. ,1985, 16, November istorical witness ps of Latvians, spread out across the ries [sic] and churches.” —

‘For Baltic ideals’ Baltic ‘For

ersary, the monumentthe from Latvian alist visiting had been told Laiks bed a man as “the rtant dates like the — Laiks monuments, (coupled with 113 rily” join the Soviet mocked mocked the ], Articles about

, February 22, 1956, ,1956, 22, February Laiks tead of the t , July 19, , 19, July 112

43 CEU eTD Collection 116 115 Valsts 114 symbols of the independent Latvian state as talisma 1990s, headed and fundraisingthe committee for the stayed.” restoration, noting that,through all changes of oc at length about monument’sthe symbolismfor Latvia who spent her adolescence and adult life in Canada monument’s imagery as they grew up elsewhere. Forme e inquired whether it was possible to obtain more doc why abou J between two members of the World Association Fre of ne 1980 The first restoration of monumentthe was undertake ū vidently not. Caune, Caune, Letter from Arist lijs Kadels, in enthusiastically document examined eding cleaning from dirt and pigeon droppings. Corr - was the restoration of this monument undertaken by 1. The statue was suffering from structural damage t the restoration. However, the documents theleft Arh Restoration of the monument was also a topic of int In the post 115 Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības ī vs, Riga. Engineer Raimonds Bulte, who had lived in anexile 114 Articles in the exile press also described the res

ī ds Lambergs to Lambergs J ds - Soviet era, exiles returning to Latvia t remembered

, 217. , 181.

ū lijs Kadels, PBLA president, May 4, 1981, 2917.1.40, 2917.1.40, Maypresident, PBLA 4, Kadels, 1981, lijs cupiers and c ns d until returning to Latvia in 1998, spoke uments describing this, though it was 2001 restoration because he “saw the s obtained from the SovietUnion n by the Soviet culture ministry in espondence in the early 1980s ns at the celebration of the 2001 e e Latvians, Aristīds Lambergs and uring his decades in exile.” r president Vaira V PBLA’s main question unanswered: and water damage, as well as the SovietUnion? Lambergs erest for the Latvian exiles. d returned to Latvia in the itizenry,monument “the toration process. he power of the ī ķ e p. 138, Latvijas p. 138, - Freiberga,

116

44 CEU eTD Collection 118 Changing Contexts,” 117 information about monument,the printing articles i people,” wrote one exile monument still stands government takes little comfort in this defiant sym repressions could not crush the spirit of the Latvi special places that I had only heard about, such as Another said, found“I it difficult to express how thing. Two Latvian that the Latvia stories of family was a genuine pla seemed an abstract notion to younger ge dancing to their children and grandchildren, as a s the institutions they established to teach the Latv to Latvia. Though nationalist ideology was prolific monument became V Second “Revisiting Matiss, Arielle Ilze ito Vitauts Sīmanis, ito ed.,Vitauts Sīmanis, devoted to the cause,the cause ultimately, of free thought it would be….And that really changed lif my thought: God, My this is real, you know, this is re over those trees and saw Mother Latvia’s statue,th I remember…coming out of Hotel Riga After travel to Latvia became possible for those li By the late 1980s, the Latvian Soviet press had als Exiles saw the monument and its survival as a defin

Journal of Baltic Studies Journal of Baltic - Canadian women recalled their first impressions of

(and remains) an importantmarker for immigrants on — a mute reminder of the continued hope and courage o Latvia - published book on Latvia in the 1980s.

(St. Charles, Illinois: The Book Latvia(St. Charles, Illinois: Inc., 1984),

- Generation Latvian 36.1 36.1 nerations; seeing the monument in person showed (2005), 111 (2005), where I was staying…I suddenly looked ans. “Needless to say, the occupying Soviet ian language, history, songs and folk mall and distant place,the country often ce,movement thefor freedom a real Br meaningful it was…to actually be in the both bol of natio - - n n 1987 and 1988 about monument’sthe Canadian Women’s About Stories in Lives īvības Piemineklis.” 2.

dom and independence. ally real and it’s better than I e ‘Freedom Monument.’ And I in the members of the diaspora and o o become open enough to pu e, s e, ving in the west, seeing the itive symbol that Soviet o o that now I became 118 nal independence. Yet the

the monument:the 117 44.

their first visit

f the Latvian blish

45 CEU eTD Collection Balss 119 survive. telling lies to tourists does not to seemfully exp However, in it 1981, particularlytraffic from and the adjacent tr the earlier restoration had not been extensive and remaining in Latvia also worried about the conditio Z associations or explanation of the reason for them but tended to stick to blander historical and artis birth).These articles no longer reproduced the ear construction and K ā Georgs Baumanis, “K le’s body of work and his interest in “Lenin’s monu , August 3, 1989.

The Latvian and Soviet symbolism thus managed to, c self, spreading disinformation about monument,the

ārlis Zāle’s work

ā Nosarg ā t Br

ī v ī bas Piemineklis?” [How to protectPiemineklis?” bas the Br (particularly surrounding the 1988 100 lain why the Soviets let the monument tic details and avoid any nationalis am stop.am lier Soviet fictions about the monument, damage to monumentthe continued after onument’s construction, focussing on n of monumentthe in the l mental propaganda plan.” Latvians 119

onflictingly, coexist. renaming the street and ī v ī bas Piemineklis?], bas th jubilee of Z ate 1980s, as tic Rīgas Rīgas ā le’s 46 CEU eTD Collection Monument.” Live R grenade…during the Second World War and during fired bullets 121 120 ideology, and through Štalbergs’ work on Soviet arc ‘rehabilitated’for the Soviet systemrewriting by of monument.the Thirdly, monument’s thecreators K authorities and only Russians but also Latvians. Secondly,there wa for the Soviet regime was already weak in the 1940s somewhatthe from rest of t encourage some amount of ‘national’ culture, and po the Latvian people themselves and Soviet policytow still survived the years between 1940 and 1991. lack of information, and despite the laws essential Lenin statue with the caption “Riga’s mai book of photographs of Latvia, a picture of mon the included a photograph of monumentthe without expla prominence in these typesmaterials of in t guides and other works about Latvia is striking, gi appears to have been ignoring it.monument’s The om As a contemporarybrochure tourist notes, unscathe “largely Dzintarzeme Latvija Latvija Dzintarzeme Judging from Soviet I I propose that the reasons for preservation tourist guides, that gave quite different roles and ī ga/ R

IV. Why was the Monument Preserved? Monument the was IV. Why [Latvia, Land of ī gas Pieminek gas - he union. Latvians were fond of the monument, and s era sources, th

ļ u a Amber] ģ entūra, n.d.) n streetn bears Lenin’s great name.” (Riga: Latvijas Valsts Izdevniec (Riga: Latvijas Valsts e main main e Soviet policy on the FreedomMonument he interwar period. Soviet 121

Why did this happen? their biographies to emphasize Soviet ven its physical prominence and were fourfold. Firstly, there is the role of ly prohibiting visits to monument,the it s a rewriting of history, propagated by ; officials in the Latvian SSR were not hitecture projects in the 1950s,most ument sits to anext picture of the ards the republics: official policy did d, the exceptionsonly being a stray artillery licy towards the Baltic republics varied the Barricade Days in 1991.” the inDays 1991.” Barricade ission from encyclopedias, travel nation; for inexample, one 1960s ārlis Zāle and Ernests Štalbergs were meanings to the elements ī - ba, 1960), 8 ba, 1960), era books often

120 ( “The Freedom - Despite the 9.

upport 47 CEU eTD Collection 122 endear or after the First World War had mostly disappeared impossible, and administrators sent fromMoscow, but entirely repla included both ethnic Russians and Latvians; Soviet notably only t some reputation materialfrom came produced in, or youth being freer than other Soviet cultural institutions harsh, while in the cultura popular support for the forregime; instance, depor were allowed more freedom, while in others repressi than the rest of the union. Official policies both history and geography,the Baltics were regard Sovietforcibly army invaded the countries in 1940, unlike in the other republics that were original me periods of independence and two generations had gro republics of USSR.the By 1940, Latvia, Lithuania a authorities the monument should not be pulled down. Mukhina, popularly credited in Latvian history for notably Riga’s Lenin monument. Finally, Plakans, the regimeto the non Soviet policy towards the Baltic states differed f In the 1920s and 1930s, the Soviet policy of The Latvians The loyal Latvian communists with Latvian language ski

ime after Stalin’sime death in 1953. The administratio , 145.

l sphere, Baltic studiosfilm and theatres had a re - Russian populations by delivering a message “nation

there is the role of Riga were contradictory: in some areas the countries . However,much of this cultural mbe korenizatsiia the regime had few supporters. Due to tations in the 1940s were widespread and officials to attemptedhave nd Estonia had experienced successful ed as more ‘western’ and ‘European’ ‘saving’ the monument, who told Soviet ons tried to compensate for a lack of cing the pre wn up in the independent countries, in Stalin’s purges of the 1930s. subcultures the of, 1960s and later,

rs of the SovietUnion. When the

rom the rom , or nativization, sought to - policy towards the other Soviet administration was - born Soviet sculptor Vera lls who had fled during n n of the Latvian SSR putation for al in 122

48 CEU eTD Collection Stalin and Lenin 125 4. 2001), Press, (Ithaca/London: University Cornell 124 123 process of ‘cultural development’ assistance for ‘b Nativization was full of both and extremes contradi empire: authorities remained suspicious of nationalism. ideology,” waya of deceiving the population into s often proved idealistic and i giving equal or elevated status to minority cultura early Soviet policy represented an attempt to compe majority ethnicity accepts an unequal position in action empire,” using the term used the by American policy. support from an apprehensive populace, retained som changed, but policies in the Baltics,facing the sa Soviet development of national film studios, operas, liter elites into government, and developments in the cul language, printing newspapers and journals in the l republics, developing native socialistform, in content.” This included creating Ronald Grigor SunyRonald Grigor and Martin, Terry eds., Martin, Terry Mertelsmann, - 123 friendly versions of national tales. By the 1940s, 125 TerryMartin describes the Soviet Union under nativ

Russian ‘chauvin

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 80. 2001), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and National Nations and Empire: Action Affirmative The States Baltic of the Sovietization The

ism’ was seen as greater threat than Kirghiz nation - mpractical to implement. Nationalism was a “masking language education where Russian was taught as a se

A State of Nations: Empire and Nation and of Nations: Empire State A

, 116 124 me problem me the of 1920s of garnering It was a strategyto avoid the idea of propaganda in the native languages of the order to compensate for past wrongs. The l and linguistic groups, but these ideas had ackwards’ peoples as a distinctly imperial - ocal languages, incorporating the local ature and epics;themes 7. upporting the Soviets; in practice, the tural sphere. The latter included the

ctions; Roland Grigor Suny notes the nsate for the oppression of tsarism by

civil rightsmovement, where the e featu e Soviet policies across the union had res of the earlier nativization ization as an “affirmative ism in the Soviet Union, 1923 Union, Soviet in the ism - Making in the Age of Age the in Making were normally alism. con

d - 1939 49

CEU eTD Collection Hurst and179. Company, 1993), 129 128 4. 2005), Press, (Ithaca/London: University Cornell 127 126 paid by the authorities in Moscow. Romuald Misiunas access to wester known throughout the union, as well as outside,for pride likeat thetime,” songsame festivals or mon multiethnicthe union and tha everyday life. Soviet authorities were fond of cult culture were retained, while Russification occurred population, rather than more basic mode systems in the Baltics, and the key problem was cre as they had in other republics in the 1920s. They i widespread, primarily illiterate population spea In Latvia,the Soviets did not chaface the immense reflected Russian patriotism the after war and a fo used to remove oppression, not validate it. in the SovietUnion; ethnographic information was c one. Suny and Martin, Romuald Misiunas and Rein Romuald Misiunas Taagepe Mertelsmann, Francine Hirsch, 126 scrutiny and thus lessened their poli infrequent visits by the latter to the Baltic repub languages, both the by Moscow bureaucrats and the We to a lack of scrutin Greater cultural latitude prevailed in the Baltic r Francine H However, despite differences in the Baltics, postwa The Sovietization of the Baltic States Baltic of the Sovietization The n culturen Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Ma the and Knowledge of Nations: Ethnographic Empire A State of Na A State irsch argues that European ideas of “nation” and “e

y by the world press….The lack of knowledge of the – both due to geographical proximity and to a lack of

tions t which could display“achievements of socialism an

, 10 ra, - The Baltic States: Years of Dependence 1940 of Dependence Years States: Baltic The 11.

ticization. rnization. Consequently, elements of Latvian 127

, 14. king languages that had never been codified, nherited well ural festivals and other elements reflecting

129 umental sculpture. cus on Russian as the dominant language. in schools and in the language of llenge of educating and indoctrinating a ating support in an unsympathetic being more ‘western’, and had greater

epublics than in Russia, due partly ollected the by Soviets but this was lics insulated these cultures from and Rein Taagepera note: r policy across theUSSR stern newsmen, and the - developed educational king of the Soviet Union Soviet of the king 128 mpire” changed form The Baltics were - 1990 Baltic attention (London:

d national

50 CEU eTD Collection Cimdi 130 ‘Forest Brothers’, nationalis the war, when Latvian resistance movements continue sufficiently Soviet was thus co successful kolkhozes,founded in 1948 near Lielv and institutions were also named after Lā casualty of Soviet reinterpretation. As in the inte socialism, was written by Jānis Sudrabkalns and publ Soviets. A Soviet representative of the bourgeois imperial order, thi between the Latvian peasants and the Baltic Germans a national epic already,the popular agencies in the 1920s were interested in creating o republics in the earlyyears of the Soviet Union al curricula to fit Soviet ideology. Most of the cultu Latvian Soviet power, changes to the education systems chan Latvia were limited to the creation of a national f Ausma Cimdi ņ a and Hanovs, - The cultural traditions of the Baltics were well Besides the cultural policy, support of the Soviet The original of Andrejs text Pumpurs’ Russian schools and the promotion of Russian langua - opted the by regime and its prominence in the mon ņ a, “The and Genesis Perception of a National Hero: Andrejs - era version of the epic, in which the Latvians find - Latvia and Latvians and Latvia friendly.

130 t guerrilla fighters fromLatvia, Lithuania, and Es

, 45 L āčplēsis - 8.

č pl ē .

sis, most notably one of Latvia’s most Lāčplēsis ā rwar period, several Sov rde, southeast of Riga. The L r promoting national epics, but Latvia had ral institutions established in other ilm studioilm soon after the installation of s depiction was unproblematicfor ready ished in 1947, making the epic another ging schools t . As the Baltic Germans were - d and large numbers of the so developed, and new developments in existed in existed Latvia. Soviet cultural was an allegory for the struggle regime was already very weak after ge teaching and adaptation of ument’s ument’s imagery was Pumpurs andPumpurs L o o Russian freedomthrough iet - era businesses - and mixed tonia, were still āč āč pl pl ē ē sis tale sis,” in sis,” - the called 51 CEU eTD Collection tsar during the war, were important to the Bolshevi riflemen soldiers after the First World War could be interpre breakers’ might have been breaking free from any sy different types of labourers and a mother raising h sources. ‘Work’ and were ‘family’ satisfactory subj acceptably Soviet. builders; as the heritage of the peasantry rather t elevation of peasant culture that had been the goal national traditions. The characters from Latvian fo and the song festiv Figures from Latvian mythology and cultural traditi against an army that was supported by Germany and a uprising was a suitably Soviet to Latvian mythology and struggles against tsarist or of the sculptural elements were explicitly anti cause not havemay been worth it in the 1940s and 1 benign concession to Latvians; the potential reacti a landmark would not have been popular. Though harshe active and in hiding in the forests of all three co monument occurred,maintaining the monumentcould h Many Many of the sculptures were ambiguous enough thatt Spreading misinformation abo ( str ēlnieki

al, were in line with the Soviet policy of allowing ), originally), formed as an independent unit of Latv pic, and the ‘battle against the Bermontians’ was a ut monumentthe was another story, however. None - Soviet.The imagery used drew chiefly on untries. The destruction of a favoured local han the bourgeoisie,this imagery was also on that destroying the monument could German enemies. The 1905 workers’ ects for Sovie of earlier generations of Latvian nation er sons for the country. The ‘Chain lklore and history also represented the k k victory.figures The female of ‘Mother te 950s. ons, like the Lā stem. Evenstem. the relief of the return of d in a pro imed theto imed defeat Bolsheviks. r repressions than the destruction of

ave been seen as a relatively hey could satisfymultiple - Soviet sense, as the Latvian t art, agreeably showing certain elements of č pl ian soldiers under the ē sis figure, Vaidelotis struggle - 52 - CEU eTD Collection Riga. 134 2. 133 132 131 1965 Riga guidebook printed in Germa condemned as a relic of “bourgeois Latvia,” the Sov revol unsavoury questions; for instance, one tourist aski monument was not found,though annual guides sugges freedom was now Latvian peoples’ ancient longing for freedom were r Valentina Tereshkova,the first Soviet woman in spa Eglitis notes a story that so Baltic states opted to voluntarily and unanimously particularly ones representing a Baltic solidarity Intourist agency to seem have given assorted said to be holding stars for the ‘three Baltic Sovi ‘liberation’ of the Baltic states. The ‘Freedom’ fi versions suggested the monument was erected after t not all of these were consistent with what was actu to have been several. Latvia’ and ‘Freedom’ were neutral enough to be giv

“Report of Information Piemineklis “Brīvības Stukuls Eglitis, Apsītis,

utions” in Latvia in 1905, 1917, 1919 and 1940. Various versions of falsified history of monumethe If If morea or less correct version of the history wa Brīvī bas Piemineklis bas Imagining the Nation the Imagining achieved through Soviet power.

— - ‘Baltiešu ideāliem’” [Brīvības Piemineklis [Brīvības ideāliem’” ‘Baltiešu Propaganda Work Department, 1963,” 222.1.13, p. 41 Propaganda 222.1.13, Work Department, 1963,” , 12. me me Intourist guides told tourists that the ‘Freedom

, 186. n n notes that Ļeni

definitions of monument’sthe meaning, et republics.’ and in line with the official history that the gure was described as ‘Mother Russia’, and 133 134 ng about “occupation” was told of “Soviet ally depicted on the monument. Some join the SovietUnion. epeated in official narratives, but this iet forname the interwar republic. A

An official Intourist stance on the en new meanings, of which there ce. he war in 132 ted answers to give to tourists asking ņ a iela was the “beautiful linden s given, monumentthe was then The idea of freedom and the — ‘for Baltic ideals’],‘for nt nt appear to have existed, and 131 appreciation of the Soviet Guides fromthe Soviet , Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Arhīvs, , Latvijas Valsts

Daina Stukuls Laiks ’ figure’ was , July 19, 1975, 1975, 19, , July seem seem 53 CEU eTD Collection 139 138 137 136 era, was among competing severalparties political for cont 135 transit did not occur until 1990. This restoration adjacent tram stop should be that vibrations fromthe trams and other traffic wo appears the orders hadMoscow. from come cultureministry in 1980 for individuals and especially larger groups. traf other vehicle traffic was heavy, given the street’s structural damage to monument;the tram stopa was monument that However,the Soviets had no such reservations and c the original plans but was discarded, and the surro government h and libraries. than a year later. that Riga became Soviet in Januar distance, withoutmentioning it in theThe hi text. avenue of the Lenin monument” and showed a photogra Caune, Caune, Aps a short In 1919, Riga fic route had a double role of causing damage and c ī tis, tis,

(Riga: Liesma, 1965), 2. 1965), (Riga: Liesma, As noted earlier, a partial restoration of monuthe The Soviets also, unsurprisingly, ignored the rever Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības 137 ad treated it. A trolleybus route around monumethe

- operated between 1950 and 1990. lived lived and failed Soviet government, led Stuby Pēteris 136 Earlier works published in the monument were in cl

- 1981, but the , 117. , 18.

, 11. moved; however,this advice was not taken and rero

y 1919, exact reasonsexact for the restoration remain unclear; i 135 before the “national bourgeois” took over less

139 Experts consulted for the restoration warned position as a central thoroughfare. The was also incomplete: further work had been rol rol of the country during the war of independence. 138 unding area was a pedestrian zone. story section of the guidebook also noted uld continue to cause damage and the This traffic would later be the cause of onstructed a route around the locatedto monument,the andnext omplicating access to the monument ph with the monument in the ence with which the Latvian ment ment was conducted by the Soviet č ka, celebrated as a hero in the Soviet nt nt had been discussed in osed files in archives uting t 54

CEU eTD Collection 143 142 141 140 emigrating: after a visit, the student was disturbe to documents were not shown in the archives in the Sov works like a sanatorium and a student cloakroom. A Arh summary of Štalbergs’ work in his archival file at followed an interesting route during and after the years in Petrograd.” “already participating in realizing Lenin’s K An encyclopedia of 1970 does not list the monument, of his participation in Sovietmonumental propagand Zāle was n protection. monument was accepted into a Soviet registry of imp 1982 there was stil planned for 1982, but never occurred. The immigrant ārlis Zāle’s constructions in an entry for him, not M. Pavila, Ernests “Z Aps “T Š ī talbergs between 1941 and 1945. A letter from stua vs stresses) his studies in Russia and mentions th ā ē vzemei unvzemei Br le, K ī tis, tis, Details of Štalbergs’ biography during the war year monument’s Thecreators were reimagined along with ā Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības rlis,” rlis,” oted either for his more neutral works, or for his 141

Latvijas PSR Mazā Enciklopēdija Mazā Latvijas PSR ī v l discussion of tearing down the monument. ī Š bai” bai” [For Fatherland and Freedom], talbergs fonds summary, 1992, 95.1, p. 1, Val Latvijas 95.1, talbergs 1992, fonds summary, 142

Zāle passed away during the war, but Ernests Štalb , 16. The monument16. gainedalso UNESCO protection in 1991

monumental propaganda plan propaganda monumental , vol. 3 (Riga, 722. Zinatne, 1970), d by Laiks the Latvian State Archives war years up until his death in 1958. ing more importantlythat Zāle was 1992 Latvian version notes thatmany newspaper a even while Latvia was independent. iet era. , November 16, 1985, 4. ,1985, 16, November e e Br Š but does mention it among a list o ortantmonuments eligible for state dent in 1941 shows that he considered talbergs’ depression and thoughts of ī v s are minimal. A 1966 Soviet ī 143 bas Piemineklis in a list of monumental sculpture as a sign 140

the monumentthe itself. Kārlis It It is unclear what happened sts Arh sts However, in 1983, the Laiks ī suggested that in vs, Riga.

in his student

ergs’ biogra ( Latvijas Valsts

.

phy

- era f 55 CEU eTD Collection 146 145 144 Lenin’s name eastern bloc,though a frieze around the base recal rehabilitate his image. The Lenin statue resembled were never built; though this idea was discarded. the late 1940s had considered replacing the monumen up the street: Riga’s Leni Māksla Sovietmethods in architectu “cultivation of bourgeois methods in students’ work several articles over this time and made statements Socialist Republic AcademyScienc of Universitythe of Latvia; between 1946 and 1951, he Russia after leaving. Between 1944 and 1946 he was before he returned to Latvia, and continued corre documents of his are preserved fromthis time leaving, and wrote that Latvians should s Caune, M. Pavila, Ernests Letter from A. Bor (Literature and Art) on the thirtieth anniversary Š In 1949 Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības talbergs taught in Petrograd for several years foll was engraved in the Latvian spelling - 1950, Štalbergs served as the architect for a compe work on the Lenin havestatue may been an opportun Š bala to E. talbergs fond 15. summary,

n n statue. Discussions on thethe of fate Freedom M , 216. Š talbergs, August 28, 1941, 95.1.364, Latvijas Valsts Latvijas Valsts 95.1.364, talbergs, August 1941, 28, re in an October 1947 article in the journal

146 Štalbergs’ designs for housing projects in the lat es Construction and Architecture institute. He wrot tay and work together.

(in (in an otherwise large archival file). sponding with architect colleagues in led traditional Latvian folk motifs, and ( the dean of the architecture faculty at condemning “constructivism” and the the thousands of others across the Ļeniņs was the director of the Latvian Soviet ” ” atthe university, t with a statue of Stalin as well, of of the October revolution. owing the Russian Revolution ).The immigrant newspaper 144 ting statue built one block Nonetheless, few Arh 145 ity for himto Literatūra un un Literatūra and promoting ī vs, Riga. onument in

e e 1940s

56 e e CEU eTD Collection 150 149 148 147 organization, and in 1936, won a competition to wor depiction of peasants as a “heroic type.” recognizable imagery, rejecting cubist and futurist Mukhina was interested in portraiture and the human acquainted in St. Petersburg earlier and both had a education, and returning to Russia to work as a scu Ki her life there. Her mother died before she was two, Soviet authorities in the 1940s. most recognizable Soviet artworks,Mukhina unlikely it attracted special attention for her at have had the opportunity to see the FreedomMonumen agency. five metres tall, th Woman saving the monument. Mukhina was the creator of the other. “What can we take from this?” the article as Laiks M.Yablonskaya, N. ed., Caune, See ap “Tēvzemei un [For Brīvībai” Fatherland and Freedom], ev. She studied in Moscow, travelling to Paris and noted the positioning of the FreedomMonument and 148 Sculptor Vera pendix, page 91. Mukhina was born to a merchant family in Riga in 18 sculpture exhibited atthe Soviet pavilion at the Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Mukhina travelled through Riga in 1937 on her w e e iconic sculpture was later used as the logo for M

Mukhina (Latvian Women Artists of Russia’s Age New , 68.

150 Muhina She was of thea Sovietmember sculptors’ ’s opinion would have carried weight with the the time. ) has been credited in Latvian history with Laiks influences; earl n n interest in monumental sculpture. ked. “This is also a symbol lptor. She and sculptor K and the family relocated shortly after to k k on the sculpture for the Soviet Italy before the war to complete her

(London: Thames and 232 Hudson, 1990), , November 16, 1985, 4. ,1985, 16, November form. Mukhina’s early works used famous 1937 World’s Fair in Paris. Thirty 149 t, t, but Vaidelotis Apsītis notes it is As the creator of one of the ay to install this work and would Lenin with their backs to each 89, but did not spend much of Worker and Kolkhoz Kolkhoz and Worker ier works used the osfilm, the Soviet film

ārlis Zāle were !” 147

- 3. - 57

CEU eTD Collection 153 152 151 decisions about monumentthe were not specialists i unofficial,to have but seem taken place with sever it is hard to tell how much of an impactMukhina ha notes, speaking with Mukhina’s son Vsevolod Zamkov, meetings and government worker, in appreciation for later given a housesummer in Jurmala, outside Riga that monumentthe was an important work that should but ancient Latvian symbols, created before the ins andatthe Mukhina time, explained that monumenthe style and the FreedomMonument. Soviet discussion o had been invited to submit designa for the Freedom other Latvian artists on this trip, including Teodo of 1944, following the second Soviet occupation. Mukhina, artists; Viktors Grecovs notes this as taking place other works came close to rivalling the appears to have been a regime various jobs, were a perfectthe of sociali example pavilion at the 1937 fair. Mukhina’s works, realist Grecovs, Caune, Grecovs, Viktors Mukhina was sent to Latvia by the SovietUnion to m Brīvības Piemi Brīvības 151 Vera Muhina Vera while Vaidelotis Apsītis believes it was approxima Vera Muhina 1889 Muhina Vera

neklis , 15.

, 68.

- favoured artist throughout her career. However, non

- 1953

(Riga: Vera Muhinas Fonds, 2004), 14. Vera Fonds, Muhinas (Riga: 2004), Worker and Kolk and Worker 152 in 1945, after the war, in a work on ically depicting rs Zaļkalns, one of the other artists who st realismthe of 1930s, and Mukhina She had known Zāle already, and met al S tallation Ulm of , by , Vilis Lācis, a participant in the n art or architecture and took Monument. S d on the decision; conversations were her effo oviet officials;the people making n then monument’s fate was ongoing who accompanied her to Riga,that t did not show German imagery, not be destroyed. Mukhina was hoz Woman hoz rts. ake contacts with Latvian tely Octobe tely people and workers in

153 he appreciated Zāle’s anis’ dictatorship, and Vaidelotis Apsītis in fame.

r or November

e e of her 58 CEU eTD Collection 1939 Latvia in State Cemetery Arch 1964, in Riga,”27, Warriors’ July 156 contrary, it wasnot suspicious. presumably occupation 155 154 centre. Vaidelotis Aps in earlier years, being called ‘mourning Mother Latvia.’” throwing acid to burn a red panel that was apparent Latvian nationalists, and the site o “aspiring nationalistic elements” where people laid Latvian independence day. A 1964 document referred gathering place for nationalists, especially on Soviet historiography. The Brothers’ on t Cemetery, natural causes matter would have been; Zāle died in 1942 in In related styles during his years in Russia. It is im Zāle obviously would have been in co socialist realism would not have seemed unconvincin created monumentthe in an independent Latvia, Zāle era documents were not preserved. Mukhina’s opinion as that of a specialist in the fi “To the Secretary of the Central Committee of the Commun Details of Z Caune, Similar them The FreedomMonument was not the only sculpture of Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības (which took in ainterest theminimal monument), and la - 1991 ā le’s death are not available, but given the location, bur , and was buried atthe Brothers’ Cemetery. (Riga: Nordik, 1999), 504. 1999), Nordik, (Riga:

es es in the work of both Z more difficult to police in its size and location f ī tis also notes several adaptations the Soviets made , 68.

156 f several “reckless nationalistic escapades,” inclu 154

The cemetery may havemay The beencemetery an easier gathering pla

ntact with Russia and other Soviet artists working

holidays like the Day of the Dead and the āle and Mukhina are visible. Though he possible to say what his own opinion on the č ives ives of Latvia, ed ukalns, outside Riga, aged 53, apparently of eld.Unfortunately, the official wartime flowers and candles at the graves of ly placed over the “statue of the so he outskirts of Riga, was also a ist Party of Latviaist On comrade A. Voss: the g based purely on visual evidence, and to theas cemetery a place attracting ’s Soviet ck of ial place ial and timing during the Nazi 155

any evidence or speculation to the s., - era inclusion in the canon of Policy of Occupation Powers in Powersin Occupation of Policy Z ā le’s that fell victim to ar fromthe city to the cemetery, to the cemetery, ding - in - 59 ce ce CEU eTD Collection box 58, 300.5.170, Latvia,” Rockville, 1980, Maryland, 158 157 ultimately, Latvianssome would choose to remember interwar years and the construction campaign not fo their best efforts,monumentthe Avoidance or rewriting history onlymanaged to get requirements of a Soviet national cultural symbol, eccentricities of Soviet policy towards the Latvia national holidays. graves of prominent Latvian nationalists; surveilla sites, Soviet officials installed “artificial barri understood as the SovietUnion.” Latvia” was to be called “Homeland Mother” ( change,though it was decided “brothers” as dedicated to the Soviet the F including changing “1915the text PBLA, “Report PBLA, on the Implementation of the Final Helsinki Aps Vaidelotis irst World War and independence war to the two world The idea of nationalism as maskinga ideology can h ī tis, tis, 158 Brāļu Kapi Brāļu

- supporting Latvian riflemen, including discussing a (Riga: Zinatne, 1995), 14 (Riga: Zinatne, 1995),

still stood 41 metres tall atthe centre of the ci - 157 1920” to “1915 At theas cemetery well as at other national memor ( brāļu ers” like bushes and garbage du folder folder 1, Openp. 43, Society Archives Māte Dzimtene Māte - ) was) sufficiently neutral; and 1945” n monument: while somethe met itof - nce at all these sites was increased around 15. the authoritiesthe remained suspicious of it.

Soviet officials so far, however. Despite rgotten by the older generations, and, Actin Sovietof AugustOccupied 1, 1975 (thereby changing the dedication to it.

elp explain some of the wars), describing the cemetery ), “with ), ‘homeland’ mps around the n n official name , Budapest. “Mother ty, the ty,

ial 60 CEU eTD Collection locations. their Studies 160 Anusauskas, Arvydas ed.,In 159 which mainly opposed the Soviet occupation through organizations and the ‘forest brothers’ organizatio attaining independence again, and, the by end of th and again become spacea of public assembly. with the latitude of glasnost that monumentthe Evidence of protests at monumentthe throughout the of laying flowers at monumentthe as a symbol of so directed against the Soviet regime up until the 198 gatheringsattempted were likely quickly broken up locations. ranging from detainment to imprisonment to deportat occurring occurrence was in 1969. A 1979 article on dissent m the occupation. resistancemovement against the Soviets, shot himse official of the Ministry of the Interior Political invasion. On June 27, 1940, ten days after Soviet t David Kowalewski, “Dissent in Davidthe “Dissent Kowalewski, Ciganovs, Juris. “TheCiganovs, Movement Resistance Juris. Against the S 10.4 (1979): 309 (1979): 10.4 The fi The larger 160 (and increasing since the end of Nikita Khrushchev’ Though the monument was a magnet for Latvian natio

rst public protest at monumentthe happened just da 159 - Such acts, however, were the not common; ne scale Latvian resistancemovement started during th

- V 19. Other documents19. reference of also various sorts earlier . Resistance Activity at the Monument the at Activity Resistance . The Anti The

- Soviet Resistance in the Baltic States Baltic in the Resistance Soviet Baltic Republics: Characteristics and Characteristics BalticConsequences,” Republics:

Police for Latvia and of member thea was allowed to re roops arrived in Riga, J n of guerrilla fighters. This movement, 0s was indivi oviet Regime in Latvia and Between 1941.” 1940 entions non e e war, consistedmainly of various lf monumentat the in protest against by authorities. Most of the activity lidarity with the independent republic. spreading anti Soviet era exists, but it was only ion, but does s rule), with consequences - dual,the less conspicuous act , Vilnius: Du Ka, 2000 , Vilnius: violent public protests xt knownxt similar - ys into the Soviet enter public discourse nalists, any other not refer to specific - Soviet propaganda and protests withoutprotests noting e e war had the goal of

ānis Gailis, a an Journal of Baltic Journal of Baltic ), 123. youth

61 CEU eTD Collection 162 5. 1993), Institution, 161 year. Information on Rips is difficult to find and from which he was released in May 1971. aspect of Soviet policy; he was instead declared in inquiry did not find evidence of guilt, as Rips act survived. Charged under the section of “anti before the incident. Sailors walking past the monum s themselves to death afterwards. Rips was a starmat Czech student Jan Palach in January, as well as two o had been soa AGAINST OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA”THE OCCUPATION and set h of Latvia, went to the foot of monumentthe with a intervention in Prague. In April 1969, Ilja Rips, a independent Latvia and destroying Soviet iconograph Christian holidays or the traditional summer solsti refusing to speak or learn Russian, singing traditi through refusing to join Soviet activities and orga Active non armed resistance, essentially died out with repress cholarship and had already received a prestigious p Peter Reddaway, Olgerts Eglitis, Protests occurred across the eastern bloc in 1968 a - violent resistance, however, remained betweecommon ked in gasoline, on fire. Rips’ action followed the Nonviolent Action in the Liberation of Liberation the in Nonviolent Action Uncensored Russia Uncensored

(New York: American Heritage Press, 1972), 243 1972), Heritage American (New York: Press, 162 He was permittedto emigrate to - Soviet propaganda and agitation,” the offi twenty Latvia onal ed alone and was protesting only one nizations, including youth organizations, the files atthe Latvian State Archives sane and put in a psychiatric hospital, ions, deportations ce festival, osition at the of Academy Sciences hematics student,the holder of a Lenin ent put out the andflames Rips Latvian songs and celebrating placard reading “I PROTEST y. ther Czech students who burned

(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Albert Einstein(Cambridge, Albert Massachusetts: 161 - year

nd 1969 following the Sovi - old student at Universitythe Jāņi death by self , displaying the flag of n then 1940s and 1980s, and fear in the 1950s. - - is clothes, which 4. immolation of Israel that

et cial 62 CEU eTD Collection 165 164 6, folder Openbox 39, Societ Bungs,Dzintra 300.5.170, 163 KGB, at least after the Stalinist era. More vocal o resulted in the removal of the flowers common. Though the activity was not entirely risk protests” traditions.” state, a sense of culturally belonging community: a “combined creating effect” of the “liv inmovement the diaspora, helped reinforce a sense as during and after. demonstrations, and several others had been arreste constructed around the monument before Nov organization World Association of Free Latvians, re including the monument and the Brothers’ Cemetery. independence day, when people would com of the Bible out loud. This occurred on November 15 1982, when Rihards publicizing the case. remain closed; it likelyseems that authorities did “Akti Eglitis, “One Dead and During SeveralHouse Arrested Searches in L š In the pre Widespread non anas anas pie Br Nonviolent Action in the Liberation of Latvia Liberation in Nonviolentthe Action 165 suggests that protesting through leaving flowers a 164 Anecdotal evidence and the 1940 ī - v glasnost era, another indi ī 163 bas pieminek bas

Ū

Ū s ā s ns, a Latvian high school student, was arrested for - violent and passive res ā ns was interned at a psychiatric clinic as well,fo ļ

a jabeidz,” to Europe, well or, at worst, being taken in for a discussion by t Cīņa vidual protest occurred monumentthe by in monly attempt to gather monly attempt by symbolic places, , July 1, 1940, 1. 1, 1940, , July istance, and activities of the independence y y Archives, Budapest. Cīņa , 7. ember 18 in order to prevent r visible protests would likely have larger not want to inspire further protests by

- d in advance of the day in 1982, as well free, thefree, act to seems have mainly ported that a fence had been article calling for an end to the “flower of of national identity in the Latvian - ing ideal of an independent nation preserved national culture and , three days before the Latvian atvia,” April 12, 1983, Subject Files Subject Files atvia,” 1983, 12, April J ū lijs Kadelis, president of the exile

t monumentthe was quite

llowing his arrest. reading passages of he - 63

CEU eTD Collection 167 166 Russian to conduct everyday life.Though these conc New immig was 75.5 percent; 1993, by it was 52.5 percent, due concern of Latvians by the 1980s. The amount of Lat high in the 1980s. Latvian concerns were cultural, independence movement. Tensions between the Soviets about b reported, and so on, as well as exposing Soviet cri allowing citizens to go beyond previously introduced in 1985, call large when the overt issues an active purveyor meaning of that infused demonstr responses to demonstrations):monument,then, “The freedom symbolismfor protestors due to its connection to t monument remained. Daina Stukuls Eglitis notes the especiallythe November repercussions. Soviet security around the monument Andrejs Plakans, Andrejs Stukuls Eglitis, - scale, well Though it was not oth the present and the past integralbecame for Ba It was not until the second half of the 1980s that (a (a symbolism which rants seldom learned Latvian, and it necessabecame - Imagining the Nation the Imagining publicized resistance activity. Mikhail Gorbachev’s The Latvians: A Short History Short A Latvians: The

of of the demonstration were, for environmentexample, ed for a greater openness to Soviet society, with t 18 independence day. orPermitted not, the symboli openly discussed for many years, Russification was was also noted by Soviet leaders and journalists in

, 130.

- defined limits on what could be said, published,

(Stanford, 1995), Hoover California: Press, Institution to Soviet immigration of non political and environmental. mes mes of the past. Speaking more freely he interwar republic and the idea of erns were present fromthe earlyyears vians in the total population in 1935 was increased at symbolic times, ations with national content, even importance of monument’sthe was not a neutral location, but rather and the Latvian population were the monumentthe became centrea of ltic dissidents and the ry for Latvians to learn policy of glasnost, he effect heof both effect al.”

sm of the sm of again a major 166 - Latvians. their

167 xv. 64

CEU eTD Collection 170 169 Open box 59, Society Archives, 300.5.170, August 1986, 168 there were concerns following the Chernobyl disaste folk songs and stories, and activists c River, running across the country, was a powerful n hydroelectric power station in Daugavpils, the coun and Bay of Riga, birth defects in industrial a Latvia, these concerns in the 1980s centred around Union, after decades of rushed,massive development unknown. interactions between the two groups, particularly a real. Latvians were often taunted by Russians for s founded,the immigration rates and tensions between and especially government positions. a decrease in Latvian birth rates over the past dec had to wait years, living in conditions that were c continued, and activists argued that immigrants rec cleansing. Latvians would eventually become pronoa deportations of Latvians that had occurred in the 1 activists in the diaspora,feared the Soviet policy change of the Soviet occupation, they were rising by the 1 Stukuls Eglitis, See Stukuls Eglitis, “Charter Document of Group ‘He s and the normalization of Russification policies o Environmental concerns were an issue in many commun 169

Imagining the Nation the Imagining Imagining the Nation the Imagining

lsinki , 35. - 168 alled up this symbolism in their campaigns. 86,” translated by86,” FederationWorld of Free Latvians , 30

Though these suspicions ormay not havemay been - 2.

reas, and the planned development of a Budapest. of immigration, coupled with massthe ramped or in disrepair, ades; non peaking in Latvian, and violent 980s and exacerbated by both new several issues: pollution in the Baltic Sea 940s, was a gradual attempt at et mong young people, were not eived the best housing, while Latvians ational prominentsymbol, in Latvian try’s second r. A planned metro forsystem Riga was unced minority if immigration rates Russ with little concern for nature. In

ver time. Latvians, especially - ians and Latvians were certainly Latvians were favoured for jobs - largest city.The Daugava ities throughout the Soviet thereby leading to 170 (PBLA), (PBLA), As well, hnic 65 CEU eTD Collection Budapest. 172 policy. immigration xenophobic, worth it is noting that few countries would 171 human human rights utilized the Br protests were more easily suppressed by authorities populations than Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia had links with the Catholic church. Lacking the same un reporter noted that the human rights movement had b Armyto fight in Afghanistan, widely to felt be a u in 1985). Many Latvians were also angry about the d youths accused of damaging a train’s interior follo first half of the 1980s accused of political crimes, of which there were se construction would inevitably bring. during construction; another fear was the influx of environmental damage to t also attacked as unnecessarily duplicating existing Marta Sapiek, “The 300.5.17 Baltic States,”1985, April Stukuls Eglitis, - Other concerns included unnecessarily harsh treatme rights monitoring groups formed in the SovietUnion In the wake of glasnost, many activist organization Resistance activity in general remained underground

accords signed in 1975. Though the name implied the ī v Imaginin ī bas Piemineklis most prominently was Helsinki

(including the Soviet treatment of dissident Gun g the Nation the g he Daugava, and putting the city’s historical build

, 42. Though, 42. the Latvian concerns may seem to border on 171

accept another government determining the nation’s 0, 0, b transit lines, potentially causing veral well wing a rock con seless war. migrant workers the system’s . ox 40, folder 1, ox Open40, Society Archives, 172 rafting of young intomen the Soviet a morea difficult orga time ifying force, and with larger Russian

een strongest in Lithuania due to s appeared. The one of these that - in Latvia until the 1980s. publicized cases through the nt nt of activists and t after the signing of these

- 86, for named the Helsinki cert in the town of Ogre group was one of several ā rs Astra and several ings at risk nizing, and hose One 66 CEU eTD Collection Latvij p. 219, 2197.1.87, 1987, JanuaryProtest,” 15, 173 Māksla un Literatūra nationalist slogans.” The offici 19, 500 young people marched through the streets “s the crowd dispersed after they reached the Lenin st Russia! Freedom for a free Latvia!” It was be (amonument distance of a few hundred metres). The Union,marching past the monument up Brīvības iela On December 27, 1986, a reported 300 y were primarilyyouths, and demonstrations to seem h 1987, several smaller protests to have seem occurre year. next distributing propaganda,though Helsinki this right. In 1986, several members were interroga that gave republics the right to secede fromthe un Helsinki including through immigration policies, favouring R including the group’s manifesto, which focused on i Grati The accords, the group’s actual goals were more closely Vija Freimanis, American Latvian American “Three Freimanis, Association, Vija H group was founded by three workers, Raimonds Biteni ņš , in 1986 in the city of Liepaja. It began its acti Though the major protests occurring a - 86’s manifesto called into question the clause of t

on 1 May reported that the demonstrators were wiel al response to the Easter Sunday protest in the Sov

oung people demonstrated against the Soviet - 86 would not stage large as Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Valsts as lieved that four or more people were arrested; t monumentthe took place from summer ted by authorities for their involvement in undred Latvian Youths Hold Anti d in 1986 and early 1987. The participants ion, and asked how L related to Latvian national concerns. atue. ssues of Russification in Lat inging patriotic songs and chanting ussians and linguistic Russification. vities by distributing propaganda, ave been more or less spontaneous. ( youths shouted “Down with Soviet Ļ 173 eniņa iela)towards the Lenin On Easter Sunday of 1987, April he SovietUnion’s constitution eks, Marti

- scale protests until the ņš atvia could exercise Bariss and Linards ding knives and - Soviet via, iet journal 67 CEU eTD Collection 176 Arhīv Valsts Latvijas p. 261, 2197.1.87, 1987, 175 Riga. Arhīvs, Latvijas Valsts 277, 174 human victims the[of deportations and Stalinist te and foreign news sources like Radio Free Europe. ahead not through of time, official sources, but ci this commemorate event. The anno gads the invasion of the Nazis at the end of June, 1941 night, were unknown. Due to the deportations (a reported 1 during the night and arrested entire families;the Latvians to ignore. Helsinki been previously. location and symbol of independence, like many othe these earlier gatherings; more likely, the group wa Monument in the last months.”six that “there have been several spontaneous nationali clubs and starting fights with Russian youths.” Ciganovs, “The Movement,” Resistance 127. LatvianPeople Join Human “3000 RightsPBLA, Leaders for June 9 PBLA, Pavlovskis, Olgerts , yearthe, of horror. Testing the openness of glasn 176 The manifestoThe of Helsinki In June 1987, resistance activity monumentat the r along with deportees in Estonia a (as well as Lithuanians and Estonians) to S

- 86 planned a protest for June 14, the anniversary o

, 1987, “Opening, 1987, Statement to onthe Press Helsinki

- 86 asked, “Why…have, until this theday, 175 uncement of the protest was made public two weeks Helsinki s, Riga.

nd nd Lithuania) and other Soviet terror,followed by

174 - 86 have may taken some inspiration from Another report from June 1987 mentioned numbers of people who were deported

rculated widelythrough word mouth of s drawn to the monument as a central became knownbecame among Latvians as st demonstrations at the Free rror] not been given even the smallest iberia in 1941. Officials arrived at homes 6,000 Latvians were deported that Nationalist Demonstration in Demonstration Riga,”Nationalist June 15, r protestors and flower ost, Helsinki eached a scale that was difficult - 86 decided to f massf deportations of - 86,” 2197.1.87, p. 2197.1.87, 86,” innumerable - layer dom s had baigais baigais 68 CEU eTD Collection Budapest.Archives, 179 Budapest. 178 Open box 59, Society Archives, 300.5.170, August 1986, 177 the days after Helsinki difficult.them made Authorities hurriedly organize d abroad planned events and protests outside Soviet e International newspapers on commented the planned p The senato Helsinki of a letter fro Freedom Monument in Riga on June 14.” the of innocentmemory victims with minutea of sil “We invite all Latvians who are not indifferent to organizations. In summoning Latvians to the monumen general secretary Gorbachev,Pope John Paul II,for 1941 deportations, the group sent public letters to memorial stone, where we could place flowers?” eportations. “Text of Senators’ Letter to Gorbachev on Latvia,” Jun Untitled document, Helsinki “Charter Document of Group ‘Helsinki the Baltic people. appreciation of the great emotional significance wh World War II.…Permitting this ceremony to take place Latvian hold a legal and peaceful demonstration in Riga on We understand the Helsinki ’86 monitoring group has The Soviet response to the planned protests did not Initial response abroad to the planned protests was

- 86. rs’ letter also called for the release of several B

victims of massivethe deportations which occurred

m Helsinkim

179 - 86 announced its intentions. The protest wa

- 86, the American senate sent a letter to Gorbachev - 86, tran 86,

s. Dzintra Bungs?, 300.5.170, box 59, Open box 59, Society Arc Bungs?, 300.5.170, Dzintra s. - 86,” translated by86,” FederationWorld of Free Latvians 178

Budapest. e 11, 1987, 300.5.170, box 59, folder 3, folder Openbox 59, Society 300.5.170, 1987, e 11, 177 people and the o fate Calling for an official recognition of the d a children’s festival on the square in mbassies in commemoration of the 1941 eign governments and Latvian exile ence and the laying of flowers at the rotests. Other Latvian organizations

t for June 14, Helsinki ich the events of 1941 hold for June 14, 1987, to honor the altic political prisoners. supportive. Following the receipt announced its intention to to aimstop them outright, but f our people to honor the will demonstrate an organizations including during and after s thus delayed until the in support of - 86 wrote, hives, (PBLA), (PBLA), 69 CEU eTD Collection Budapest.Archives, 181 Rig Arhīvs, Valsts Latvijas p. 261, 2197.1.87, 1987, 180 midnight. victims of “eastern invaders”? people could lay flowers atmonuments to the victim displayed. Edmunds Cirvilis, formera Stalinist and respectively); the same slogans were spoken out lou (the last two being onthe the monumenttext and th the of memory 1912 play the by nationalist writer Rainis. ancient folk song that popularbecame in the early the protestors. In organizers turned up loudspeakers set up for the fe monument,the eventually totalling around 3,000. Th a thousand people. costumes. At 6:30, the crowd began a procession to and the members of Helsinki well as Lithuanians and Estonians who had come four o’clock in the afternoon. The group of several early evening. People began to gather in Bastejkaln Juris Ziemelis Ziemelis Juris LatvianPeople Join Human “3000 RightsPBLA, Leaders white ribbons, representing the flag of independent People in the streets a

(?), “Latvijas 86 Helsinku Grupa,” June 14, 1987, 300. Grupa,” Helsinku June 1987, (?), 14, “Latvijas 86 victims of June 14,” “For fatherland and freedom,”

turn, protestors be

181 - pplauded, and more joined the crowd along the way a 86, with two dressedmembers in traditional Latvian

The gathering lasted into the evening, dispersing gan to loudly sing “P 180 a. Protestors carried flowers and signs reading “In

- era political prisoner, noted in a speech that in solidarity,former political prisoners, for Nationalist Demonstration in Demonstration Riga,” for Nationalist June 15, s park, theoff of same square, around stival to blare loud music and drown out hundred included Latvian nationalists, as twentieth century, as well as becoming a the monument,the now numbering around d. Other national symbols, like maroon e e children’s festival was ending, but e e first line of the national anthem, s of fascism,s of therefore Latvia, wound around flowers, were ū t, t, v 5.170, box 59, folder 4, folder Openbox 59, Society 5.170, ē ji ņ i” and “God Save Latvia” (Blow, Little Wind), an why not to around folk nd nd at 70 CEU eTD Collection 14. 184 by published either newspaper. Jaunatn 183 Young Latvians, and the movement beginning with inde 182 military service,though he had previously been exe was sentenced to monthssix in jail after the prote permissible, peacefullyyet gathering and laying fl an inabilityto take a positionfirm on the protest the 1941 deportations, as many writers began to do Latvian suggested that the protests were a result of Latvia Soviet newspaper for high but everywhere. existed for the victims of Stalinist terror, which Jaunatne Padomju Brīvības Piemineklis as a surrogate location; a let relegated to interior pages and published days late protest of thousands in the centre tho of the city, entered the public collective The memory. Soviet go that led to independence. After the prominence of t demonstration marked the movement known as the “thi M. Birznieks, “Tas jaaiegaum mums M. Birznieks, Helsinki The andfirst second

e”], June 19, 1987, 300.5.170, box 59, folder 1, folder Openbox 59, S 300.5.170, e”], June 1987, 19, - The monument’s The nationalist symbolism lay sleeping f The event was not without consequences for Helsink Soviet critics placed the blame on Helsinki American youths who visited in the summer of 1986. - 86, “Laikrakstiem ‘Cī “Laikrakstiem 86, 183

explained that monumenthe were the nineteenth

school and elementary school students, ņ a’ un Jaunatne’”‘Padomju [To the newspapers “Cī

ē ” [This must be in fixed our minds], - century movement by the group of knownintellectuals as t pendence in 1918. had not taken place at one specific location, ter to the Soviet newspapers t was chosen because no monument s: discussion of the issues at hand was n n youth groups being “infiltrated” by ugh respon owers in remembrance wasof them not. r. Helsinki st, st, ostensibly for refusing to complete his - 86 and other sources. A report in the mpted. Rolands Silarups, already a ociety Budapest. Archives, The letter was not in the Soviet pres his peaceful protest,monumentthe re vernment found it difficult to ignore a rd awakening” - ses in the official press were

86 noted the selection of the i 184 - or many years;the June 14 86. Founder Linards Granti The article also condemned Skolotāju Avīze Skolotāju Skolot s afterwards, reflecting ņ ( a” and “Padomju treša atmoda treša āju Avīze āju , June 20, 1987, ,1987, June 20, Cīņa and , he ) 182

ņš 71

-

CEU eTD Collection folder 1, 59, Openbox Society Budapest. Archives, 187 folder 1, 59, Openbox Society Budapest. Archives, 186 folder 2, box 59, Open Society Archives, 300.5.170, 1987, 185 were then confined to an apartment in Riga on the s fromtravelling to Riga for the August protests, bu not help the union’s national problems. idea was being seriously considered an of Stalinism. Latvian party secretary Boriss Pugo r still stood in 1987. Helsinki Ribbentrop pact, giving the Baltic states to the So nation into two parts,those at home and those livi invitation noted that the Molotov recalling again the romantic idea of the peasantry mourning for Latvians.” Barkans invited people to the Brīvības Piemineklis anniversary of the signing of the Molotov demonstrations. In August, Helsinki Russians, and that Russians had participated in the noted in an interview from Vienna that Helsinki veteran activist at age 21, was forced to emigrate Radio Free Europe A Kaza, “Latvian Test Soviet of Juris will Rally G Policy Kaza, “ Juris This demonstration was to be the first of several l According to a Helsinki Latvian Republic to Closed Gorbachev’s Openness,”

- Wire, “Dissidents Set Ceremonies in Vilnius andSet Riga,” in Vilnius Ceremonies August“Dissidents Wire, 186 The invitation was issued to the Latvian - 86 also called for the construction of monumenta t

- 86 member’s report, of the groupmembers were preve - Ribbentrop pact resulted in the splitting of the La - 86 planned a second demonstration to mark the d that he supported it, but that demonstrations did 187

- Ribbentrop pact. Helsinki

Budapest. lasnost,” lasnost,” - and put on a flight t 86 was against Soviet “chauvinism,” not vietUnion and ancient Latvian peoples esponded to this demand saying that the t managed to reach the city anyw ng abroad. They noted that Molotovthe June demonstrations as well. “to commemorate this“to commemorate day as a day of treet behind monument,the where The Guardian The

International Herald Tribune Herald International arge and promin , was the only Nazi treatythat tautieši , August 10, 1987, , August1987, 10, - 86 J member o o Vienna. Silarups ent 11, 1987, 300.5.170, 300.5.170, 1987, 11, , or, folk, . The group’s o o the victims 185 ānis

, August 4, 300.5.170, 300.5.170, ay; they tvian nted

72 - CEU eTD Collection box Bungs, 300.5.170, Dzintra trans. September 2, 1987, 191 2, folder Openbox 58, 300.5.170, 6, p. 1, 1987, issue 190 189 Riga. Cooperation and inSecurity Europe Final Act,” August 2 188 supposedly signed the by SovietUnion out of concer concepts of fatherland and freedom fromthe Soviet Latvian news agency Latinform noted Soviet press denounced the protest in articles by o internationally,the force of the two protests made that. that 86 people were arrested, though Helsinki in Riga became violent when police attempted to pus Lithuanian took place at a statue of Linda, figurea in Estoni notice of the protests, and events also occurred in to the protest. The number was estimated at 5,000 p anno monumentthe beginning at eleven o’clock in the mor rans GROUP INCARCERATED HERE.” At this, authorities brok phone contact was cut off. thenThey displayed a si Translated here as “homeland and Latinform, “In accoliberty.” “Mas Caune, J ānis Barkans,ānis “To PBLA, trans. the Governments of the Si acked it and took in formembers questioning. Sever

190 unced on Voice of America and Latvian print and tel

s Demonstrations Across the Across Baltic,” s Demonstrations Despite preventing Helsinki Though the first protest had attracted less attenti Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības - Polish poet

).Though events in Estonia and Lithuania were peac , 86.

- 191 86 from attending, thousands of people showed up at and the m Brīvība Brīvība Society Budapest.Archives, - (Periodical of the Latvian Social Democrat Party) Democrat Social Latvian of the (Periodical 86 estimatedthe actual numbers were double 59, folder 4, folder Open59, Society Archives, Budapest. 4, 1987, 2197.1.87, p. 331, Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Arhīvs, Latvijas Valsts p. 331, 2197.1.87, 1987, 4, eaning of the Molotov an mythology, and a statue of a Tallinn and Vilnius fficials and university professors. A report authoriti gn in the window reading “HELSINKI gnatory Nations to the ConferenceHelsinki on eople. n for “preserving international peace.” h them back; official ning. The demonstration had been that Latvians had “distorted” the rdance with a al were injured, including a child. on both in the SovietUnion and 189 evision journalists also showed up International press again took es take more careful notice. e e into the apartment, n alien scenario” excerpts,

(where t - Ribbentrop pact, reports noted eful,the crowd he protests

, 188

73

CEU eTD Collection Report,Europe August Daily 31, 192 while students or their parents were forced to sign School trips were organized to ensure that children demonstrations at monumentthe on the Latvian indep and profile of the summer demonstrations led t them monument after and them worked harder to prevent de have beenthe expected, authorities to seemhave re to join in the implementation of Lenin’s plan for m sculptures of labour, science and The Komsomolskaya report also reiterated meaninthe teaching history to young people. Mosco the Soviet system and press for not effectively pro noted the ideology of monument.the The Soviet pres history. Another report in the Russian pr The report called Helsinki “West Seen Behind Riga Demonstrations,” from Moscow Koms did not contain any information about the monument. ceremony did, taking advantage of that,thefo fact symbol. This, incidentally, was whatexactly the or the bourgeois period in Latvian, and the monument c Why atthe Monument of Freedom? Simply because it w If If the official response to the two protests in the

- 86 “hooligans” and chastised for them a poor knowle 1987, 300.5.170, box 58, folder 2, box 58, Open Society Archives 300.5.170, 1987,

family, and family, noting sculptor K w Komsomolskaya asked: ess, “West Seen Behind Riga Demonstrations,” papers saying that they would not pagandizing about monumentthe and would be out of the city on the day, alized the symbo onumental propaganda.” o o launch a campaign against s reports to place seemed blame on g of monument,the including endence day of November r a long eventime, city guides ganizers of the flower monstrations later. The popularity omolskaya, August inomolskaya, Radio Free26, summer was milder than might ould be used as some sort of 192

as erected in 1935, during ārlis Zāle as “one of the first

lic power of the , Budapest.

- l aying dge of 18.

74 CEU eTD Collection 197 Lat p. 282, 2197.1.14, Demonstration,” November 6, 1987, 196 4, folder Open Society Archives, Bud 195 Budapest. 194 A Valsts Latvijas p. 282, 2197.1.14, 6, November 1987, 193 monumentatthe should never wilt. article following the August protest, he condemned of freedom.” Balss Dzimtenes Ulmanistic pseudohistory.” does not know Latvia’s history or deliberately alig someone today wants to associate Latvia’s first sta secretary Anatolijs Gorbunovs noted in a speech on threatened with the same. by thisfive of members the grouptime, had had the daughter, Eva Biteniece, also of member thea group west, before November 18. and Raim already in jail and Rolands Silarups exiled to the that they would be punished or lose their jobs if t demonstrate on November 18, under threat of being e Quoted in 2197.1.87, p. 346, Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Latvijas Valsts p. 346, Quoted in 2197.1.87, Quoted in Latvian American “SovietsAssociation, Launc Gorbunovs’ speech translat Anatolijs on October 26 1987, Radio Free Europe, A Latvian American “SovietsAssociation, Launch Campaig Police worked to ensure Helsinki Public announcements and articles also warned again

onds Bitenieks, also had their Soviet citizenship r 196 Gorbunov’s position on the monument was obviously , “Let only “Let , those who are against our socialist sys

- Wire, December 2, 1987, 300.5.170, box 59, folder 4, folder Openbox59, So 300.5.170, December 2, 1987, Wire,

194 195 Bitenieks was forced to leave without his nineteen Gorbunovs also wrote i

apest.

197

- 86 would not be present. Linards Granti Riga. rh īvs, Riga. west. Two moremembers, J vijas Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Valsts vijas hey were absent. ns himself with the supporters of n to Prevent Demonstration,” November 18 h Campaign to Prevent November 18

tehood with November 18, then he either ion Radio Free Europe, 300.5.170, box 59, box 59, Radioion Free Europe, 300.5.170, the protest while claiming that flowers the holid ir citizenship revoked, with one more . Bitenieks and Barkans reported that, n an article in the magazine xpelled; workers received

evoked and were sent to the st protesting. Latvian party ay given in October 1987, “If 193 tem go to tem the monument

unsettled: in a ciety Archives, ā nis Barkans warnings - year ņš was - C old ī ņ a 75 CEU eTD Collection 4, folder Open Society Archives, Budapest. 200 Riga. 199 Arh Valsts Latvijas p. 197, 2197.1.87, 198 to the presscomment on November 18: “This holiday Latvian dissident, noted the contradictions of the that this d surrounding the monument. was fined for shouting “Let Latvia live free effective at deterring protestors. M were arrested or injured over the however,day, as unsuccessful. to attempted break through the military blockade at also found that they were unable to reach their con were placed under house arrest and threatened. The blocked. Major routes into the city were also block the Brothers’to monument,the but authori Cemetery 18; Helsinki organizations elsewhere in Europe set up a monitori monument.the Anticipating a possible violen “Lai dz in “EventsSoviet PBLA, Occupied of 1987 November La 18, Kaza, B Juris

People gathered instead atthe Brothers’ Cemetery; Rumours also spread that an ‘official counterdemons Helsinki ī vo br id not necessarilymark an anti - 86 feared wider police violence. 199 altic Helsinki Group Group altic Helsinki ī vu Latviju!” M Police also reacted to protests arranged in surrog - 86 had claimedthat celebration of the holiday shou

ē rija V rija 200

ī (Stockholm), “Latvian Monitoring,” Demonstrations Novem vs, Riga. ī tola, “Iesniegums” [An Appeal], December 31, 1987, 300.5.170 [Antola, “Iesniegums” Appeal], 1987, December 31, ērija Vītola, younga woman involved with Helsinki

- Soviet ideology. Ints Cailitis, wella !” !” on November 18 in one of the parks 198 t recourse by Soviet forces, press and Baltic

Soviet stance on Latvian history in a the securitymeasures proved quite ed military.by Members of Helsinki tacts in Riga by phone. People ng group in Stockholm on November monitoring agency set up in St the monument,the but were tvia,” 2197.1.87, Arh p. 1, Latvijas Valsts tvia,” 2197.1.87, should be celebrated but the ties ensured major routes were some attempted to sometravel attempted fr tration’might be arranged at ate locations. Few people ld be permitted, and - known ockholm ber 1987, ber 1987, , box 59, , box 59, - 86, ī om vs, - 86 76 CEU eTD Collection 205 deportations in occupied Latvia], March 25, 204 p. 2197.1.90, 203 Arh Valsts Latvijas p. 204, 2197.1.87, 202 Budapest. 201 Police tried to block the monume choice of location, rather than with the act of com suggesting that the problem was with the dissident and others) atthe Brothers’ and t Cemetery, another protest was planned by representatives of S for the rehabilitation of victims, but the planned Stalinist terror was now condemned in the official The Latvian Red Cross estimated the actual number a Soviet Latvian newspaper anotherto commemorate setmassive of deportations rhetoric against demonstration, they were working. resort to the old methods.” authoritie Juris Dreifelds, Dreifelds, Juris martā deportacijām okupetaj par “Informācija PBLA, 1949 “Helsinki PBLA, Jur Radio Free Europe A of of secret provisions to the Molotov forced to make extensive criticism of Helsinki 86, the west, Baltic exiles, of history both in the Baltic and all “The Baltic demo is Kaza, Group Baltic is Helsinki A A report by Juris Kaza, an Latvianexile journalist Helsinki

s don’t know how to accept that. They’re not prepar 11, Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Latvijas Valsts 11, Latvia in Transition in Latvia - 86 encouraged Latvians to lay flowers at themonume - 86 Urges Latvians Urges to 86 Commemorate Deportation March 25 Vict

- Wire, November 19, 1987, 300.5.170, box 59, folder 4, 59, Open box 300.5.170, 1987, November 19, Wire, nstrations have had an unprecedented impact on the Cī 201 ņ

a concessions, admitting the possible, even likely e

published the number of victims of deportation as ī (Stockholm), “Latvian Monitoring,” Demonstrations Novem vs, Riga.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres (Cambridge: University Cambridge nt, also blocking routes between the Brothers’ Ceme

- - Ribbentrop pact.” union Soviet press. Behind all the vituperative his protest was then officially sanctioned, protest remained prohibited. However, memorating the deportations in itself. press, article associations of Helsinki oviet creative unions

ā Latvijā” [Information on the March 1949 etc. theetc. official press has been on Mar s closer to 70,000. . noted that despite official 202

ch 25, 1949. On March 25, the ed for a dialogue so they s in Soviet periodicals called s, 1996), 57. 1996), s, nt nt on March 25, 1988, 204 ims,” March 10, 1988, 1988, March 10, ims,” Society Archives, (artists, writers,

- 86 and their discussion

xistence 43,231. ber 1987, ber 1987, 205 tery

203 77

CEU eTD Collection 207 Arh Valsts Latvijas 206 Over the course of 1988, the Latvian flag was reado inmovement Latvia continued to grow, and the repub and economic concerns in Latvia. minds,” during which many people spoke freely about and others) took place. Olgerts Eglitis credits thi a conference of the Latvian unions of various branc construction of a Riga to metro, which ten thousand years mistreatment of in Soviet prisons and camps; protestors: one a funeral for Gunārs Astra, an impo more prohibited topics. In April,two events elsewh followers during this journalists time; and newspap support for the regime was eroding. The national mo and were watched militiaby for two days. questioning. Helsinki custody the by police.” arrive; placedmembers flowers at the monument and in time public since The national anthem of independent Latvia was sung, and Brīvības Piemineklis, but protestors broke thro Eglitis, Eglitis, Demonstrati “Report Kalniņš, onPBLA, Ojars 1988 March 25 Af Between March and June of 1988, repressions against Nonviolent Action in the Liberation of Latvia Liberation in Nonviolentthe Action ter this, demonstrations more frequent became and o ī vs, Riga.

1940. The militia appeared at 6:30 when PM, Helsink - 86 member 206

Between fourteen and twenty people were taken in f

s were able to return but hadhome, their phone lin 207

, 13. s event as a “real breakthrough in people’s

er editors began to touch on more and pted as the national flag and Latvian hes of the a ugh and left candles at monument.the rtant Latvian disside ere in Riga turned out thousands of the other a protest against the people came. In the first days of June, vement gained more a for what was believed to be the first weretaken “immediately into lic was allowed greater autonomy. national issues, social, environmental ons in Riga, Latvia,” 2197.7.90, p. 31, inons Riga, Latvia,” 2197.7.90, protests all but disappeared as rts pen. The independence (artists, writers, scholars, nt nt who died after i - 86 was due to nd more or es cut 78 CEU eTD Collection 212 211 219 1988, 210 Riga. Arhīvs, Valsts Latvijas 209 208 K historical dates Latvian residents of the country. The gatherings at up. Molotov Brothers’ and the Cemetery Brīvības Piemineklis. be restored at a met square in Vecriga,the old tow deportations also occurred in Estonia in 1988. of glasnost. The 1988 demonstration saw no military Patriotic speeches were heavily edited and the cove on Latvian television, but the television coverage atthe event and “nationalistic speeches” weremade official resistance. Ten thousand people were in at monument overall. Museum Arts of and articles about his work, adding centennial of K thbecame āarlis Zāle’s birth, an officially sanctioned event Caune, Caune, “Thousands PBLA, Demonstrate in Riga, Latvia; Call for Ree of Summary Events in “Preliminary PBLA, Riga, Latvia Eglitis, 211 This number again included guests from other Sovie A A second demonstration inthe memory of June 14 dep The end of October 1988 marked a large On July 21, a p 7.1.14, p. 217, Latvijas Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Valsts Latvijas p. 217, 7.1.14, Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības - Nonviolent Action in the Liberation of L Liberation in Nonviolentthe Action Ribbentro e e official language of the Latvian SSR. Nineteen ei ārlis Zāle’s birth, which was celebrated by an exhi had “already become tradition.”a

p pact occurred in August; suggestedestimates 30,0

eaceful demonstration asking for the flag of the in

, 90. , 88.

atvia

, 14. - scale celebration of the centennial of did not show the flags 212 — with choir performances and journal 210 tendance. the monumentmark to important n, and the crowd dispersed to the

June 14, 1988,” June 15, 1988, 2197.1.14, p. 222, p. 222, 2197.1.14, 1988, June 15, 1988,” June 14, rage called it a demonstration in support

Another demonstration against the . 209 intervention. Protests against the to a greater discussion about the stablishment ofstablishment National Flag,” 21, July The events were covered extensively t countries, as well as many non 208 ghty Flags and signs were displayed ortations occurred with little bition at the State - eight also marked the 00 people showed and posters. terwar republic to 79 - CEU eTD Collection 214 213 stretched metres up the street leading to monumthe Estonia. The chain through Latvia wound past the mo the three Baltic states holding ha the Molotov protestors. damage; one person was injured during these prot monumentthe for a daily picket to protest the heav anniversary days and to lay flowers at the monument important site of resistance activity.People conti earlier repressions or arrests,the Brīvības Piemin Though resistance activitymonumentthe at after 19 Latvian residents of the country and people elsewhe continued to grow and attract wide sympathy, not on years of the SovietUnion before independence was a November 18.” without noting a reason for celebration: a the text events taking place on the holiday, including a mee they did not prevent protests. Even the newspaper articles. Though Soviet authorities heightened secu “Baltic Appeal to United fonds, Nations,” PBLA 2197.1. “Šodien, novembrī,” 18. The peaceful pan Large 214

-

Ribbentrop pact, was a human chain formed by over a - scale protests throughout became common Latvia and 213

Padomju Jaunatne Padomju - Baltic “Baltic Way” protest in 1989, on August 23,

nds and stretching from Lithuania through Latvia to , November 18, 1988, 1. 1988, , November 18, eklis and surrounding area remained an nued to gat ests when a taxi drove into the group of bove the listings read only “Today, 14, p. 357, Latvij 357, p. 14, Padomju Jaunatne ritymonumentthe at in November 1988, ting at the FreedomMonument,though re in the SovietUni y trafficy that was causing structural 88 was less publicized and lacked the ent. ent. The Supreme Soviet of the ttained. National movements . In February 1989, people gathered at ly fromLatvians but from non nument, wheremountains of flowers

her in the area on important as Valsts Arhīvs, Riga. Arhīvs, Valsts as million people from the Baltics in the last reported a on and abroad. anniversary of list of

-

80 CEU eTD Collection 215 state, the idea of freedom gaining new meaning afte of Latvia.m The was unsuccessful and the SovietUnion finally recog protestors in June 1987. Though Soviet forces stage in Bastejkalns park, just off 1991, an attempted coup by Soviet forces resulted i 1990, though the implementation of independence did Latvian SSR declared independence an Taagepera and Misiunas, onument once again abecame for symbol freedom in a

The Baltic States: Years of Dependence Years States: Baltic The the monument’s the square, where Helsinki

d the renewal of the Republic of Latvia on May 8, d another coup in August of 1991, this n the deaths of two Latvian cameramen r a fifty nized the independence of the Republic not occur immediately. , 335. - year struggle for it.

- 86 had first gathered n independentn 215

In January 81 CEU eTD Collection building loyaltythe to Soviet state in countries t countries policy towards the Baltic states were, in part, a r symbol of the indefatigable spirit of the Latvians continued long after. The explanexile monument insufficient.seems Mukhina died in 1953, itself, the simple explanation found in some Latvia enthusiasm in destroying monuments to acknowledge its existence. well as through reprimanding people who lingered by Lenin’s statue, the trolleybus stop and other heavy destruction, both physical and psychological, occur guaranteed: aside from official discussions about r history lessons, ignored as much as possible by the presence and its location, and being invisible to S peculiar position of being both one of mostthe obv seemingly have preferred it had not been there at a simultaneously being ascribed new meanings by Sovie As a national symbol, heldit onto its meaning for The monument The existed in a tenuous double life for m The survival of monumentthe in Soviet Latvia is pe (percei ved by both Soviet and Baltic sides), and a result

ation that the monument’s continued existence was a Conclusion the First World War in neighbouring Estonia. In esult of perceiveda ‘westernness’ to the hat regarded Soviet rule as illicit. More ovietfrom books omitted eyes, and holds some weight: peculiarities of Soviet eplacing themonument, gradual regime. Its cont traffic, a the Latvian whilecommunity, ll.monument The remained n works that Vera Mukhina saved the red through the nearby placement of ious sites in the due tocity, its physical the monument,the daring to

and discussion on themonument t officials and guides, who would nd nd a lack maintenance, of as rplexing, especially given Soviet any yearsany under of of the difficulty of inued survival was never the Soviets. in the 82

CEU eTD Collection Piemineklis in the interwar was able to rise to the the twentieth century. younger generations, the havemay monument been jus shared among the wartime population, an freedom and unitythe of Latvian people; without th population during the 1940s strengthened the import it was also a result of the events that followed construction campaign and ceremonies, and the stron creation in the interwar, the nationalist ideology importance of monumentthe as a unifying symbol was person. The site marked a sort of theoretical homec younger generations of Latvian exiles for the monu that was split apart by the events of the Second Wo physical debilitation of monument.the Sovie monument, and the ‘rehabilitation’ of monument’the nationalism in the Soviet republics, a retelling of seem precisely, the reasons for the monument’s survival, due to a lucky combination of factors: an acceptan t Latvia and emphasizing the ‘Soviet’ affiliations In the new atmosphere of glasno managedmonument The to remain a symbol that united

st, the collective of the memory Brīvības d carried down, in various ways and places, to the interwar. The division of the Latvian the story and the imagery of the built into the monument through the forefront. This did memory not remain aside fromMukhina’s intervention, rld W oming for these Latvians. The ment, even ment, before ever seeing it in ance of monumenta symbolizing the is experience of trauma that was also g nationalismthis of period. However, in Zāle’s biography, coupled with s creators through Štalbergs’ work in t another old statue the by end of in pa ce ce of certain elements of ar, as seen in the affinity of rt a result of monument’sthe the Latvian population 83 CEU eTD Collection 216 the fa unidentified guerrilla artist placed maquettea of statue fell victim to the financial crisis and Mild for young Latvians, app abroad contributed along with Latvians at home. It begun in the early 1980s, was again funded by a col Further restoration to the monumen Werner;Clinton spoke of the importance of monum the was visited by American president Bill Clinton and dignitaries make a point of vi statue and the thousands of citizens who filled the people laymetaphoricall preceded the Soviet collapse.monument The was a pa monument in the 1980s marked the beginning of the s correspondence, poster deportees, individuals and exile organizations used independence day, and in the laying of flowers. The throughout this in individu time, completely hidden during the entiretythe of Soviet By Baranovs Aivars and K Andrejs ll of 2011. monument’s Theimportance as a symbol in Latvia con

s and other paraphernalia. In Latvia, demonstration earing in a 2010 webcomic, “Mildas laiks” y sleeping, while ceremonies at monumentthe woke u siting the monument; in the postimmediate

ļ aviņš, mildaslaiks.lv. al protests, in the increased police presence on th t in 2000 - 2001, completing the incomplete restoration a found herself out of work, the statue in the Daugava River in Riga in

streets in protest against the regime. the image of monumentthe on lective effort, to whichmany Latvians NATO general secretaryManfred remains a symbol of Latvian identity era,made but occasional reappearances memory also memory remained alive visually, as o rt of this awakening: both it and the - called ‘third awakening’ that ent as a symbol of freedom. tinues today. Foreign (Milda’s times) (Milda’s wheretimes) the - s at the Sovietyears, it 216 and an p both the e e Latvian

84 CEU eTD Collection itself abecame battleground for the struggle for f for granted after that freedom disappeared for fift national freedomthat was fought for initiallyfrom freedom. In this way, remainedit a key national sy that would precede the collapse of the Soviet syste Latvia instilled it with new collective memories as the diaspora saw it as a symbol of a virtual homela generations, both domestically and abroad, created passing by it in independent Latvia, whether or not memories. The older generations remembered the cons events no longer in anyone’s livingmon the memory, by 1991, these generations were gone. Rather than b statuary of monumentthe were within living memory meaning to a symbol of freedom.The events and work The experience of the Second World War and the Sovie

reedom. the monument abecame site of protests y years, y during which the monument m and m achievement of the fought nd, while those who grew up i mbol mbol and sitem of they still lived there;younger 1918 to 1920, and would not be taken ecoming simply monumenta depicting a new collective Latvians memory. in ument became a site of new collective when the monument was first bu s of literature displayed in the truction of monumentthe

t occupation brought new emory, symbolizingemory, a n n Soviet or - for ilt; 85 CEU eTD Collection

Fig. 1: The monument in Riga. Appendix: Images Appendix:

86 CEU eTD Collection

Fig. 2: Mother Latvia Fig. 3: The chain - breakers (left) and Vaidelotis(left) (right) sculptures (left) and L (left)

ā č pl ē sis (far right)

87 CEU eTD Collection

Fig. 5: The soldiers’ return Fig. 4: Workers

88 CEU eTD Collection Fig. 7: The 1905 revolution Fig. 6: Fatherland guards (left) and the (left) battle against the Bermontians (righ

t)

89 CEU eTD Collection Fig. 8: Family

Fig. 9: Freedom 90

CEU eTD Collection All imagesown my unless otherwise noted. Fig. 10: Vera Mukhina’s “Worker and Kolkhoz Woman” Fig. 8 Social Democratic Party Democratic Social : Demonstration on August 23, 1987. Photograph 6 (1987), 6 Stockholm, from 300.5.170, box 59, folde Society Archives, Budapest.

Brīvība: Periodical of the Latvian Latvian the of Periodical Brīvība: statue

(public domain) r 2,

Open

91

CEU eTD Collection Groys, Boris. Grecovs, Viktors. Studies Baltic of Ehala,Martin. Albert Eglitis, Olgerts. Latvija Dzintarzeme Dreifelds, Juris. Cimdi Caune,Mara. Burch, Stuart and David J. Smith. “Empty Spaces and Bruuvere, Ilona. Bremša, Laila, Aija Brasli Svetlana.Boym, Apsītis, Vaidelotis. Aps Anusauskas, Arvydas, editor. Anderson, Benedict. Films and Journals Books, ītis, Vaidelotis. ņ

Ka, 2000. Press, 1992. Einstein Institution, 1993. Symbols and Images in Ideas, Atjaunošanas Fonds, 2002. Peoples’The Construction and Responsibility.] Riga 936. ‘War of Monuments’ From Another Angle,” Vēsture a, Ausma and Deniss Hanovs, editors.

The Total Art of Stalinism of Art Total The Br “The “The Bronze . [History. of Latvian Art.] Riga: Petergailis,c. 2 Nonviolent Action in the Liberation of Latvia of Liberation Nonviolent Action in the Latvia in Transition in Latvia Versija Vera Versija

ī The Future of Nostalgia of Future The 40.1 v Vera Muhina 1889 Muhina Vera ī

Brīvības Piemineklis Brīvības Kapi Brāļu bas Piemineklis: bas Imagined CommunitiesImagined (2009): 139 .

[Latvia, Land of Amber.] Riga: Latvijas Valsts Izde ņ a, Dainis Bru Soldier: IdentityThreat and Maintenance in Estoni

The Anti The . [Vera’s. Version.] Kinolats, 2010. Film. . [Brothers’ Cemetery.] Riga: Zinatne, 1995. - 158.

Tautas Celts un Aprūpēts un Celts Tautas

. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityP - Bibliography 1953 - . Riga: Zinatne, 2010. Soviet Resistance in the Baltic State Baltic the in Resistance Soviet ģ . [FreedomMonument.] Riga: Zinatne, 1993. is, Stella Pel . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Un . New York: Basic Books, 2001. . Riga: Vera Muhinas Fonds, 2004. . London: Verso, 2006.

Latvia and Latvians: A People and a State State a and People A Latvians: and Latvia š Europe e e and Inta Puj t

he Value of Symbols: Estonia’s

- : Brīv Asia Studies Asia 002. . . Cambridge,Massachusetts:

[The Freedom[The Monument: ības Pieminekļa

ā

te. Latvijas Mākslas Mākslas Latvijas

59

vniecība, 1960. ress, 1996. s (2007): 913

. Vilnius: Du a,” iversity

Journal Journal

-

92 CEU eTD Collection Ricoeur,Paul. Reddaway, Peter. Plakans, Andrejs. Nora,Pierre. Misiunas, Mertelsmann, editor.Olaf, Mart Lehti,Marko. “Never Lacombe, Gaston. “Nationalism and Educa Kowalewski, David. “Dissent in the Baltic Republics Ķeni Kairšs, Viesturs. Hroch,Miroslav. Hroch,Miroslav. Hosking, Geoffrey. Hirsch, Francine. ņš in,Terry. Union, 1923 Union, and the Dramathe of Bronze Soldier.” , Indulis. Nationalism, Social Change Social Nationalism, Univer Union Soviet Press, 1998. 1990 2003. Studies Studies Baltic of Journal Cambridge Universi Romuald and Rein Taagepera.

. London:. Hurst and Company, 1993. Realms of Memory of Realms

Memory, History, Forgetting History, Memory, sityPress, 2001. 28.4 The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in t in Nationalism and ActionNations Empire: Affirmative The 1995. Latvijas Vēsture Latvijas Piemineklis The Latvians: A Short History Short A Latvians: The Nation, History: European Modern in Studies Comparative Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe in Revival National PreconditionsSocial of Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Maki the and Knowledge Ethnographic Nations: of Empire Uncensored Russia Uncensored - 1939 (1997): 309 Russia: People and Empire and Russia: People

. Ithaca/London: CornellUniversity Press, 2005. - Ending Second World War: Public Performances of Nati . Ithaca/London:. CornellUniversity Press, 2001. The Sovietization of the Baltic States 1940 States Baltic the of Sovietization The . Monument.][The Arte, TV 2006. Film. ty Press,ty 1985.

- 339. . [History. of Latvia.] Riga: Zvaigznes, 1993. 10.4 . Volumes. I

. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2007. . New York: American Heritage Press, 1972. (1979): 309 The Baltic States: Years of Dependence 1940 Dependence of Years States: Baltic The

tion in Latvia, 1918 . Chicago:. UniversityChicago of Press, 2004. - Journal of Baltic Studies Studies Baltic of Journal III, New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, . Cambridge, . Massachusetts: Harvard - 19. . St

: Characteristics and Consequences.” anford,California: Hoover Institution - 1940.”

Journal of Baltic Baltic of Journal . Cambridge:. 39.4

- 1956

(2008): 393 , Tartu: , Kleio, he Soviet Soviet he ng of the the of ng

onal Dignity

- 418. -

93

CEU eTD Collection “Zāle, Kārlis.” Zake, Ieva. Zake, Ieva. Thaden, Edward C. Suny, Ronald Grigor and Terry Martin, editors. Stukuls Eglitis, Daina. Straume, Jānis. State Archives of Latvia, editors. Smith, Laurajane. Sīmanis, Vito Vitauts, editor. Sili Latvia of Capital Riga Rosenfeld, Alla and Norton T. Dodg ņš , J ā bp.php?./bp translation at http://latvians.com/en/Reading/Brivi Komiteja, 1935. Trans. Peters Vecrumba. Reproduced New Jersey: Rutgers UniversityPress, 2002. 1945 Soviets, the Under Expression Artistic of Freedom volume 3. Riga, Zinatne, 1970. Mellen Press, 2008. 1980s to 1840s Latvia, of Case The Ideals: 2010. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UniversityPress, Stalin and Lenin of Age the in Making Latvia Nacionālais Apgāds, 2007. Nordik, 1999. nis. Brīvības Piemineklis. [Freedom Monument.] Riga AmericanLatvians Nineteenth

. University. Park, Penns Latvijas PSR Mazā Enciklopēdija Mazā PSR Latvijas Latvija Otrajā Pasaules Karā Pasaules Otrajā Latvija The Uses of Heritage of Uses The - 00 Russification in the Ba Russification in the

- - Imagining the Nation: History, Modernity, and Revolution and Modernity, History, Nation: Imaginingthe intro.ssi. Acces Century Nationalism and Twentieth and Nationalism Century . Riga: Galvas Pilsētas Rīgas Valdes Izdevums, 1938

Latvia . New Brunswick, New Jersey:Transaction Publishers Policy of Occupation Powers in Latvia 1939 Latvia in Occupation Powers Policy of

. St. Charles, Illinois: The Book Latvia Inc., 1984 e, editors. sed 1, May 2012.

ylvania: UniversityPennsylvania of Press, 2002. . New York: Routledge, 2006. ltic Provinces and Finland, 1855 Finland, Provincesand ltic . [Latvia. in the Second World War.] Riga: Art of the Baltics: The Struggle for for Struggle The Baltics: the of Art . Oxford: UniversityOxford Press, 2001. A State of Nations: Empire and Nation and Empire Nations: of State A [Latvian SSR Small Encyclopedia],

. Lewiston,. New York: The Edwin

basPiemineklis/envelope 1981. - Century Ant Century with partial English : Brīvības Pieminekļa

- 1991

. New Brunswick, i .

- Democratic - 1914 - 1 991 . - in . Riga: , .

- 94 CEU eTD Collection Literat Skolot R Jaunatne Padomju Laiks Cī Newspapers • 300.5.170 Records of Radio Free Europe: Subject F Open Socie • 3281 Br • 2575.7.1430 Latvian Diplomatic and Consular Agenc • 1307 Latvijas Valsts V • 2197 World Association of Free Latvians/ Pasaules • • 2219 Ilgvars Spilners, American Latvian Associati • 222.1 Latvian SSR Intourist Agency, Riga departme • 95.1 Ernests Latvi ArchivalDocuments 2179 Aristids Jekabs Lambergs, personal archives ī ņ gas Balss gas a

jas Valsts

ā .1.989 ū Munich Information Bureau Archives archives Committee in FranceCommittee Piemineklis” project) ju Av ju ra un M un ra ī v ī ty Archives, Budapest, Hungary -

bas (Riga)Piemineklis Committee 90 Professor Laube’s Fallen Soldier Monument Projec ī

ze Š Arhīvs

talbergs, personal archives

ē ā stures Arh ksla

(Latvian State Archives), Riga, Latvia

ī vs (Latvian State History Archives), Riga, Latvia

on and PBLA director, personal iles of Dzintra Bungs Br nt nt reports ies Abroad, Br ī vo Latvie

š u u Apvien t (“ ī v Br ī bas Piemineklis ī v

ī bas ī ba (PBLA)

95