INTEGRATION and DIVERSITY in the BALTIC SEA REGION Edited

HiOA report 2014 no. 14

INTEGRATION AND DIVERSITY IN

THE BALTIC SEA REGION

Edited by

Harald Koht and Pål Veiden

Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences CCȬBYȬSAȱHøgskolen i Oslo og Akershus

HiOAȱreportȱ2014ȱno.ȱ14ȱ

ISSN 1892-9648 ISBN 978-82-93208-79-2

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PublishedȱbyȱOsloȱandȱAkershusȱUniversityȱCollegeȱofȱAppliedȱSciences:ȱ

PerspectivesȱonȱtheȱPublicȱSectorȱandȱSocialȱPolicyȱforȱtheȱ21stȱCentury.ȱ ȱ HaraldȱKohtȱandȱLawrenceȱYoung,ȱeditorsȱ ȱ FromȱCivicȱCultureȱtoȱGovernance:ȱChangingȱPatternsȱofȱLocalȱAdministrationȱandȱWelfare.ȱ HaraldȱKoht,ȱeditorȱ ȱ PolicyȱofȱEnergyȱandȱSocialȱWelfareȱinȱtheȱBalticȱSeaȱRegion:ȱWhatȱareȱtheȱOptions?ȱȱ ȱȱ HaraldȱKohtȱandȱKnutȱLehreȱSeip,ȱeditorsȱ ȱ CivilȱSociety,ȱLocalȱGovernmentȱandȱHumanȱServicesȱinȱtheȱBalticȱSeaȱRegion:ȱPapersȱfromȱ theȱNOBAȱresearchȱproject.ȱȱ ȱȱ HaraldȱKohtȱandȱGeirȱC.ȱTufte,ȱeditorsȱ ȱ PublishedȱbyȱZin¬tnesȱgr¬mata,ȱRiga:ȱ ȱ Challengesȱ fromȱ anȱ Ageingȱ Population:ȱ Legality,ȱ Professionalism,ȱ andȱ Practicalȱ Ethicsȱ inȱ CareȱforȱOlderȱPeopleȱinȱLatvia,ȱLithuania,ȱandȱNorway.ȱȱ ȱȱ MonicaȱKjørstadȱandȱGeirȱC.ȱTufte,ȱeditorsȱ ȱ

Inȱmemoryȱofȱ

INTAȱBRIKSEȱ

Etȱneȱfutȱjamaisȱauȱmondeȱdeuxȱopinionsȱpareilles,ȱnonȱplusȱqueȱdeuxȱpoilsȱouȱ deuxȱgrains.ȱLeurȱplusȱuniverselleȱqualité,ȱc’estȱlaȱdiversité.ȱ

—ȱMontaigne,ȱEssais,ȱ1580ȱ

Ifȱweȱcannotȱendȱnowȱourȱdifferences,ȱatȱleastȱweȱcanȱhelpȱtheȱworldȱsafeȱforȱ diversity.ȱ

—ȱJohnȱF.ȱKennedy,ȱAddress,ȱAmericanȱUniversity,ȱ1963ȱ

Contents

ȱ Foreword……………………...………………………………………………………………5ȱ KristelȱMariȱSkorgeȱȱ

Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………7ȱ HaraldȱKohtȱandȱPålȱVeidenȱ

1.ȱ IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱthoughtsȱandȱtoday’sȱsocietalȱconditions…………………….…13ȱ MagidȱAlȬArakiȱ

2.ȱ Impactȱofȱchangesȱinȱelectoralȱsystemȱonȱwomen’sȱparliamentaryȱȱ representationȱinȱLatvia……………………………………………………….……33ȱ J¬nisȱIkstensȱ

3.ȱ HumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱonȱintegrationȱandȱdiversity…………….…….57ȱ JuliaȱKöhlerȬOlsenȱ

4.ȱ Challengesȱtoȱtheȱstudyȱofȱmodernizationȱofȱpublicȱadministrationȱinȱȱ LatviaȱandȱNorway:ȱFromȱpreȬWeberȱtoȱGoodȱGovernance…………………...73ȱ HaraldȱKohtȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱ

5.ȱ Freedomȱofȱexpressionȱandȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱmediaȱ–ȱaȱEuropeanȱȱ perspectiveȱ…………………………………………………………………………81ȱ KristinȱSkareȱOrgeretȱ

6.ȱ EthnoȬpoliticalȱconflictsȱandȱdiversitiesȱinȱnationalȱidentitiesȱinȱLatvia…….101ȱȱ MihailsȱRodinsȱandȱAlexȱGaponenkoȱ

7.ȱ DiversityȱManagementȱandȱSustainability:ȱTheȱLatvianȱCaseȱinȱBalticȱȱ Context……………………………………………………………………………125ȱ JurisȱRozenvaldsȱ

8.ȱ Addressingȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”ȱthroughȱregionalȱandȱlocalȱauthorities:ȱ ResultsȱfromȱLatviaȱandȱNorway……………………………………………..…149ȱȱ GeirȱC.ȱTufte,ȱCatharinaȱBjørkquist,ȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱ

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….165ȱ

Tables

Tableȱ2.1.ȱAverageȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱbyȱpartyȱfamily,ȱ1998Ȭ2011.ȱ...... ȱ41

Tableȱ4.1.ȱRelevantȱconcernsȱinȱdecidingȱcasesȱinȱelderlyȱcare.ȱȱAverageȱscoresȱofȱȱ respondentsȱinȱeachȱcountry.ȱRankedȱaccordingȱtoȱstagesȱofȱethicalȱreasoning.ȱ...... ȱ78

Tableȱ6.1.ȱȱPoliticalȱidentityȱinȱLatviaȱbyȱnationalitiesȱȱ...... ȱ107

Tableȱ6.2.ȱȱEthnoculturalȱidentityȱinȱLatviaȱbyȱnationalitiesȱȱ...... ȱ113

Tableȱ6.3.ȱEthnoȬpoliticalȱconflictsȱinȱLatviaȱ.ȱ...... ȱ114

Tableȱ6.4.ȱTheȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconfrontation.ȱȱ...... ȱ115

Tableȱ7.1.ȱSupportȱforȱRussianȱpartiesȱinȱEstonianȱandȱLatvianȱparliamentȱȱ electionsȱ...... ȱ139

Tableȱ7.2.ȱSupportȱforȱtheȱideaȱthatȱtheȱfoundationȱofȱtheȱunityȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱȱ societyȱisȱLatvianȱlanguageȱandȱculture,ȱbyȱethnicityȱofȱtheȱrespondent.ȱ...... ȱ142

Tableȱ7.3ȱAttitudeȱtoȱcivicȱvaluesȱbyȱtheȱethnicityȱofȱtheȱrespondentȱ...... ȱ143

Figures

Figureȱ1.1.ȱTheȱworldȱasȱaȱgarden.ȱ...... ȱ18

Figureȱ2.1.ȱShareȱofȱwomenȱamongȱparliamentaryȱcandidatesȱandȱMPs,ȱ1998Ȭ2011.ȱ.ȱ38

Figureȱ2.2.ȱFemaleȱshareȱofȱcandidatesȱbyȱparty,ȱ1998Ȭ2011ȱ...... ȱ40

Figureȱ5.1.ȱEuropaȱReginaȱ...... ȱ82

Foreword

TheȱNorwegianȱ–ȱBalticȱconferenceȱPerspectivesȱonȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱinȱtheȱBalticȱ

SeaȱRegionȱwasȱheldȱatȱOsloȱandȱAkershusȱUniversityȱCollegeȱ(HIOA)ȱonȱtheȱ21stȱandȱ

22ndȱofȱNovemberȱ2013.ȱTheȱconferenceȱwasȱtheȱresultȱofȱaȱlongstandingȱcooperationȱ betweenȱmemberȱofȱstaffȱatȱHIOAȱandȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱLatviaȱandȱweȱwereȱhappyȱ toȱ welcomeȱ moreȱ thanȱ 40ȱ participantsȱ fromȱ variousȱ departmentsȱ andȱ institutionsȱ bothȱinȱNorwayȱandȱabroad.ȱ

Inȱspiteȱofȱtheirȱdifferences,ȱNorwayȱandȱtheȱBalticȱstatesȱdealȱwithȱissuesȱreȬ latedȱtoȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱonȱaȱdailyȱbasis.ȱTheȱchallengesȱareȱseenȱinȱvariousȱ areasȱofȱpublicȱlife,ȱandȱwillȱneedȱcooperativeȱeffortsȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱdealtȱwithȱinȱtheȱ future.ȱThus,ȱtheȱintentionȱofȱtheȱconferenceȱwasȱtoȱdiscussȱandȱshedȱlightȱonȱsomeȱ perspectivesȱonȱpublicȱpolicy,ȱresearchȱandȱeducationȱinȱtheȱareasȱofȱsocialȱworkȱandȱ policy,ȱpublicȱadministration,ȱmedia,ȱlibraryȱandȱcommunicationȱstudies.ȱȱ

Theȱhighȱqualityȱofȱtheȱpapersȱandȱtheȱdiscussionȱrepresentȱtheȱthinkingȱandȱ experienceȱofȱmenȱandȱwomenȱexpertsȱinȱtheirȱparticularȱfields.ȱTheirȱcontributionsȱ helpedȱ toȱ makeȱ theȱ Conferenceȱ anȱ interestingȱ arenaȱ forȱ sharingȱ ofȱ theseȱ thoughts,ȱ andȱalsoȱaȱmeetingȱgroundȱforȱfutureȱcollaborationȱandȱprojects.ȱ

Inȱtheseȱproceedingsȱofȱtheȱconferenceȱweȱhaveȱgatheredȱeightȱpapersȱwhichȱ weȱhopeȱwillȱcreateȱaȱbackgroundȱforȱtheȱfutureȱcollaboration.ȱ

KristelȱMariȱSkorgeȱ

HeadȱofȱdepartmentȱofȱPublicȱAdministrationȱ

Preface

Theȱ Comparativeȱ method,ȱ theȱ Frenchȱ sociologistȱ Emileȱ Durkheimȱ (1857Ȭ1917)ȱ claimed,ȱwasȱnotȱoneȱofȱmanyȱsocialȱresearchȱmethods,ȱitȱwasȱtheȱmethod.ȱEvenȱifȱitȱisȱ easyȱ toȱ agreeȱ withȱ Durkheim,ȱ actuallyȱ toȱ designȱ comparativeȱ researchȱ strategiesȱ isȱ moreȱ difficult.ȱ Inȱ contrast,ȱ Norwegianȱ philosopherȱ Jonȱ Elsterȱ hasȱ claimedȱ thatȱ theȱ logicȱofȱaȱsystemȱmightȱgetȱlostȱbyȱstudyingȱitȱinȱlightȱofȱotherȱsystems.ȱThenȱagain,ȱ oneȱcouldȱargueȱthatȱtheȱuniquenessȱofȱtheȱspecificȱsystemȱorȱpracticeȱbecomesȱevenȱ moreȱvisibleȱwhenȱcomparedȱtoȱothers.ȱȱ

Inȱthisȱbookȱweȱhaveȱgatheredȱarticlesȱfocusingȱonȱdifferentȱsocialȱandȱpoliticalȱ aspectsȱofȱNorwayȱandȱtheȱBalticȱcountriesȱwithȱregardȱtoȱissuesȱofȱdiversityȱandȱinȬ tegration.ȱOurȱaimȱisȱtoȱseekȱoutȱcriticalȱanalyzesȱandȱcontroversialȱpositionsȱthatȱcanȱ deepenȱ ourȱ understandingȱ ofȱ developmentsȱ inȱ theirȱ respectiveȱ fields,ȱ suchȱ asȱ law,ȱ politics,ȱsocialȱpolicy,ȱandȱtheȱmedia.ȱThisȱintentionȱisȱobviouslyȱnotȱaȱ“strategyȱofȱ theȱmostȱsimilarȱcase,”ȱbutȱanȱeffortȱtoȱstimulateȱthinkingȱaboutȱcomparativeȱresearchȱ questions.ȱHowever,ȱcanȱweȱactuallyȱcompareȱNorwayȱ–ȱwithȱitsȱmodernȱhistoryȱasȱaȱ welfareȱstateȱwithȱpoliticalȱfreedomȱ–ȱtoȱcountriesȱthatȱwereȱonceȱpartȱofȱtheȱRussianȱ empire,ȱandȱthatȱafterȱaȱbriefȱperiodȱofȱindependenceȱwereȱsuppressedȱbyȱcommunistȱ dictatorshipȱforȱaȱlargeȱpartȱofȱtheȱ20thȱcentury?ȱAȱquoteȱfromȱKarlȱMarxȱmightȱillusȬ trateȱ theȱ point,ȱ asȱ theȱ greatȱ philosopherȱ –ȱ andȱ politicallyȱ misusedȱ theoreticianȱ –ȱ wrote:ȱ “Menȱ makeȱ theirȱ ownȱ history,ȱ butȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ makeȱ itȱ underȱ selfȬselectedȱ circumȬ stances,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ underȱ circumstancesȱ alreadyȱ existing,ȱ givenȱ andȱ transmittedȱ fromȱ theȱ past.”ȱȱ

Historyȱhasȱnotȱgoneȱaway,ȱbutȱaȱrapidȱtransformationȱhasȱ takenȱplace:ȱTheȱ

BalticȱpeoplesȱgotȱtheirȱfreedomȱfromȱtheȱSovietȱUnionȱinȱ1991.ȱThisȱisȱaȱshortȱperiodȱ inȱhistory,ȱyetȱalreadyȱmoreȱthanȱtwoȱdecadesȱthatȱprovideȱenoughȱtimeȱtoȱsummaȬ

Prefaceȱ

rizeȱdevelopmentsȱandȱpointȱatȱunresolvedȱissuesȱchallengingȱpoliciesȱofȱintegrationȱ andȱequalityȱofȱsocialȱgroupsȱinȱeachȱcountry.ȱ

TheȱcountriesȱofȱtheȱBalticȱSeaȱRegionȱfaceȱpoliticalȱchallengesȱinȱglobalization,ȱ

Europeanization,ȱandȱtheȱconditionȱofȱtheȱwelfareȱstateȱinȱsocietiesȱcharacterizedȱbyȱ greaterȱ diversity.ȱ Theȱ chaptersȱ inȱ thisȱ bookȱ provideȱ currentȱ perspectivesȱ onȱ publicȱ policyȱandȱresearchȱinȱtheȱfieldsȱofȱpoliticsȱandȱgovernance,ȱmediaȱandȱinformation,ȱ andȱhealthȱpolicy.ȱȱ

Theȱ contributorsȱ addressȱ issuesȱ ofȱ diversityȱ acrossȱ aȱ wideȱ specterȱ ofȱ socialȱ phenomenaȱofȱconcernȱtoȱstudentsȱofȱBalticȱandȱNordicȱsocieties,ȱincludingȱincome,ȱ socialȱ capital,ȱ informationȱ access,ȱ religion,ȱ gender,ȱ ethnicity,ȱ andȱ immigration.ȱȱInȱ additionȱ theȱ authorsȱ alsoȱ demonstrateȱ diversityȱ inȱ theirȱ useȱ ofȱ theoreticalȱ foundaȬ tionsȱandȱreferenceȱdisciplines,ȱandȱinȱtheirȱchoiceȱofȱmethods.ȱAllȱinȱallȱtheseȱcontriȬ butionsȱgiveȱtheȱreaderȱanȱideaȱaboutȱseveralȱpromisingȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱstudyȱofȱaȱ broadȱrangeȱofȱdiversityȱandȱintegrationȱissuesȱinȱtheȱBalticȱSeaȱRegion.ȱ

MagidȱAlȬArakiȱisȱaȱleadingȱresearcherȱonȱtheȱscholarshipȱofȱtheȱclassicȱArabȱ philosopherȱ andȱ sociologistȱ Ibnȱ KhaldĀnȱ (1332Ȭ1406).ȱ Hereȱ weȱ areȱ dealingȱ withȱ aȱ thinkerȱwhoȱhasȱrightlyȱbeenȱcharacterizedȱasȱforerunnerȱforȱsociologyȱasȱaȱscience.ȱ

KhaldĀn’sȱ methodȱ wasȱ materialistic,ȱ stressingȱ theȱ impactȱ ofȱ organization,ȱ societyȱ andȱpoliticalȱleadership.ȱAlȬArakiȱisȱreferringȱtoȱIbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱmostȱimportantȱwork,ȱ

Muqaddimah,ȱanȱastonishingȱmodernȱbook,ȱgivenȱtheȱfactȱthatȱthisȱwasȱwrittenȱmoreȱ thanȱ600ȱyearsȱago.ȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱcontendsȱthatȱwhileȱfoundingȱrulersȱseekȱtoȱestabȬ lishȱ lastingȱ dynasties,ȱ forcesȱ ofȱ disintegrationȱ leadsȱ toȱ theirȱ downfallȱ withinȱ aȱ fewȱ generations.ȱFromȱthisȱcanȱbeȱpostulatedȱthatȱsocietiesȱwillȱdevelopȱaccordingȱtoȱcyȬ clesȱratherȱthanȱlinearȱtrajectories.ȱ

Preface

J¬nisȱIkstensȱdiscussesȱaȱtopicȱwidelyȱscrutinizedȱinȱtraditionalȱwesternȱpolitiȬ calȱscienceȱandȱsociology,ȱbutȱthatȱisȱratherȱnewȱtoȱtheȱBalticȱarea:ȱtheȱrepresentationȱ ofȱwomenȱinȱparliament,ȱandȱtheȱimpactȱofȱchangesȱinȱtheȱelectoralȱsystem.ȱȱWhatȱhasȱ

Latviaȱachievedȱinȱthisȱfieldȱafterȱtheȱdemocraticȱrevolution?ȱȱSinceȱtheȱfallȱofȱcomȬ munism,ȱtheȱshareȱofȱelectedȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱhasȱincreasedȱfromȱ15ȱtoȱ21ȱ%,ȱbutȱ whichȱinfluenceȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱfromȱtheȱchangesȱinȱtheȱelectoralȱsystemsȱofȱ2010?ȱFeȬ maleȱvotersȱholdȱtheȱmajorityȱinȱLatvia,ȱbutȱstillȱthereȱisȱaȱmaleȱdominance.ȱTheȱinȬ terestingȱnews,ȱhowever,ȱisȱthatȱthisȱsituationȱhasȱslightlyȱchangedȱwithȱtheȱreformsȱ ofȱ2010,ȱwhenȱtheȱnewȱrulesȱrequiredȱmoreȱcandidatesȱtoȱbeȱplacedȱonȱpartyȱlists.ȱȱ

Integrationȱ andȱ diversityȱ areȱ twoȱ mainȱ fieldsȱ ofȱ bothȱ politicalȱ andȱ academicȱ discussion.ȱHowȱtoȱrelateȱthisȱtoȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱisȱtheȱstartingȱpointȱforȱJuliaȱKöhȬ lerȬOlsen.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ pointingȱ toȱ theȱ differentȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ theseȱ concepts.ȱ InterȬ pretingȱthemȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightȬbasedȱapproach,ȱsheȱconcludesȱ ambitiouslyȱthatȱtheȱcomplexȱlivesȱofȱindividualsȱmustȱbeȱintegratedȱintoȱpolicyȱdeȬ signȱandȱimplementations.ȱ

Noȱlessȱimportantȱisȱtheȱongoingȱdiscussionȱofȱaȱmodernizationȱofȱtheȱpublicȱ sector.ȱ Modernizationȱ hasȱ becomeȱ quiteȱ aȱ slogan,ȱ butȱ whatȱ doesȱ itȱ actuallyȱ mean?ȱȱ

HaraldȱKohtȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱstressȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱwellȬdrivenȱbureauȬ cracy,ȱremindingȱusȱofȱwhatȱthisȱcanȱbeȱwithoutȱtheȱWeberȬinspiredȱaspectsȱofȱmoȬ dernity.ȱTheȱauthorsȱremindȱusȱofȱtheȱpreȬmodernȱconditionȱbeforeȱtheȱmodernȱbuȬ reaucracy,ȱ withȱ itsȱ unforeseenȱ consequences.ȱ Concerningȱ today’sȱ situationȱ inȱ NorȬ wayȱ andȱ Latviaȱ theȱ writersȱ areȱ outspoken:ȱ Theȱ Norwegianȱ caseȬworkersȱ seemȱ soȱ ruleȬorientedȱ thatȱ theyȱ mayȱ appearȱ rigidȱ inȱ theirȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ clientȱ rights,ȱ whereasȱtheȱcaseȱofȱLatviaȱmayȱfaceȱmoreȱdangerousȱproblems:ȱTheȱfearȱofȱreprisalsȱ expressedȱbyȱLatvianȱcaseȱworkersȱmayȱbeȱaȱsignȱofȱtheȱarbitrarinessȱofȱpreȬWeberianȱ publicȱadministration.ȱȱ 9

Prefaceȱ

KristinȱSkareȱOrgeretȱsetsȱoutȱtoȱtakeȱaȱcloserȱlookȱatȱtheȱfreedomȱofȱexpresȬ sionȱandȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱmediaȱinȱaȱEuropeanȱperspective.ȱFirst,ȱtheȱmediaȱhistoryȱofȱ

Latviaȱ andȱ Norwayȱ isȱ shortlyȱ presented,ȱ thenȱ sheȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ challengesȱ ofȱ toȬ day’sȱjournalismȱinȱEurope.ȱGivenȱtheȱEuropeanȱcrisis,ȱoneȱmightȱexperienceȱseriousȱ threatsȱtoȱEuropeanȱdemocracies.ȱȱTheȱrightȱtoȱfreeȱexpressionȱandȱfreedomȱofȱinforȬ mationȱcanȱonlyȱexistȱwhereȱtheȱmedia,ȱjournalists,ȱandȱpeopleȱparticipatingȱinȱpublicȱ debateȱfeelȱsecure,ȱOrgeretȱwrites.ȱConcerningȱthis,ȱthereȱareȱindeedȱsomeȱcloudsȱonȱ theȱEuropeanȱskies.ȱȱ

MihailȱRodinsȱandȱAlexȱGaponenkoȱtakeȱupȱtheȱtopicȱofȱethnoȬpoliticalȱconȬ flictsȱandȱdiversitiesȱdueȱtoȱtheȱ differentȱ nationalȱ identitiesȱ inȱ Latvia.ȱȱTheirȱ articleȱ pointsȱtoȱtheȱmanyȱactualȱandȱpotentialȱconflictsȱregardingȱtheȱdifferentȱnationalities.ȱ

Theȱauthorsȱmeasureȱtheȱimpactȱofȱphenomenaȱlikeȱeconomicȱinequality,ȱeconomicȱ crisis,ȱ threatȱ ofȱ assimilationȱ andȱ lackȱ ofȱ citizenship,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ otherȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ conflictsȱcomingȱfromȱnationalȱstruggles.ȱTheȱratherȱdramaticȱconclusionȱisȱthatȱtheȱ integrativeȱresourcesȱinȱLatviaȱappearȱtoȱbeȱexhausted,ȱandȱtheȱrhetoricȱonȱintegraȬ tionȱcausesȱirritationȱandȱonlyȱvagueȱassociations.ȱȱȱ

JurisȱRozenvaldsȱtakesȱaȱcloserȱlookȱatȱLatviaȱinȱaȱBalticȱcontext,ȱwithȱrespectȱ toȱdiversityȱmanagementȱandȱsustainability.ȱTheȱheritageȱfromȱtheȱSovietȱperiodȱhasȱ leftȱtheȱcountryȱwithȱaȱconsiderableȱRussianȱminority.ȱAȱquickȱandȱeasyȱconsolidaȬ tionȱwithinȱtheȱLatvianȱsocietyȱisȱnotȱtoȱbeȱexpected,ȱbutȱasȱRozenvaldsȱunderlines;ȱitȱ isȱimportantȱtoȱmakeȱchoicesȱtodayȱthatȱmightȱpromoteȱaȱsustainableȱdevelopmentȱofȱ theȱLatvianȱstateȱandȱnationȱinȱtheȱfuture.ȱȱ

Inȱ theȱ lastȱ chapterȱ theȱ researchersȱ Geirȱ C.ȱ Tufte,ȱ Catharinaȱ Bjørkquist,ȱ andȱ

Ivetaȱ Renholdeȱ dealȱ withȱ Norwayȱ andȱ Latviaȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ jointȱ programȱ ofȱ

“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”.ȱInterestingȱresultsȱhaveȱbeenȱidentified:ȱInȱNorwayȱlifestyleȱ

Preface

diseasesȱandȱchildȱpovertyȱwereȱseenȱasȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱchallenges,ȱwhereasȱinȱ

LatviaȱalcoholismȱandȱaȱlimitedȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱcareȱserviceȱwereȱtheȱfocusȱofȱattenȬ tion.ȱȱ

Allȱ articlesȱ haveȱ beenȱ selected,ȱ reviewedȱ andȱ proofreadȱ byȱ theȱ editors.ȱ ReȬ sponsibilityȱforȱcontent,ȱhowever,ȱremainsȱwithȱtheȱauthors.ȱThisȱpublicationȱisȱdediȬ catedȱtoȱtheȱmemoryȱofȱIntaȱBrikse,ȱlateȱandȱbelovedȱdeanȱofȱtheȱSocialȱScienceȱFaculȬ tyȱofȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱLatvia.ȱ

HaraldȱKohtȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPålȱVeidenȱ

Editorsȱ

Chapter 1

Ibn Khaldƻn’s Thoughts and Today’s Societal Condi- tions

AbdelȱMagidȱAlȬAraki1ȱ

Theȱplanȱofȱthisȱchapterȱisȱfourfold.ȱFirstȱIȱopenȱwithȱhowȱignoranceȱofȱtheȱinnateȱnaȬ tureȱofȱconditionsȱprevailingȱinȱsocialȱorganizationȱinvitesȱtoȱfalsehoodȱandȱmisinterȬ pretations.ȱThen,ȱIȱhighlightȱhowȱdecayȱduringȱtheȱfourthȱgenerationȱdestroysȱciviliȬ zation.ȱ Next,ȱ Iȱ discussȱ injusticeȱ andȱ howȱ itȱ leadsȱ toȱ theȱ destructionȱ ofȱ civilization.ȱ

Finally,ȱIȱconcludeȱwithȱtheȱargumentȱthatȱjusticeȱrequiresȱpoliticalȱleadership.ȱ

Theȱ paperȱ isȱ mainlyȱ basedȱ onȱ anȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ monumentalȱ workȱ ofȱ Ibnȱ

KhaldĀn,ȱ theȱ Muqaddimah.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ manyȱ versionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Muqaddimah,ȱ bothȱ inȱ

Arabicȱ andȱ differentȱ otherȱ languages,ȱ onȱ theȱ Internetȱ andȱ inȱ differentȱ librariesȱ throughoutȱ theȱ world.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ reliableȱ Arabicȱ manuscriptsȱ isȱ controlledȱ byȱ

Quatremèreȱ (Ibnȱ Khaldun,ȱ 1858).ȱ Theȱ Muqaddimahȱ isȱ translatedȱ toȱ Frenchȱ byȱ Deȱ

Slaneȱ(Slane,ȱ1862)ȱandȱtoȱEnglishȱbyȱRosenthalȱ(A.ȱIbnȱKhaldĀn,ȱ1967)ȱItȱisȱabridgedȱ byȱDawoodȱ(AȱIbnȱKhaldĀn,ȱ1967).ȱIȱhaveȱpresentedȱaȱmagistergradȱonȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱ toȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Osloȱ (A.ȱ M.ȱ AlȬAraki,ȱ 1983)ȱ andȱ inȱ 2012ȱ translatedȱ (Ibnȱ &ȱ alȬ

Araki,ȱ2012)ȱtheȱArabicȱoriginalȱofȱtheȱMuqaddimahȱintoȱNorwegian.ȱTheȱinterpretaȬ tionȱofȱtheȱthoughtsȱofȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱdrawsȱonȱallȱtheseȱsources.ȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱProfessor,ȱOsloȱandȱAkershusȱUniversityȱCollege,ȱDepartmentȱofȱPublicȱManagementȱandȱ WelfareȱStudiesȱ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

Falsehood due to ignorance of conditions

InȱtheȱgeneralȱintroductionȱtoȱhisȱMuqaddimahȱandȱunderȱtheȱheadingȱ«UntruthȱnatuȬ rallyȱafflictsȱhistoricalȱinformation»,ȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱ(1967,ȱp.ȱ71)ȱsaysȱthatȱthereȱareȱvarȬ iousȱ reasonsȱ thatȱ makeȱ untruthȱ afflictȱ information.ȱ Heȱ thenȱ enumeratesȱ sevenȱ reaȬ sonsȱthatȱareȱdifficultȱtoȱavoid.ȱTheseȱare:ȱȱ

1. Partisanshipȱforȱopinionsȱandȱschools.ȱIfȱtheȱsoulȱisȱinfectedȱwithȱpartisanȬ

shipȱforȱaȱparticularȱopinionȱorȱsect,ȱitȱacceptsȱwithoutȱhesitationȱtheȱinȬ

formationȱthatȱisȱagreeableȱtoȱit.ȱPrejudiceȱandȱpartisanshipȱobscureȱtheȱ

criticalȱfacultyȱandȱhinderȱcriticalȱinvestigation.ȱ

2. Relianceȱuponȱtransmitters.ȱThisȱbelongsȱtoȱ«personalityȱcriticism»,ȱaȱtheȬ

ologicalȱmethodologyȱinȱIslamȱthatȱconcernȱcriticismȱofȱtheȱwayȱtransȬ

mittersȱinterpretȱreligiousȱdata.ȱ

3. Unawarenessȱofȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱanȱevent.ȱManyȱdoesȱnotȱknowȱtheȱrealȱsigȬ

nificanceȱandȱintentionȱbehindȱtheȱtransmittedȱinformationȱandȱattribȬ

utesȱtoȱitȱtheȱsignificanceȱheȱassumesȱorȱimaginesȱitȱtoȱhave.ȱȱ

4. Unfoundedȱassumptionsȱasȱtoȱtheȱtruthȱofȱaȱthing.ȱThisȱisȱfrequent.ȱItȱresultsȱ

mostlyȱ fromȱ relianceȱ uponȱ transmittersȱ imaginingȱ thatȱ whatȱ theyȱ

transmitȱisȱtrustworthy.ȱ

5. Ignoranceȱofȱhowȱconditionsȱconformȱtoȱreality.ȱConditionsȱareȱaffectedȱbyȱ

ambiguitiesȱandȱartificialȱdistortions.ȱTheȱresearcherȱreportsȱtheȱcondiȬ

tions,ȱhavingȱnoȱtrueȱpictureȱofȱhowȱtheseȱconditionsȱapplyȱtoȱreality.ȱ

Hereȱliesȱlackȱofȱempiricism.ȱ

6. ApproachingȱgreatȱandȱhighȬrankingȱpersonsȱwithȱpraiseȱandȱencomiums.ȱReȬ

searchersȱembellishȱconditions,ȱspreadȱthemȱandȱmakeȱthemȱknownȱtoȱ

manyȱpeople.ȱTheȱinformationȱmadeȱpublicȱinȱsuchȱcasesȱisȱnotȱtruthful.ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

«Humanȱ soulsȱ longȱ forȱ praise,ȱ andȱ peopleȱ payȱ greatȱ attentionȱ toȱ thisȱ

worldȱandȱtheȱpositionsȱandȱwealthȱitȱoffers.ȱAsȱaȱrule,ȱtheyȱfeelȱnoȱdeȬ

sireȱforȱvirtueȱandȱhaveȱnoȱspecialȱinterestȱinȱvirtuousȱpeople».ȱ

7. IgnoranceȱofȱtheȱinnateȱnatureȱofȱtheȱvariousȱconditionsȱarisingȱinȱsocialȱorganȬ

izationȱ [alȬjahlȱ biȱ ৬ab¬’iಟȱ alȬaতw¬lȱ fiȬlȬಟumr¬n].ȱ Thisȱ reasonȱ forȱ makingȱ

untruthȱunavoidableȱisȱmoreȱpowerfulȱthanȱallȱtheȱreasonsȱpreviouslyȱ

mentioned.ȱȱ

Heȱsaysȱfurtherȱthatȱ«Everyȱevent,ȱorȱphenomenon,ȱwhetherȱitȱcomesȱintoȱbeȬ ingȱ inȱ connectionȱ withȱ someȱ essenceȱ orȱ asȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ anȱ action,ȱ mustȱ inevitablyȱ possessȱ aȱ natureȱ peculiarȱ toȱ itsȱ essenceȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ toȱ theȱ accidentalȱ conditionsȱ thatȱ mayȱattachȱthemselvesȱtoȱit».ȱThisȱmeansȱagainȱthatȱifȱoneȱknowsȱtheȱinnerȱnatureȱofȱ eventsȱandȱconditionsȱandȱtheirȱrequirementsȱinȱtheȱrealȱworld,ȱorȱinȱotherȱwords,ȱifȱ oneȱknowsȱwhyȱorȱonȱwhichȱgroundȱthingsȱchange,ȱthisȱwillȱhelpȱinȱdistinguishingȱ truthȱfromȱuntruthȱwhenȱinvestigatingȱinformationȱcritically.ȱThisȱisȱmoreȱeffectiveȱinȱ criticalȱ investigationȱ thanȱ anyȱ otherȱ aspect,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ previouslyȱ mentionedȱ criticismȱofȱtransmitters.ȱ

ToȱunderstandȱsomethingȱoneȱhasȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱdualityȱpeculiarȱtoȱtheȱesȬ senceȱofȱaȱthingȱasȱwellȱasȱtoȱtheȱaccidentalȱconditionsȱthatȱmayȱattachȱthemselvesȱtoȱ it.ȱInȱotherȱwords:ȱtheȱthingȱinȱitselfȱandȱtheȱthingȱinȱitsȱcontext.ȱTheȱfirstȱisȱaȱdefiniȬ tionȱofȱtheȱinnateȱcharacteristicsȱofȱtheȱthingȱandȱitsȱformȱ(Solidity,ȱExtent,ȱTypeȱandȱ

Segment)ȱ(M.ȱAlȬAraki,ȱ2013),ȱaȱkindȱofȱdetailedȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱthingȱconceivedȱ isolated.ȱTheȱsecondȱisȱaȱconceptionȱofȱtheȱthingȱinȱitsȱcontextȱwhereȱtheȱdynamicsȱofȱ throughputȱorȱlinesȱofȱactionȱdominate.ȱ

Amongȱtheȱcausesȱofȱfalsehoodȱenumeratedȱabove,ȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱconsidersȱigȬ noranceȱofȱtheȱvariousȱconditionsȱarisingȱinȱsocialȱorganizationȱ[alȬjahlȱbiȱ৬ab¬’iಟȱalȬ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

aতw¬lȱfiȬlȬಟumr¬n]ȱasȱtheȱmostȱdangerousȱone.ȱLackȱofȱempiricism,ȱreasonȱ5,ȱandȱfailȬ ureȱ toȱ interpretȱ theȱ surroundingȱ socioȬeconomicȱ conditionsȱ andȱ theirȱ impactȱ onȱ eventsȱandȱhappeningsȱinȱtheȱrealȱworld,ȱpaveȱtheȱwayȱforȱthisȱtypeȱofȱignoranceȱandȱ forȱtheȱdestructionȱofȱsocialȱorganization.ȱPeopleȱdoȱnotȱfindȱanȱanswerȱtoȱwhyȱthingsȱ areȱdeteriorating.ȱThisȱhappensȱoftenȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱdynastyȱwhenȱtheȱelitesȱareȱ overwhelmedȱinȱaȱlifeȱofȱluxuryȱandȱopulence,ȱsoȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱperceiveȱtheȱconȬ sequencesȱofȱwhatȱisȱhappeningȱinȱrealȱlife.ȱȱ

Itȱ isȱ theȱ fourthȱ generation,ȱ theȱ generationȱ ofȱ opulenceȱ thatȱ destroysȱ civilizaȬ tion.ȱCorruption,ȱtaxation,ȱinjusticeȱandȱeconomicȱdecayȱareȱinflictedȱuponȱtheȱinhabȬ itants.ȱTheȱdestructionȱstartsȱbyȱtheȱcentre.ȱ

Disintegration afflicts the fourth generation

InȱchapterȱIII,ȱ«onȱdynasties,ȱroyalȱauthority,ȱtheȱcaliphate,ȱgovernmentȱranksȱandȱallȱ thatȱgoesȱwithȱtheseȱthings…»ȱsectionȱ12,ȱdynastiesȱhaveȱaȱnaturalȱlifeȱspanȱlikeȱindiȬ viduals;ȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱ(1967,ȱ345–346)ȱsaysȱthatȱasȱaȱruleȱaȱdynastyȱcoversȱthreeȱgenȬ erations.ȱ

Theȱ firstȱ generationȱ laysȱ theȱ groundȱ foundationȱ ofȱ power.ȱ Membersȱ ofȱ thisȱ firstȱgenerationȱshareȱprivationȱandȱgloryȱwithȱeachȱother.ȱTheirȱsocialȱsolidarityȱorȱ groupȱfeelingȱisȱstrong.ȱPeopleȱareȱbraveȱandȱgreatlyȱfeared.ȱ

Theȱ secondȱ generationȱ movesȱ closerȱ toȱ aȱ sedentaryȱ culture.ȱ Peopleȱ goȱ fromȱ privationȱtoȱluxury.ȱOneȱmanȱclaimsȱallȱtheȱgloryȱforȱhimself.ȱTheȱearlierȱvigourȱandȱ prideȱofȱgroupȱfeelingȱareȱweakened.ȱHowever,ȱmanyȱofȱtheȱoldȱvirtuesȱstillȱremain,ȱ becauseȱofȱdirectȱpersonalȱcontactȱwithȱtheȱfirstȱgeneration.ȱPeopleȱhaveȱaȱmixtureȱofȱ hopeȱandȱillusionȱthatȱtheȱconditionsȱofȱtheȱfirstȱgenerationȱmayȱcomeȱback.ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

TheȱthirdȱgenerationȱhasȱcompletelyȱforgottenȱtheȱfirstȱperiodȱandȱitsȱtoughȬ ness.ȱPeopleȱhaveȱlostȱtheȱtasteȱforȱfameȱandȱgroupȱfeeling,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱdomiȬ natedȱbyȱforce.ȱLuxuryȱreachesȱitsȱpeakȱamongȱthem,ȱdueȱtoȱaȱlifeȱofȱprosperityȱandȱ ease.ȱPeopleȱbecomeȱdependentȱonȱtheȱdynasty.ȱGroupȱfeelingȱdisappearsȱcompleteȬ ly,ȱandȱpeopleȱforgetȱtoȱdefendȱthemselvesȱandȱtoȱpressȱtheirȱclaims.ȱTheȱruler,ȱthen,ȱ needsȱbraveȱpeopleȱforȱsupportȱasȱclientsȱandȱfollowers.ȱTheyȱhelpȱtheȱdynastyȱuntilȱ

Godȱ permitsȱ itsȱ destruction.ȱ Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ theseȱ threeȱ generations,ȱ theȱ dynastyȱ growsȱsenileȱandȱisȱwornȱout.ȱȱ

Therefore,ȱitȱisȱinȱtheȱfourthȱgenerationȱthatȱ(ancestral)ȱprestigeȱisȱdestroyed.ȱ

Threeȱgenerationsȱlastȱ120ȱyears.ȱAsȱaȱrule,ȱdynastiesȱdoȱnotȱlastȱlongerȱthanȱ that,ȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ noȱ oneȱ attacksȱ theȱ dynasty.ȱ Whenȱ senilityȱ becomesȱ predominant,ȱ thereȱmayȱbeȱnoȱclaimantȱforȱtheȱdynasty,ȱandȱnoȱoneȱrepelsȱattackers.ȱWhenȱtheȱtimeȱ isȱup,ȱtheȱendȱcannotȱbeȱpostponed.ȱȱ

Theȱlifeȱspanȱofȱaȱdynastyȱcorrespondsȱtoȱ thatȱofȱanȱindividual:ȱ itȱgrowsȱupȱ andȱpassesȱintoȱanȱageȱofȱstagnationȱandȱthenceȱintoȱretrogression.ȱTheȱriseȱandȱfallȱ ofȱ civilizationsȱ haveȱ alsoȱ toȱ doȱ withȱ howȱ knowledgeableȱ peopleȱ areȱ regardingȱ theȱ socioȬeconomicȱconditionsȱthatȱinfluenceȱgrowthȱandȱdevelopment.ȱ

Growth and development require justice

InȱtheȱBookȱonȱPoliticsȱthatȱisȱascribedȱtoȱAristotleȱandȱhasȱwideȱcirculation,ȱweȱfindȱ

(IbnȱKhaldĀnȱ1967,ȱp.ȱ81)ȱaȱgoodȱdealȱaboutȱtheȱsubjectȱunderȱdiscussionȱhere.ȱInȱthisȱ book,ȱtheȱauthorȱreferredȱtoȱsuchȱgeneralȱideasȱasȱweȱhaveȱreported,ȱonȱtheȱauthorityȱ ofȱtheȱMobedhanȱandȱAnosharwan.ȱHeȱarrangedȱhisȱstatementȱinȱaȱremarkableȱcircleȱ thatȱheȱdiscussedȱatȱlength.ȱItȱrunsȱasȱfollows:ȱ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

ȈTheȱworldȱisȱaȱgardenȱtheȱfenceȱofȱwhichȱisȱtheȱdynasty.ȱTheȱdynastyȱisȱanȱauȬ thorityȱrealizedȱthroughȱtheȱoverallȱpoliticalȱguidelines.ȱPoliticalȱguidelinesȱareȱaȱpolȬ icyȱdirectedȱbyȱtheȱruler.ȱTheȱrulerȱisȱanȱinstitutionȱsupportedȱbyȱtheȱsoldiers.ȱTheȱ soldiersȱ areȱ helpersȱ whoȱ areȱ maintainedȱ byȱ money.ȱ Moneyȱ isȱ sustenanceȱ broughtȱ togetherȱbyȱtheȱsubjects.ȱTheȱsubjectsȱareȱservantsȱwhoȱareȱprotectedȱbyȱjustice.ȱJusȬ ticeȱisȱsomethingȱfamiliar,ȱandȱthroughȱit,ȱtheȱworldȱpersists.ȱTheȱworldȱisȱaȱgardenȱ

...Ȉ,ȱandȱthenȱitȱbeginsȱagainȱfromȱtheȱbeginning.ȱ

Theȱcircleȱbelowȱincludesȱtheseȱwordsȱofȱwisdom.ȱAsȱweȱseeȱtheȱcircleȱstartsȱ byȱtheȱworld,ȱinȱgeneral,ȱandȱtheȱstateȱinȱparticular.ȱItȱisȱwithinȱtheȱstateȱthatȱcondiȬ tionsȱofȱpower,ȱearning,ȱartistryȱandȱknowledgeȱshouldȱbeȱstudied.ȱȱ

Figure1.1.Theworldasagarden.

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

Ibnȱ KhaldĀnȱ didȱ notȱ explicitlyȱ define,ȱ inȱ detailsȱ andȱ inȱ oneȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ

Muqaddimah,ȱwhatȱheȱmeansȱbyȱjustice.ȱHoweverȱtheȱwordȱjusticeȱ(alȬಟadl)ȱoccursȱinȱ manyȱdifferentȱcontextsȱthroughoutȱtheȱwholeȱwork.ȱ

Justice requires political leadership

Inȱ Chapterȱ III,ȱ entitledȱ «onȱ dynasties,ȱ royalȱ authority,ȱ theȱ caliphate,ȱ governmentȱ ranksȱandȱallȱthatȱgoesȱwithȱtheseȱthings»,ȱIbnȱKhaldĀnȱsaysȱinȱsectionȱ41,ȱthatȱ«injusȬ ticeȱbringsȱaboutȱtheȱruinȱofȱcivilization»ȱ(IbnȱKhaldĀn,ȱ1967,ȱpp.ȱ103–111).ȱHeȱfurtherȱ saysȱthatȱevilȱqualitiesȱinȱmanȱareȱinjusticeȱandȱmutualȱaggression.ȱThereȱisȱthereforeȱ aȱneedȱforȱanȱauthorityȱorȱaȱrestrainingȱpowerȱtoȱholdȱpeopleȱbackȱfromȱbeingȱunjustȱ toȱoneȱanother.ȱȱInjusticeȱruinsȱcivilizations,ȱheȱsays.ȱȱOneȱofȱtheȱeightȱwordsȱofȱwisȬ domȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱaboveȱcircleȱofȱSecretumȱSecretorumȱreadsȱ«JusticeȱisȱsomeȬ thingȱfamiliar,ȱandȱthroughȱit,ȱtheȱworldȱpersists»ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀnȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱriseȱandȱfallȱofȱcivilizationsȱhasȱtoȱdoȱwithȱhowȱ justiceȱisȱpracticedȱinȱaȱsociety.ȱInȱchapterȱIII,ȱSectionȱ50,ȱHumanȱcivilizationȱrequiresȱ politicalȱleadershipȱforȱitsȱorganizationȱ(pp.ȱ137–156),ȱheȱpostulatesȱthatȱlackȱofȱorganisedȱ andȱefficientȱpoliticalȱleadershipȱannouncesȱcorruptionȱandȱinjustice.ȱ

Iȱ haveȱ triedȱ toȱ defineȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ justiceȱ indirectlyȱ fromȱ aȱ letterȱ thatȱ Ibnȱ

KhaldĀnȱ describesȱ asȱ theȱ bestȱ andȱ mostȱ comprehensiveȱ writtenȱ documentȱ onȱ theȱ subject.ȱȱThisȱ isȱ theȱ letterȱ ofȱ ৫¬hirȱ ibnȱ alȬণusayn,ȱ alȬMa’mĀn’sȱ general,ȱ toȱ hisȱ sonȱ

ಟAbdall¬hȱ ibnȱ ৫¬hirȱ whenȱ alȬMa’mĀnȱ appointedȱ himȱ asȱ governorȱ ofȱ arȬRaqqah,ȱ

Egypt,ȱandȱtheȱinterveningȱterritories.ȱȱ

Iȱhaveȱabridgedȱthisȱletterȱandȱsimplifiedȱitsȱlayoutȱtoȱmakeȱitȱunderstandableȱ andȱtoȱconcentrateȱonȱjusticeȱfromȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱrulerȱtowardsȱhisȱsubjectsȱandȱemȬ ployees.ȱMostȱofȱtheȱtranslationȱisȱtakenȱfromȱRosenthalȱandȱcontrolledȱagainstȱtheȱ 19

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

ArabicȱoriginalȱofȱQuatremère,ȱusedȱinȱmyȱtranslationȱtoȱNorwegianȱ(IbnȱKhaldunȱ&ȱ alȬAraki,ȱ 2012).ȱ Myȱ abridgementȱ followsȱ aȱ typologyȱ calledȱ PEAKȱ thatȱ standsȱ forȱ

Power,ȱEarnings,ȱArtistryȱandȱKnowledge,ȱdeducedȱfromȱtheȱwritingsȱofȱIbnȱKhalȬ dĀn.ȱ

Power

x Doȱnotȱbeȱswayedȱfromȱjusticeȱaccordingȱtoȱyourȱlikesȱandȱdislikes,ȱeitherȱonȱ

behalfȱofȱaȱpersonȱcloseȱtoȱyouȱorȱonȱbehalfȱofȱoneȱremoteȱfromȱyou.ȱPeopleȱ

willȱhaveȱrespectȱforȱyourȱruleȱandȱreverenceȱforȱyourȱgovernment.ȱTheyȱwillȱ

beȱfriendlyȱtoȱyouȱandȱtrustȱinȱyourȱjustice.ȱ

x Doȱ notȱ letȱ yourȱ goodȱ opinionȱ ofȱ theȱ menȱ aroundȱ youȱ andȱ yourȱ kindnessȱ toȱ

yourȱsubjectsȱpreventȱyouȱfromȱmakingȱinquiries,ȱfromȱinvestigatingȱyourȱafȬ

fairs,ȱfromȱtakingȱpersonalȱchargeȱofȱtheȱbusinessȱofȱyourȱofficials,ȱfromȱproȬ

tectingȱyourȱsubjects,ȱorȱfromȱlookingȱafterȱtheȱthingsȱthatȱsustainȱandȱbenefitȱ

them.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱconsiderȱitȱyourȱmostȱimportantȱtaskȱtoȱtakeȱpersonalȱ

chargeȱofȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱyourȱofficialsȱandȱtoȱprotectȱyourȱsubjectsȱbyȱlookingȱ

afterȱtheirȱneedsȱandȱprovidingȱforȱtheirȱrequirements.ȱ

x Doȱnotȱpostponeȱtheȱpunishmentȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱmustȱbeȱpunished.ȱIfȱyouȱfallȱ

shortȱinȱthisȱrespect,ȱitȱwillȱhelpȱspoilȱtheȱgoodȱopinionȱpeopleȱhaveȱofȱyou.ȱ

x Bewareȱofȱsaying:ȱȈIȱamȱinȱauthority.ȱIȱmayȱdoȱwhatȱIȱwantȱtoȱdo.ȈȱThisȱsoonȱ

revealsȱ aȱ lackȱ ofȱ senseȱ onȱ yourȱ partȱ andȱ littleȱ certaintyȱ ofȱ theȱ oneȱ andȱ onlyȱ

God.ȱȱ

x Theȱchangeȱfromȱfavourȱtoȱvengeanceȱoccursȱnowhereȱfasterȱthanȱwithȱmenȱinȱ

authorityȱ whoȱ doȱ notȱ acknowledgeȱfavours,ȱ andȱ withȱ peopleȱ enjoyingȱ goodȱ

positionsȱinȱtheȱgovernment,ȱwhoȱareȱungratefulȱandȱconsiderȱthemselvesȱsuȬ

periorȱbeings.ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

x Makingȱ decisionsȱandȱ dispensingȱ justiceȱ inȱ judicialȱ procedureȱ andȱ inȱ allȱ acȬ

tionsȱbringsȱwellȬbeingȱtoȱtheȱsubjects.ȱTheȱroads,ȱthen,ȱareȱsafe.ȱTheȱpersonȱ

whoȱwasȱtreatedȱunjustlyȱfindsȱjustice.ȱEveryoneȱobtainsȱhisȱright.ȱTheȱliveliȬ

hoodȱofȱallȱisȱsafeguarded.ȱProperȱobedienceȱisȱpaid.ȱGodȱgivesȱgoodȱhealthȱ

andȱwellȬbeing.ȱ

x Abstainȱfromȱcorruption.ȱGoȱandȱapplyȱtheȱlegalȱpunishments.ȱDoȱnotȱmakeȱ

haste.ȱStayȱawayȱfromȱangerȱ andȱ unrest.ȱ Beȱ satisfiedȱ withȱ anȱ oath.ȱ Letȱ yourȱ

breathȱbeȱcalmȱandȱyourȱcheekȱcool.ȱMakeȱuseȱofȱyourȱexperience.ȱBeȱattentiveȱ

whenȱ youȱ areȱ silent,ȱ andȱ preciseȱ whenȱ youȱ speak.ȱ Treatȱ theȱ plaintiffȱ fairly.ȱ

Hesitateȱwhenȱthereȱisȱaȱdoubt.ȱHaveȱmuchȱevidenceȱproduced.ȱDoȱnotȱshowȱ

prejudiceȱ inȱ favourȱ ofȱ anyȱ ofȱ yourȱ subjects.ȱ Doȱ notȱ giveȱ anyoneȱ preferredȱ

treatment.ȱDoȱnotȱexposeȱyourselfȱtoȱcensure.ȱBeȱsteadfastȱandȱslow.ȱObserve.ȱ

Lookȱout.ȱReflect.ȱThinkȱthingsȱover.ȱConsiderȱthem.ȱBeȱhumbleȱinȱtheȱpresȬ

enceȱofȱyourȱLord.ȱBeȱkindȱtoȱallȱyourȱsubjects.ȱLetȱtheȱtruthȱgovernȱyou.ȱ

Earnings

x Beȱmoderateȱinȱeverything.ȱThereȱisȱnothingȱmoreȱclearlyȱuseful,ȱsafer,ȱandȱinȱ

everyȱwayȱbetter,ȱthanȱmoderation.ȱPlannedȱmoderationȱcallsȱforȱrightȱguidȬ

ance.ȱRightȱguidanceȱleadsȱtoȱsuccess.ȱSuccessȱleadsȱtoȱhappiness.ȱYouȱshouldȱ

knowȱthatȱplannedȱmoderationȱinȱworldlyȱmattersȱgivesȱstrengthȱandȱprotectsȱ

againstȱsins.ȱYouȱhaveȱnothingȱthatȱisȱbetterȱthanȱmoderationȱtoȱguardȱyourȱ

personȱandȱyourȱrankȱandȱtoȱtryȱtoȱimproveȱyourȱaffairs.ȱTherefore,ȱuseȱitȱandȱ

beȱ guidedȱ byȱ it.ȱ Then,ȱ yourȱ affairsȱ willȱ succeed.ȱ Yourȱ powerȱ willȱ increase.ȱ

Yourȱprivateȱandȱpublicȱaffairsȱwillȱbeȱinȱorder.ȱ

x Inȱ allȱ theseȱ things,ȱ haveȱ pureȱ intentions.ȱ Payȱ specialȱ attentionȱ toȱ improvingȱ

yourselfȱasȱaȱperson,ȱoneȱwhoȱrealizesȱthatȱheȱwillȱbeȱheldȱresponsibleȱforȱhisȱ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

deeds,ȱthatȱheȱwillȱbeȱrewardedȱforȱhisȱgoodȱdeeds,ȱandȱpunishedȱforȱhisȱevilȱ

deeds.ȱ

x Doȱnotȱbeȱgreedy.ȱLetȱtheȱtreasuresȱandȱrichesȱyouȱgatherȱandȱhoardȱupȱbeȱpieȬ

ty,ȱtheȱfearȱofȱGod,ȱjustice,ȱtheȱimprovementȱofȱyourȱsubjects,ȱtheȱcultivationȱofȱ

theirȱ country,ȱ theȱ supervisionȱ ofȱ theirȱ affairs,ȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ theȱ massȱ ofȱ

them,ȱandȱsupportȱofȱtheȱunfortunates.ȱ

x Youȱshouldȱknowȱthatȱproperty,ȱonceȱitȱisȱgatheredȱandȱstoredȱinȱtreasuries,ȱ

doesȱnotȱbearȱfruit,ȱbutȱifȱitȱisȱinvestedȱinȱtheȱwelfareȱofȱtheȱsubjectsȱandȱusedȱ

forȱgivingȱthemȱwhatȱisȱdueȱtoȱthemȱandȱtoȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱneed,ȱthenȱitȱ

growsȱandȱthrives.ȱTheȱcommonȱpeopleȱprosper.ȱTheȱproperȱuseȱofȱmoneyȱisȱ

anȱ ornamentȱ toȱ highȱ officials,ȱ andȱ itȱ meansȱ aȱ timeȱ ofȱ prosperity.ȱ Itȱ bringsȱ

strengthȱandȱprotection.ȱ

x Giveȱyourȱsubjectsȱtheirȱshare.ȱPayȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱthingsȱthatȱmightȱimproveȱ

theirȱsituationȱandȱlivelihood.ȱInȱthisȱway,ȱyouȱwillȱalsoȱbeȱbetterȱableȱtoȱlevyȱ

theȱlandȱtaxȱandȱtoȱcollectȱtheȱpropertyȱofȱyourȱsubjectsȱandȱyourȱprovinces.ȱ

Becauseȱeverybodyȱexperiencesȱjusticeȱandȱkindnessȱfromȱyou,ȱeverybodyȱwillȱ

beȱ moreȱ amenableȱtoȱ obeyingȱ youȱ andȱ moreȱ favourablyȱ disposedȱ towardsȱ

everythingȱyouȱwant.ȱTherefore,ȱexertȱyourselfȱinȱtheȱwayȱthatȱIȱhaveȱoutlinedȱ

toȱyouȱinȱthisȱchapter.ȱBeȱveryȱmuchȱconcernedȱinȱthisȱrespect.ȱ

x Considerȱtheȱlandȱtax.ȱItȱmaintainsȱtheȱsubjects.ȱTherefore,ȱdistributeȱtheȱlandȱ

taxȱ amongȱ thoseȱ toȱ whomȱ itȱ belongs,ȱ andȱ doȱ itȱ justly,ȱ fairly,ȱ equitably,ȱ andȱ

generally.ȱDoȱnotȱmakeȱaȱnobleȱmanȱ(sharif)ȱpayȱlessȱbecauseȱofȱhisȱnobility,ȱorȱ

aȱrichȱmanȱbecauseȱofȱhisȱwealth,ȱorȱoneȱofȱyourȱsecretaries,ȱorȱoneȱofȱyourȱinȬ

timatesȱandȱentourage.ȱDoȱnotȱaskȱforȱmoreȱthanȱisȱtolerable.ȱDoȱnotȱchargeȱ

anyoneȱtooȱmuch.ȱTreatȱallȱtheȱpeopleȱjustly.ȱThisȱmakesȱitȱeasierȱtoȱgainȱtheirȱ

friendshipȱandȱisȱmoreȱcertainȱtoȱachieveȱgeneralȱsatisfaction.ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

Artistry

x Doȱnotȱsuspectȱanyoneȱwhoȱworksȱforȱyouȱwithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱworkȱwithȱwhichȱ

youȱhaveȱentrustedȱhim,ȱbeforeȱyouȱhaveȱdiscoveredȱwhatȱisȱtheȱmatterȱwithȱ

him.ȱForȱitȱisȱaȱcrimeȱtoȱsuspectȱinnocentȱpersonsȱandȱtoȱhaveȱaȱbadȱopinionȱofȱ

them.ȱTherefore,ȱmakeȱitȱyourȱdutyȱtoȱhaveȱaȱgoodȱopinionȱofȱtheȱmenȱaroundȱ

you.ȱDriveȱawayȱbadȱopinionsȱofȱthem,ȱandȱdoȱnotȱharbourȱanyȱsuchȱopinions.ȱ

Thatȱwillȱhelpȱyouȱtoȱgainȱtheirȱfollowingȱandȱtoȱtrainȱthem.ȱ

x Youȱshouldȱknowȱthatȱhavingȱaȱgoodȱopinionȱofȱothersȱgivesȱyouȱstrengthȱandȱ

rest,ȱandȱyouȱwillȱbeȱcompetentȱtoȱhandleȱyourȱaffairsȱtoȱyourȱsatisfaction.ȱItȱ

willȱenableȱyouȱtoȱcauseȱpeopleȱtoȱloveȱyouȱandȱtoȱbeȱstraightforwardȱinȱeveȬ

rything.ȱ

x Ifȱyouȱenterȱintoȱanȱagreement,ȱfulfilȱit.ȱIfȱyouȱhaveȱpromisedȱtoȱdoȱaȱcertainȱ

goodȱ deed,ȱ keepȱ yourȱ promise.ȱ Acceptȱ favoursȱ andȱ repayȱ them.ȱ Closeȱ yourȱ

eyesȱtoȱtheȱdefectsȱofȱthoseȱofȱyourȱsubjectsȱwhoȱmayȱhaveȱthem.ȱRefrainȱfromȱ

liesȱ andȱ falsehoods.ȱ Despiseȱ liarsȱ andȱ keepȱawayȱ calumniators.ȱ Yourȱ affairsȱ

willȱbeginȱtoȱfail,ȱsoȱfarȱasȱtheirȱeffectsȱbothȱinȱthisȱworldȱandȱtheȱotherȱworldȱ

areȱconcerned,ȱasȱsoonȱasȱyouȱgiveȱaccessȱtoȱaȱliarȱorȱboldlyȱuseȱliesȱyourself.ȱ

Lyingȱisȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱcrimesȱandȱfalsehood,ȱandȱcalumnyȱtheirȱend.ȱTheȱ

calumniatorȱisȱnotȱsafeȱhimself.ȱNoȱfriendȱofȱaȱmanȱwhoȱlistensȱtoȱcalumnyȱisȱ

safe.ȱNothingȱworksȱoutȱwellȱforȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱisȱgovernedȱbyȱcalumny.ȱ

x Loveȱgoodȱandȱrighteousȱpeople.ȱBeȱhonestlyȱhelpfulȱtoȱnobleȱmen.ȱBeȱfriendlyȱ

toȱtheȱweak.ȱKeepȱinȱtouchȱwithȱyourȱbloodȱrelatives.ȱȱ

x Keepȱawayȱfromȱevilȱdesiresȱandȱinjustice.ȱPayȱthemȱnoȱnoticeȱandȱshowȱyourȱ

subjectsȱ thatȱ youȱ areȱ freeȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Beȱ justȱ inȱ governingȱ yourȱ subjects.ȱ Treatȱ

themȱhonestlyȱandȱwithȱtheȱkindnessȱthroughȱwhichȱyouȱwillȱreachȱtheȱpathȱofȱ

rightȱguidance.ȱ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

x Controlȱyourselfȱandȱdoȱnotȱgetȱangry.ȱPreferȱdignityȱandȱmildness.ȱBewareȱofȱ

sharpness,ȱlevity,ȱandȱdeceitfulnessȱinȱanyȱenterpriseȱyouȱengageȱin.ȱ

x Acknowledgeȱtheȱgratefulnessȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱexpressȱtheirȱthanks,ȱandȱrewardȱ

themȱforȱit.ȱ

x Doȱnotȱconsiderȱanyȱsinȱlightly.ȱDoȱnotȱsupportȱanȱenviousȱperson.ȱDoȱnotȱpityȱ

aȱsinner.ȱDoȱnotȱbeȱfriendlyȱwithȱanȱungratefulȱperson.ȱDoȱnotȱconniveȱwithȱanȱ

enemy.ȱDoȱnotȱtrustȱaȱcalumniator.ȱDoȱnotȱrelyȱuponȱaȱdeceiver.ȱDoȱnotȱconȬ

cludeȱaȱfriendshipȱwithȱanȱimmoralȱperson.ȱDoȱnotȱfollowȱaȱseducer.ȱDoȱnotȱ

praiseȱaȱhypocrite.ȱHaveȱcontemptȱforȱnobody.ȱDoȱnotȱrefuseȱaȱpoorȱpetitioner.ȱ

Doȱnotȱtryȱtoȱimproveȱaȱworthlessȱ person.ȱ Payȱ noȱ attentionȱ toȱ buffoons.ȱ Doȱ

notȱbreakȱaȱpromise.ȱDoȱnotȱfearȱpride.ȱShowȱnoȱanger.ȱDoȱnotȱbeȱostentatious.ȱ

Doȱnotȱwalkȱarrogantly.ȱDoȱnotȱjustifyȱaȱstupidity.ȱDoȱnotȱneglectȱyourȱsearchȱ

forȱtheȱotherȱworld.ȱDoȱnotȱwasteȱyourȱdaysȱinȱfindingȱfault.ȱDoȱnotȱcloseȱyourȱ

eyesȱtoȱanȱevildoer,ȱbecauseȱyouȱareȱafraidȱofȱhimȱorȱbecauseȱyouȱhaveȱaȱprejȬ

udiceȱinȱhisȱfavour.ȱȱ

x Consultȱfrequentlyȱwithȱjurists.ȱAccustomȱyourselfȱtoȱbeingȱmildȱandȱprudent.ȱ

Learnȱ fromȱ menȱ ofȱ experienceȱ andȱ intelligenceȱ whoȱ areȱ understandingȱ andȱ

wise.ȱDoȱnotȱpermitȱextravagantȱorȱstingyȱpeopleȱtoȱgiveȱyouȱadvice.ȱDoȱnotȱ

listenȱ toȱ whatȱ theyȱ say,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ damageȱ theyȱ canȱ causeȱ isȱ greaterȱ thanȱ

theirȱ usefulness.ȱ Nothingȱ canȱ ruinȱ yourȱ projectsȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ yourȱ subjectsȱ

moreȱquicklyȱthanȱavarice.ȱYouȱshouldȱrealizeȱthatȱifȱyouȱareȱgreedy,ȱyouȱtakeȱ

muchȱandȱgiveȱlittle.ȱIfȱyouȱareȱthisȱway,ȱyouȱwillȱhaveȱlittleȱsuccess,ȱforȱyourȱ

subjectsȱwillȱbeȱwillingȱtoȱlikeȱyouȱonlyȱifȱyouȱkeepȱawayȱfromȱtheirȱpropertyȱ

andȱdoȱnotȱtreatȱthemȱunjustly.ȱYouȱwillȱkeepȱtheȱsincereȱfriendshipȱofȱyourȱ

friendsȱbyȱbeingȱgenerousȱtoȱthemȱandȱgivingȱthemȱfineȱgifts.ȱShunȱavarice.ȱ

x Appointȱaȱtrustedȱofficialȱinȱeveryȱdistrictȱunderȱyourȱjurisdiction,ȱtoȱinformȱ

youȱaboutȱyourȱofficialsȱandȱtoȱwriteȱyouȱconcerningȱtheirȱmannerȱofȱlifeȱandȱ 24

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

activities.ȱThus,ȱyouȱwillȱhaveȱeventuallyȱsomethingȱlikeȱpersonalȱcontactȱwithȱ

everyȱofficialȱinȱhisȱareaȱofȱjurisdictionȱandȱpersonallyȱobserveȱallȱhisȱaffairs.ȱ

x Ifȱyouȱwantȱtoȱorderȱyourȱofficialȱtoȱdoȱsomething,ȱconsiderȱwhatȱtheȱresultȱofȱ

theȱthingȱyouȱwantȱdoneȱwillȱbe.ȱIfȱyouȱseeȱthatȱtheȱresultȱwillȱbeȱhealthyȱandȱ

sound,ȱandȱifȱyouȱhopeȱforȱaȱgoodȱreturnȱfromȱitȱandȱgoodȱcouncilȱandȱbenefit,ȱ

sendȱ yourȱ orderȱ out.ȱ Ifȱ not,ȱ refrainȱ fromȱ anyȱ immediateȱ actionȱ andȱ consultȱ

peopleȱofȱinsightȱandȱknowledgeȱaboutȱtheȱmatter.ȱThen,ȱprepareȱforȱaction.ȱAȱ

manȱoftenȱlooksȱatȱsomethingȱheȱwantsȱtoȱdoȱandȱfindsȱitȱtoȱbeȱasȱheȱdesires.ȱ

Thisȱ pleasesȱ andȱ deceivesȱ him.ȱ Failureȱ toȱ considerȱ whatȱ theȱ resultȱ mayȱ be,ȱ

couldȱbeȱhisȱruinȱandȱdestruction.ȱ

x Whateverȱyouȱwantȱtoȱdo,ȱdoȱitȱresolutelyȱandȱaddressȱyourselfȱtoȱitȱforcefully.ȱ

Finishȱtheȱworkȱyouȱhaveȱtoȱdoȱtodayȱandȱdoȱnotȱpostponeȱitȱuntilȱtomorrow.ȱ

Doȱmuchȱofȱitȱyourself.ȱForȱeveryȱtomorrowȱhasȱitsȱownȱbusinessȱandȱeventsȱ

thatȱ willȱ keepȱ youȱ fromȱ doingȱ theȱ workȱ youȱ shouldȱ haveȱ doneȱ todayȱ butȱ

postponed.ȱYouȱshouldȱknowȱthatȱwhenȱaȱdayȱisȱgone,ȱitȱisȱgoneȱwithȱallȱthereȱ

wasȱ inȱ it.ȱ Ifȱ youȱ postponedȱ theȱ workȱ thatȱ youȱ shouldȱ haveȱ doneȱ yesterday,ȱ

youȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱdoȱtwoȱdaysȇȱworkȱtoday.ȱThatȱwillȱbeȱdifficultȱforȱyouȱandȱ

willȱeventuallyȱmakeȱyouȱill.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱifȱyouȱdoȱeachȱdayȱtheȱworkȱ

thatȱyouȱshouldȱdo,ȱyouȱwillȱgiveȱrestȱtoȱyourȱbodyȱandȱsoulȱandȱdischargeȱ

yourȱtasksȱasȱrulerȱwell.ȱ

x Considerȱtheȱfreeȱnobleȱpeopleȱwhoȱareȱadvancedȱinȱageȱandȱofȱwhoseȱsincereȱ

intentionsȱyouȱcanȱbeȱcertain,ȱandȱwhoseȱloveȱforȱyou,ȱwhoseȱhelpfulnessȱasȱ

advisers,ȱwhoseȱactiveȱinterestȱinȱyourȱaffairsȱyouȱhaveȱobserved.ȱSelectȱthemȱ

forȱyourȱserviceȱandȱbeȱbenevolentȱtowardȱthem.ȱ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

Knowledge

x BeȱassuredȱthatȱgenerosityȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱbestȱthingsȱforȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱtoȱpracȬ

tice.ȱMakeȱgenerosityȱoneȱofȱyourȱcharacterȱqualities.ȱ[Beȱreallyȱgenerous.]ȱAcȬ

ceptȱgenerosityȱasȱyourȱconstantȱpractice.ȱ

x Itȱisȱsufficientȱhappinessȱforȱaȱmanȱinȱauthorityȱthatȱhisȱsoldiersȱandȱsubjectsȱ

findȱ mercyȱ inȱ hisȱ justice,ȱ protection,ȱ fairness,ȱ attentiveness,ȱ kindness,ȱ piety,ȱ

andȱlargesse.ȱTherefore,ȱavoidȱ theȱ unpleasantnessȱ ofȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ alternaȬ

tivesȱbyȱ beingȱ consciousȱ ofȱ theȱ excellenceȱ ofȱ theȱ otherȱ alternativeȱ andȱ byȱ alȬ

waysȱactingȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱit.ȱThen,ȱyouȱwillȱfindȱsuccess,ȱwellȬbeing,ȱandȱ

prosperity,ȱifȱGodȱwills.ȱ

x Youȱshouldȱknowȱthatȱbyȱyourȱappointment,ȱyouȱwereȱmadeȱtreasurer,ȱguardȬ

ian,ȱ andȱ shepherd.ȱ Theȱ peopleȱunderȱ yourȱ jurisdictionȱ areȱ calledȱ subjectsȱ

(raȇiyahȱȈflockȈ),ȱbecauseȱyouȱareȱtheirȱshepherdȱandȱ overseer.ȱTherefore,ȱacȬ

ceptȱfromȱthemȱwhatȱtheyȱgiveȱyouȱofȱtheirȱaffluence,ȱandȱuseȱitȱforȱtheȱadminȬ

istrationȱ ofȱ theirȱ affairs,ȱ forȱ theirȱ welfare,ȱ andȱ forȱ providingȱ forȱ theirȱ needs.ȱ

Employȱforȱthemȱunderstanding,ȱskilled,ȱandȱexperiencedȱmen,ȱwhoȱhaveȱtheȬ

oreticalȱknowledgeȱof,ȱandȱareȱableȱtoȱactȱwith,ȱpoliticalȱwisdomȱandȱmoderaȬ

tion.ȱGiveȱthemȱgoodȱsalaries.ȱThisȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱdutiesȱincumbentȱuponȱyouȱinȱ

connectionȱwithȱtheȱtaskȱwithȱwhichȱyouȱhaveȱbeenȱentrusted.ȱLetȱnothingȱdiȬ

vertȱyourȱattentionȱorȱdistractȱyouȱfromȱit.ȱWhenȱyouȱgiveȱpreferenceȱtoȱthisȱ

matterȱandȱtakeȱchargeȱofȱitȱproperly,ȱyouȱwillȱcauseȱanȱincreaseȱinȱtheȱfavoursȱ

yourȱLordȱbestowsȱuponȱyou,ȱandȱfavourableȱcommentȱonȱyourȱactivities.ȱYouȱ

willȱ alsoȱ gainȱ throughȱ itȱ theȱ loveȱ ofȱ yourȱ subjectsȱ andȱ promoteȱ theȱ generalȱ

welfare.ȱTheȱgeneralȱwellȬbeingȱofȱyourȱcountryȱwillȱbeȱimproved.ȱCulturalȱacȬ

tivityȱwillȱexpandȱinȱyourȱregion.ȱTheȱfertilityȱofȱyourȱdistrictsȱwillȱbeȱevident.ȱ

Yourȱincomeȱfromȱtheȱlandȱtaxȱwillȱbeȱlarge.ȱYourȱpropertyȱwillȱbeȱextensive.ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

Youȱwillȱhaveȱtheȱattachmentȱofȱyourȱsoldiersȱandȱbeȱableȱtoȱsatisfyȱeverybodyȱ

throughȱ generousȱ giftsȱ fromȱ you.ȱ Yourȱ politicalȱ leadershipȱ willȱ beȱ praised.ȱ

Yourȱ justiceȱ willȱ beȱ approvedȱ byȱ theȱ enemy.ȱ Inȱ allȱ yourȱ affairs,ȱ youȱ willȱ beȱ

just,ȱcapableȱinȱdeed,ȱpowerful,ȱandȱwellȱequipped.ȱTherefore,ȱstriveȱforȱthisȱ

goal.ȱ Doȱ notȱ giveȱ anythingȱ elseȱ preferenceȱ overȱ it.ȱ Then,ȱ theȱ resultsȱ ofȱ yourȱ

ruleȱwillȱfindȱpraise,ȱifȱGodȱwills.ȱ

x Haveȱ regardȱ forȱ theȱ descendantsȱ ofȱ greatȱ housesȱ whoȱ haveȱ becomeȱ needy.ȱ

Provideȱforȱtheirȱrequirementsȱandȱimproveȱtheirȱcondition,ȱsoȱthatȱindigenceȱ

willȱnoȱlongerȱbeȱableȱtoȱtouchȱthem.ȱ

x Devoteȱyourselfȱtoȱlookingȱafterȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱtheȱpoorȱandȱindigent,ȱthoseȱwhoȱ

areȱ notȱ ableȱ toȱ bringȱ beforeȱ youȱ complaintsȱ aboutȱ injusticesȱ theyȱ haveȱ sufȬ

fered,ȱandȱotherȱlowlyȱpersonsȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱknowȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱaskȱforȱtheirȱ

rights.ȱ Inquireȱ aboutȱ theseȱ peopleȱ inȱ allȱ secrecy,ȱ andȱ putȱ goodȱ menȱ fromȱ

amongȱyourȱsubjectsȱinȱchargeȱofȱthem.ȱCommandȱthemȱtoȱreportȱtoȱyouȱtheirȱ

needsȱ andȱ conditions,ȱ soȱ thatȱ youȱ willȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ lookȱ intoȱ theȱ measuresȱ

throughȱwhichȱGodȱmightȱimproveȱtheirȱaffairs.ȱ

x Haveȱregardȱalsoȱforȱpeopleȱwhoȱhaveȱsufferedȱaccidents,ȱandȱforȱtheirȱwidȬ

owsȱandȱorphans.ȱGiveȱthemȱstipendsȱfromȱtheȱtreasuryȱȱ

x Giveȱtheȱblindȱstipendsȱfromȱtheȱtreasury.ȱ

x Setȱ upȱ housesȱ forȱ thoseȱ whoȱ areȱ ill,ȱ toȱ shelterȱ them.ȱ Appointȱ attendantsȱ inȱ

theseȱhousesȱwhoȱwillȱhandleȱthemȱkindly,ȱandȱappointȱphysiciansȱwhoȱwillȱ

treatȱtheirȱdiseases.ȱComplyȱwithȱtheirȱdesiresȱsoȱlongȱasȱitȱdoesȱnotȱleadȱ toȱ

wasteȱinȱtheȱtreasury.ȱ

x Youȱ shouldȱ knowȱ thatȱ whenȱ peopleȱ areȱ givenȱ theirȱ rightsȱ andȱ whenȱ theirȱ

dearestȱwishesȱareȱfulfilled,ȱtheyȱareȱstillȱnotȱsatisfiedȱandȱareȱnotȱquiet,ȱbutȱ

wantȱtoȱbringȱtheirȱneedsȱtoȱtheȱattentionȱofȱthoseȱinȱchargeȱofȱthem,ȱbecauseȱ

theyȱdesireȱtoȱreceiveȱmoreȱandȱtoȱgetȱadditionalȱkindnessesȱfromȱthem.ȱOften,ȱ 27

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

theȱpersonȱwhoȱlooksȱafterȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱtheȱpeopleȱisȱannoyedȱ byȱtheȱgreatȱ

numberȱofȱmattersȱreferredȱtoȱhim,ȱwhichȱoccupyȱhisȱthoughtȱandȱmind,ȱandȱ

causeȱhimȱembarrassmentȱandȱdifficulties.ȱ

x Letȱpeopleȱfrequentlyȱcomeȱtoȱseeȱyouȱandȱshowȱthemȱyourȱface.ȱLetȱnotȱyourȱ

guardsȱhinderȱthem.ȱBeȱhumbleȱtowardȱthem.ȱShowȱthemȱyourȱsmilingȱcounȬ

tenance.ȱBeȱlenientȱwithȱthemȱwhenȱyouȱputȱquestionsȱandȱspeakȱtoȱthem.ȱBeȱ

benevolentȱtoȱthemȱinȱyourȱgenerosityȱandȱbounty.ȱ

x Ifȱ youȱ give,ȱ doȱ itȱ kindlyȱ andȱ pleasantly.ȱ Doȱ itȱ forȱ theȱ sakeȱ ofȱ doingȱ aȱ goodȱ

deedȱandȱofȱreceivingȱtheȱrewardȱforȱitȱinȱtheȱotherȱworld.ȱDoȱitȱwithoutȱcausȬ

ingȱ trouble,ȱ andȱ doȱ notȱ remindȱ theȱ personȱ toȱ whomȱ youȱ giveȱ somethingȱ ofȱ

yourȱgiftȱinȱtheȱexpectationȱofȱaȱgiftȱinȱreturn.ȱȱ

x Learnȱ fromȱ theȱ affairsȱ ofȱ theȱ worldȱ thatȱ youȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ observeȱ personally,ȱ

andȱfromȱtheȱpersonsȱinȱauthorityȱandȱinȱpositionsȱofȱleadershipȱwhoȱlivedȱbeȬ

foreȱyourȱtimeȱinȱpastȱcenturiesȱandȱamongȱnationsȱthatȱdisappeared.ȱȱ

x BeȱacquaintedȱwithȱtheȱpropertyȱthatȱyourȱofficialsȱcollectȱandȱuseȱforȱtheirȱexȬ

penditures.ȱ Doȱ notȱ takeȱ anyȱ forbiddenȱ property,ȱ andȱ doȱ notȱ beȱ aȱ wastefulȱ

spender.ȱ

x Sitȱdownȱoftenȱwithȱscholarsȱandȱseekȱtheirȱadviceȱandȱcompany.ȱ

x Considerȱ thoseȱ theȱ mostȱ honourableȱ ofȱ yourȱ protégésȱ andȱ intimatesȱ who,ȱ

whenȱtheyȱnoticeȱaȱfaultȱinȱyou,ȱareȱnotȱdeterredȱbyȱtheirȱrespectȱforȱyouȱfromȱ

informingȱ youȱ aboutȱ itȱ inȱ secretȱ orȱ fromȱ callingȱ yourȱ attentionȱ toȱ theȱ shortȬ

comingȱthatȱliesȱinȱthatȱfault.ȱPeopleȱofȱthatȱsortȱareȱyourȱmostȱsincereȱfriendsȱ

andȱhelpers.ȱ

x Lookȱatȱthoseȱofȱyourȱofficialsȱwhoȱareȱpresentȱatȱyourȱresidence,ȱandȱatȱyourȱ

secretaries.ȱAppointȱforȱeachȱoneȱofȱthemȱaȱtimeȱofȱtheȱdayȱinȱwhichȱheȱmayȱ

comeȱtoȱyouȱwithȱhisȱdocumentsȱandȱordersȱandȱalsoȱpresentȱtoȱyouȱtheȱneedsȱ

ofȱyourȱofficialsȱandȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱyourȱdistrictsȱandȱsubjectsȱwithȱwhichȱheȱisȱ 28

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

concerned.ȱLendȱyourȱearȱandȱyourȱeye,ȱyourȱmindȱandȱyourȱintellect,ȱtoȱtheȱ

thingsȱofȱthatȱsortȱwhichȱheȱpresentsȱtoȱyou.ȱGoȱoverȱitȱagainȱandȱthinkȱitȱover.ȱ

Ifȱitȱisȱreasonableȱandȱappearsȱeffective,ȱorderȱitȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱandȱaskȱGodȱaboutȱ

it.ȱIfȱnot,ȱhaveȱitȱcheckedȱandȱinvestigated.ȱ

x Doȱnotȱremindȱyourȱsubjectsȱorȱanyoneȱelseȱtoȱwhomȱyouȱshowȱaȱfavour,ȱofȱitȱ

inȱtheȱexpectationȱofȱaȱgift.ȱAcceptȱfromȱnoȱoneȱanythingȱexceptȱfaithfulness,ȱ

straightforwardness,ȱandȱsupportȱforȱtheȱaffairsȱofȱtheȱMuslims.ȱDoȱnotȱdoȱanyȱ

favoursȱforȱanyoneȱexceptȱunderȱtheseȱconditions.ȱ

৫¬hirȱibnȱalȬণusaynȱconcludesȱhisȱletterȱtoȱhisȱsonȱbyȱsayingȱ«understandȱthisȱ letterȱofȱmineȱthatȱIȱamȱaddressingȱtoȱyou.ȱStudyȱitȱcarefullyȱandȱalwaysȱactȱinȱacȬ cordanceȱ withȱ it».ȱ Commentingȱ theȱ letter,ȱ Ibnȱ KhaldĀnȱ saysȱ thatȱ thisȱ isȱ theȱ bestȱ treatmentȱofȱthisȱtypeȱofȱpoliticsȱthatȱIȱhaveȱfound.ȱ

Conclusion

IȱstartedȱthisȱpaperȱwithȱhowȱignoranceȱofȱsocioȬeconomicȱconditionsȱaffectsȱgrowthȱ andȱ developmentȱ inȱ aȱ society,ȱ afflictingȱ theȱ elitesȱ andȱ theȱ ordinaryȱ manȱ alike.ȱ Theȱ decayȱofȱsocialȱsolidarityȱandȱcohesion,ȱespeciallyȱduringȱtheȱfourthȱgeneration,ȱafȬ flictsȱdevelopment.ȱAfterȱthatȱopulenceȱhasȱdominated,ȱandȱmoderationȱdisappearedȱ asȱaȱvirtue,ȱtheȱdynastyȱapproachesȱitsȱendȱinȱtheȱfourthȱgeneration.ȱȱ

Peopleȱ favourȱ partisanship,ȱ relyȱ uponȱ transmitters,ȱ becomeȱ unawareȱ ofȱ theȱ purposeȱofȱanȱevent,ȱproduceȱunfoundedȱassumptionsȱasȱtoȱtheȱtruthȱofȱaȱthing,ȱigȬ noreȱ howȱ conditionsȱ conformȱ withȱ reality,ȱ approachȱ highȬrankingȱ personsȱ withȱ praiseȱandȱencomiumsȱandȱeulogyȱandȱendȱbyȱignoringȱtheȱinnateȱnatureȱofȱtheȱvariȬ ousȱconditionsȱarisingȱinȱsocialȱorganization.ȱTheyȱneitherȱdifferentiate,ȱexperiment,ȱ norȱtheorizeȱaboutȱconditionsȱtheyȱliveȱunderȱorȱobserve.ȱTheȱwellȬknownȱandȱfamilȬ

AbdelȱMagidȱalȬArakiȱ

iarȱconceptȱofȱjusticeȱisȱnotȱperceivedȱasȱaȱsolution.ȱHowever,ȱthisȱjusticeȱrequiresȱaȱ consciousȱandȱmoderateȱpoliticalȱleadershipȱasȱexplainedȱinȱtheȱrecommendationsȱofȱ

৫¬hirȱibnȱalȬণusaynȱtoȱhisȱson.ȱȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn’sȱThoughtsȱandȱToday’sȱSocietalȱConditions

References

AlȬAraki,ȱ A.ȱ M.ȱ (1983).ȱ Ibnȱ Khaldun:ȱ aȱ forerunnerȱ forȱ modernȱ sociology:ȱ discourseȱ ofȱ theȱ methodȱandȱconceptȱofȱeconomicȱsociology.ȱOslo:ȱUiO/ISO.ȱ

AlȬAraki,ȱM.ȱ(2013).ȱSWOTȱanalysisȱrevisitedȱthroughȱPEAKȬframework.ȱJournalȱofȱIntelligentȱ &ȱFuzzyȱSystems,ȱ25(3),ȱ615Ȭ625.ȱdoi:ȱ10.3233/IFSȬ120668ȱ

IbnȱKhaldun,ȱA.ȱ(1858).ȱPrologomènesȱdȇEbnȬKhaldounȱ(TexteȱarabeȱpubliéȱdȇaprèsȱlesȱmanuȬ scritsȱdeȱlaȱBibliothèqueȱImpérialeȱparȱM.ȱQuatremèreȱed.).ȱParis:ȱBenjaminȱDuprat.ȱ

IbnȱKhaldĀn,ȱA.ȱ(1967).ȱalȬMuqaddimahȱ(F.ȱRosenthal,ȱTrans.ȱ2ndȱed.).ȱPrinceton,ȱN.J.:ȱPrinceȬ tonȱUniversityȱPress.ȱ

Ibnȱ KhaldĀn,ȱ A.ȱ (1967).ȱ alȬMuqaddimah,ȱ Anȱ introductionȱ toȱ historyȱ (F.ȱ Rosenthal,ȱ Trans.ȱ AbridgedȱbyȱN.ȱJ.ȱDawoodȱed.).ȱLondon:ȱRoutledgeȱandȱKeganȱPaul.ȱ

Ibn,ȱKhaldun,ȱA.ȱ&ȱalȬAraki,ȱM.ȱ(2012).ȱAlȬmuqaddimahȱ:ȱbokenȱomȱlærdommene,ȱmedȱenȱintroȬ duksjonȱtilȱverdensȱhistorie.ȱOslo:ȱPax.ȱ

Slane,ȱd.ȱW.ȱM.ȱ(1862).ȱLesȱProlégomènesȱhistoriqueȱdȇIbnȱKhaldounȱ(Vol.ȱ1–3).ȱParis.ȱ

Chapter 2

Impact of Changes in Electoral System on Women’s Parliamentary Representation in Latvia

J¬nisȱIkstens1ȱ

Owingȱtoȱtheȱburgeoningȱscholarlyȱliteratureȱonȱgenderȱandȱpolitics,ȱitȱhasȱbecomeȱ increasinglyȱacceptedȱthatȱaȱmoreȱbalancedȱrepresentationȱofȱgenderȱinȱdecisionȱmakȬ ingȱbodiesȱmattersȱinȱvariousȱways.ȱIncreasedȱwomen’sȱpresenceȱinȱnationalȱlegislaȬ turesȱisȱthoughtȱtoȱstrengthenȱaȱregime’sȱlegitimacy,ȱtoȱmodifyȱpoliticalȱtheȱagenda,ȱ andȱtoȱaffectȱtheȱactualȱdecisions,ȱjustȱtoȱnameȱaȱfew.ȱȱ

Proportionalȱ representationȱ hasȱ beenȱ knownȱ asȱ anȱ electoralȱ systemȱ thatȱ isȱ moreȱfavorableȱforȱwomen’sȱrepresentation,ȱparticularlyȱifȱoperatedȱalongȱwithȱlargeȬ magnitudeȱ electoralȱ districtsȱ andȱ genderȱ quotasȱ inȱ candidateȱ lists.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ beenȱ claimedȱthatȱclosedȱlistsȱtendȱtoȱprovideȱsaferȱpathwaysȱforȱwomenȱtoȱelectedȱposiȬ tions.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱeffectȱofȱpreferentialȱvotingȱremainsȱunderexplored.ȱȱ

LatviaȱprovidesȱanȱexcellentȱcaseȱforȱstudyingȱtheȱgenderȱimpactȱofȱpreferenȬ tialȱvoting.ȱSinceȱtheȱfallȱofȱCommunism,ȱtheȱshareȱofȱwomenȱparliamentariansȱhasȱ risenȱfromȱ15%ȱtoȱ21%.ȱAllȱsevenȱpostȬCommunistȱparliamentaryȱelectionsȱwereȱheldȱ underȱanȱopenȬlistȱPRȱsystemȱinȱfiveȱdistricts.ȱHowever,ȱanȱimportantȱmodificationȱofȱ theȱelectoralȱsystemȱoccurredȱinȱ2010ȱstipulatingȱthatȱeachȱcandidateȱcanȱrunȱinȱonlyȱ oneȱofȱfiveȱelectoralȱdistricts.ȱItȱisȱthisȱinstitutionalȱmodificationȱthatȱwillȱbeȱtheȱfocalȱ pointȱofȱthisȱstudy.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱProfessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱPoliticalȱScience,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatviaȱ

JanisȱIkstensȱ

Thisȱ articleȱ setsȱ toȱ exploreȱ howȱ theȱ 2010ȱ reformȱ affectedȱ theȱ electabilityȱ ofȱ womenȱtoȱtheȱLatvianȱparliament.ȱIsȱitȱtheȱinstitutionalȱchangesȱthatȱfosteredȱwomȬ en’sȱrepresentationȱinȱtheȱSaeima?ȱDoȱpartyȱfamiliesȱaffectȱwomen’sȱelectability?ȱDoȱ newȱpartiesȱofferȱaȱbetterȱspringboardȱforȱwomenȱcandidates?ȱWhatȱisȱtheȱroleȱofȱinȬ cumbency?ȱ

Electoral systems and gender representation

Women’sȱparticipationȱinȱlegislativeȱbodiesȱisȱincreasinglyȱseenȱasȱaȱsignificantȱfactorȱ contributingȱtoȱtheȱfunctioningȱofȱaȱpoliticalȱsystemȱinȱvariousȱways.ȱHowever,ȱthereȱ areȱdivergentȱexplanationsȱofȱhowȱaȱhigherȱfemaleȱshareȱofȱmembersȱofȱparliamentȱ

(MP)ȱisȱachieved.ȱ

Anȱ institutionalȱ theoryȱ emphasizesȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ electoralȱ system.ȱ Ruleȱ andȱ

Zimmermanȱ(1994)ȱhighlightȱtheȱpositiveȱimpactȱofȱaȱproportionalȱsystemȱonȱwomȬ en’sȱrepresentationȱatȱtheȱparliamentaryȱlevel.ȱFurther,ȱaȱclosedȬlistȱsystemȱisȱsaidȱtoȱ provideȱ aȱ saferȱ wayȱ toȱ theȱ legislatureȱ asȱ votersȱ wouldȱ notȱ haveȱ anyȱ influenceȱ onȱ whichȱparticularȱpersonsȱgetȱelectedȱfromȱtheirȱpreferredȱlist.ȱ

AȱbehavioralȱapproachȱseemsȱtoȱconcentrateȱaroundȱtheȱsupplyȬandȬdemandȱ modelȱofȱcandidateȱselectionȱ(Krook,ȱ2010).ȱTheȱpresenceȱofȱwomenȱinȱelectedȱbodiesȱ partlyȱisȱthoughtȱtoȱstemȱfromȱindividualȬlevelȱfactors:ȱaȱwoman’sȱwillingnessȱtoȱrunȱ forȱoffice;ȱherȱinterestȱinȱpoliticalȱaffairs;ȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱkeyȱresourcesȱtoȱherȱ(NorȬ risȱandȱLovenduski,ȱ1995).ȱInȱaȱwellȬdocumentȱstudyȱinȱUSA,ȱLawlessȱandȱFoxȱ(2005)ȱ argueȱthatȱtheȱlevelȱofȱfemaleȱpoliticalȱambitionsȱisȱlowerȱandȱthatȱstemsȱfromȱaȱlongȬ standingȱpatternȱofȱsocializationȱthatȱemphasizesȱtheȱroleȱofȱwomanȱinȱprivateȱratherȱ thanȱpublicȱlife.ȱ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

Afterȱ anȱ eligibleȱ candidateȱ expressesȱ herȱ commitmentȱ toȱ runȱ forȱ anȱ office,ȱ

Krookȱ(2010)ȱrelatesȱtheȱcandidate’sȱfateȱtoȱdemandȬsideȱfactors:ȱattitudesȱofȱ(maleȬ dominated)ȱ politicalȱ eliteȱ towardsȱ women’sȱ participationȱ inȱ politicalȱ lifeȱ andȱ partyȱ eliteȱperceptionsȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates’ȱpotentialȱcontributionȱtoȱelectionȱresults.ȱNivȬ enȱ(1998),ȱFranceschetȱ(2005)ȱasȱwellȱasȱBauerȱandȱBrittonȱ(2006)ȱprovideȱgeographȬ icallyȱdiverseȱargumentsȱtoȱsubstantiateȱtheȱlimitingȱroleȱofȱpoliticalȱelitesȱonȱwomȬ en’sȱrepresentation.ȱ

IfȱclaimsȱaboutȱtheȱrestrictiveȱeffectȱofȱmaleȬdominatedȱpartyȱelitesȱareȱvalid,ȱ thisȱeffectȱshouldȱbeȱrenderedȱinsignificantȱunderȱelectoralȱsystemsȱthatȱendowȱvotȬ ersȱwithȱaȱgreaterȱsayȱaboutȱwhoȱisȱelected,ȱnamely,ȱpreferentialȱsystemsȱofȱvoting.ȱ

Here,ȱvotersȱareȱfreeȱtoȱexpressȱtheirȱattitudesȱtowardsȱeachȱcandidateȱandȱthusȱtheyȱ areȱ inȱ aȱ positionȱ toȱ atȱ leastȱ partlyȱ remedyȱ injusticeȱ toȱ femaleȱ candidates.ȱ Interȱ alia,ȱ femaleȱcandidatesȱcouldȱobtainȱhigherȱrankingsȱafterȱvoterȱpreferencesȱareȱcounted.ȱ

Ryanȱ etȱ alȱ (2010)ȱ inȱ factȱ makeȱ aȱ caseȱ thatȱ womenȱ couldȱ beȱ moreȱ competitiveȱ thanȱ men.ȱ

InȱviewȱofȱtheȱkeyȱroleȱofȱvotersȱinȱtheȱselectionȱprocessȱunderȱpreferentialȱsysȬ tems,ȱtheȱsupplyȬandȬdemandȱmodelȱcouldȱbeȱmodifiedȱforȱtheseȱcases.ȱTheȱsupplyȱ sideȱwouldȱthenȱincludeȱwomen’sȱaspirationsȱandȱresources,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱ nominationȱdecisionsȱbyȱpartyȱelites,ȱonȱtheȱother.ȱSo,ȱtheȱlatterȱareȱexpectedȱtoȱcaterȱ toȱtheȱexpectationsȱofȱvotersȱ(demandȱside)ȱinȱorderȱtoȱmaximizeȱaȱparty’sȱaggregateȱ vote.ȱ

Theȱpresentȱpaperȱwillȱfocusȱonȱpartsȱofȱtheȱsupplyȱside,ȱinȱparticular,ȱtheȱpoolȱ ofȱcandidates,ȱwomen’sȱratioȱandȱrankingȱasȱwellȱasȱonȱtheȱdemandȱsideȱbyȱexaminȬ ingȱpreferencesȱvotersȱexpressedȱforȱparticularȱcandidatesȱinȱorderȱtoȱidentifyȱsocioȬ logicalȱtraitsȱthatȱmayȱaffectȱelectabilityȱofȱanȱindividualȱcandidateȱbesideȱgender.ȱȱ

JanisȱIkstensȱ

Ifȱtheȱaboveȱassumptionsȱareȱcorrect,ȱoneȱwouldȱexpectȱthatȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱ getȱnominatedȱlessȱfrequentlyȱinȱLatvia,ȱbutȱvotersȱwouldȱcorrectȱthisȱgenderȱimbalȬ anceȱbyȱexpressingȱindividualȱpreferencesȱforȱfemaleȱcandidates.ȱ

Electoral system of Latvia

Articleȱ6ȱofȱSatversmeȱstipulatesȱthatȱ“theȱSaeimaȱshallȱbeȱelectedȱinȱgeneral,ȱequalȱandȱ directȱelections,ȱandȱbyȱsecretȱballotȱbasedȱonȱproportionalȱrepresentation”.ȱTheȱ1992ȱ lawȱ onȱ electionsȱ toȱ theȱ 5thȱ Saeimaȱ wasȱ considerablyȱ moreȱ resoluteȱ asȱ anȱ electoralȱ thresholdȱofȱ4%ȱofȱallȱvotesȱwasȱintroduced.ȱTheȱthresholdȱofȱ5%ȱofȱvotesȱhasȱbeenȱ appliedȱsinceȱtheȱ1995ȱelections.ȱAlthoughȱLatvia’sȱparliamentaryȱelectionsȱareȱheldȱ inȱfiveȱelectoralȱdistrictsȱandȱwinnersȱofȱseatsȱareȱcalculatedȱseparatelyȱforȱeachȱdisȬ trict,ȱ theȱ thresholdȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ clearedȱ nationallyȱ regardlessȱ ofȱ aȱ candidateȱ list’sȱ forȬ tunesȱinȱaȱparticularȱdistrict.ȱ

Asȱ farȱ asȱ theȱ submissionȱ ofȱ candidateȱ listsȱ isȱ concerned,ȱ thereȱ existedȱ aȱ fewȱ qualificationsȱbeforeȱtheȱfoundingȱelectionsȱinȱ1993ȱ(paymentȱofȱsecurityȱdeposit;ȱenȬ dorsementȱofȱ100ȱadultȱcitizens)ȱ butȱ theȱ lawȱ didȱ notȱ setȱ anyȱ restrictionsȱ asȱ toȱ whoȱ submitsȱtheȱlistȱ–ȱaȱpoliticalȱparty,ȱaȱgroupȱofȱparties,ȱanȱNGOȱorȱmerelyȱaȱgroupȱofȱ citizens.ȱ Beginningȱ inȱ 1995,ȱ onlyȱ registeredȱ politicalȱ partiesȱ orȱ associationsȱ thereofȱ wereȱallowedȱtoȱsubmitȱcandidateȱlistsȱforȱparliamentaryȱelections.ȱ

TheȱelectionȱlawȱprovidedȱforȱtheȱopportunityȱforȱvotersȱtoȱindicateȱtheirȱperȬ sonalȱpreferencesȱbyȱcrossingȱoutȱanyȱnumberȱofȱcandidatesȱonȱtheirȱpreferredȱslatesȱ

(negativeȱpreferenceȱvoting)ȱorȱgivingȱaȱ“plus”ȱtoȱtheirȱfavouritesȱonȱtheȱsameȱslateȱ

(positiveȱpreferenceȱvoting).ȱThisȱhasȱcausedȱmodestȱintraȬpartyȱcompetitionȱandȱinȬ dividualȱcampaigningȱ(Aylottȱetȱal.ȱ2012).ȱTheȱuseȱofȱpreferentialȱvotingȱhasȱexpandȬ ed.ȱInȱtheȱ1993ȱelections,ȱonlyȱ23%ȱofȱballotsȱcontainedȱatȱleastȱoneȱpreferenceȱindicaȬ tion.ȱThisȱshareȱhadȱgrownȱtoȱ64%ȱinȱtheȱ2010ȱelections.ȱȱ 36

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

Inȱearlyȱ2009,ȱtheȱSaeimaȱyieldedȱtoȱpublicȱpressureȱandȱamendedȱtheȱelectoralȱ legislationȱsoȱthatȱanyȱcandidateȱisȱallowedȱtoȱrunȱinȱonlyȱoneȱelectoralȱdistrict.ȱThisȱ moveȱwasȱseenȱbyȱmanyȱvotersȱasȱaȱtriumphȱofȱjusticeȱandȱaȱrestrictionȱonȱtheȱimpactȱ thatȱ celebritiesȱ orȱ charismaticȱ politiciansȱ haveȱ onȱ voterȱ behavior;ȱ itsȱ actualȱ effects,ȱ especiallyȱonȱgenderȱrepresentation,ȱremainȱtoȱbeȱexploredȱasȱthereȱexistȱnoȱgenderȱ quotasȱforȱparliamentȱorȱforȱcandidateȱlists.ȱ

Regardlessȱofȱinstitutionalȱbarriers,ȱpartyȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱSaeimaȱhasȱbeenȱ notablyȱfluid.ȱElectoralȱvolatilityȱinȱLatviaȱhasȱbeenȱwellȱaboveȱanȱEasternȱEuropeanȱ averageȱ(Sikkȱ2005).ȱTheȱhighȱturnoverȱofȱpoliticalȱpartiesȱalsoȱtriggeredȱaȱturnoverȱofȱ electedȱ politiciansȱ thatȱ couldȱ evenȱ supersedeȱ 50%ȱ aroundȱ theȱ turnȱ ofȱ theȱ century.ȱ

Voterȱ surveysȱ haveȱ revealedȱ aȱ relentlessȱ tasteȱ forȱ newȱ politiciansȱ thatȱ isȱ positivelyȱ correlatedȱwithȱaȱmoreȱgeneralȱdissatisfactionȱwithȱeconomicȱconditionsȱandȱtheȱparȬ ticularȱdevelopmentalȱpathȱofȱLatvia.ȱ

Trends in gender representation

ThereȱisȱaȱnotableȱgenderȱgapȱinȱtheȱpopulationȱofȱLatvia,ȱwithȱwomenȱconstitutingȱ

54.3%ȱofȱresidentsȱ(Statistikasȱgadagr¬mataȱ2012).ȱTheȱdifferenceȱisȱslightlyȱsmallerȱ amongȱ theȱ citizensȱ ofȱ LatviaȱȬȱwomenȱ constituteȱ 53.6%ȱ ofȱ theȱ citizenry.ȱ However,ȱ theseȱdifferencesȱareȱfarȱfromȱbeingȱequallyȱdistributedȱinȱallȱageȱgroups.ȱOnȱtheȱconȬ trary,ȱtheȱageȱgroupȱofȱ15Ȭ34ȱyearȬoldsȱisȱdominatedȱbyȱmenȱ(51%ȱ:ȱ49%)ȱbutȱaȱroughȱ balanceȱ isȱ onlyȱ foundȱ betweenȱ 35ȱ andȱ 39ȱ yearsȱ ofȱ age.ȱ Womenȱ clearlyȱ outnumberȱ menȱ inȱ olderȱ ageȱ groups.ȱ Thisȱ structureȱ ofȱ genderȱ imbalanceȱ isȱ ofȱ particularȱ imȬ portanceȱ inȱ lightȱ ofȱ voterȱ behavior.ȱ PostȬelectionȱ surveysȱ haveȱ repeatedlyȱ foundȱ aȱ positiveȱcorrelationȱbetweenȱageȱandȱturnoutȱinȱparliamentaryȱelectionsȱinȱLatvia.ȱȱ

AnalysisȱofȱofficialȱelectoralȱrecordsȱshowsȱthatȱtheȱpercentageȱofȱfemaleȱcanȬ didatesȱhasȱrisenȱoverȱtheȱyearsȱasȱhasȱtheȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱmembersȱofȱparliament.ȱ 37

JanisȱIkstensȱ

Yet,ȱtheȱgapȱbetweenȱwomenȱnominatedȱforȱtheȱelectionȱandȱwomenȱactuallyȱelectedȱ toȱtheȱparliamentȱhasȱlargelyȱremainedȱunchangedȱatȱaboutȱ10ȱpercentageȱpoints.ȱȱ

Figure2.1.ShareofwomenamongparliamentarycandidatesandMPs,1998Ͳ2011.

Source:CentralElectionsCommissionofLatvia

However,ȱFigureȱ2.1ȱalsoȱillustratesȱthatȱtheȱsuccessȱrateȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱ hasȱ seenȱ aȱ lessȱ stellarȱ trendȱ revolvingȱ aroundȱ 6ȱ percentȱ ofȱ totalȱ femaleȱ candidateȱ number.ȱOneȱmayȱnoteȱaȱdropȱinȱtheȱsuccessȱrateȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱinȱ theȱ2010ȱ electionsȱwhen,ȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtime,ȱeachȱcandidateȱwasȱallowedȱtoȱrunȱinȱoneȱelectoralȱ districtȱonly.ȱThisȱoccurredȱagainstȱtheȱbackgroundȱofȱanȱincreaseȱinȱtheȱtotalȱnumberȱ ofȱcandidatesȱandȱaȱhigherȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates,ȱwhichȱmayȱbeȱanȱindicationȱ thatȱtheȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱthatȱlandedȱonȱtheȱexpandedȱpartyȱlistsȱwereȱlessȱcompetiȬ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

tive.ȱThisȱtentativeȱfindingȱshouldȱbeȱcorroboratedȱagainstȱresultsȱofȱnextȱregularȱparȬ liamentaryȱelections2.ȱ

Theȱaggregateȱfiguresȱdoȱnotȱprovideȱaȱcompleteȱpictureȱofȱpartyȱstrategiesȱforȱ theȱperiodȱupȱtoȱtheȱ2006ȱelectionsȱ(including).ȱAsȱtheȱsameȱpersonȱcouldȱrunȱinȱsevȬ eralȱelectoralȱdistrictsȱsimultaneously,ȱtheȱaggregateȱfiguresȱdownplayedȱanȱincreasȬ ingȱmaleȱdominanceȱsinceȱ1998.ȱOneȱcanȱseeȱinȱallȱfiveȱdistrictsȱaȱclearȱtrendȱtowardsȱ aȱsmallerȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates.ȱThatȱmeansȱthatȱmaleȱcandidatesȱwereȱincreasȬ inglyȱrunningȱinȱseveralȱdistrictsȱmoreȱoftenȱthanȱfemaleȱcandidates.ȱȱTheȱtrendȱtoȬ wardsȱincreasedȱshareȱofȱmaleȱcandidatesȱwasȱbrokenȱinȱtheȱ2010ȱelectionsȱthatȱsawȱaȱ notableȱfemaleȱreboundȱbothȱinȱtermsȱofȱcandidateȱshareȱandȱtheȱpercentageȱofȱelectȬ edȱMPs.ȱHowever,ȱanȱincreasingȱmaleȱdominanceȱatȱtheȱdistrictȱlevelȱdidȱnotȱresultȱinȱ higherȱpercentageȱofȱmaleȱMPs.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱtheȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱMPsȱhasȱsteadilyȱ beenȱgrowingȱatȱtheȱnationalȱlevel.ȱȱȱ

Anotherȱaspectȱofȱpartyȱstrategiesȱisȱaȱtendencyȱtoȱincreaseȱtheȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱ candidatesȱinȱlargerȱelectoralȱdistrictsȱ(correlationȱofȱ0.38),ȱwhichȱgenerallyȱsupportsȱ findingsȱ aboutȱ theȱ logicȱ behindȱ constructionȱ ofȱ aȱ candidateȱ listȱ inȱ aȱ multiȬmemberȱ district.ȱYet,ȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱfareȱconsiderablyȱbetterȱinȱsmallerȱdistrictsȱ(correlaȬ tionȱofȱȬ0.42).ȱThisȱratherȱunexpectedȱresultȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱreflectionȱofȱpartyȱstrateȬ gyȱtoȱfieldȱtheirȱstrongestȱcandidatesȱinȱlargerȱdistrictsȱwhereȱtheȱnumberȱofȱvotersȱtoȱ beȱmobilizedȱisȱhigher.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱaverageȱsuccessȱrateȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱinȱ theȱ RÎgaȱ electoralȱ district—housingȱ nearlyȱ aȱ thirdȱ ofȱ allȱ seats—wasȱ aȱ mereȱ 2.9ȱ perȱ cent.ȱInȱtheȱKurzemeȱdistrictȱthatȱisȱhalfȱtheȱsizeȱofȱRÎga,ȱtheȱaverageȱsuccessȱrateȱofȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

2ȱAylottȱetȱal.ȱ(2012)ȱfoundȱthatȱaȱnumberȱofȱincumbentȱpartiesȱforȱtheȱ2011ȱextraordinaryȱ electionsȱchoseȱtoȱfieldȱtheirȱ2010ȱlistsȱwithȱsomeȱmodificationsȱbyȱremovingȱcandidatesȱwhoȱ wereȱregardedȱasȱunderperformers.ȱ

JanisȱIkstensȱ

femaleȱcandidatesȱamountedȱtoȱ7.6ȱperȱcent.ȱKurzemeȱisȱtheȱonlyȱdistrictȱwhereȱtheȱ averageȱsuccessȱrateȱofȱmaleȱcandidatesȱisȱlowerȱthanȱthatȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates.ȱȱ

Soȱfar,ȱtheȱgenderȱrepresentationȱhasȱbeenȱtreatedȱwithoutȱpayingȱdueȱattenȬ tionȱtoȱparticularȱpoliticalȱparties,ȱsimplisticallyȱassumingȱthatȱallȱpartiesȱwouldȱfolȬ lowȱtheȱsameȱlogicȱbasedȱonȱinstitutionalȱconsiderationsȱonly.ȱAȱcloserȱlookȱatȱcrossȬ partyȱpatternsȱprovidesȱfurtherȱinsightsȱintoȱfemaleȱcandidacy.ȱ

Regardlessȱ ofȱ institutionalȱ setting,ȱ partiesȱ thatȱ clearȱ theȱ 5ȱ perȱ centȱ thresholdȱ tend,ȱonȱaverage,ȱtoȱfieldȱlistsȱwithȱaȱlowerȱfemaleȱcandidateȱshare.ȱThisȱpatternȱhasȱ heldȱforȱfourȱelectionsȱoutȱofȱfiveȱunderȱscrutinyȱinȱthisȱarticle,ȱandȱitȱmayȱsignalȱthatȱ resortingȱtoȱmoreȱgenderȬbalancedȱcandidateȱlistsȱmayȱundermineȱaȱparty’sȱelectoralȱ fortunesȱ ratherȱ thanȱ makeȱ aȱ partyȱ moreȱ appealingȱ toȱ theȱ votingȱ populationȱ whereȱ womenȱholdȱaȱmajority.ȱ

Figure2.2.Femaleshareofcandidatesbyparty,1998Ͳ2011

Givenȱtheȱhighȱturnoverȱofȱpoliticalȱpartiesȱinȱtheȱparliamentȱfollowingȱeachȱ election,ȱoneȱmayȱwonderȱifȱpoliticalȱnewcomersȱattemptȱtoȱreplicateȱtheȱbehaviorȱofȱ 40

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

incumbentȱpartiesȱthat,ȱinȱviewȱofȱtheȱaboveȱfinding,ȱwouldȱbeȱlessȱinterestedȱinȱgenȬ derȱbalancedȱlist,ȱorȱtheyȱchallengeȱtheȱexistingȱorderȱbyȱincludingȱmoreȱofȱbothȱnonȬ incumbentsȱandȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱinȱtheirȱlists.ȱTheȱgeneralȱpatternȱisȱmixedȱasȱthreeȱ electionsȱsawȱnewcomersȱsubmittingȱlistsȱwithȱaȱhigherȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates,ȱ whileȱinȱtwoȱelectionsȱtheirȱlistsȱcontributedȱtoȱanȱevenȱgreaterȱgenderȱimbalance.ȱ

AȱfurtherȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱpartiesȱcouldȱbeȱmadeȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱpartyȱfamȬ ilies.ȱWhileȱitȱwouldȱbeȱidealȱtoȱincludeȱinȱtheȱanalysisȱallȱpartiesȱthatȱcontestedȱelecȬ tions,ȱthisȱisȱnotȱfeasibleȱdueȱtoȱaȱlackȱofȱreliableȱclassificationȱofȱthoseȱLatvianȱpartiesȱ thatȱhaveȱneverȱbeenȱelectedȱtoȱtheȱparliament.ȱOtherȱpartiesȱareȱclassifiedȱinȱpartȱbyȱ

RoseȱandȱMunroȱ(2009)ȱandȱinȱpartȱbyȱtheȱauthorȱofȱtheȱpresentȱpaperȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱ schemeȱbyȱRoseȱandȱMunro.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱminimizeȱrandomnessȱofȱresults,ȱonlyȱthoseȱ partyȱfamiliesȱthatȱhadȱatȱleastȱthreeȱsuccessfulȱrepresentativesȱsinceȱ1998ȱhaveȱbeenȱ includedȱinȱcalculations.ȱȱ

Table 2.1. Average share of female candidates by party family, 1998-2011. Partyfamily Percentage NationalistLatvian 19,7 Conservative 21,7 NationalistSlavic 21,7 Agrarianparties 22,2 Liberal 33,8

Theȱanalysisȱshowsȱthatȱmostȱpartyȱfamiliesȱdemonstrateȱanȱaverageȱofȱ20ȱperȱ centȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates.ȱLiberalȱpartiesȱconstituteȱtheȱonlyȱexceptionȱasȱtheirȱaverȬ ageȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱstandsȱatȱ34ȱperȱcent.ȱTwoȱcaveatsȱapply,ȱ however.ȱ

Greensȱhaveȱhadȱaȱjointȱlistȱwithȱanȱagrarianȱpartyȱandȱtheȱstrongholdȱofȱthisȱjointȱ ventureȱ(UnionȱofȱGreensȱandȱFarmers)ȱisȱinȱtheȱruralȱareas.ȱAssumingȱthatȱGreensȱ representȱpostȬmaterialisticȱpoliticsȱofȱsorts,ȱtheyȱstillȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱableȱtoȱincreaseȱ theirȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱbeyondȱaȱnationalȱaverageȱofȱelectorallyȱsuccessfulȱ

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parties.ȱSecond,ȱpartiesȱclaimingȱtoȱrepresentȱinterestsȱofȱtwoȱmajorȱlinguisticȱcomȬ munitiesȱdemonstrateȱsimilarȱfemaleȱcandidateȱratios.ȱYet,ȱsomeȱRussophoneȱpartiesȱ haveȱatȱtimesȱbeenȱclassifiedȱasȱSocialȱDemocraticȱpartiesȱ(seeȱRoseȱandȱMunroȱ2003).ȱ

Howeverȱinaccurateȱthisȱclassificationȱcouldȱbe,ȱthoseȱpartiesȱwouldȱnotȱmeetȱexpecȬ tationsȱofȱhigherȱfemaleȱcandidateȱratio.ȱ

Effects of gender

Aȱfurtherȱelaborationȱofȱgenderȱrepresentationȱwillȱbeȱmadeȱbyȱusingȱaȱdataȱsetȱofȱ candidatesȱforȱtheȱ2006ȱelectionsȱandȱtheȱ2010ȱelections.ȱTheȱtwoȱelectionsȱwereȱchoȬ senȱ becauseȱ ofȱ institutionalȱ changeȱ inȱ 2009ȱ whenȱ amendmentsȱ toȱ theȱ Saeimaȱ ElecȬ tionsȱLawȱnarrowedȱeachȱcandidate’sȱchoiceȱtoȱrunningȱinȱoneȱelectoralȱdistrictȱonly.ȱ

Further,ȱtheȱperformanceȱofȱonlyȱthoseȱpartiesȱorȱpartyȱalliancesȱwillȱbeȱanalyzedȱthatȱ clearedȱtheȱ5ȱperȱcentȱelectoralȱthresholdȱandȱgainedȱparliamentaryȱrepresentationȱinȱ theȱparticularȱelections.ȱȱ

Asȱtheȱaverageȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱhasȱvariedȱonlyȱslightlyȱacrossȱtheȱ fiveȱelectoralȱdistrictsȱinȱelectionsȱsinceȱ1998,ȱitȱwasȱassumedȱthatȱpartiesȱhadȱnotȱdeȬ tectedȱanyȱdistrictȬspecificȱpatternsȱofȱvoterȱbehaviorȱthatȱwouldȱpromptȱthemȱtoȱconȬ figureȱtheȱgenderȱratioȱinȱtheirȱlistsȱtoȱbetterȱcaterȱtoȱtheȱneedsȱofȱpotentialȱsupportȬ ers.ȱItȱwasȱalsoȱassumedȱthatȱpartiesȱtendȱtoȱplaceȱtheȱstrongestȱcandidatesȱatȱtheȱtopȱ ofȱtheȱcandidateȱlistȱ andȱthatȱthisȱ assumptionȱ isȱ knownȱ toȱ votersȱ eitherȱ fromȱ camȬ paignȱcommunicationȱorȱfromȱexperienceȱofȱpreviousȱelections.ȱInȱviewȱofȱvariedȱdisȬ trictȱ size,ȱ simpleȱ rankȱ orderȱ numbersȱ ofȱ candidatesȱ cannotȱ beȱ usedȱ forȱ regressionȱ analysis.ȱ Therefore,ȱ eachȱ candidateȱ wasȱ assignedȱ aȱ placeȱ inȱ quintilesȱ andȱ thisȱ fiveȬ pointȱvariableȱwasȱusedȱforȱlinearȱregression.ȱIndependentȱvariablesȱincludedȱinȱtheȱ regressionȱmodelȱwereȱtheȱageȱofȱeachȱcandidate,ȱgender,ȱlevelȱofȱformalȱeducation,ȱ parliamentaryȱincumbencyȱ(whetherȱaȱcandidateȱwasȱaȱmemberȱofȱparliamentȱorȱaȱ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

cabinetȱ ministerȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ elections),ȱ municipalȱ incumbencyȱ (whetherȱ aȱ candiȬ dateȱwasȱanȱelectedȱmemberȱofȱmunicipalȱcouncil)ȱasȱwellȱasȱethnicityȱ(asȱdefinedȱbyȱ candidate).ȱȱResultsȱofȱtheȱregressionȱanalysisȱareȱreportedȱinȱAppendicesȱ2.1ȱandȱ2.2.ȱ

Inȱ2006,ȱtheȱspecifiedȱregressionȱmodelȱexplainedȱbetweenȱ20ȱandȱ28ȱperȱcentȱ ofȱ theȱ varianceȱ ofȱ candidateȱ placementȱ ofȱ fourȱ partiesȱ inȱ aȱ statisticallyȱ significantȱ way.ȱForȱthreeȱotherȱpartiesȱthatȱclearedȱtheȱelectoralȱthreshold,ȱtheȱexplainedȱvariȬ anceȱwasȱbelowȱ10ȱperȱcentȱandȱtheȱresultsȱwereȱnotȱstatisticallyȱsignificant.ȱParliaȬ mentaryȱ incumbencyȱ emergesȱ asȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ factorȱ determiningȱ aȱ higherȱ candidateȱplacementȱonȱtheȱlist,ȱwhichȱbroadlyȱconfirmsȱexpectations.ȱForȱtheȱPeoȬ ple’sȱParty,ȱtheȱLPP/LCȱpartyȱandȱ“ForȱHumanȱRightsȱinȱUnitedȱLatvia”,ȱincumbencyȱ hasȱplayedȱaȱnegativeȱroleȱbutȱtheȱresultȱwasȱnotȱstatisticallyȱsignificant.ȱHowever,ȱ theȱnegativeȱsignȱofȱtheȱcoefficientȱcanȱbeȱderivedȱfromȱdevelopmentsȱwithinȱthoseȱ parties.ȱLPPȱmergedȱwithȱ“Latvia’sȱWay”ȱ(LC)ȱaȱyearȱearlierȱandȱnominatedȱmanyȱ formerȱLCȱrepresentativesȱwho,ȱbyȱdefinition,ȱwereȱoutsideȱtheȱSaeimaȱorȱtheȱcabinet.ȱ

Theȱ People’sȱ Partyȱ attemptedȱ toȱ bringȱ inȱ aȱ newȱ generationȱ ofȱ politiciansȱ whoȱ hadȱ beenȱonȱtheȱsidelinesȱofȱparliamentaryȱpoliticsȱbutȱdidȱnotȱserveȱasȱelectedȱofficials.ȱ

“Forȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ inȱ Unitedȱ Latvia”ȱ (FHRUL)ȱ sufferedȱ fromȱ aȱ splitȱ inȱ 2003ȱ andȱ manyȱofȱMPsȱelectedȱfromȱthatȱlistȱswitchedȱtoȱ“HarmonyȱCentre”ȱ(HC),ȱwhichȱexȬ plainsȱnotȱonlyȱaȱlackȱofȱincumbentsȱonȱtheȱFHRULȱlistȱbutȱalsoȱaȱwealthȱofȱincumȬ bentsȱonȱtheȱHCȱlist.ȱYet,ȱmunicipalȱincumbencyȱhasȱfaredȱstronglyȱinȱbothȱFHRULȱ andȱHC.ȱAgeȱappearsȱtoȱhaveȱplayedȱaȱminisculeȱrole.ȱ

Forȱallȱbutȱoneȱlist,ȱbeingȱaȱfemaleȱhasȱaȱpositiveȱeffectȱonȱtopȱplacement.ȱThisȱ isȱaȱsurprisingȱfindingȱgivenȱtheȱgenerallyȱlowerȱsuccessȱrateȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱatȱ theȱpolls.ȱOneȱmayȱwantȱtoȱnote,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱstatisticalȱsignificanceȱofȱthoseȱcoeffiȬ cientsȱisȱlow.ȱFurther,ȱthereȱisȱanotherȱ interestingȱ findingȱ –ȱ partiesȱ associatedȱ withȱ

JanisȱIkstensȱ

advocacyȱofȱethnicȱLatvianȱinterestsȱtendȱtoȱhaveȱsmallȱgenderȱcoefficientsȱthanȱRusȬ sophoneȱpartiesȱdo.ȱ

Forȱ2010,ȱtheȱsameȱregressionȱmodelȱexplainedȱbetweenȱ17ȱandȱ24ȱperȱcentȱofȱ varianceȱinȱcandidateȱplacementȱwithinȱlistȱofȱfourȱpartiesȱinȱaȱstatisticallyȱsignificantȱ way.ȱLikeȱinȱ2006,ȱparliamentaryȱincumbencyȱplayedȱtheȱmostȱsignificantȱroleȱwhileȱ ageȱ hadȱ aȱ minimalȱ role.ȱ Contraryȱ toȱ theȱ previousȱ elections,ȱ educationȱ emergedȱ asȱ importantȱfactor,ȱparticularlyȱamongȱethnicȱLatvianȱparties.ȱȱ

Theȱroleȱofȱgenderȱhadȱbecomeȱmoreȱpronouncedȱasȱtheȱregressionȱcoefficientsȱ signal.ȱHowever,ȱinȱthreeȱoutȱofȱfiveȱcasesȱunderȱscrutinyȱbeingȱaȱfemaleȱappearsȱtoȱ undermineȱ aȱ candidate’sȱ chancesȱ toȱ aȱ higherȱ placement.ȱ Thisȱ trendȱ isȱ particularlyȱ strongȱforȱtheȱNationalȱAllianceȱthatȱwasȱsetȱupȱbyȱaȱpoliticalȱdinosaurȱ(ForȱFatherȬ landȱandȱFreedom/LNNK)ȱandȱanȱambitiousȱnewcomerȱ(AllȱforȱLatvia!).ȱTheȱlatterȱ drewȱsupportȱfromȱamongȱtheȱyouth;ȱtherefore,ȱanȱexpectationȱthatȱitȱwouldȱbeȱmoreȱ openȱtoȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱprovedȱwrong.ȱ

Consideringȱtheȱ2009ȱchangesȱinȱtheȱelectoralȱsystem,ȱoneȱmayȱdrawȱaȱconcluȬ sionȱthatȱtheȱnewȱopportunitiesȱforȱmoreȱequalȱrepresentationȱofȱgenderȱonȱcandidateȱ listsȱremainedȱlargelyȱidle.ȱWhileȱtheȱtotalȱnumberȱofȱcandidatesȱofȱeachȱsuccessfulȱ partyȱnearlyȱdoubledȱ(fromȱ55Ȭ65ȱinȱ2006ȱtoȱ115ȱinȱ2010),ȱmaleȱcandidatesȱtendedȱtoȱ beȱrankedȱhigherȱbyȱpoliticalȱparties.ȱȱ

Regardlessȱofȱcandidateȱrankingsȱbyȱparties,ȱvotersȱhaveȱpowerfulȱopportuniȬ tiesȱ toȱ expressȱ theirȱpreferencesȱ andȱ attitudeȱ towardsȱ individualȱ candidatesȱ onȱ theȱ listȱofȱtheirȱchoice.ȱEachȱvoterȱmayȱnotȱonlyȱindicateȱaȱpositiveȱpreferenceȱforȱaȱcanȬ didateȱbutȱalsoȱexpressȱaȱnegationȱofȱanotherȱcandidateȱbyȱcrossingȱoutȱhis/herȱnameȱ onȱtheȱballot.ȱThisȱsystemȱhasȱatȱtimesȱcausedȱembarrassingȱupsetsȱforȱleadingȱfigȬ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

uresȱofȱsomeȱpoliticalȱorganizations.ȱTherefore,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱeffectsȱ ofȱgenderȱonȱvoterȱchoiceȱunderȱthisȱpreferentialȱsystem.ȱ

Inȱorderȱtoȱassessȱtheȱimpactȱofȱselectȱdemographicȱcharacteristics,ȱtheȱaboveȱ candidateȱdatabasesȱfromȱtheȱ2006ȱelectionsȱandȱfromȱtheȱ2010ȱelectionsȱwillȱbeȱcomȬ plementedȱwithȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱelectoralȱfortunesȱofȱeachȱcandidateȱrunningȱ onȱaȱpartyȱlistȱthatȱclearedȱtheȱelectoralȱthresholdȱnationally.ȱEachȱcandidateȱwillȱthenȱ beȱassignedȱaȱ“percentageȱofȱsuccess”ȱvalueȱthatȱisȱcalculatedȱasȱaȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱ positiveȱ andȱ negativeȱ preferencesȱ forȱ theȱ respectiveȱ candidateȱ expressedȱ asȱ aȱ perȬ centageȱ ofȱ votesȱ castȱ forȱ theȱ respectiveȱ listȱ inȱ theȱ givenȱ electoralȱ district.ȱ Absoluteȱ numbersȱofȱpreferencesȱareȱnotȱfeasibleȱforȱintraȬpartyȱcalculationsȱbecauseȱelectoralȱ districtsȱandȱtheȱnumberȱofȱvotersȱvaryȱinȱsize.ȱItȱisȱassumedȱthatȱsupportersȱofȱaȱparȬ ticularȱpartyȱinȱaȱgivenȱelectionȱhaveȱsimilarȱpropensitiesȱtoȱsupportȱaȱparticularȱcanȬ didateȱprofileȱacrossȱallȱfiveȱdistricts.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱassumedȱthatȱvotersȱdoȱnotȱchooseȱaȱ particularȱpartyȱbecauseȱofȱgenderȱbalanceȱofȱitsȱcandidateȱlistȱbutȱforȱdifferentȱreaȬ sons.ȱ

Descriptiveȱ statisticsȱ showȱ aȱ ratherȱ mixedȱ situation.ȱ Inȱ orderȱ toȱ accountȱ forȱ candidateȱassessmentȱinȱrelationȱtoȱgender,ȱtwoȱgenderȱcompositionsȱwereȱcomparedȱ forȱeachȱpartyȱinȱeachȱelectionȱ–ȱthatȱofȱaȱcompleteȱcandidateȱsetȱinȱallȱfiveȱdistrictsȱ andȱthatȱofȱcandidatesȱthatȱreceivedȱanȱaggregateȱpositiveȱpreference,ȱi.e.ȱtheirȱposiȬ tiveȱpreferencesȱoutweighedȱtheirȱnegativeȱpreferences.ȱInȱ2006,ȱthereȱwereȱtwoȱparȬ tiesȱ whereȱ theȱ femaleȱ shareȱ inȱ theȱ aggregateȱ positiveȱ preferenceȱ groupȱ wasȱ largerȱ thanȱ inȱ theȱ totalȱ ofȱ aȱ party’sȱ candidates;ȱ twoȱ partiesȱ withȱ anȱ unchangedȱ ratioȱ (allȱ candidatesȱreceivedȱaggregateȱpositiveȱpreferences;ȱbothȱpartiesȱclaimedȱtoȱadvocateȱ

Russophoneȱ interests),ȱ butȱ threeȱ partiesȱ hadȱ aȱ lowerȱ aggregateȱ positiveȱ preferenceȱ share.ȱInȱ2010,ȱthereȱwasȱonlyȱoneȱpartyȱwithȱaȱhigherȱaggregateȱpositiveȱpreferenceȱ share,ȱoneȱwithȱanȱunchangedȱratioȱandȱthreeȱpartiesȱwithȱaȱlowerȱaggregateȱpositiveȱ 45

JanisȱIkstensȱ

preferenceȱshare.ȱThisȱnotȱonlyȱrevealsȱtheȱbreadthȱofȱvoterȱpreferencesȱbutȱalsoȱproȬ videsȱadditionalȱargumentsȱinȱfavorȱofȱtheȱhypothesisȱthatȱadditionalȱopportunitiesȱ forȱrepresentationȱremainedȱidle.ȱȱ

Oneȱmayȱnoteȱcertainȱvoterȱbehaviorȱconsistencyȱoverȱtheȱtwoȱelections.ȱSupȬ portersȱofȱbothȱtheȱPeople’sȱPartyȱandȱLPP/LCȱdowngradedȱfemaleȱpositionsȱinȱ2006.ȱ

Whenȱtheȱtwoȱpresentedȱaȱjointȱlistȱinȱ2010,ȱtheȱfemaleȱshareȱamongȱaggregateȱposiȬ tiveȱpreferenceȱgroupȱwasȱlowerȱagain.ȱSupportersȱofȱtheȱUnionȱofȱGreensȱandȱFarmȬ ersȱtendedȱtoȱexpressȱratherȱnegativeȱpreferencesȱforȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱbothȱinȱ2006ȱ andȱ inȱ 2010.ȱ Theȱ liberallyȬmindedȱ “Newȱ Era”ȱ votersȱ gaveȱ higherȱ marksȱ toȱ femaleȱ candidatesȱinȱ2006ȱandȱsoȱdidȱsupportersȱofȱtheȱUnityȱblocȱthatȱwasȱformedȱlargelyȱ byȱ“NewȱEra”ȱpoliticians.ȱ“HarmonyȱCentre”ȱvotersȱkeptȱgivingȱpositiveȱpreferencesȱ toȱallȱcandidatesȱbothȱinȱ2006ȱandȱinȱ2010.ȱ

However,ȱitȱmayȱhappenȱthatȱotherȱfactorsȱaffectedȱvoterȱpreferencesȱandȱthatȱ genderȱaloneȱdidȱnotȱprecludeȱoneȱfromȱrocketingȱtoȱtheȱtopȱofȱtheȱcandidateȱlistȱafterȱ allȱballotsȱwereȱcounted.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱprobeȱintoȱtheseȱeffects,ȱaȱlinearȱregressionȱmodȬ elȱwasȱusedȱtoȱestimateȱtheȱimpactȱofȱage,ȱgender,ȱeducation,ȱethnicity,ȱincumbencyȱ andȱ initialȱ placementȱ onȱ aggregateȱ positiveȱ preferences.ȱ Theȱ operationalizationȱ ofȱ mostȱvariablesȱhasȱbeenȱdescribedȱabove,ȱandȱtheȱplacementȱquintilesȱwereȱusedȱforȱ standardizingȱtheȱinitialȱplacement.ȱRegressionȱanalysisȱwasȱcarriedȱoutȱforȱeachȱparȬ tyȱseparatelyȱusingȱcandidateȱdataȱfromȱallȱfiveȱdistricts.ȱItȱwasȱassumedȱthatȱvotersȱ choseȱtheirȱpreferredȱlistȱforȱotherȱreasonsȱbutȱtheȱgenderȱcompositionȱofȱtheȱlistȱinȱ theirȱdistrict.ȱRegressionȱresultsȱareȱreportedȱinȱAppendicesȱ2.3ȱandȱ2.4.ȱ

Regressionȱanalysisȱdemonstratesȱ thatȱ theȱ aboveȱ modelȱ hasȱ aȱ reasonableȱ exȬ planatoryȱpowerȱofȱvoterȱchoicesȱbothȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱexplainedȱvariationȱandȱstatisȬ ticalȱsignificance.ȱParliamentaryȱincumbencyȱhadȱtheȱhighestȱimpactȱinȱtheȱ2006ȱdataȱ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

set.ȱMunicipalȱincumbencyȱhadȱlowerȱcoefficientsȱandȱalsoȱlackedȱstatisticalȱsignifiȬ cance.ȱTheȱnewȱvariableȱofȱinitialȱcandidateȱplacementȱonȱpartyȱlistȱhadȱasȱstrongȱanȱ effectȱandȱitȱhadȱstatisticalȱsignificanceȱinȱmostȱcases.ȱEthnicityȱlargelyȱhadȱtheȱpreȬ dictedȱeffectȱ(ethnicȱLatviansȱtendȱtoȱpreferȱethnicȱLatviansȱwhileȱnonȬLatviansȱpreferȱ nonȬLatvians)ȱbutȱlackedȱstatisticalȱsignificance.ȱTheȱageȱfactorȱappearsȱminimalȱbutȱ beingȱfemaleȱapparentlyȱwasȱnotȱanȱassetȱinȱtheȱeyesȱofȱvoters.ȱ“NewȱEra”ȱconstitutȬ edȱtheȱonlyȱ(andȱsignificant)ȱexceptionȱtoȱthisȱtrend.ȱ

Inȱ2010ȱtheȱaboveȱtrendsȱcouldȱbeȱtracedȱagain,ȱattestingȱtoȱsimilarȱpatternsȱofȱ voterȱbehavior.ȱParliamentaryȱincumbencyȱpossessedȱtheȱhighestȱimpact,ȱevenȱforȱtheȱ

Nationalȱ Allianceȱ whoseȱ supportersȱ ratherȱ demonstratedȱ distasteȱ forȱ incumbents.ȱ

ThisȱcanȱbeȱexplainedȱinȱtermsȱofȱratherȱtenseȱintraȬpartyȱrelationsȱandȱtheȱprocessȱofȱ establishingȱ thisȱ politicalȱ organization.ȱ Theȱ initialȱ placementȱ ofȱ candidatesȱ alsoȱ playedȱ aȱ significantȱ roleȱ forȱ nearlyȱ allȱ parties/alliances.ȱ Municipalȱ incumbencyȱ deȬ servedȱattentionȱasȱwell.ȱLikeȱinȱ2006,ȱthereȱwasȱaȱnotableȱnegativeȱeffectȱofȱgenderȱ uponȱpositiveȱvoterȱpreferences.ȱOtherȱfactorsȱappearedȱofȱlesserȱimportance.ȱ

Theȱaboveȱanalysisȱindicatesȱthatȱsupportersȱofȱwinningȱpartiesȱtendȱtoȱplaceȱaȱ premiumȱonȱelectedȬofficialȱ experienceȱ ofȱ personsȱ runningȱ forȱ theȱ parliament.ȱ FacȬ torsȱsuchȱasȱageȱorȱeducationȱfigureȱlessȱprominently.ȱInȱtheȱfinalȱanalysis,ȱbeingȱaȱ femaleȱ candidateȱ tendsȱ toȱ undermineȱ one’sȱ chancesȱ ofȱ increasingȱ one’sȱ aggregateȱ positiveȱpreference.ȱAnȱinterpretationȱofȱthisȱfindingȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱrelatedȱtoȱviewsȱ onȱsocialȱrolesȱofȱeachȱsex.ȱItȱhasȱbeenȱnotedȱthatȱtheȱworldȱofȱpoliticsȱisȱregardedȱbyȱ aȱmajorityȱasȱaȱmaleȱrealm3.ȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

3ȱUnpublishedȱresultsȱfromȱaȱsurveyȱofȱ1006ȱadultȱcitizensȱcommissionedȱbyȱtheȱUniversityȱ ofȱLatviaȱinȱ2010ȱunderȱtheȱauspicesȱofȱnationalȱresearchȱprogramȱ„NationalȱIdentity”.ȱ

JanisȱIkstensȱ

Whatȱisȱsomewhatȱstrikingȱisȱtheȱstatisticalȱweightȱofȱcandidateȱplacement,ȱi.e.ȱ theȱ higherȱ aȱ candidateȱ isȱ placed,ȱ theȱ moreȱ likelyȱ s/heȱ isȱ toȱ receiveȱ positiveȱ preferȬ ences.ȱItȱcouldȱbeȱflatteringȱtoȱattributeȱthisȱtrendȱtoȱtheȱabilityȱofȱvotersȱtoȱtakeȱcuesȱ fromȱ theȱ initialȱ rankȱ orderȱ ofȱ candidates.ȱ Whileȱ suchȱ anȱ interpretationȱ cannotȱ beȱ ruledȱoutȱcompletelyȱitȱrunsȱcounterȱtoȱfindingsȱbyȱAylottȱetȱalȱ(2012).ȱMajorȱpartiesȱ tendȱ toȱ selectȱ topȱ candidatesȱ forȱ parliamentaryȱ electionsȱ ratherȱ carefully,ȱ andȱ theyȱ utilizeȱpublicȱopinionȱsurveysȱtoȱseparateȱtheȱwheatȱfromȱtheȱchaffȱandȱtoȱdetermineȱ theȱdistrictȱinȱwhichȱaȱparticularȱcandidateȱwouldȱbeȱfielded.ȱ

Conclusions

Aȱpointȱofȱdepartureȱforȱthisȱpaperȱwasȱanȱobviousȱdisparityȱbetweenȱaȱquantitativeȱ dominationȱofȱwomenȱamongȱtheȱcitizensȱofȱLatvia,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱandȱaȱmediocreȱ femaleȱ representationȱ atȱ theȱ parliamentaryȱ level.ȱ Althoughȱ Latviaȱ mayȱ beȱ slightlyȱ aboveȱaȱglobalȱaverageȱofȱwomenȱmembersȱofȱparliamentȱstandingȱatȱ18.3ȱperȱcentȱinȱ

2008ȱ(InterȬParliamentaryȱUnion,ȱ2008),ȱLatvianȱvotersȱwhoȱactuallyȱcastȱaȱvalidȱbalȬ lotȱareȱpredominantlyȱfemale.ȱ

LookingȱatȱthisȱdiscrepancyȱfromȱaȱmodifiedȱsupplyȬdemandȱperspective,ȱoneȱ canȱ discernȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ reasonsȱ forȱ theȱ femaleȱ underȬrepresentation.ȱ Firstȱ ofȱ all,ȱ womenȱmayȱbeȱlessȱlikelyȱtoȱstepȱforwardȱtoȱenterȱpoliticsȱforȱaȱvarietyȱofȱreasons.ȱIfȱ venturedȱintoȱpolitics,ȱwomenȱmayȱbeȱperceivedȱbyȱdecisionȱmakersȱwithinȱpartiesȱtoȱ beȱ lessȱ suitedȱ forȱ politicalȱ activities.ȱ Ifȱ womenȱ clearȱ theȱ perceptualȱ threshold,ȱ theyȱ mayȱbeȱrejectedȱbyȱvoters.ȱThisȱpaperȱlookedȱatȱtheȱlatterȱtwoȱphasesȱofȱtheȱsupplyȬ demandȱmodelȱinȱanȱattemptȱtoȱidentifyȱsomeȱofȱtheȱfactorsȱthatȱhelpȱexplainȱwomȬ en’sȱunderȬrepresentationȱinȱtheȱLatvianȱparliament.ȱParticularlyȱcloseȱattentionȱwasȱ paidȱ toȱ theȱ lastȱ twoȱ regularȱ electionsȱ asȱ theyȱ wereȱ heldȱ underȱ somewhatȱ differentȱ rules,ȱandȱthatȱwouldȱaidȱwithȱinstitutionalȱexplanations.ȱ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

Overall,ȱ thereȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ threeȬtoȬoneȱ dominationȱ ofȱ menȱ amongȱ allȱ parliaȬ mentaryȱ candidates.ȱ Moreover,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ trendȱ ofȱ increasedȱ maleȱ presenceȱ that,ȱ however,ȱwasȱbrokenȱinȱ2010ȱasȱtheȱnewȱrulesȱrequiredȱmoreȱcandidatesȱtoȱbeȱplacedȱ onȱpartyȱlists.ȱTheȱgenderȱimbalanceȱvariedȱacrossȱelectoralȱdistricts.ȱOfficialȱrecordsȱ showedȱthatȱwomenȱwereȱmoreȱfrequentlyȱnominatedȱinȱlargerȱdistricts,ȱwhichȱlargeȬ lyȱconfirmedȱauthor’sȱexpectationsȱinȱlineȱwithȱestablishedȱliteratureȱonȱtheȱeffectȱofȱ proportionalȱrepresentationȱonȱgenderȱrepresentation.ȱWhatȱwasȱunexpectedȱwasȱtheȱ factȱthatȱwomenȱfaredȱbetterȱinȱsmallerȱ districts,ȱ whichȱ mayȱ beȱ relatedȱ toȱ electoralȱ strategyȱofȱpartiesȱtoȱfieldȱmoreȱappealingȱcandidatesȱinȱlargerȱdistricts.ȱThisȱrequiresȱ furtherȱresearchȱonȱcandidateȱrecruitmentȱstrategies.ȱ

Tryingȱtoȱdifferentiateȱamongȱparties,ȱoneȱfindsȱthatȱpartiesȱthatȱclearȱtheȱelecȬ toralȱthresholdȱtendȱtoȱincludeȱfewerȱwomenȱinȱtheirȱlists.ȱDifferencesȱamongȱpartyȱ families,ȱhowever,ȱareȱmoreȱdifficultȱtoȱdiscernȱandȱaȱmoreȱpronouncedȱtrendȱisȱforȱ liberalȱpartiesȱtoȱhaveȱaȱhigherȱshareȱofȱfemaleȱcandidates.ȱ

AnotherȱindicationȱofȱperceptualȱparticularitiesȱisȱtheȱinitialȱplacementȱofȱfeȬ maleȱcandidatesȱonȱaȱrankȬorderedȱcandidateȱlist.ȱRegressionȱanalysisȱdemonstratedȱ thatȱparliamentaryȱincumbencyȱwasȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱforȱinitialȱplacement.ȱGenderȱ playedȱaȱneutralȱtoȱnegativeȱrole.ȱInstitutionalȱchangesȱratherȱledȱtoȱanȱincreasedȱtopȱ positioningȱofȱmaleȱcandidates.ȱ

Anȱ advantageȱ ofȱ preferentialȱ votingȱ isȱ theȱ abilityȱ ofȱ votersȱ toȱ reȬrankȬorderȱ candidatesȱandȱtherebyȱtoȱhaveȱaȱdecisiveȱsayȱonȱwhoȱgetsȱelected.ȱViewedȱfromȱthisȱ standpoint,ȱtheȱinitialȱrankingȱmayȱbeȱofȱlesserȱimportanceȱandȱattentionȱshouldȱbeȱ focusedȱonȱtheȱelectoralȱboothȱwhereȱtheȱfinalȱrankȬorderȱisȱproduced.ȱHere,ȱhowevȬ er,ȱ femaleȱ candidatesȱ moreȱ oftenȱ obtainȱ fewerȱ aggregateȱ positiveȱ preferencesȱ thanȱ maleȱ candidatesȱ do.ȱ Althoughȱ parliamentaryȱ incumbencyȱ hasȱ aȱ higherȱ impactȱ onȱ

JanisȱIkstensȱ

voterȱpreferences,ȱgenderȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱatȱplayȱasȱwellȱandȱitȱisȱnotȱtoȱtheȱadvantageȱofȱ femaleȱcandidates.ȱOverall,ȱtheȱ2009ȱinstitutionalȱchangesȱcannotȱbeȱconsideredȱbeȬ nevolentȱforȱwomen’sȱrepresentation.ȱ

Inȱviewȱofȱfindingsȱfromȱaȱstudyȱofȱcandidateȱselectionȱprocess,ȱoneȱmayȱwantȱ toȱexploreȱreasonsȱforȱtheȱrelativeȱdowngradingȱofȱfemaleȱcandidatesȱbyȱLatvianȱvotȬ ersȱtoȱhaveȱaȱfullerȱunderstandingȱofȱfactorsȱbehindȱwomen’sȱunderrepresentationȱinȱ parliamentaryȱpolitics.ȱ

ImpactȱofȱChangesȱinȱElectoralȱSystem

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Krook,ȱMonaȱL.ȱ(2010).ȱWhyȱareȱfewerȱwomenȱthanȱmenȱelected?ȱGenderȱandȱtheȱdynamicsȱ ofȱcandidateȱselection,ȱPoliticalȱStudiesȱReviewȱ8ȱ(2):ȱ155Ȭ168.ȱ

Lawless,ȱJenniferȱandȱRichardȱFoxȱ(2005).ȱItȱTakesȱaȱCandidate:ȱWhyȱWomenȱDon’tȱRunȱforȱOfȬ fice?ȱNewȱYork:ȱCambridgeȱUP.ȱ

Misiunas,ȱRomualdȱJ.ȱandȱTaagepera,ȱReinȱ(1993).ȱTheȱBalticȱStates.ȱYearsȱofȱDependence,ȱ1940Ȭ 1990.ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress.ȱȱ

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Rule,ȱWilmaȱandȱZimmerman,ȱJospehȱF.ȱ(eds.).ȱ(1994)ȱElectoralȱSystemsȱinȱComparativeȱPerspecȬ tive:ȱTheirȱImpactȱonȱWomenȱandȱMinorities.ȱGreenwoodȱPress.ȱ

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JanisȱIkstensȱ

Chapter 3

Human Rights-Based Approach on Integration and Diversity

JuliaȱKöhlerȬOlsen1ȱ

Thisȱ articleȱ aimsȱ toȱ illustrateȱ howȱ theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ contributesȱ toȱ ensureȱthatȱgovernmentalȱpoliciesȱandȱprogramsȱtargetedȱatȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱ ofȱindividualsȱandȱgroupsȱintoȱsocietyȱatȱlarge,ȱareȱsensitiveȱtoȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱ theȱindividualȱandȱgroupȱmembers.ȱThisȱaimȱasksȱforȱdefinitionsȱofȱtheȱtermsȱ“inteȬ gration”ȱandȱ“diversity”.ȱTheȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱtermsȱ“integration”ȱandȱ“diversiȬ ty”ȱcanȱdifferȱfromȱauthorȱtoȱauthor,ȱindividualȱtoȱindividual,ȱandȱfromȱoneȱgroupȱofȱ peopleȱtoȱanotherȱgroupȱofȱpeople.ȱIȱunderstandȱintegrationȱasȱtheȱindividual’sȱexpeȬ rienceȱofȱbeingȱaȱcitizenȱwithȱaȱvoiceȱthatȱisȱheardȱbyȱsociety.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱvariȬ ousȱcharacteristics,ȱfeaturesȱorȱsocialȱdivisionsȱlinkedȱtoȱtheȱindividualȱdoȱnotȱhinderȱ hisȱorȱherȱvoiceȱtoȱbeȱheard.ȱInȱaddition,ȱgroupȱnormsȱhinderingȱhisȱorȱherȱparticipaȬ tionȱ inȱ publicȱ life,ȱ areȱ normsȱ whichȱ societyȱ isȱ addressing.ȱ Thus,ȱ societiesȱ andȱ govȬ ernmentsȱ needȱ toȱ contributeȱ toȱ aȱ lastingȱ changeȱ ofȱ discriminatoryȱ internalȱ groupȱ normsȱotherwiseȱintegrationȱisȱnotȱevolving.ȱDiversityȱinȱsocietyȱisȱhereȱunderstoodȱ asȱtheȱstates’ȱandȱsocieties’ȱobligationȱtoȱensureȱthatȱgroupȱmembershipȱisȱaȱpositiveȱ experienceȱ forȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ group.ȱ Everyȱ individualȱ isȱ linkedȱ toȱ oneȱ orȱ severalȱ groupsȱwithinȱtheȱlargerȱsociety.ȱDiversityȱisȱthenȱnotȱonlyȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱdiverseȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱAssociateȱprofessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱSocialȱWork,ȱChildȱWelfareȱandȱSocialȱPolicy,ȱOsloȱandȱ AkershusȱUniversityȱCollegeȱofȱAppliedȱSciencesȱ

[JuliaȱKöhlerȬOlsen

groupsȱbeingȱintegratedȱinȱsociety,ȱbutȱalsoȱtheȱindividualȱbeingȱintegratedȱinȱsociety,ȱ despiteȱallȱtheȱvariousȱgroupsȱheȱorȱsheȱmightȱbelongȱto,ȱorȱmightȱnotȱbelongȱto.ȱAlȬ so,ȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱbeingȱableȱtoȱchooseȱone’sȱwayȱofȱlifeȱwithoutȱanȱoverwhelmingȱ interferenceȱbyȱtheȱgroupȱheȱorȱsheȱisȱaȱmemberȱofȱisȱincludedȱinȱmyȱunderstandingȱ ofȱtheȱtermȱdiversity.ȱDiversityȱwithinȱaȱminorityȱorȱmajorityȱgroupȱisȱthereforeȱpartȱ ofȱmyȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱtermȱ«diversity»ȱinȱrelationȱtoȱthisȱarticle.ȱȱȱ

The human-rights based approach

Theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ hasȱ itsȱ rootsȱ backȱ toȱ theȱ 1980’sȱ andȱ theȱ globalȱ women’sȱ rightsȱ movementȱ withȱ oneȱ ofȱ itsȱ peaksȱ beingȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Fourthȱ

ConferenceȱonȱWomen’sȱRightsȱinȱBeijingȱinȱ1995ȱwhereȱoneȱimportantȱoutcomeȱwasȱ theȱ statementȱ thatȱ «Women’sȱ rightsȱ areȱ humanȱ rights».2ȱ Whatȱ theȱ internationalȱ women’sȱ rightsȱ movementȱ didȱ byȱ statingȱ thisȱ sentenceȱ wasȱ toȱ takeȱ ownershipȱ ofȱ humanȱrights,ȱwhichȱuntilȱthenȱoftenȱwereȱperceivedȱasȱrightsȱonlyȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱ whiteȱmiddleȬclassȱman.ȱTheȱwomen’sȱmovementȱhadȱexperiencedȱthatȱbyȱformulatȬ ingȱtheirȱdemandsȱforȱjusticeȱusingȱhumanȱrightsȱlanguage,ȱwomenȱgotȱheard,ȱandȱ womenȱexperiencedȱintegrityȱandȱworth,ȱratherȱthanȱbeingȱvictimsȱthatȱneedȱhelp.ȱȱ

Theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ hasȱ developedȱ intoȱ aȱ conceptualȱ frameȬ workȱ forȱ variousȱ processesȱ orȱ policiesȱ thatȱ areȱ putȱ intoȱ placeȱ inȱ societies.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theseȱprocessesȱorȱpoliciesȱmightȱdealȱwithȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱsociety.ȱOthersȱconȬ cernȱtheȱbestȱpossibleȱcareȱforȱindividualsȱwithȱcertainȱneedsȱofȱassistanceȱwithinȱaȱ welfareȱstateȱsystem.ȱOthersȱagainȱpertainȱtoȱtheȱstateȱmakingȱeffortsȱtoȱimplementȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

2ȱBeijingȱDeclarationȱandȱProgrammeȱofȱAction.ȱUNȱDoc.ȱA/CONF.ȱ177/20.ȱMissionȱstateȬ mentȱ(1995),ȱpara.ȱ2.ȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

policiesȱ andȱ processesȱ thatȱ areȱ targetedȱ atȱ theȱ integrationȱ ofȱ variousȱ ethnicȱ orȱ reliȬ giousȱgroupsȱintoȱsocietyȱandȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱallowingȱforȱdiversityȱwithinȱsocietyȱ atȱlarge.ȱȱ

TheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱisȱnormativelyȱbasedȱonȱinternationalȱhuȬ manȱrightsȱstandardsȱandȱoperationallyȱdirectedȱatȱpromotingȱandȱprotectingȱhumanȱ rights.ȱTheȱapproachȱisȱconceivedȱasȱaȱframeworkȱaboutȱempoweringȱpeopleȱtoȱknowȱ andȱclaimȱtheirȱrights,ȱwhileȱincreasingȱtheȱabilityȱandȱaccountabilityȱofȱindividualsȱ andȱinstitutionsȱthatȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱrespecting,ȱprotectingȱandȱfulfillingȱrights.3ȱ

TheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱhasȱfurthermoreȱtheȱambitionȱtoȱoperationȬ alizeȱhumanȱrightsȱnormsȱbyȱgivingȱaȱconcreteȱmeaningȱtoȱtheȱvariousȱhumanȱrightsȱ normsȱinȱtheȱlivesȱofȱallȱhumanȱbeings.ȱTheȱapproachȱisȱnotȱonlyȱaboutȱ“doingȱhuȬ manȱ rights,”ȱ butȱ concernsȱ alsoȱ theȱ supportȱ andȱ shapeȱ ofȱ theȱ contentȱ ofȱ discoursesȱ aboutȱ societalȱ topics,ȱ suchȱ asȱ integrationȱ andȱ diversity.4ȱ Withinȱ theseȱ variousȱ disȬ coursesȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱprovidesȱindividualsȱwithȱaȱvoiceȱthatȱenȬ ablesȱtheȱfulfillmentȱofȱtheirȱrightsȱratherȱthanȱjustȱhavingȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱaȱsupplicant.ȱ

TheȱauthorȱMariaȱSuarezȱToroȱputȱthisȱnotionȱinȱsuchȱwords:ȱ

“Weȱ haveȱ beenȱ ableȱ toȱ traceȱ backȱ andȱ reȬexamineȱ thoseȱ situationsȱ thatȱ haveȱ

characterizedȱtheȱdenialȱofȱbasicȱhumanȱrightsȱinȱourȱlives,ȱandȱthisȱprocessȱhasȱconȬ

tributedȱ toȱ theȱ rebuildingȱ ofȱ personhoodȱ andȱ theȱ gainingȱ ofȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ empowerȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

3ȱCharlesworth,ȱH.ȱandȱChristineȱChinkin,ȱTheȱboundariesȱofȱinternationalȱlawȱȬȱAȱfeministȱ analysisȱ(2000),ȱpageȱ210ȱandȱ211.ȱ

4ȱBrautigam,ȱC.ȱA.,ȱMainstreamingȱGenderȱPerspectiveȱinȱtheȱWorkȱofȱtheȱUnitedȱNationsȱ HumanȱRightsȱTreatyȱBodies,ȱpageȱ390.

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ment…Thisȱworkȱhasȱbeenȱinstrumentalȱinȱallowingȱusȱtoȱmoveȱbeyondȱtheȱlimitingȱ

portrayalsȱofȱwomenȬasȬvictims.”5ȱ

Thoughȱtheȱcitationȱisȱfromȱ1995,ȱIȱthinkȱthatȱitȱisȱneverthelessȱrelevantȱforȱilȬ lustratingȱwhatȱisȱmeantȱwhenȱhumanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ isȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ conceptualȱframeworkȱthatȱ“givesȱaȱvoice”ȱtoȱindividualsȱandȱenhancesȱtheirȱsenseȱofȱ empowerment.ȱ

Inȱaddition,ȱtheȱcitationȱallowsȱtheȱreaderȱtoȱreplaceȱtheȱsubjectȱofȱconcern.ȱInȱ theȱaboveȱwordingȱtheȱauthorȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱhasȱ beenȱinstrumentalȱinȱ allowingȱthoseȱ usingȱ theȱ humanȱ rightsȱ languageȱ toȱ moveȱ beȬ yondȱtheȱlimitingȱportrayalsȱofȱwomenȬasȬvictims.ȱThisȱsubjectȱofȱconcern,ȱwomenȬasȬ victims,ȱcan,ȱforȱexample,ȱbeȱreplacedȱbyȱ“toȱmoveȱbeyondȱtheȱlimitingȱportrayalsȱofȱ

Romaȱpeople”ȱorȱ“toȱmoveȱbeyondȱtheȱlimitingȱportrayalsȱofȱelderlyȱpeopleȱasȱbeingȱnoȱ longerȱ partȱ ofȱ everydayȱ lifeȱ inȱ society.”ȱ Theȱ subjectȱ ofȱ concern,ȱ whichȱ theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱapproachȱisȱconcernedȱwith,ȱisȱthusȱchangeable.ȱȱ

Furthermore,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱcanȱbeȱdescribedȱasȱaȱconcepȬ tualȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ demandsȱ allȱ characteristics,ȱ featuresȱ orȱ socialȱ divisionsȱ thatȱ frameȱandȱdefineȱanȱindividual’sȱlifeȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱonȱboard.ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱtheȱhuȬ manȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱisȱnotȱtoȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱconceptȱthatȱpresentsȱsociety,ȱ itsȱinstitutions,ȱandȱindividualsȱwithȱaȱfinalȱsolutionȱtoȱtheȱbalancingȱofȱconflictingȱ humanȱ rightsȱ norms.ȱ Thus,ȱ socialȱ andȱ legalȱ conflictsȱ dueȱ toȱ aȱ societyȱ consistingȱ ofȱ variousȱgroupsȱwithȱdifferentȱreligiousȱandȱculturalȱnormsȱorȱwithȱvariousȱopinionsȱ onȱhowȱtoȱliveȱaȱgoodȱlifeȱcannotȱbeȱsolvedȱonceȱandȱforȱallȱbyȱaȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

5ȱToro,ȱM.ȱS.,ȱPopularizingȱWomen’sȱHumanȱRightsȱatȱtheȱLocalȱLevel:ȱAȱGrassrootsȱ MethodologyȱforȱSettingȱtheȱInternationalȱAgendaȱ(1995),ȱpageȱ191.ȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

approach.ȱWhatȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱcanȱprovideȱusȱwithȱisȱawareness;ȱ awarenessȱwithȱregardȱtoȱdiscoursesȱonȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱlocally,ȱregionallyȱ andȱglobally.ȱTheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱrevealsȱandȱilluminatesȱifȱtheseȱdisȬ coursesȱexcludeȱorȱincludeȱvariables,ȱ featuresȱ orȱ socialȱ divisionsȱ whichȱ weȱhaveȱ toȱ takeȱintoȱaccountȱwhenȱbalancingȱvariousȱindividuals’ȱorȱgroups’ȱinterestsȱwithȱeachȱ other.ȱȱ

Followingȱ theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ inȱ theȱ designȱ andȱ implementaȬ tionȱofȱpolicies,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱeachȱofȱoneȱofȱusȱareȱarticulated,ȱconsidered,ȱandȱ balancedȱwithȱeachȱ otherȱandȱ areȱ thereforeȱ anȱ integrateȱ partȱ inȱ anyȱ policyȱ makingȱ andȱpolicyȱimplementation.ȱBriefly,ȱoneȱcanȱsayȱthatȱtheȱuseȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightsȱentryȱ pointȱbringsȱtheȱentireȱhumanȱrightsȱstructureȱtoȱbear.6ȱ

Theȱapproachȱdoesȱso,ȱbecauseȱitȱhasȱcertainȱunderlyingȱprinciplesȱwhichȱareȱ ofȱfundamentalȱimportanceȱwhenȱappliedȱinȱpractice.ȱTheseȱfundamentalȱprinciplesȱ areȱparticipation,ȱaccountability,ȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱequality,ȱempowermentȱandȱlegality.7ȱ

Inȱorderȱtoȱmakeȱsureȱthatȱeveryȱindividual’sȱorȱgroup’sȱvoiceȱisȱheardȱinȱaȱprocessȱ whichȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱleadȱtoȱintegration,ȱyetȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱacknowledgesȱandȱreȬ spectsȱdiversity,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱandȱitsȱunderlyingȱprinciplesȱareȱ importantȱtoolsȱthatȱoughtȱtoȱbeȱapplied.ȱDiverseȱindividualsȱandȱgroupsȱmustȱparticȬ ipateȱinȱdiscoursesȱaboutȱtheȱbalancingȱofȱvariousȱnorms.ȱTheyȱmustȱexperienceȱnonȬ discriminationȱandȱequalityȱduringȱtheȱdiscourseȱandȱafterȱtheȱbalancingȱtestȱofȱnormsȱ isȱcompleted.ȱAdditionally,ȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱempowermentȱisȱonlyȱattendedȱtoȱifȱparȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

6ȱReportȱofȱtheȱUNȱHighȱCommissionerȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱtoȱtheȱCommissionȱonȱHumanȱ Rights,ȱUNȱDoc.ȱE/CN.4/1998/21ȱ(1998).ȱ

7ȱhttp://www.scottishhumanrights.com/ourresources/promotinghrba,ȱdownloaded17.3.2014.ȱ

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ticipationȱisȱinȱplace.ȱTheȱdutyȬbearersȱinȱsocietyȱthenȱmustȱbeȱaccountableȱforȱensurȬ ingȱanȱopenȱdiscourseȱandȱlikewiseȱanȱopenȱbalancingȱtest,ȱwhichȱleadsȱtoȱreconcilingȱ normsȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ inȱ lineȱ withȱ humanȱ rightsȱ norms.ȱ Byȱ realizingȱ theseȱfundamentalȱprinciples,ȱpolicyȱmakersȱattendȱtoȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱlegality.ȱȱ

Itȱmightȱseemȱstrangeȱtoȱwriteȱaboutȱhumanȱrightsȱnotȱonlyȱasȱlegalȱnorms,ȱbutȱ alsoȱasȱnorms,ȱwhichȱcanȱhaveȱaȱveryȱconcreteȱandȱempoweringȱmeaningȱinȱtheȱlivesȱ ofȱallȱindividuals,ȱprovidingȱthemȱwithȱpowerfulȱarguments.ȱYet,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬ basedȱapproachȱcontainsȱthreeȱmainȱfeatures.ȱFirst,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱ concernsȱshapingȱtheȱcontentȱandȱ formȱ ofȱ discourseȱ inȱ societyȱ andȱ providingȱ indiȬ vidualsȱwithȱaȱvoiceȱthatȱdemandsȱrightsȱandȱinterestsȱfulfilledȱratherȱthanȱaskingȱforȱ help.ȱSecond,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱobligationȱofȱstateȱacȬ torsȱtoȱactivelyȱensureȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱforȱallȱcitizensȱwhenȱdesigningȱ andȱimplementingȱpolicies.ȱThird,ȱtheȱstateȱhasȱtheȱdutyȱtoȱestablishȱaȱmeaningful,ȱ understandable,ȱ andȱ reasonableȱ legalȱ justiceȱ systemȱ inȱ orderȱ forȱ theȱ individualȱ toȱ haveȱaccessȱtoȱjusticeȱandȱtoȱprovideȱanȱanswerȱtoȱtheȱquestionȱofȱwhetherȱtheȱstateȱ actorȱ hasȱ actedȱ contraryȱ toȱ theȱ individualȱ humanȱ rightsȱ andȱ thusȱ violatedȱ thoseȱ rights.ȱȱ

Inȱtheȱfollowing,ȱIȱwillȱemphasizeȱtheȱsecondȱfeatureȱregardingȱtheȱstate’sȱobȬ ligationȱtoȱdesignȱandȱimplementȱpoliciesȱthatȱactivelyȱensureȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱhuȬ manȱrightsȱforȱallȱcitizensȱregardlessȱofȱtheirȱstatusȱlinkedȱtoȱvariousȱcharacteristics,ȱ featuresȱorȱsocialȱdivisions.ȱȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

The state’s obligations according to the human-rights based approach

Manyȱstatesȱhaveȱsignedȱandȱratifiedȱaȱvarietyȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱconventions,ȱwhichȱ coverȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ andȱ interests.ȱ Criticsȱ ofȱ theȱ humanȱ rightsȱ systemsȱ emphasizeȱ thatȱ statesȱ areȱ legallyȱ andȱ politicallyȱ boundȱ byȱ tooȱ manyȱ humanȱ rightsȱ conventions.ȱThereȱareȱnotȱonlyȱinternationalȱhumanȱrightsȱconventionsȱratifiedȱbyȱ theȱUNȱgeneralȱassembly,ȱbutȱthereȱareȱalsoȱregionalȱhumanȱrightsȱconventionsȱlikeȱ theȱ Europeanȱ Conventionȱ onȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ withȱ theȱ Europeanȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Humanȱ

RightsȱinȱStrasbourgȱasȱitsȱsupervisoryȱbody,ȱandȱtheȱEuropeanȱSocialȱCharterȱsuperȬ visedȱbyȱtheȱEuropeanȱCommitteeȱofȱSocialȱRights.ȱ

Theȱcritiqueȱmightȱbeȱpartlyȱjustifiedȱsinceȱitȱisȱratherȱchallengingȱtoȱrelateȱtoȱaȱ largeȱamountȱofȱlegalȱsourcesȱandȱthereȱisȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱ“legalȱshopping”ȱmeanȬ ingȱthatȱweȱshopȱfromȱtheȱlawȱwhichȱsuitsȱourȱargumentsȱbest.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱveryȱ importantȱupsideȱofȱtheȱvarietyȱofȱlegalȱhumanȱrightsȱsourcesȱisȱthatȱasȱaȱwholeȱandȱ nonȬhierarchicȱ systemȱ thisȱ largeȱ amountȱ ofȱ humanȱ rightsȱ sourcesȱ mightȱ coverȱ theȱ variousȱcharacteristics,ȱfeaturesȱorȱsocialȱdivisionsȱthatȱshapeȱtheȱlifeȱofȱeachȱindividȬ ual.ȱHumanȱrightsȱlawȱthat,ȱforȱexample,ȱaddressesȱtheȱrightsȱofȱdisabledȱpeopleȱisȱ relevantȱinȱconsideringȱwhetherȱtheȱrightȱtoȱeducationȱforȱallȱcitizens,ȱlaidȱdownȱinȱ theȱUNȱConventionȱonȱEconomic,ȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱRights,ȱisȱreallyȱinȱplaceȱforȱallȱ citizensȱinȱaȱstate,ȱincludingȱtheȱdisabledȱcitizen.ȱȱ

Oneȱhumanȱrightȱinterconnectsȱtoȱvariousȱotherȱhumanȱrights.ȱOneȱrightȱmustȱ beȱfulfilledȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱexperienceȱandȱexerciseȱanotherȱhumanȱrightȱandȱ viceȬversa.ȱ Oneȱ canȱ sayȱ thatȱ humanȱ rightsȱ areȱ allȱ dependentȱ andȱ interconnected.ȱ

Likewise,ȱcharacteristics,ȱfeatures,ȱandȱsocialȱdivisions,ȱwhichȱanȱindividualȱbelongsȱ to,ȱareȱdependentȱandȱinterconnected.ȱWeȱdefineȱourselvesȱorȱareȱdefinedȱbyȱothersȱ

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throughȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ characteristics,ȱ features,ȱ andȱ socialȱ divisionsȱ suchȱ asȱ gender,ȱ race,ȱage,ȱeconomicȱstatus,ȱliteracyȱorȱilliteracy,ȱculturalȱnorms,ȱreligiousȱnorms,ȱandȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ characteristics,ȱ features,ȱ orȱ socialȱ divisions.ȱ Kimberléȱ Crenshawȱ hasȱ termedȱtheȱinteractionȱofȱtheseȱsocialȱdivisionsȱasȱ“intersectionality”.8ȱAccordingȱtoȱ theȱperspectiveȱofȱ“intersectionality”ȱgender,ȱforȱexample,ȱdoesȱnotȱincludeȱoneȱsocialȱ position,ȱbutȱmanyȱandȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱinteractionȱbetweenȱvariousȱpowerȱstructures.9ȱ

Anȱintersectionalȱperspectiveȱexaminesȱtheȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱtheȱdefinitionȱofȱgroupsȱ andȱtheȱseparationȱintoȱdifferentȱ(andȱunequal)ȱcategoriesȱbecomeȱmeaningfulȱandȱaȱ basisȱforȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱpower.10ȱTheȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱUNȱConventionȱonȱtheȱElimȬ inationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱDiscriminationȱagainstȱWomenȱ(CEDAW)ȱexplainsȱ“intersecȬ tionality”ȱwithȱtheȱtermȱofȱ“multipleȱdiscrimination”ȱinȱitsȱGeneralȱRecommendationȱ no.ȱ25:ȱ

“Certainȱ groupsȱ ofȱ women,ȱ inȱ additionȱ toȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ discriminationȱ directedȱ atȱ

themȱasȱwomen,ȱmayȱalsoȱsufferȱfromȱmultipleȱformsȱofȱdiscriminationȱbasedȱonȱaddiȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

8ȱCrenshaw,ȱK.,ȱDemarignalizingȱtheȱIntersectionȱofȱRaceȱandȱSex:ȱAȱBlackȱFeministȱCritiqueȱ ofȱAntidiscriminationȱDoctring,ȱFeministȱTheoryȱandȱAntiracistȱPolicyȱ(1989),ȱpageȱ140.ȱ Crenshaw,ȱK.,ȱMappingȱtheȱMargins:ȱIntersectionality,ȱIdenityȱPolitics,ȱandȱViolenceȱagainstȱ WomenȱofȱColor,ȱ(1991).ȱ

9ȱNilsson,ȱE.,ȱMarithaȱJacobsenȱandȱLenaȱWenneberg,ȱChildrenȱandȱChildȱLawȱatȱCrossroads:ȱ Intersectionality,ȱInterdisciplinaryȱandȱIntertextualityȱasȱAnalyticalȱToolsȱforȱLegalȱResearch,ȱ (2014),ȱpageȱ35.ȱ

10ȱIbid.,ȱpageȱ35ȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

tionalȱgroundsȱsuchȱasȱrace,ȱethnicȱorȱreligiousȱidentity,ȱdisability,ȱage,ȱclassȱcasteȱorȱ

otherȱfactors.”11ȱ

ThisȱhasȱalsoȱbeenȱrecognizedȱbyȱtheȱUNȱHumanȱRightsȱCommittee,ȱtheȱsuȬ pervisoryȱbodyȱofȱtheȱUNȱCovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRights,ȱstatingȱinȱitsȱGenȬ eralȱcommentȱno.ȱ28ȱonȱequalityȱofȱrightsȱbetweenȱmenȱandȱwomen:ȱ

“Discriminationȱ againstȱ womenȱ isȱ oftenȱ intertwinedȱ withȱ discriminationȱ onȱ otherȱ

groundsȱsuchȱasȱrace,ȱcolour,ȱlanguage,ȱreligion,ȱpoliticalȱorȱotherȱopinion,ȱnationalȱorȱ

socialȱorigin,ȱproperty,ȱbirthȱorȱotherȱstatus.ȱStatesȱpartiesȱshouldȱaddressȱtheȱwaysȱinȱ

whichȱanyȱinstancesȱofȱdiscriminationȱonȱotherȱgroundsȱaffectȱwomenȱinȱaȱparticularȱ

way,ȱandȱincludeȱinformationȱonȱtheȱmeasuresȱtakenȱtoȱcounterȱtheseȱeffects.”12ȱ

TheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱimposesȱonȱtheȱstate’sȱpolicyȱmakersȱtoȱreȬ vealȱ theseȱ powerȱ structuresȱ byȱ usingȱ theȱ languageȱ ofȱ humanȱ rights.ȱ Asȱ aȱ startingȱ point,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱnonȬdiscriminationȱbasedȱonȱoneȱorȱseveralȱsocialȱdivisions,ȱinȱleȬ galȱ termsȱ referredȱ toȱ asȱ discriminationȱ grounds,ȱ helpsȱ policyȱ makersȱ toȱ analyzeȱ andȱ defineȱwhereȱdiscriminationȱagainstȱindividualsȱbasedȱonȱoneȱorȱseveralȱofȱtheseȱsoȬ cialȱ divisions,ȱ threatensȱ integrationȱ andȱ diversity.ȱ Theȱ humanȱ rightȱ toȱ nonȬ discriminationȱbasedȱonȱvariousȱsocialȱdivisionsȱandȱdiscriminationȱgroundsȱunfoldsȱ intersectionality,ȱandȱtherebyȱpowerȱstructuresȱthatȱoftenȱareȱhiddenȱatȱfirstȱsight.ȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

11ȱGeneralȱrecommendationȱNo.ȱ25,ȱonȱarticleȱ4,ȱparagraphȱ1,ȱofȱtheȱConventionȱonȱtheȱElimȬ inationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱDiscriminationȱagainstȱWomen,ȱonȱtemporaryȱspecialȱmeasures,ȱ (2004),ȱpara.12ȱȱ

12ȱGeneralȱcommentȱno.ȱ28,ȱCCPR,ȱCCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10,ȱ(2000),ȱpara.ȱ30.ȱȱ

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HumanȱrightsȱareȱnonȬhierarchicȱandȱindivisible.ȱAsȱsuch,ȱtheyȱcanȱprovideȱaȱ toolȱtoȱaddressȱtheȱchallengeȱthatȱpolicyȬmakingȱfacesȱinȱtryingȱactivelyȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱ situationȱ ofȱ individuals.ȱ Theȱ challengesȱ stateȱ actorsȱ face,ȱ areȱ policiesȱ thatȱ doȱ notȱ work.ȱTheȱimplementationȱofȱaȱhumanȱrightȱbyȱaȱgovernmentȱpolicyȱmightȱfailȱbeȬ causeȱtheȱpolicyȱwasȱinsensitiveȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱindividualsȱexperienceȱdiscriminationȱ onȱmultipleȱgrounds.ȱDiscriminationȱcanȱhappenȱasȱsoonȱasȱtheȱpolicyȱisȱnotȱtakingȱ intoȱaccountȱallȱcharacteristics,ȱfeaturesȱandȱsocialȱdivisionsȱthatȱshapeȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱ individual.ȱȱ

Anȱ example,ȱ whereȱ aȱ stateȱ lackedȱ awarenessȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ socialȱ divisionsȱ thatȱshapedȱtheȱlivesȱofȱindividualsȱthatȱaȱstateȱpolicyȱwasȱtargetedȱat,ȱisȱaȱlegalȱcaseȱ ofȱ2010ȱruledȱbyȱtheȱGrandȱChamberȱofȱtheȱEuropeanȱCourtȱofȱHumanȱRights.ȱTheȱ caseȱ isȱ titledȱ “Orsusȱ andȱ Othersȱ vs.ȱ Croatia”ȱ andȱ regardsȱ theȱ placementȱ ofȱ Romaȱ childrenȱinȱRomaȬonlyȱclassesȱowingȱtoȱtheirȱallegedlyȱpoorȱcommandȱofȱtheȱCroaȬ tianȱlanguage.13ȱTheȱapplicantsȱallegedȱracialȱdiscriminationȱandȱtheȱviolationȱofȱtheirȱ rightȱ toȱ education,ȱ inȱ thatȱ theȱ RomaȬonlyȱ curriculumȱ wasȱ significantlyȱ reducedȱ inȱ volumeȱandȱcontentȱcomparedȱtoȱtheȱofficialȱnationalȱcurriculum.ȱTheȱGovernmentȱ hadȱmaintainedȱthatȱtheȱapplicantsȱhadȱonlyȱbeenȱputȱinȱseparateȱclassesȱonȱaccountȱ ofȱtheirȱinadequateȱcommandȱofȱtheȱCroatianȱlanguage.ȱȱ

Theȱ Grandȱ Chamberȱ ofȱ Europeanȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ ruledȱ againstȱ theȱ stateȱofȱCroatia.ȱTheȱcourtȱemphasizedȱthatȱpositiveȱmeasuresȱtowardsȱchildrenȱwhoȱ lackedȱadequateȱcommandȱofȱtheȱlanguageȱofȱinstructionȱwasȱnotȱautomaticallyȱconȬ traryȱ toȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ nonȬdiscriminationȱ inȱ connectionȱ withȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ education.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

13ȱOršušȱandȱOthersȱv.ȱCroatia,ȱEuropeanȱCourtȱofȱHumanȱRights,ȱApplicationȱno.ȱ15766/03,ȱ (2010).ȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

However,ȱtheȱstate’sȱwellȬintendedȱpolicyȱwasȱimplementedȱpoorlyȱbyȱdisregardingȱ theȱchild’sȱrightȱtoȱaȱqualityȱofȱeducationȱequalȱtoȱallȱchildren’sȱeducationȱregardlessȱ ofȱschoolȱorȱtheȱchild’sȱownȱbackground.ȱTheȱstateȱdidȱnotȱadoptȱappropriateȱposiȬ tiveȱ measuresȱ withȱ aȱ viewȱ toȱ assistȱ theȱ applicantsȱ inȱ acquiringȱ theȱ necessaryȱ lanȬ guageȱskillsȱinȱtheȱshortestȱtimeȱpossible,ȱnotablyȱbyȱmeansȱofȱspecialȱlanguageȱlesȬ sons.ȱ Additionally,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ noȱ establishedȱ programȱ forȱ addressingȱ theȱ specialȱ needsȱofȱRomaȱchildrenȱwithȱinsufficientȱcommandȱofȱCroatianȱthatȱwouldȱincludeȱaȱ timeȬframeȱ forȱ theȱ variousȱ phasesȱ ofȱ theirȱ acquisitionȱ ofȱ theȱ necessaryȱ languageȱ skills.ȱTheȱcourtȱfurtherȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱtheȱhighȱdropȬoutȱrateȱofȱRomaȱpupilsȱinȱtheȱ areaȱ calledȱ forȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ furtherȱ positiveȱ measuresȱ andȱ theȱ activeȱ inȬ volvementȱofȱsocialȱservicesȱinȱorderȱtoȱraiseȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱeducaȬ tionȱamongȱtheȱRomaȱpopulation.ȱTheȱstateȱhadȱnotȱshownȱsufficientȱconsiderationȱ forȱtheȱspecialȱneedsȱofȱRomaȱchildrenȱasȱmembersȱofȱaȱdisadvantagedȱgroup.ȱAsȱaȱ result,ȱtheȱapplicantsȱhadȱbeenȱplacedȱinȱseparateȱclassesȱwhereȱanȱadaptedȱcurricuȬ lumȱwasȱfollowed,ȱyetȱwithoutȱanyȱclearȱorȱtransparentȱcriteriaȱasȱregardsȱtheirȱtransȬ ferȱtoȱmixedȱclasses.ȱ

Theȱcaseȱhighlightsȱthatȱgovernmentsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱawareȱofȱdesigningȱpoliciesȱ thatȱfulfillȱindividuals’ȱhumanȱrightsȱinȱaȱnonȬdiscriminatoryȱmanner.ȱTheȱkeyȱoutȬ comeȱfromȱthisȱcaseȱisȱthatȱgovernmentȱpoliciesȱneedȱtoȱbeȱdesignedȱandȱimplementȬ edȱwithȱanȱactiveȱinvolvementȱofȱtheȱindividualsȱconcerned.ȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱstate’sȱ appropriateȱpositiveȱmeasuresȱhaveȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱvariousȱsocialȱdivisions,ȱ characteristics,ȱandȱfeaturesȱthatȱshapeȱtheȱlivesȱofȱthoseȱconcerned.ȱOtherwiseȱwillȱ wellȬintendedȱpoliciesȱbecomeȱcontraryȱtoȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱandȱinȱtheȱendȱaȱ breachȱofȱtheȱhumanȱrightȱtoȱnonȬdiscrimination,ȱhereȱparticularlyȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱ rightȱtoȱeducation.ȱȱ

[JuliaȱKöhlerȬOlsen

TheȱintentionȱofȱtheȱCroatianȱstateȱtoȱimplementȱsegregatedȱclassesȱforȱRomaȬ childrenȱwasȱmeantȱtoȱincreaseȱtheȱlanguageȱcapacityȱofȱRomaȱchildrenȱandȱasȱsuchȱ fulfillȱ theȱ children’sȱ rightȱ toȱ education.ȱ However,ȱ byȱ notȱ sufficientlyȱ followingȱ upȱ thisȱpolicy,ȱtheȱRomaȬchildrenȱexperiencedȱdiscrimination.ȱTheyȱwereȱtreatedȱdifferȬ entlyȱfromȱotherȱchildrenȱwithoutȱanyȱsufficientlyȱ goodȱreason.ȱ BeingȱwithoutȱlanȬ guage,ȱbeingȱaȱminorȱandȱbelongingȱtoȱaȱminority,ȱledȱinȱthisȱcaseȱtoȱtheȱoutcomeȱthatȱ specialȱclassesȱorȱschoolsȱwereȱdiscriminatoryȱevenȱthoughȱtheirȱpurposeȱwasȱlegitiȬ mate;ȱȱtoȱaddressȱtheȱissueȱofȱlackȱofȱlanguageȱcapacities.ȱPoliciesȱofȱaffirmativeȱacȬ tionȱorȱpoliciesȱwithȱpositiveȱactionȱ mustȱ beȱ addressedȱ withȱ aȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approach,ȱmeaningȱthatȱtheȱdiscourseȱmustȱbeȱaboutȱnonȬdiscrimination.ȱIȱorderȱtoȱ establishȱaȱdiscourseȱthatȱavoidsȱdiscriminationȱeitherȱduringȱtheȱdesignȱofȱaȱpolicyȱ orȱ itsȱ implementation,ȱ theȱ humanȱ rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ individualsȱ andȱ theȱ characteristics,ȱ featuresȱandȱsocialȱdivisionsȱshapingȱtheirȱlives,ȱmustȱbeȱarticulated.ȱȱȱ

Theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱ approachȱ doesȱ notȱ onlyȱ demandȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ allȱ humanȱrightsȱandȱofȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱsingleȱorȱmultipleȱdiscrimination.ȱTheȱhumanȱ rightsȱbasedȱapproachȱalsoȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱpoliciesȱofȱintegration,ȱdiversityȱandȱnonȬ discriminationȱonlyȱworkȱifȱweȱknowȱtheȱindividual’sȱrelationshipsȱwithȱfamily,ȱkinȬ shipȱorȱotherȱimportantȱsocialȱgroups,ȱsuchȱasȱhisȱorȱherȱcongregationȱofȱfaith.ȱȱ

Itȱ isȱ likewiseȱ necessaryȱ toȱ beȱ sensitiveȱ andȱ toȱ understandȱ theȱ variousȱ social,ȱ cultural,ȱandȱreligiousȱnormsȱthatȱformȱtheȱlifeȱofȱaȱhumanȱbeing.ȱUnlessȱtheȱhumanȱ rightsȬbasedȱapproachȱbyȱaȱstateȱdoesȱnotȱalsoȱincludeȱtheseȱnormsȱwhenȱdesigningȱ policies,ȱthereȱwillȱbeȱlittleȱsuccessȱinȱpromotingȱtheȱindividual’sȱhumanȱrightȱto,ȱforȱ example,ȱeducation,ȱwork,ȱorȱhealthȱcare.ȱPolicyȱmakersȱneedȱtoȱbeȱawareȱofȱwhichȱ normsȱareȱshapingȱpeople’sȱlives.ȱOtherwise,ȱhumanȬrightsȱpoliciesȱwillȱlikelyȱfail.ȱȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

Yet,ȱsimultaneously,ȱitȱisȱaȱdutyȱforȱtheȱstateȱactorȱtoȱimplementȱpoliciesȱthatȱ areȱtargetedȱatȱsocial,ȱcultural,ȱorȱreligiousȱnormsȱthatȱviolateȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȱofȱtheȱ membersȱofȱtheȱgroup.ȱTheȱHumanȱRightsȱCommittee,ȱaȱsupervisoryȱbodyȱofȱtheȱUNȱ

CovenantȱonȱCivilȱandȱPoliticalȱRights,ȱhasȱstatedȱtheȱfollowingȱwithȱregardȱtoȱwomȬ en’sȱhumanȱrightsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱgroupȱrightsȱinȱitsȱgeneralȱcommentȱno.ȱ28ȱinȱ1994.ȱ

Thisȱ statementȱ isȱ aȱ guidelineȱ forȱ anyȱ policyȱ designȱ andȱ implementationȱ whereȱ theȱ questionȱofȱaȱproportionalȱassessmentȱofȱindividualȱrightsȱversusȱgroupȱrightsȱisȱatȱ stake.ȱȱ

“Theȱrightsȱwhichȱpersonsȱbelongingȱtoȱminoritiesȱenjoyȱunderȱarticleȱ27ȱofȱtheȱCoveȬ

nantȱ inȱ respectȱ ofȱ theirȱ language,ȱ cultureȱ andȱ religionȱ doȱ notȱ authorizeȱ anyȱ State,ȱ

groupȱorȱpersonȱtoȱviolateȱtheȱrightȱtoȱtheȱequalȱenjoymentȱbyȱwomenȱofȱanyȱCovenantȱ

rights,ȱincludingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱequalȱprotectionȱofȱtheȱlaw.ȱStatesȱshouldȱreportȱonȱanyȱ

legislationȱorȱadministrativeȱpracticesȱrelatedȱtoȱmembershipȱinȱaȱminorityȱcommunityȱ

thatȱmightȱconstituteȱanȱinfringementȱofȱtheȱequalȱrightsȱofȱwomenȱunderȱtheȱCoveȬ

nantȱ(communicationȱNo.ȱ24/1977,ȱLovelaceȱv.ȱCanada,ȱViewsȱadoptedȱJulyȱ1981)ȱandȱ

onȱmeasuresȱtakenȱorȱenvisagedȱtoȱensureȱtheȱequalȱrightȱofȱmenȱandȱwomenȱtoȱenjoyȱ

allȱ civilȱ andȱ politicalȱ rightsȱ inȱ theȱ Covenant.ȱ Likewise,ȱ Statesȱ shouldȱ reportȱ onȱ

measuresȱtakenȱtoȱdischargeȱ theirȱ responsibilitiesȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ culturalȱ orȱ religiousȱ

practicesȱ withinȱ minorityȱ communitiesȱ thatȱ affectȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ women.ȱ Inȱ theirȱ reȬ

ports,ȱStatesȱpartiesȱshouldȱpayȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱcontributionȱmadeȱbyȱwomenȱtoȱtheȱ

culturalȱlifeȱofȱtheirȱcommunities.”14ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

14ȱGeneralȱcommentȱno.ȱ28,ȱCCPR,ȱCCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10,ȱ(2000),ȱpara.ȱ32.ȱ

[JuliaȱKöhlerȬOlsen

ThisȱratherȱlongȱcitationȱhighlightsȱtheȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱstateȱactorȱtoȱacȬ tivelyȱworkȱagainstȱdiscriminationȱofȱgroupȱmembersȱwithinȱtheirȱgroup.ȱ

Summary

SummarizingȱtheȱmainȱfeaturesȱofȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱandȱitsȱimpactȱ onȱtheȱdesignȱofȱstateȱpoliciesȱtargetedȱatȱintegrationȱandȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱprovidingȱ diversity,ȱitȱisȱtheȱstate’sȱobligationȱtoȱbalanceȱvariousȱcharacteristics,ȱinterests,ȱsocialȱ divisions,ȱ norms,ȱ andȱ rightsȱ inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ isȱ nonȬdiscriminatory.ȱ Theȱ humanȱ rightsȬbasedȱapproachȱmustȱinformȱpolicyȱdesignȱandȱimplementationȱbyȱpublicȱauȬ thorities.ȱ WellȬintendedȱ policiesȱ mustȱ notȱ becomeȱ discriminatoryȱ basedȱ onȱ gender,ȱ race,ȱ age,ȱ poverty,ȱ illiteracy,ȱ culturalȱ norms,ȱ religiousȱ norms,ȱ andȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ characteristics,ȱfeatures,ȱandȱsocialȱdivisions.ȱTheȱcomplexȱlivesȱofȱindividualsȱmustȱ beȱintegratedȱintoȱpolicyȱdesignȱandȱimplementation.ȱThus,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱ approachȱgivesȱaȱvoiceȱtoȱtheȱindividualȱandȱincludesȱbroadȱvarietyȱofȱrightsȱandȱinȬ terests,ȱnonȬhierarchic,ȱindivisible,ȱinterdependent,ȱandȱintegrated.ȱItȱfurtherȱcallsȱforȱ aȱ thoroughȱ proportionalityȱ assessmentȱ ofȱ interestȱ andȱ rightsȱ wheneverȱ conflictsȱ ofȱ rightsȱ arise.ȱ Theȱ approachȱ isȱ alsoȱ aȱ necessaryȱ toolȱ toȱ addressȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ nonȬ discriminationȱbasedȱonȱvariousȱgroundsȱofȱcharacteristics,ȱfactors,ȱandȱsocialȱdiviȬ sions,ȱ andȱ itȱ requiresȱ aȱ sensitiveȱ approachȱ toȱ everyȱ individual’sȱ complexȱ identitiesȱ embeddedȱinȱlegal,ȱcultural,ȱreligious,ȱandȱsocialȱnorms,ȱcalledȱ“relationships.”ȱLast,ȱ butȱnotȱleast,ȱtheȱhumanȱrightsȬbasedȱapproachȱrequiresȱtheȱabolishmentȱofȱdiscrimiȬ natoryȱpracticesȱagainstȱgroupȱmembersȱwithinȱsocial,ȱcultural,ȱorȱreligiousȱgroups.ȱ

HumanȱRightsȬBasedȱApproachȱonȱIntegrationȱandȱDiversity

References

Literature

Brautigam,ȱ C.ȱ A.,ȱ Mainstreamingȱ Genderȱ Perspectiveȱ inȱ theȱ Workȱ ofȱ theȱ Unitedȱ Nationsȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ Treatyȱ Bodies,ȱ inȱ Theȱ Americanȱ Societyȱ ofȱ Internationalȱ Lawȱ 91stȱ AnnualȱMeeting,ȱ1997.ȱ

Charlesworth,ȱ Hilaryȱ andȱ Christineȱ Chinkin,ȱ Theȱ boundariesȱ ofȱ internationalȱ lawȱȬȱAȱ feministȱanalysis,ȱinȱStudiesȱinȱInternationalȱLaw.ȱM.ȱSchill.ȱManchester,ȱManchesterȱ UniversityȱPress,ȱ2000.ȱ

Crenshaw,ȱKimberlé,ȱȱDemarignalizingȱ theȱ Intersectionȱ ofȱ Raceȱ andȱ Sex:ȱ Aȱ Blackȱ Feministȱ Critiqueȱofȱ AntidiscriminationȱDoctrine,ȱFeministȱTheoryȱandȱAntiracistȱPolicy,ȱinȱ UniversityȱofȱChicagoȱLegalȱForum:ȱ139Ȭ167,ȱ1989.ȱȱ

Crenshaw,ȱKimberlé,ȱȱMappingȱtheȱMargins:ȱIntersectionality,ȱIdenityȱPolitics,ȱandȱViolenceȱ againstȱWomenȱofȱColor,ȱinȱStandfordȱLawȱReviewȱ43(6):ȱ1241Ȭ1299,ȱ1991.ȱ

Nilsson,ȱ Eva,ȱ Marithaȱ Jacobsen,ȱ andȱ Lenaȱ Wennebergȱ (2014).ȱ Childrenȱ andȱ Childȱ Lawȱ atȱ Crossroads:ȱ Intersectionality,ȱ Interdisciplinaryȱ andȱ Intertextualityȱ asȱ Analyticalȱ ToolsȱforȱLegalȱResearch,ȱinȱInternationalȱFamilyȱLaw,ȱPolicyȱandȱPracticeȱ1ȱ(1):ȱ33Ȭ40,ȱ 2014.ȱ

Toro,ȱ Mariaȱ Suarezȱ (1995).ȱ Popularizingȱ Women’sȱ Humanȱ Rightsȱ atȱ theȱ Localȱ Level:ȱ Aȱ Grassrootsȱ Methodologyȱ forȱ Settingȱ theȱ Internationalȱ Agenda,ȱ inȱ Womenȇsȱ rights,ȱ humanȱrightsȱȬȱinternationalȱfeministȱperspectives,ȱEditors:ȱJ.ȱPetersȱandȱAndreaȱWolper.ȱ London,ȱRoutledge.ȱ UN Documents

UNȱDoc.ȱA/CONF.ȱ177/20.ȱBeijingȱDeclarationȱandȱProgrammeȱforȱAction,ȱUnitedȱNations,ȱ NewȱYork,ȱ1995.ȱȱ

UNȱDoc.ȱE/CN.4/1998/21:ȱȱReportȱofȱtheȱUNȱHighȱCommissionerȱonȱHumanȱRightsȱtoȱtheȱ CommissionȱonȱHumanȱRights,ȱUnitedȱNations,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ1998.ȱ

UNȱDocȱCCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10:ȱ Generalȱ commentȱ no.ȱ28ȱ onȱ Equalityȱ ofȱ rightsȱ betweenȱ menȱandȱwomenȱ(articleȱ3),ȱTheȱUNȱCommitteeȱonȱHumanȱRights,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ2000.ȱȱ

UNȱ Doc.ȱ CEDAW:ȱ Generalȱ recommendationȱ No.ȱ 25,ȱ onȱ articleȱ 4,ȱ paragraphȱ 1,ȱ ofȱ theȱ ConventionȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱDiscriminationȱagainstȱWomen,ȱonȱ

[JuliaȱKöhlerȬOlsen

temporaryȱspecialȱmeasures,ȱTheȱUNȱCommitteeȱonȱtheȱEliminationȱofȱAllȱFormsȱofȱ DiscriminationȱagainstȱWomen,ȱNewȱYork,ȱ2004.ȱ

Court decisions

Theȱ Europeanȱ Courtȱ ofȱ Humanȱ Rights:ȱ Oršušȱ andȱ Othersȱ v.ȱ Croatia,ȱ Applicationȱ no.ȱ 15766/03,ȱGrandȱChamber,ȱ2010.ȱ

Chapter 4

Challenges to the Study of Modernization of Public Administration in Latvia and Norway: From Pre- Weber to Good Governance

HaraldȱKoht1ȱandȱIvetaȱReinholde2ȱ

Thisȱproposedȱstudyȱwillȱpresentȱfindingsȱfromȱtheȱauthors’ȱresearchȱonȱpublicȱserȬ viceȱ deliveryȱ inȱ Norwayȱ andȱ Latvia.ȱȱByȱ providingȱ aȱ comparativeȱ perspectiveȱ theȱ authorsȱaimȱtoȱshowȱthatȱwhileȱsomeȱofȱtheȱproblemsȱfacedȱbyȱpublicȱofficialsȱinȱtheȱ twoȱcountriesȱmayȱbeȱquiteȱsimilar,ȱthereȱareȱalsoȱsomeȱinherentȱculturalȱissuesȱthatȱ areȱparticularlyȱvexingȱinȱcountriesȱwhereȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱpublicȱserviceȱhasȱyetȱtoȱbeȱ firmlyȱestablished.ȱEffortsȱtoȱmodernizeȱpublicȱadministrationȱmustȱtakeȱaccountȱofȱ theseȱdifferences.ȱȱ

A multilevel view of public administration

Theȱcurrentȱcritiqueȱofȱpublicȱadministrationȱisȱtoȱaȱlargeȱextentȱbasedȱonȱclaimsȱthatȱ itȱfailsȱtoȱserveȱtheȱcitizensȱbyȱbeingȱtooȱbureaucratic,ȱtooȱruleȬbased,ȱandȱtooȱhungȱ upȱ inȱ “redȱ tape.”ȱ Thisȱ typeȱ ofȱ criticismȱ hasȱ resultedȱ inȱ effortsȱ atȱ modernizationȱ toȱ makeȱpublicȱadministrationȱmoreȱefficientȱandȱresponsiveȱtoȱcitizenȱdemands.ȱSinceȱ theȱ1980sȱtheseȱattemptsȱatȱ“reȬinventingȱgovernment”ȱhaveȱgenerallyȱbeenȱlabeledȱ

NewȱPublicȱManagement.ȱHowever,ȱtheseȱeffortsȱoftenȱfailȱtoȱconsiderȱwhetherȱ“realȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱProfessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱPublicȱManagementȱandȱWelfareȱStudies,ȱOsloȱandȱAkershusȱ UniversityȱCollegeȱofȱAppliedȱSciencesȱ

2ȱAssociateȱProfessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱPoliticalȱScience,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatviaȱ

HaraldȱKohtȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱ

ȱ lyȱ existing”ȱ publicȱ administrationȱ fitsȱ theȱ idealȬtypeȱ modelȱ ofȱ bureaucracyȱ asȱ deȬ scribedȱbyȱMaxȱWeberȱinȱhisȱseminalȱworkȱonȱgovernance.3ȱ

Inȱcontrast,ȱanecdotalȱevidenceȱsuggestsȱthatȱaȱmajorȱchallengeȱtoȱpublicȱadȬ ministrationȱinȱmanyȱcountriesȱconsistsȱofȱitsȱfrequentȱfailureȱtoȱliveȱupȱtoȱreasonableȱ expectationsȱregardingȱimpartiality,ȱrationality,ȱruleȬbasedȱdecisionȬmaking,ȱhonesty,ȱ andȱotherȱcharacteristicsȱofȱWeberȬtypeȱbureaucracy.ȱTheseȱfailuresȱmayȱbeȱespecialȬ lyȱrelevantȱinȱcountriesȱinȱvariousȱstagesȱofȱdevelopmentȱorȱtransition,ȱbutȱalsoȱhighȬ lyȬdevelopedȱcountriesȱsufferȱinstancesȱofȱbreakdownȱorȱdisastersȱthatȱexposeȱflawsȱ inȱ theirȱ administrativeȱ systems.ȱ Inȱ theseȱ casesȱ weȱ canȱ speakȱ ofȱ theȱ reȬsurfacingȱ ofȱ culturalȱtraitsȱandȱbeliefsȱthatȱpreȬdateȱtheȱadministrativeȱidealsȱofȱWoodrowȱWilsonȱ andȱMaxȱWeber.ȱȱȱ

WhileȱMaxȱWeberȱhimselfȱcanȱbeȱcreditedȱforȱpointingȱoutȱthatȱaȱnegativeȱasȬ pectȱ ofȱ bureaucracyȱ consistsȱ ofȱ depersonalization,ȱ Robertȱ K.ȱ Mertonȱ inȱ hisȱ seminalȱ articleȱ“BureaucraticȱStructureȱandȱPersonality”ȱofȱ1940ȱperformedȱtheȱgroundworkȱ forȱtheȱsystematicȱcritiqueȱofȱbureaucracyȱ thatȱ hasȱ beenȱ theȱ departingȱpointȱ forȱ efȬ fortsȱatȱadministrativeȱreformȱeverȱsince.ȱȱMertonȱpointedȱspecificallyȱatȱsuchȱ“dysȬ functionsȱofȱbureaucracy”ȱasȱgoalȱdisplacementȱandȱtheȱrigidityȱofȱtheȱbureaucraticȱ personality.ȱThisȱearlyȱcritiqueȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱfoundationȱstoneȱforȱadministrativeȱreȬ formȱeffortsȱeverȱsince.ȱȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

3ȱForȱaȱtypicalȱexampleȱofȱthisȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱstudyȱpublicȱadministrationȱreformsȱinȱEuropeȱ seeȱtheȱreportȱbyȱG.ȱHammerschmid,ȱS.ȱVanȱdeȱWalle,ȱA.ȱOprisorȱandȱV.ȱŠtimac:ȱTrendsȱandȱ ImpactȱofȱPublicȱAdministrationȱReformsȱinȱEurope:ȱViewsȱandȱExperiencesȱfromȱSeniorȱ PublicȱSectorȱExecutives.ȱEuropeanȱPolicyȱBrief,ȱEuropeanȱCommission,ȱBrussels,ȱSeptemberȱ 2013.ȱȱ

ChallengesȱtoȱtheȱStudyȱofȱModernizationȱofȱPublicȱAdministration

Theȱfocusȱonȱ“dysfunctions”ȱinȱformulatingȱdemandsȱforȱreformȱfitsȱwellȱwithȱ theȱideasȱofȱparadigmȱshiftsȱintroducedȱbyȱThomasȱL.ȱKuhn.ȱInȱthisȱviewȱtheȱintroȬ ductionȱ ofȱ theȱ bureaucraticȱ modelȱ ofȱ publicȱ administrationȱ representsȱ aȱ regimeȱ changeȱ thatȱ invalidatesȱ allȱ previousȱ approaches.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ respect,ȱ Kuhn’sȱ followersȱ haveȱdisregardedȱhisȱadmonitionȱthat,ȱ“Aȱstudentȱinȱtheȱhumanitiesȱhasȱconstantlyȱ beforeȱ himȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ competingȱ andȱ incommensurableȱ solutionsȱ toȱ theseȱ probȬ lems,ȱsolutionsȱthatȱheȱmustȱultimatelyȱexamineȱforȱhimself.”ȱInȱthisȱrespectȱpublicȱ administrationȱbelongsȱtoȱtheȱsoftȱsciences.ȱ

WhatȱcouldȱtheseȱnonȬbureaucraticȱorȱpreȬmodernȱproblemsȱofȱpublicȱadminȬ istrationȱpossiblyȱbe?ȱWhileȱsomeȱkeyȱconceptsȱinȱthisȱregardȱwouldȱbeȱquiteȱfamiliarȱ evenȱ toȬday,ȱ othersȱ mayȱ justȱ haveȱ historicalȱ significance:ȱ Despotism,ȱ corruption,ȱ nepotism,ȱ simony,ȱ patronage,ȱ scapegoating,ȱ willfulȱ arbitrariness,ȱ andȱ disregardȱ forȱ theȱruleȱofȱlaw.ȱȱTheseȱareȱfactorsȱthatȱcanȱhaveȱdeleteriousȱeffectsȱonȱtheȱqualityȱofȱ decisionȬmaking,ȱ equalȱ treatment,ȱ andȱ fairness.ȱȱInȱ hisȱ bookȱ onȱ theȱ Italianȱ renaisȬ sance,ȱ Jacobȱ Burckhardtȱ inȱ discussingȱ “Theȱ Stateȱ asȱ aȱ Workȱ ofȱ Art”ȱ pointedȱ atȱ theȱ flagrantȱnepotismȱofȱSixtusȱIVȱasȱaȱparticularȱevilȱaspectȱofȱtheȱcorruptionȱofȱtheȱpoȬ liticalȱsystem.ȱTheȱeffortsȱofȱthisȱpopeȱandȱ hisȱfollowersȱinȱ1473ȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱpapalȱ throneȱinheritable,ȱ“threatenedȱatȱoneȱtimeȱtoȱdestroyȱtheȱPapacyȱaltogether”ȱ(1990,ȱ p.ȱ83).ȱ

Theȱ royalȱ coupȱ thatȱ pavedȱ theȱ wayȱ forȱ theȱ absoluteȱ ruleȱ ofȱ theȱ kingȱ inȱ theȱ unitedȱrealmsȱofȱDenmark,ȱIceland,ȱandȱNorwayȱinȱtheȱ1660sȱhadȱasȱaȱconsequenceȱ theȱintroductionȱofȱaȱcentralizedȱbureaucraticȱstructureȱofȱgovernment.ȱTheȱcoupȱwasȱ supportedȱbyȱtheȱclergyȱandȱtheȱbourgeoisieȱthatȱbattledȱtheȱarbitraryȱpowerȱofȱtheȱ nobilityȱ(Myklandȱ1977).ȱȱHowever,ȱasȱweȱshallȱsee,ȱȱbureaucracyȱdidȱnotȱputȱanȱendȱ toȱallȱaspectsȱofȱpreȬWeberianȱgovernment,.ȱ

HaraldȱKohtȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱ

WhileȱinȱtheȱpopularȱmindȱtheȱSovietȱsystemȱrepresentedȱtheȱembodimentȱofȱ excessiveȱbureaucracy,ȱthisȱwasȱnotȱsoȱaccordingȱtoȱscholarsȱsuchȱasȱAndersȱÅslund.ȱ

Theȱcommunistȱadministrationȱwasȱnotȱallȱthatȱlarge,ȱandȱmostȱcountriesȱsawȱtheirȱ bureaucraciesȱswellȱwithȱtheȱtransitionȱ(Åslundȱ2002,ȱ373).ȱForȱobviousȱreasons,ȱfewȱ contemporaryȱstudiesȱofȱtheȱpublicȱadministrationȱfromȱthisȱeraȱcanȱbeȱfound.ȱHowȬ ever,ȱ Alexanderȱ Solzhenitsynȱ (1918Ȭ2008)ȱ providedȱ fictionalizedȱ accountsȱ onȱ howȱ everydayȱlifeȱcouldȱbeȱaffectedȱbyȱtheȱwillfulȱarbitrarinessȱofȱpowerfulȱofficials.ȱȱInȱ theȱtaleȱ“ForȱtheȱGoodȱofȱtheȱCause”ȱSolzhenitsynȱ(1963)ȱshowedȱhowȱtheȱvoluntaryȱ effortsȱofȱstudentsȱtoȱbuildȱaȱnewȱschoolȱforȱthemselvesȱwereȱupsetȱwhenȱtheȱcomȬ pletedȱbuildingȱwasȱturnedȱoverȱtoȱaȱresearchȱinstituteȱbyȱpartyȱofficials.ȱȱ

Forȱ Woodrowȱ Wilsonȱ andȱ hisȱ Progressiveȱ alliesȱ inȱ theȱ 19thȱ centuryȱ anȱ imȬ portantȱtargetȱforȱreformȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStatesȱconsistedȱofȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱpatronageȱ usuallyȱcalledȱtheȱ“spoilsȱsystem”.ȱPatronageȱallowedȱwinnersȱofȱelectionsȱtoȱfillȱapȬ pointedȱofficesȱwithȱpoliticalȱfriendsȱandȱrelatives.ȱȱTheȱsolutionȱwasȱcivilȱserviceȱreȬ formȱenactedȱonȱtheȱfederalȱlevelȱinȱ1883.ȱȱHowever,ȱinȱaȱrecentȱbookȱonȱAfricanȱpubȬ licȱadministration,ȱMerileeȱS.ȱGrindleȱ(2012)ȱmakesȱtheȱpointȱthatȱpatronageȱsystemȱ forȱrecruitingȱofficialsȱisȱnotȱonlyȱthrivingȱinȱmanyȱcountries,ȱbutȱalsoȱhasȱsomeȱbeneȬ ficialȱaspects.ȱȱ

Pre-Weberian aspects of modern public administration

Thisȱ sectionȱ reȬexaminesȱ pertinentȱ findingsȱ ofȱ previousȱ researchȱ conductedȱ byȱ theȱ authorsȱandȱotherȱpublicȱadministrationȱscholars.ȱ

Someȱyearsȱagoȱoneȱofȱtheȱauthorsȱofȱthisȱpaperȱconductedȱwithȱtheȱhelpȱ ofȱ studentȱassistantsȱaȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱopennessȱofȱLatvianȱpublicȱagenciesȱtoȱcitizenȱreȬ questsȱ forȱ information.ȱ Theȱ telephoneȱ surveyȱ includedȱ simpleȱ questionsȱ regardingȱ

ChallengesȱtoȱtheȱStudyȱofȱModernizationȱofȱPublicȱAdministration

theȱsizeȱofȱtheirȱagenciesȱandȱtheirȱbudgetsȱthatȱshouldȱaccordingȱtoȱlawȱbeȱavailableȱ toȱanyone.ȱYet,ȱofficialsȱoftenȱrefusedȱtoȱprovideȱtheȱrequestedȱinformationȱoverȱtheȱ phone.ȱSometimes,ȱthisȱrefusalȱappearsȱasȱstoneȬwallingȱ(“passingȱtheȱbuck”)ȱorȱaskȬ ingȱ forȱ writtenȱ requestsȱ (bureaucraticȱ “redȱ tape”).ȱ Moreȱ surprisingly,ȱ theȱ officialȱ wouldȱdemandȱthatȱtheȱcallerȱshouldȱappearȱinȱpersonȱatȱtheȱministryȱorȱindependȬ entȱagencyȱtoȱgetȱtheȱinformationȱ(Kohtȱ2003,ȱ186).ȱThisȱlocatingȱofȱtrustȱonlyȱinȱfaceȬ toȬfaceȱmeetings,ȱthatȱisȱtheȱneedȱtoȱseeȱaȱface,ȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱmanyȱsocieties,ȱacȬ cordingȱtoȱPollittȱandȱBouckhaertȱ(2000,ȱ158).ȱ

Moreȱrecently,ȱbothȱauthorsȱhaveȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱprojectȱtoȱstudyȱelderlyȱ careȱatȱtheȱlocalȱgovernmentȱlevelȱinȱthreeȱcountries,ȱNorway,ȱLatvia,ȱandȱLithuaniaȱ

(Kjørstadȱ&ȱTufte,ȱ2014).ȱTheȱresearchȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ legalȱthinking,ȱ professionalȱattitudes,ȱandȱpersonalȱethicsȱinȱdecidingȱindividualȱcasesȱbyȱlocalȱgovȬ ernmentȱofficials.ȱAsȱshownȱinȱTableȱ1,ȱtheȱemphasesȱinȱregardȱtoȱcoreȱadministrativeȱ valuesȱvaryȱconsiderablyȱinȱeachȱofȱtheseȱthreeȱcountries.ȱȱNorwayȱandȱLatviaȱcanȱbeȱ foundȱatȱextremeȱends,ȱwhileȱLithuaniaȱoccupiesȱtheȱmiddleȱposition.ȱ

Theȱ variablesȱ inȱ Tableȱ 4.1ȱ haveȱ beenȱ drawnȱ fromȱ theȱ workȱ ofȱ Stewartȱ etȱ alȱ

(1997,ȱ2002).ȱWhileȱNorwegianȱrespondentsȱputȱaȱheavyȱemphasisȱonȱrespectȱforȱtheȱ lawȱ(4)ȱandȱrationalȱactionȱ(5),ȱLatviansȱareȱconcernedȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱbeȱpunishedȱforȱ makingȱ theȱ wrongȱ decisionsȱ (1),ȱ andȱ theyȱ tendȱ toȱ emphasizeȱ theȱ needȱ toȱ maintainȱ longȬtermȱrelationshipsȱwithȱotherȱpeopleȱtoȱgetȱalongȱ(5).ȱȱ

HaraldȱKohtȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱ

Table 4.1. Relevant concerns in deciding cases in elderly care. Average scores of respondents in each country. Rankedaccordingtostagesofethicalreasoning.Nу101.

Norway Latvia Lithuania p 1. I can be punished for making the wrong decision. 39.4 61.1 39.7 ** 2. I have to maintain good relations with other people involved in this case. 60.3 65.7 66,6 3. I have to maintain long-term relationships with other people to get along. 49.3 71.9 64.0 ** 4. Respect for the authority of law is part of one’s obligation to society. 81.5 66.4 77,4 ** 5 (P). My plan of action needs to be rational and strive for the equal treatment of all. 82.6 67.7 81,8 ** Notes: Scores higher than 50 indicate support or agreement with the statement. Scores below 50 indicate disagreement. Varying n for each statement. Kruskal-Wallis Multiple Sample Test for comparing distributions across groups: ** Answers are significantly different at the p<0,01 level Source: Kjørstad & Tufte, 2014, table 5.3

Overall,ȱtheȱNorwegianȱcaseȬworkersȱseemȱsoȱruleȬorientedȱthatȱtheyȱmayȱapȬ pearȱoverlyȱrigidȱinȱtheirȱinterpretationȱofȱclientȱrightsȱandȱneeds,ȱandȱinȱthatȱsenseȱ beȱtypicalȱofȱtheȱ“dysfunctionsȱofȱbureaucracy”ȱoutlinedȱbyȱRobertȱK.ȱMerton.ȱ

However,ȱ theȱ fearȱ ofȱ reprisalsȱ expressedȱ byȱ Latvianȱ caseȱ workersȱ mayȱ beȱ aȱ signȱofȱpreȬWeberianȱpublicȱadministration,ȱbutȱthisȱphenomenonȱisȱnotȱunknownȱtoȱ modernȱ managementȱ theoristsȱ suchȱ asȱ Kathleenȱ D.ȱ Ryanȱ andȱ Danielȱ K.ȱ Oestreichȱ

(1998).ȱ

Further analysis

ThisȱpreliminaryȱsketchȱwillȱbeȱexpandedȱthroughȱtheȱreȬexaminationȱofȱreportsȱandȱ dataȱfromȱrecentȱresearchȱonȱLatvianȱandȱNorwegianȱpublicȱadministration.ȱ

ChallengesȱtoȱtheȱStudyȱofȱModernizationȱofȱPublicȱAdministration

Literature

Åslund,ȱAndersȱ(2002).ȱBuildingȱCapitalism:ȱTheȱTransformationȱofȱtheȱFormerȱSovietȱBloc.ȱCamȬ bridgeȱUniversityȱPress,ȱCambridgeȱUK.ȱ

Burckhardt,ȱJacobȱ(1990).ȱTheȱCivilizationȱofȱtheȱRenaissanceȱinȱItaly.ȱPenguin,ȱLondon.ȱTransȬ latedȱfromȱtheȱGermanȱbyȱS.G.C.ȱMiddlemore.ȱOriginallyȱpublishedȱ1860.ȱ

Grindle,ȱMerileeȱS.ȱ(2012)ȱJobsȱforȱtheȱBoys:ȱPatronageȱandȱtheȱStateȱinȱComparativeȱPerspective,ȱ HarvardȱUniversityȱPress,ȱCambridge,ȱMAȱ

Kjørstad,ȱMonica,ȱandȱGeirȱC.ȱTufte,ȱeds.ȱ(2014).ȱChallengesȱfromȱanȱAgingȱPopulation,ȱZin¬tne,ȱ Riga.ȱ

Koht,ȱHaraldȱ(2003).ȱNewȱPublicȱManagementȱinȱLatvia:ȱVariationsȱinȱOpennessȱtoȱCustomerȱ RequestsȱinȱPublicȱAgencies.ȱJournalȱofȱBalticȱStudiesȱ34,ȱ180Ȭ196.ȱ

Kuhn,ȱThomasȱL.ȱȱ(1962).ȱTheȱStructureȱofȱScientificȱRevolutions.ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress,ȱ Chicagoȱ

Merton,ȱRobertȱK.ȱ(1940).ȱBureaucraticȱstructureȱandȱpersonality.ȱSocialȱForcesȱ18,ȱ560Ȭ8.ȱȱ

Mykland,ȱKnutȱ(1977)ȱGjennomȱnødsårȱogȱkrigȱ1648Ȭ1720.ȱCappelen,ȱOsloȱ

Pollitt,ȱChristopher,ȱandȱGeertȱBouckhaertȱ(2000).ȱPublicȱManagementȱReform.ȱOxfordȱUniverȬ sityȱPress,ȱOxfordȱUK.ȱ

Ryan,ȱKathleenȱD.,ȱandȱDanielȱK.ȱOestreichȱ(1998).ȱDrivingȱFearȱOutȱofȱtheȱWorkplace:ȱCreatingȱ theȱHighȬTrust,ȱHighȬPerformanceȱOrganization.ȱJosseyȬBass:ȱSanȱFrancisco.ȱ

Solzhenitsyn,ȱAleksandrȱ(1963/1972)ȱTilȱsakensȱbesteȱ(OriginallyȱpublishedȱinȱRussianȱasȱɮˏˮȱ ˔˓ˏ˪˄˩ȱʹʺˏʲȱ[Dlzaȱpol’zyȱdela]ȱinȱtheȱjournalȱNovyȱMirȱinȱ1963).ȱTranslatedȱfromȱtheȱ RussianȱbyȱIvarȱMagnusȱRavnum,ȱTidenȱnorskȱforlag,ȱOslo.ȱ

Stewart,ȱDebraȱW.,ȱNormanȱSprinthall,ȱandȱRenataȱSiemienskaȱ(1997).ȱEthicalȱreasoningȱinȱaȱ timeȱofȱrevolution:ȱaȱstudyȱofȱlocalȱofficialsȱinȱPoland.ȱPublicȱAdministrationȱReviewȱ 57,ȱ445Ȭ453.ȱ

Stewart,ȱ Debraȱ W.,ȱ Normanȱ Sprinthall,ȱ andȱ Jackieȱ D.ȱ Kemȱ (2002).ȱ Moralȱ reasoningȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱofȱreform:ȱaȱstudyȱofȱRussianȱofficials.ȱPublicȱAdministrationȱReviewȱ62,ȱ282Ȭ 294.

Chapter 5

Freedom of Expression and the Role of the Media – a European Perspective

KristinȱSkareȱOrgeret1ȱ

ThisȱarticleȱfocusesȱonȱissuesȱofȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱinȱEuropeanȱmediaȱandȱasȬ pectsȱofȱfreedomȱofȱspeech.ȱItȱstartsȱwithȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱwhatȱEuropeȱis,ȱbeforeȱpreȬ sentingȱNorway’sȱsomewhatȱparticularȱrelationshipȱtoȱtheȱEU.ȱToȱillustrateȱtheȱdifȬ ferencesȱandȱsimilaritiesȱbetweenȱEuropeanȱcountries,ȱaȱquickȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱmediaȱ historyȱofȱLatviaȱandȱNorwayȱisȱpresented.ȱTheȱmainȱcategoriesȱofȱEuropeanȱmediaȱ systemsȱareȱofferedȱasȱpartȱofȱaȱdiscussionȱofȱaȱpossibleȱhomogenizationȱofȱtheȱtradiȬ tionalȱmediaȱmodels.ȱTheȱrightȱtoȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱandȱtheȱcrisisȱinȱEuropeȱareȱ discussed,ȱandȱsoȱisȱtheȱargumentȱthatȱaȱcrisisȱofȱjournalismȱisȱrapidlyȱthreateningȱtoȱ becomeȱaȱseriousȱproblemȱforȱdemocracyȱinȱEurope.ȱToday,ȱweȱgainȱaccessȱtoȱinforȬ mationȱandȱknowledgeȱthatȱjustȱsomeȱyearsȱagoȱwereȱbeyondȱourȱimagination,ȱandȱ weȱcanȱmakeȱourȱvoicesȱheardȱinȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱways.ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱpossibilitiesȱandȱ challengesȱtoȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱinȱEuropeȱtodayȱareȱdeliberated,ȱandȱtheȱdiscusȬ sionȱhasȱaȱdirectȱbearingȱonȱdebatesȱaboutȱlimitsȱtoȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱandȱjournalȬ isticȱpractices.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱProfessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱJournalismȱandȱMediaȱStudies,ȱOsloȱandȱAkershusȱUniversityȱ Collegeȱ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

Which Europe?

BeforeȱintroducingȱtheȱdiscussionȱonȱintegrationȱandȱdiversityȱinȱEuropeanȱmedia,ȱaȱ smallȱbutȱimportantȱquestionȱisȱrequired:ȱWhatȱisȱEurope?ȱThereȱisȱofȱcourseȱnoȱsimȬ pleȱanswerȱtoȱtheȱquestion.ȱEuropeȱisȱsuchȱaȱdiverseȱconceptȱthatȱitȱisȱalmostȱeasierȱtoȱ sayȱwhatȱEuropeȱisȱnotȱthanȱwhatȱEuropeȱis.ȱEvenȱtheȱmoreȱspecificȱquestionȱwhereȱ isȱEurope?ȱisȱsomewhatȱcomplicatedȱtoȱanswer.ȱȱHistorically,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱfirstȱmapsȱ presentingȱEuropeȱasȱaȱseparateȱentityȱisȱEuropaȱReginaȱ–ȱQueenȱEurope.ȱ

Figure5.1.EuropaRegina

Thisȱ depictionȱ ofȱ theȱ Europeanȱ continentȱ asȱ aȱ queenȱ wasȱ introducedȱ duringȱ theȱ earlyȱ Modernȱ Age.ȱ Duringȱ thisȱ periodȱ mapsȱ typicallyȱ adheredȱ toȱ JerusalemȬ centredȱmapsȱdepictingȱEurope,ȱAsia,ȱandȱAfricaȱtogetherȱandȱseparateȱmapsȱofȱEuȬ ropeȱwereȱextremelyȱrare.ȱȱInȱEuropaȱRegina,ȱEuropeȱisȱshownȱstandingȱuprightȱwithȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

theȱIberianȱPeninsulaȱformingȱtheȱqueen’sȱcrownedȱheadȱandȱBohemiaȱherȱheart.ȱOnȬ lyȱtheȱSouthernȱtipȱofȱSwedenȱisȱshownȱasȱSkandia.ȱNorwayȱisȱnotȱincludedȱinȱthisȱ depictionȱofȱEurope.ȱSomeȱwouldȱargueȱthatȱnotȱmuchȱhasȱchangedȱatȱthatȱpoint,ȱasȱ today—talkingȱ aboutȱ Europe—manyȱ thinkȱ ofȱ theȱ Europeanȱ Union,ȱ EUȱ withȱ itsȱ 28ȱ countriesȱwhereȱNorwayȱisȱnotȱincluded.ȱTheȱcountryȱisȱnotȱanȱofficialȱmemberȱofȱtheȱ

EuropeanȱUnionȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtwoȱEuropeanȱreferenda.ȱInȱ1972,ȱaȱmajorityȱofȱ53.5%ȱ

NorwegiansȱsaidȱnoȱtoȱjoiningȱtheȱthenȱEuropeanȱEconomicȱCommunityȱandȱinȱ1994,ȱ

52.2%ȱofȱtheȱvotersȱrejectedȱEUȱmembership.ȱNevertheless,ȱNorwayȱisȱaȱmemberȱofȱ theȱ internalȱ marketȱ throughȱ theȱ EEAȱ agreement.ȱ Theȱ EEAȱ agreementȱ enteredȱ intoȱ forceȱonȱ1ȱJanuaryȱ1994ȱandȱprovidesȱforȱtheȱinclusionȱofȱtheȱEUȱlegislationȱcoveringȱ theȱ fourȱ freedoms:ȱ theȱ freeȱ movementȱ ofȱ goods,ȱ services,ȱ persons,ȱ andȱ capitalȱ –ȱ throughoutȱtheȱpresentȱ31ȱEEAȱstatesȱ–ȱIceland,ȱLiechtenstein,ȱandȱNorwayȱinȱaddiȬ tionȱ toȱ theȱ EUȱ memberȱ states.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ theȱ Agreementȱ ensuresȱ cooperationȱ inȱ otherȱ centralȱ areasȱ suchȱ asȱ researchȱ andȱ development,ȱ education,ȱ socialȱ policy,ȱ theȱ environment,ȱconsumerȱprotection,ȱtourism,ȱandȱculture.ȱȱ

Theȱ EEAȱ agreementȱ grantsȱ Norwayȱ accessȱ toȱ theȱ EUȇsȱ singleȱ market,ȱ whileȱ

NorwayȱisȱrequiredȱtoȱadoptȱmostȱEUȱlegislationȱrelatedȱtoȱthatȱmarket.ȱAnȱevaluaȬ tionȱfromȱ2012ȱshowedȱthatȱNorwayȱhasȱincorporatedȱapproximatelyȱthreeȬquartersȱ ofȱallȱEUȱlegislativeȱactsȱintoȱNorwegianȱlegislation,ȱandȱhasȱimplementedȱthemȱmoreȱ effectivelyȱthanȱmanyȱofȱtheȱEUȱmemberȱstates.ȱȱSimultaneously,ȱNorwayȱisȱnotȱinȬ volvedȱinȱtheȱdecisionȬmakingȱprocessesȱtoȱanyȱsignificantȱextentȱ(NOUȱ2012).ȱAddiȬ tionallyȱ Norwayȱ providesȱ 3ȱ billionȱ NOKȱ (EURȱ 347ȱ million)ȱ inȱ EUȱ grantsȱ aȱ yearȱ toȱ reduceȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱdisparitiesȱandȱpromoteȱcooperationȱinȱEurope.ȱThroughȱ theȱ EEAȱ agreement,ȱ Norwayȱ paysȱ aȱ higherȱ amountȱ perȱ inhabitantȱ thanȱ countriesȱ suchȱasȱFranceȱandȱItalyȱ(http://www.euȬnorway.org).ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱ2012ȱevaluaȬ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

ȱ tionȱofȱNorway’sȱrelationshipȱtoȱtheȱEU,ȱNorwayȱisȱbothȱoutsideȱandȱinsideȱtheȱEUȱ–ȱ simultaneouslyȱ(NOUȱ2012:3).ȱ

ThereȱisȱnoȱdoubtȱthatȱEUȱhasȱincreasedȱitsȱpowerȱandȱimportanceȱbothȱinȱitsȱ relationȱtoȱNorway,ȱwithinȱtheȱregionȱandȱinternationallyȱinȱtheȱlastȱyears.ȱHoweverȱ

Europeȱ isȱmoreȱ thanȱ EU.ȱ Fromȱaȱ mediaȱ perspectiveȱ itȱ isȱ interestingȱ toȱ seeȱ thatȱ theȱ

EBU,ȱtheȱEuropeanȱBroadcastingȱUnion,ȱhasȱmembersȱinȱasȱmanyȱasȱ56ȱcountries.ȱOfȱ these,ȱ54ȱcountriesȱhaveȱparticipatedȱinȱtheȱEurovisionȱsongȱcontestȱsinceȱitȱwasȱinitiȬ atedȱinȱ1956.ȱHence,ȱseveralȱcountriesȱgeographicallyȱoutsideȱtheȱboundariesȱofȱEuȬ ropeȱhaveȱcompeted,ȱamongȱthemȱIsrael,ȱCyprus,ȱArmeniaȱandȱMorocco.ȱAndȱsomeȱ transcontinentalȱcountries,ȱwithȱonlyȱpartȱofȱtheirȱterritoryȱinȱEuropeȱhaveȱparticipatȬ ed,ȱsuchȱasȱTurkey,ȱRussia,ȱGeorgia,ȱandȱAzerbaijan.ȱȱ

Thus,ȱthereȱisȱnoȱsingleȱdefinitionȱofȱwhatȱEuropeȱis,ȱandȱevenȱifȱweȱagreeȱonȱaȱ quiteȱ minimumȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ concept,ȱ includingȱ theȱ EUȱ countriesȱ andȱ theȱ EFTAȱ statesȱNorway,ȱIceland,ȱLiechtenstein,ȱandȱSwitzerland2,ȱweȱfindȱanȱareaȱwithȱlargeȱ diversitiesȱandȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱcultures,ȱlanguagesȱandȱtraditions.ȱȱ

Languages,ȱ cultures,ȱ traditions,ȱ geopolitics,ȱ history,ȱ economy,ȱ development,ȱ politicalȱsystemsȱ–ȱallȱtheseȱelementsȱaffectȱtheȱrespectiveȱcountriesȱmediaȱsystems.ȱ

Theȱdifferencesȱinȱmediaȱsystemsȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱforeȱthroughȱaȱrangeȱofȱdifferentȱmediaȱ historiesȱandȱregulationȱsystemsȱ–ȱthroughȱtheȱmediaȱindustryȱandȱitsȱtotalȱoutputȱ–ȱ andȱtheȱdemandȱsideȱ–ȱtheȱpublicsȱorȱtheȱconsumersȱandȱtheirȱuseȱandȱpurchaseȱofȱ mediaȱproductsȱandȱservices.ȱȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

2ȱSwitzerlandȱisȱnotȱpartȱofȱtheȱEEAȱAgreement,ȱbutȱhasȱaȱbilateralȱagreementȱwithȱtheȱEU.ȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

Media Systems in Europe

Freedomȱofȱinformationȱandȱtheȱrightȱofȱaccessȱtoȱofficialȱinformationȱhaveȱincreasedȱ theirȱimportanceȱinȱrecentȱyears,ȱandȱareȱnowȱconsideredȱpartsȱofȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfreeȬ domȱofȱexpression.ȱTheȱrightȱofȱaccessȱtoȱofficialȱinformationȱisȱincludedȱinȱtheȱCharȬ terȱofȱFundamentalȱRightsȱofȱtheȱEuropeanȱUnion,ȱadoptedȱinȱ2000,ȱandȱrulesȱreguȬ latingȱ accessȱ toȱ officialȱ informationȱ wereȱ setȱ outȱ inȱ 2001ȱ (Jørgensenȱ 2013:ȱ 95).ȱ Theȱ rulesȱapplyȱtoȱdocumentsȱheldȱbyȱEuropeanȱUnionȱinstitutions,ȱincludingȱdocumentsȱ submittedȱtoȱtheȱUnionȱbyȱMemberȱStates.ȱHowever,ȱEUȱhasȱnoȱpowerȱtoȱsetȱasideȱ nationalȱlegislationȱonȱaccessȱtoȱinformation,ȱwhileȱaccessȱtoȱEUȱdocumentsȱthatȱareȱ soughtȱviaȱaȱnationalȱauthorityȱinȱaȱMemberȱStateȱorȱotherȱthirdȱcountryȱisȱregulatedȱ byȱnationalȱlegislationȱinȱtheȱcountryȱinȱquestion.ȱThereȱareȱsignificantȱdifferencesȱinȱ howȱtheȱlawsȱprovidingȱforȱfreedomȱofȱinformationȱandȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱareȱ constructedȱandȱtheȱcontextȱofȱmediaȱsystemsȱwithinȱwhichȱtheyȱoperate.ȱ

Forȱ theȱ sakeȱ ofȱ illustratingȱ differencesȱ andȱ similaritiesȱ betweenȱ Europeanȱ countries,ȱtheȱfollowingȱsectionȱtakesȱaȱquickȱlookȱatȱtheȱmediaȱhistoryȱofȱLatviaȱandȱ

Norway.ȱLatviaȱwasȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱRussianȱEmpireȱuntilȱ1918,ȱthenȱindependentȱforȱ20ȱ years,ȱ beforeȱ itȱ wasȱ occupiedȱ byȱ Naziȱ andȱ Sovietȱ forcesȱ duringȱ theȱ Secondȱ Worldȱ

Warȱ andȱ becameȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ Sovietȱ Unionȱ fromȱ 1940Ȭ1991.ȱ Latviaȱ isȱ aȱ EUȱ memberȱ sinceȱ2004.ȱNorwayȱis,ȱasȱshownȱabove,ȱoutsideȱtheȱUnion.ȱNorway’sȱhistoryȱisȱalsoȱ markedȱbyȱdominationȱbyȱmoreȱpowerfulȱneighbours.ȱTheȱlastȱunionȱwithȱSwedenȱ wasȱdissolvedȱinȱ1905,ȱandȱsomeȱhistoriansȱpointȱatȱtheȱfactȱthatȱ434ȱyearsȱofȱunionȱ withȱDenmarkȱandȱ91ȱyearsȱwithȱSwedenȱgaveȱaȱbadȱringȱtoȱtheȱconceptȱofȱunionȱinȱ

Norway,ȱaȱscepticismȱthatȱwasȱimportantȱinȱtheȱoppositionȱtoȱNorwegianȱmemberȬ shipȱinȱtheȱEuropeanȱUnionȱatȱtheȱreferendaȱinȱ1972ȱandȱ1994ȱ(Strandȱ2014).ȱ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

TheȱBalticȱStatesȱandȱScandinaviaȱhaveȱalsoȱsharedȱmanyȱeventsȱandȱsituationsȱ overȱtheȱcenturies,ȱandȱLatviaȱandȱNorwayȱinterestinglyȱhaveȱsomeȱcommonȱtraitsȱinȱ termsȱ ofȱ mediaȱ history.ȱ Bothȱ Latviansȱ andȱ Norwegiansȱ haveȱ longȱ beenȱ unitedȱ throughȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱnewspaperȱreading,ȱandȱbothȱcountriesȱhaveȱaȱstrongȱprintȱ mediaȱhistory.ȱȱ

InȱScandinavia,ȱtheȱgrowthȱofȱanȱindependentȱpeasantryȱtogetherȱwithȱaȱhighȱ proportionȱofȱliteracyȱthatȱfollowedȱtheȱProtestantȱreformationȱwasȱaȱparticularlyȱimȬ portantȱsocietalȱdevelopmentȱ(HallinȱandȱManciniȱ2004:ȱ186Ȭ187).ȱThisȱwasȱalsoȱtrueȱ inȱ Latvia,ȱ especiallyȱ afterȱ theȱ firstȱ translationȱ ofȱ theȱ bibleȱ intoȱ Latvianȱ inȱ 1695ȱ (DiȬ mantsȱ2008).ȱHenceȱinȱbothȱLatviaȱandȱNorway,ȱnewspapersȱplayedȱanȱincreasinglyȱ importantȱroleȱinȱshapingȱpublicȱopinionȱandȱinȱensuringȱnationalȱandȱsocialȱemanȬ cipationȱtowardsȱtheȱendȱofȱ18thȱcentury.ȱȱ

Mediaȱ scholarsȱ Hallinȱ &ȱ Manciniȱ (2004)ȱ introducedȱ theirȱ triadicȱ paradigmȱ throughȱwhichȱtheyȱanalyseȱtheȱmediaȱsystemȱofȱtheȱEuropeanȱcountries.ȱTheȱNordicȱ countriesȱandȱseveralȱCentralȱEuropeanȱCountriesȱareȱdefinedȱinȱtermsȱofȱaȱ’demoȬ craticȱcorporatistȱmodel’ȱwithȱaȱhighȱdegreeȱofȱpoliticalȱparallelism,ȱwhereȱaȱstrongȱ tendencyȱ forȱ mediaȱ toȱ expressȱ partisanȱ andȱ otherȱ socialȱ divisionsȱ cohabitsȱ withȱ aȱ stronglyȱdevelopedȱmassȬcirculationȱpress.ȱThisȱhighȱlevelȱofȱpoliticalȱparallelismȱinȱ theȱ mediaȱ coexistsȱ withȱ aȱ highȱ levelȱ ofȱ journalisticȱ professionalization,ȱ whichȱ inȬ cludesȱ aȱ highȱ degreeȱ ofȱ consensusȱ onȱ professionalȱ standards,ȱ aȱ commitmentȱ toȱ aȱ commonȱ publicȱ interest,ȱ andȱ aȱ highȱ levelȱ ofȱ autonomyȱ fromȱ otherȱ socialȱ powers.ȱ

SinceȱtheȱbirthȱofȱmodernȱjournalismȱinȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱ17thȱcentury,ȱsomeȱstandardȬ izedȱ valuesȱ haveȱ becomeȱ coreȱ toȱ theȱ professionȱ ofȱ journalismȱ (seeȱ e.g.ȱ Høyerȱ andȱ

Laukȱ2003).ȱSuchȱprofessionalȱethicsȱareȱnotȱstatic,ȱbutȱdoȱasȱStephenȱA.ȱJȱWardȱ(2013)ȱ emphasizes,ȱconsistȱofȱdynamicȱframeworksȱofȱprinciplesȱandȱvalues.ȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

HallinȱandȱManciniȱsuspectȱtheȱDemocraticȱCorporatistȱmodelȱtoȱhaveȱparticuȬ larlyȱstrongȱrelevanceȱforȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱthoseȱpartsȱofȱEasternȱandȱCentralȱEuropeȱ thatȱshareȱmuchȱofȱtheȱsameȱhistoricalȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱScandinavianȱcountries,ȱ likeȱtheȱBalticȱstatesȱ(2004:ȱ305).ȱAinarsȱDimantsȱagrees,ȱandȱsaysȱthatȱtheȱDemocraticȱ

CorporatistȱModelȱofȱmediaȱsystemsȱalsoȱcorrespondsȱwellȱtoȱLatvianȱmediaȱdevelȬ opmentȱ(2008:ȱ37).ȱ

Afterȱ theȱ occupationȱ ofȱ Latviaȱ inȱ 1940ȱ manyȱ journalistsȱ wereȱ killedȱ orȱ reȬ pressed,ȱandȱtheȱSovietȱpressȬsystemȱ wasȱ fullyȱ imposed.ȱ Theȱ periodȱ ofȱ Perestroikaȱ followedȱbyȱindependenceȱhasȱbeenȱcharacterisedȱasȱaȱ‘goldenȱperiod’ȱforȱmediaȱinȱ

Latvia.ȱRadioȱLatviaȱservedȱasȱaȱpropagandaȱtoolȱunderȱcommunism,ȱbutȱhadȱitsȱgloȬ riousȱdaysȱinȱtheȱliberationȱperiodȱofȱtheȱlateȱ1980sȱandȱearlyȱ1990s.ȱInȱtheȱearlyȱ1990sȱ theȱpressȱsystemȱwasȱrestructured,ȱandȱtheȱmediaȱhadȱquicklyȱtoȱlearnȱtoȱexistȱinȱaȱ democraticȱ systemȱ andȱ notȱ leastȱ inȱ aȱ marketȱ economy.ȱ Scholarsȱ describeȱ howȱ theȱ

LatvianȱauthoritarianȱheritageȱatȱtimesȱmayȱfunctionȱasȱanȱobstacleȱforȱreȬintegrationȱ inȱtheȱDemocraticȱCorporatistȱModelȱ(Dimantsȱ2008:38).ȱ

Contemporaryȱ Norwegianȱ mediaȱ –ȱ printȱ andȱ online,ȱ newspapers,ȱ tv,ȱ radioȱ andȱtheȱInternetȱ–ȱareȱallȱinȱvaryingȱdegreesȱshapedȱbyȱtheȱforcesȱofȱtheȱfreeȱmarketȱ butȱareȱcontrolled,ȱregulatedȱandȱsupervisedȱbyȱstateȱintervention.ȱThisȱisȱaȱreflectionȱ ofȱtheȱmixedȱeconomiesȱofȱallȱtheȱNordicȱcountries,ȱwithȱtheirȱblendingȱofȱpublicȱandȱ privateȱsectors.ȱThisȱisȱwhatȱCroteauȱandȱHoynesȱinȱtheirȱparadigmȱentitlesȱaȱ‘publicȱ sphereȱmodel’,ȱwhereasȱtheȱtraditionalȱUSȱmodelȱisȱnamedȱaȱ’marketȱmodel’.ȱTodayȱ theȱmediaȱscenesȱinȱtheȱNordicȱcountriesȱallȱhaveȱelementsȱofȱbothȱmodels:ȱWeȱcanȱ ratherȱtalkȱofȱaȱhybridȱmediaȱmodel,ȱwhereȱaȱpublicȱsphereȱmodelȱhasȱincorporatedȱ importantȱ marketȱ modelȱ elements.ȱ Importantly,ȱ theȱ conditionsȱ forȱ freedomȱ ofȱ exȬ pressionȱ inȱ Northernȱ Europeȱ areȱ changing.ȱ Arneȱ Krumsvikȱ describesȱ howȱ aȱ moveȱ towardsȱaȱLiberalȱmodelȱdrivenȱbyȱdigitizationȱandȱcommercialisationȱofȱnewsȱmeȬ 87

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

ȱ dia,ȱprofessionalizationȱofȱjournalism,ȱandȱEuropeanȱtradeȱregulationsȱmayȱchallengeȱ theȱlegitimacyȱofȱstateȱinterventionȱinȱtheȱmediaȱmarketsȱforȱtheȱpurposeȱofȱfacilitatȬ ingȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱ(2013:ȱ61).ȱ

HallinȱandȱManciniȱanalysedȱaȱnumberȱofȱMediterraneanȱcountriesȱthroughȱaȱ

‘polarizedȱpluralistȱmodel’,ȱandȱtheȱUKȱandȱIrelandȱwereȱdefinedȱbyȱaȱ‘liberalȱmodel’ȱ

(2004).ȱCurrentlyȱthereȱareȱreasonsȱtoȱargueȱthatȱthereȱareȱanȱincreasingȱtendencyȱtoȱ uniteȱorȱintegrateȱtheȱmediaȱsystems,ȱatȱleastȱacrossȱEurope.ȱWeȱareȱmovingȱtowardsȱ aȱhomogenizationȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱmediaȱmodels.ȱTheȱdrivingȱforcesȱinȱthisȱprocessȱ areȱdigitizationȱandȱglobalisation,ȱbutȱalsoȱinternalȱforcesȱinȱEurope,ȱsuchȱasȱincreasȬ ingȱcommercialisationȱandȱaȱpoliticalȱshiftȱfromȱaȱcollectivistȱtoȱaȱmoreȱindividualisticȱ politicalȱ culture.ȱ Furthermoreȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ publicȱ serviceȱ broadcastingȱ hasȱ declinedȱ significantlyȱinȱmostȱEuropeanȱcountriesȱcomparedȱtoȱtheȱsituationȱ10Ȭ15ȱyearsȱago.ȱȱ

MostȱnewsȱmediaȱinȱEurope,ȱandȱworldwide,ȱareȱstillȱnational,ȱbutȱjournalismȱ isȱincreasinglyȱchallengedȱbyȱoverarchingȱtransnationalȱorȱglobalȱprocessesȱsuchȱasȱ ownership,ȱ surveillance,ȱ andȱ technology,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ climateȱ change,ȱ conflicts,ȱ andȱ fiȬ nancialȱcrises.ȱTheȱglobalȱchallengesȱtoȱjournalismȱandȱtoȱmediaȱmarketsȱindicateȱthatȱ theȱ actorsȱ haveȱ toȱ findȱ newȱ solutionsȱ toȱ theȱ currentȱ crises—someȱ ofȱ theseȱ willȱ beȱ transnationalȱ ratherȱ thanȱ national.ȱ Theȱ dimensionȱ ofȱ internationalȱ actorsȱ andȱ crossȱ ownershipȱ isȱ alsoȱ significant:ȱ Anȱ exampleȱ hereȱ mightȱ beȱ howȱ Schibstedȱ Balticsȱ boughtȱ100%ȱofȱtheȱsharesȱinȱLatvia’sȱTVNET.lv.ȱinȱMarchȱ2011,ȱtheȱsecondȱbiggestȱ internetȱnewsȱsiteȱinȱLatvia.ȱTheȱinvestmentȱisȱSchibsted‘sȱfirstȱpresenceȱinȱLatviaȱandȱ anȱ importantȱ stepȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ strengthenȱ itsȱ presenceȱ inȱ Balticȱ internetȱ marketȱ

(SalovaaraȱandȱJuzefovicsȱ2011).ȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

The right to freedom of speech and expression

TheȱUniversalȱHumanȱRights,ȱandȱnotȱleastȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱandȱexȬ pressionȱhaveȱbecomeȱmoreȱaccentuated,ȱbothȱnationallyȱandȱinternationallyȱinȱtheȱ lastȱyears.ȱThisȱisȱreflectedȱwithinȱEuropeanȱorganisationsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱCouncilȱofȱEuȬ rope,ȱwhichȱconsistsȱofȱ47ȱmemberȱstatesȱpromotingȱcooperationȱbetweenȱallȱcounȬ triesȱofȱEuropeȱinȱtheȱareasȱofȱhumanȱrightsȱandȱdemocraticȱdevelopment.ȱTheȱCounȬ cilȱhasȱanȱinterȬgovernmentalȱSteeringȱCommitteeȱonȱMediaȱandȱInformationȱSocietyȱ

(CDMSI),ȱwhichȱisȱdraftingȱproposalsȱforȱtheȱenforcementȱofȱstates’ȱobligationȱtoȱproȬ tectȱtheȱprincipleȱofȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱ andȱtheȱsafetyȱofȱjournalists.ȱSafetyȱisȱaȱ crossȬcuttingȱissue.ȱItȱisȱrelevantȱtoȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱbecauseȱitȱisȱaȱpreconditionȱ forȱjournalistsȱtoȱworkȱwithoutȱanxietyȱandȱfear.ȱȱ

Reportersȱ withoutȱ Bordersȱ (RWB)’sȱ yearlyȱ pressȱ freedomȱ indexȱ providesȱ aȱ goodȱtoolȱforȱtheȱstudyȱofȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱdiversityȱinȱtheȱEuropeanȱmediaȱsphere.ȱEveȬ ryȱyearȱtheȱRWBȱmonitorȱattacksȱonȱfreedomȱofȱinformationȱinȱ150ȱcountriesȱinternaȬ tionally.ȱ Manyȱ criteriaȱ areȱ considered,ȱ rangingȱ fromȱ legislationȱ toȱ violenceȱ againstȱ journalists.ȱTheȱnumbersȱfromȱ2012ȱ showȱ thatȱ sixteenȱ EUȱ membersȱ areȱ stillȱ withinȱ theȱtopȱ30ȱbestȱperformingȱcountriesȱ(withȱNorwayȱandȱFinlandȱonȱtop),ȱbutȱtheyȱalsoȱ indicateȱthatȱtheȱEuropeanȱmodelȱisȱdecaying.ȱTheȱproblemsȱconnectedȱtoȱbadȱlegislaȬ tionȱseenȱinȱ2011ȱcontinued,ȱespeciallyȱinȱItalyȱ(numberȱ57ȱofȱtheȱ150,ȱ+4ȱsinceȱ2011),ȱ whereȱdefamationȱhasȱyetȱtoȱbeȱdecriminalized,ȱandȱstateȱagenciesȱmakeȱdangerousȱ useȱofȱbanȱlaws.ȱHungaryȱ(56th,ȱȬ16)ȱisȱstillȱpayingȱtheȱpriceȱofȱitsȱrepressiveȱlegislaȬ tiveȱ reforms,ȱ whichȱ hadȱ aȱ majorȱ impactȱ onȱ theȱ wayȱ journalistsȱ work.ȱ Butȱ Greece’sȱ dramaticȱ fallȱ (84th,ȱȬ14)ȱ isȱ evenȱ moreȱ disturbing.ȱ Theȱ socialȱ andȱ professionalȱ enviȬ ronmentȱ isȱ disastrousȱ forȱ itsȱ journalists,ȱ whoȱ areȱ exposedȱ toȱ publicȱ condemnationȱ andȱviolenceȱfromȱbothȱextremistȱgroupsȱandȱtheȱpolice.ȱ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

TheȱRWBȱlistȱdisplaysȱexamplesȱofȱdemocraciesȱthatȱstallȱorȱgoȱintoȱreverse.ȱ

Lithuania,ȱ Latvia,ȱ andȱ Spainȱ alsoȱ experiencedȱ declineȱ inȱ theirȱ pressȱ freedomȱ fromȱ

2011ȱtoȱ2012.ȱAlsoȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱWashingtonȱD.CȱbasedȱFreedomȱHouse’sȱGlobalȱ

Pressȱ Freedomȱ Rankingsȱ (2013),ȱ Norwayȱ andȱ Swedenȱ haveȱ theȱ freestȱ mediaȱ inȱ theȱ world,ȱwhereasȱLatvia’sȱscoreȱhasȱfallenȱtoȱ28,ȱonlyȱthreeȱpointsȱawayȱfromȱtheȱPartlyȱ

Freeȱcategory.ȱInȱtheȱwordsȱofȱJenniferȱDunhamȱandȱZselykeȱCsakyȱatȱtheȱFreedomȱ

House,ȱcommentingȱonȱtheȱsituationȱofȱLatvia:ȱ

”[D]ecliningȱadvertisingȱrevenuesȱsinceȱ2008ȱhaveȱcausedȱmediaȱoutlets’ȱbudgetsȱtoȱ

shrink,ȱresultingȱinȱtabloidizationȱandȱtheȱuseȱofȱrecycledȱcontent.ȱForcedȱtoȱsearchȱforȱ

newȱsourcesȱofȱincome,ȱsomeȱoutletsȱhaveȱengagedȱinȱtheȱquestionableȱpracticeȱofȱ“hidȬ

denȱadvertising”ȱinȱwhichȱpaidȱcontentȱisȱimproperlyȱdisguisedȱasȱnews.ȱPoliticalȱinȬ

terferenceȱinȱeditorialȱpoliciesȱhasȱraisedȱconcerns,ȱandȱtheȱcountryȱisȱbattlingȱaȱgrowȬ

ingȱ trendȱ ofȱ violenceȱ againstȱ journalists.ȱ Theȱ 2010ȱ murderȱ ofȱ newspaperȱ ownerȱ

Grigorijsȱ Nemcovsȱremainsȱ unsolved,ȱ andȱ lastȱ yearȱ anotherȱ journalistȱ reportingȱ onȱ

corruptionȱandȱorganizedȱcrimeȱwasȱbadlyȱbeatenȱandȱshotȱat”ȱ(DunhamȱandȱCsakyȱ

2013).ȱ

TheȱauthorsȱfurtherȱdescribeȱhowȱtheȱEuropeanȱeconomicȱcrisisȱcoincidedȱwithȱ theȱdeclineȱinȱpressȱfreedomȱinȱtheȱEU,ȱaggravatingȱdeepȬrootedȱproblemsȱacrossȱEuȬ rope’sȱmediaȱenvironmentsȱandȱleadingȱtoȱaȱdeclineȱinȱprintȱmediaȱcirculationȱandȱ diversity,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ aȱ greaterȱ concentrationȱ ofȱ mediaȱ ownership.ȱ Asȱ governmentsȱ andȱmediaȱsectorsȱfeltȱtheȱimpactȱofȱtheȱeconomicȱcrisisȱthatȱbeganȱinȱ2008,ȱtheȱstateȬ runȱandȱprivateȱmediaȱsufferedȱstaffȱandȱsalaryȱcuts,ȱdeclinesȱinȱadvertisingȱrevenue,ȱ andȱevenȱtheȱclosureȱofȱoutletsȱ(DunhamȱandȱCsakyȱ2013).ȱInȱSpainȱforȱinstance,ȱ57ȱ mediaȱoutletsȱhaveȱclosedȱsinceȱ2008,ȱandȱaroundȱoneȬsixthȱofȱtheȱcountry’sȱjournalȬ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

istsȱhaveȱlostȱtheirȱjobsȱ–ȱthoseȱwhoȱremainȱreceiveȱonlyȱhalfȱofȱtheirȱpreȬcrisisȱsalaȬ ries.ȱ

Greekȱmediaȱhaveȱalsoȱenduredȱwidespreadȱstaffȱcutbacksȱandȱsomeȱclosuresȱ ofȱoutlets.ȱJournalistsȱalsoȱfaceȱincreasedȱlegalȱandȱphysicalȱharassmentȱandȱpressureȱ fromȱ ownersȱ orȱ politiciansȱ toȱ toeȱ aȱ certainȱ editorialȱ line.ȱ Theseȱ factorsȱ damageȱ theȱ media’sȱ abilityȱ toȱ performȱ theirȱ watchdogȱ roleȱ andȱ keepȱ citizensȱ adequatelyȱ inȬ formedȱaboutȱelectionȱcampaigns,ȱausterityȱmeasures,ȱcorruption,ȱandȱotherȱcriticalȱ issues,ȱnotȱleastȱinȱtheseȱtimesȱofȱcrisisȱ(DunhamȱandȱCsakyȱ2013).ȱ

A crisis in European journalism?

Theȱ Europeanȱ radioȱ networkȱ Euranetȱ organisedȱ aȱ conferenceȱ inȱ Brusselsȱ inȱ Marchȱ

2012ȱentitledȱtheȱCrisisȱinȱEuropeanȱJournalism.ȱTheȱconferenceȱdiscussedȱhowȱasȱaȱ resultȱofȱtheȱeconomicȱcrisisȱandȱaȱgrowingȱdissatisfactionȱwithȱEUȱissues,ȱmanyȱmeȬ diaȱoutletsȱhaveȱreducedȱtheirȱpresenceȱinȱBrussels.ȱTheȱdecliningȱnumberȱofȱBrusselsȱ correspondentsȱalsoȱillustratesȱtheȱcrisisȱofȱjournalismȱwithinȱtheȱEuropeanȱcountries,ȱ whichȱaccordingȱtoȱEuranetȱ“eachȱyearȱisȱlessȱexhaustiveȱandȱmoreȱfocusedȱonȱnaȬ tionalȱangles”ȱ(Euranetȱ2012)ȱandȱwhereȱaȱnewsȱstoryȱonlyȱbecomesȱrelevantȱifȱitȱhasȱ someoneȱfromȱyourȱcountryȱinȱitȱ–ȱtheȱ‘homelyȱfilter’ȱasȱitȱisȱoftenȱreferredȱto.ȱFurȬ thermoreȱthereȱareȱincreasingȱtendenciesȱtoȱtabloidization,ȱorȱwhatȱRichardȱSennettȱ

(1977)ȱmanyȱyearsȱagoȱreferredȱtoȱasȱ‘theȱtyrannyȱofȱintimacy’,ȱorȱtoȱ‘infotainment,’ȱ whereȱevenȱseriousȱinformationȱhasȱtoȱbeȱpresentedȱinȱanȱentertainingȱmanner.ȱAsȱaȱ resultȱthereȱisȱaȱwidespreadȱneglectȱofȱbusiness,ȱpolitics,ȱandȱinternationalȱ newsȱinȱ favourȱofȱlessȱseriousȱcontent.ȱȱ

TheȱEuropeanȱmediaȱlandscapeȱisȱchangingȱatȱanȱextraordinaryȱspeed.ȱOwnerȬ shipȱconcentration,ȱclosuresȱofȱnewspapers,ȱreductions,ȱandȱincreasedȱworkloadȱonȱ eachȱ individualȱ journalistȱ correspondȱ withȱ theȱ outpouringȱ ofȱ anȱ unprecedentedȱ 91

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

ȱ amountȱofȱuneditedȱinformationȱonȱtheȱInternet.ȱSomeȱargueȱthatȱaȱcrisisȱofȱjournalȬ ismȱisȱrapidlyȱthreateningȱtoȱbecomeȱaȱseriousȱproblemȱforȱdemocracyȱinȱEurope.3ȱȱ

TheȱtimeȱandȱmoneyȱrequiredȱforȱreportsȱtoȱbeȱinȬdepthȱandȱthoroughlyȱveriȬ fiedȱ haveȱ becomeȱ rareȱ commodities.ȱ Inȱ theȱ newȱ mediaȱ landscapeȱ theȱ investigativeȱ journalistȱwhoȱprovidesȱqualityȱinformationȱmightȱendȱupȱonȱtheȱlistȱofȱendangeredȱ species.ȱWeȱareȱinȱtheȱmiddleȱofȱtimesȱofȱchange,ȱwhereȱmanyȱresearchersȱseeȱaȱfuȬ tureȱmarkedȱbyȱ‘deȬprofessionalization’ȱofȱjournalistsȱ(Waisboardȱ2013).ȱTodayȱanyȬ oneȱwithȱInternetȱaccessȱcanȱbeȱaȱdistributorȱofȱinformationȱtoȱaȱpotentialȱmassȱaudiȬ enceȱ –ȱ soȱ whenȱ ’anybody’ȱ canȱ produceȱ mediaȱ contentȱ whatȱ areȱ thenȱ leftȱ toȱ mediaȱ professionals?ȱȱȱ

Hence,ȱtheȱcrisisȱhasȱalsoȱsparkedȱseriousȱchallengesȱtoȱtheȱjournalisticȱprofesȬ sionȱasȱsuchȱinȱEurope.ȱAsȱthousandsȱ ofȱ jobsȱ haveȱ beenȱ lostȱ andȱ dozensȱ ofȱ outletsȱ haveȱbeenȱshutȱdown,ȱnewsroomsȱareȱdeniedȱofȱsomeȱofȱitsȱmostȱveteranȱandȱtalentȬ edȱprofessionals,ȱandȱthisȱstrikesȱatȱjournalism’sȱmostȱvaluedȱasset:ȱcredibility.ȱ

Toȱrespondȱtoȱtheȱcrisis,ȱEUȱhasȱlaunchedȱitsȱ2020ȱinitiativeȱforȱnewȱgrowthȱinȱ theȱ union.4ȱȱItȱ consistsȱ ofȱ sevenȱ flagshipȱ initiatives.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ oneȱ isȱ entitledȱ digitalȱ agendaȱforȱEurope.ȱTechnologyȱisȱplayingȱaȱpivotalȱroleȱinȱtheȱshapingȱmediaȱhistory.ȱ

Technologyȱisȱarguablyȱtheȱkeyȱdrivingȱforceȱinȱmediaȱmarketizationȱandȱprobablyȱ theȱwayȱforwardȱtoȱescapeȱtheȱcrisis.ȱAlsoȱinȱtheȱEuropeanȱcontextȱweȱneedȱtoȱlearnȱ moreȱfromȱeachȱother,ȱtoȱshareȱknowledgeȱandȱcontextȱaboutȱinnovation,ȱexperiencesȱ ofȱintegrationȱasȱwellȱasȱofȱdiversity.ȱSuchȱexchangeȱisȱcrucialȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱensureȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

3ȱSeeȱe.g.ȱEthicalȱJournalismȱNetworkȱhttp://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/en.ȱ

4ȱa.eu/europe2020/pdf/europe_2020_explained.pdf<.ȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

thatȱglobalisationȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱplaceȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱknowledgeȱabout,ȱandȱreflecȬ tionsȱonȱdifferentȱsocietiesȱandȱcultures.ȱ

AtȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱweȱseeȱhowȱadvancesȱinȱtechnologyȱandȱchangesȱinȱtheȱpolitȬ icalȱandȱsocialȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱtheȱdigitalȱtechnologiesȱoperateȱgiveȱriseȱtoȱaȱnumberȱ ofȱdilemmas.ȱTraditionalȱmediaȱandȱtheirȱvariousȱplatformsȱonȱtheȱInternetȱandȱmoȬ bileȱtelephoneȱtodayȱoperateȱinȱcontextsȱthatȱareȱdifferentȱfromȱthoseȱthatȱprevailedȱ whenȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ fundamentalȱ declarationsȱ andȱ resolutionsȱ regardingȱ mediaȱ andȱ humanȱrightsȱwereȱadoptedȱonȱtheȱglobalȱandȱEuropeanȱarena.ȱTheȱlargeȬscaleȱspyȬ ingȱoverȱglobalȱcommunicationsȱ networks,ȱ revealedȱ byȱ NSAȱ leakerȱ Edwardȱ SnowȬ denȱinȱ2013,ȱdefinitelyȱposesȱaȱthreatȱtoȱInternetȱfreedomsȱandȱthisȱshowsȱveryȱclearlyȱ thatȱ theȱ technologicalȱ contextȱ isȱ radicallyȱ differentȱ todayȱ thanȱ forȱ instanceȱ inȱ 1948ȱ whenȱtheȱUNȱDeclarationȱofȱHumanȱRightsȱwasȱadopted.ȱ

Theȱrapidȱchangesȱdemandȱnewȱapproachesȱandȱstrategiesȱtoȱensureȱtheȱfullȱ andȱproperȱapplicationȱofȱtheȱfundamentalȱfreedoms.ȱCommunicationȱsocietyȱtodayȱ hasȱanȱenormousȱpotentialȱtoȱaddȱtoȱandȱenhanceȱdemocracy,ȱhumanȱrights,ȱandȱsoȬ cialȱjustice.ȱWeȱalsoȱseeȱhowȱreadersȱcraveȱforȱmoreȱinȬdepthȱcontentȱthroughȱnewsȬ papersȱwhichȱofferȱanalysisȱandȱbackground,ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱrapidȱnewsȱflowsȱthatȱ areȱalmostȱeverywhere.ȱTheȱcrisisȱinȱtheȱmediaȱfieldȱillustratesȱaȱdireȱneedȱforȱinnovaȬ tionȱandȱnewȱideas.ȱHowȱtoȱdevelopȱprofitableȱsolutionsȱforȱgoodȱjournalismȱonȱtheȱ netȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱcoreȱquestions.ȱFurthermoreȱparticularȱresponsesȱtoȱglobalȱchallengȬ esȱareȱneededȱandȱthoseȱwhoȱmanageȱtoȱcomeȱupȱwithȱnewȱandȱcreativeȱsolutionsȱ willȱbeȱtheȱwinnersȱofȱtomorrowȱorȱnextȱweek.ȱ

Hopefully,ȱthereȱareȱsuchȱtendenciesȱtoȱnewȱcreativityȱamongȱsomeȱmediaȱinȬ stitutionsȱandȱamongȱjournalistsȱinȱEurope.ȱInnovation processes of new digital servicesȱ areȱgoingȱon,ȱasȱwellȱasȱcontentȱ formsȱ areȱexploredȱ throughȱ livingȱ imagesȱ andȱ exȬ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

ȱ plorativeȱnetȱtv.ȱTheȱsmallȱlocalȱNorwegianȱnewspaperȱHallingdølenȱisȱanȱexampleȱofȱ suchȱ creativity,ȱ innovationȱ andȱ entrepreneurship;ȱ theȱ smallȱ newspaperȱ withȱ 9400ȱ copiesȱlastȱyear,ȱhasȱdevelopedȱanȱinternetȱversionȱthatȱhasȱreceivedȱmuchȱacclamaȬ tionȱandȱinȱearlyȱ2014ȱwonȱaȱprestigiousȱawardȱforȱbeingȱtheȱbestȱlocalȱnewspaperȱinȱ

Europe.ȱHallingdølenȱhasȱdevisedȱparticularȱresponsesȱtoȱsomeȱofȱtheȱglobalȱchallengȬ es:ȱitȱhasȱcreatedȱanȱinnovativeȱwebȱversionȱwhereȱitȱcombinesȱprofessionalȱvaluesȱ andȱphotojournalisticȱfeatureȱstories,ȱandȱinsistsȱonȱgivingȱordinaryȱpeopleȱaȱvoice.ȱ

Free expression – where to draw the line?

FreedomȱofȱexpressionȱisȱregardedȱasȱaȱuniversalȱconceptȱinȱEurope.ȱFreeȱexpressionȱ isȱ oftenȱ seenȱ asȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ rightȱ asȱ itȱ providesȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ otherȱ humanȱ rights.ȱTheȱaffirmativeȱeffectsȱofȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱforȱtheȱdiscoveryȱofȱtruthȱwasȱtheȱ startingȱpointȱforȱmanyȱthinkers:ȱJohnȱStuartȱMills’ȱreasoningȱisȱforȱinstanceȱbasedȱonȱ theȱideaȱthatȱweȱhaveȱtoȱacknowledgeȱtheȱpossibilityȱthatȱotherȱopinionsȱmayȱbeȱtrue,ȱ andȱevenȱifȱtheyȱareȱnotȱtrueȱweȱneedȱthemȱtoȱkeepȱtheȱtrueȱopinionsȱalive.ȱFurtherȬ moreȱ weȱ needȱ ‘wrong’ȱ opinionsȱ too,ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ improveȱ ourȱ ownȱ merelyȱ partialȱ truths.ȱ Hisȱ mainȱ ideaȱ thereforeȱ wasȱ thatȱ ifȱ everyoneȱ wereȱ freeȱ toȱ expressȱ theirȱ thoughts,ȱthisȱwouldȱresultȱinȱtheȱenhancementȱofȱhumanȱintellectualȱpowersȱandȱinȱ turnȱbenefitȱtheȱcommonȱgood.ȱȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱrightȱtoȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱandȱ expressionȱ isȱ closelyȱ relatedȱ toȱ otherȱ rights,ȱ andȱ mayȱ beȱ limitedȱ whenȱ conflictingȱ withȱotherȱrights.ȱNapoleonȱBonaparteȱisȱknownȱtoȱhaveȱsaidȱthatȱ–ȱ“Aȱpeopleȱwhichȱisȱ ableȱtoȱsayȱeverythingȱbecomesȱableȱtoȱdoȱeverything.”ȱȱ

Mostȱ peopleȱ agreeȱ thatȱ hateȱ speechȱ isȱ unacceptable.ȱ Thatȱ utterancesȱ mayȱ beȱ destructiveȱ evenȱ ifȱ theyȱ areȱ notȱ immediatelyȱ followedȱ byȱ actions.ȱ Hateȱ speechȱ isȱ aȱ seriouslyȱ damagingȱ actionȱ inȱ itselfȱ andȱ mayȱ prepareȱ communitiesȱ orȱ societiesȱ forȱ moreȱhorribleȱactionsȱtoȱtakeȱplaceȱatȱaȱlaterȱstage.ȱSome,ȱamongȱthemȱtheȱNorwegianȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

scholarȱHelgeȱRønningȱarguesȱthatȱ no,ȱ weȱ mustȱ separateȱ betweenȱ hateȱ speechȱ andȱ hateȱacts,ȱthisȱseparationȱisȱasȱessentialȱasȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱcausingȱharmȱandȱ causingȱoffence.ȱȱHelgeȱRønningȱcontinuesȱ“whatȱsomeȱregardȱasȱblasphemyȱisȱseenȱ asȱlegitimateȱcritiqueȱofȱreligionȱbyȱothers.ȱWhoȱinȱaȱdemocraticȱsocietyȱisȱtoȱdecideȱ whatȱisȱwhat?ȱInsteadȱofȱmaintainingȱaȱrightȱtoȱnotȱbeȱoffended,ȱoneȱshouldȱargueȱforȱ theȱrightȱtoȱbeȱoffended.ȱȱOffenceȱinȱitselfȱisȱpartȱofȱbeingȱtakenȱseriouslyȱinȱaȱsocietyȱ ofȱequalȱrightsȱforȱallȱgroupsȱandȱindividuals.”ȱ(2013:16).ȱ

TheȱlimitȱbetweenȱacceptableȱandȱunacceptableȱutterancesȱisȱalwaysȱatȱtheȱcenȬ treȱofȱdebatesȱofȱfreedomȱofȱexpression.ȱMostȱpeopleȱagreeȱthatȱthereȱhasȱtoȱbeȱlimitsȱ toȱfreeȱspeech.ȱItȱisȱwhereȱtoȱdrawȱtheȱlineȱbetweenȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱandȱotherȱrightsȱ thatȱisȱtheȱchallengingȱandȱveryȱinterestingȱquestion.ȱ

Itȱ isȱ highlyȱ importantȱ thatȱ specificȱ conditionsȱ mustȱ beȱ consideredȱ whenȱ disȬ cussingȱ freedomȱ ofȱ speech,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ powerȱ distribution.ȱ Itȱ doesȱ matterȱ whetherȱitȱisȱaȱvulnerableȱminorityȱorȱaȱpowerfulȱmajorityȱthatȱisȱoffended.ȱThisȱechȬ oesȱtheȱworkȱofȱenlightenmentȱantiȬimperialists,ȱsuchȱasȱDenisȱDiderot,ȱthatȱreflectsȱ theirȱstruggleȱwithȱtheȱtensionȱbetweenȱuniversalisticȱconceptsȱsuchȱasȱhumanȱrightsȱ andȱtheȱrealitiesȱofȱculturalȱpluralism.ȱȱTheȱlegacyȱofȱDiderot’sȱideasȱmakesȱitȱeasierȱ toȱargueȱforȱparticularȱresponsesȱtoȱaȱuniversalȱprincipleȱinȱaȱcontemporaryȱcontext.ȱ

Diderotȇsȱsolutionȱwasȱtoȱidentifyȱparticularityȱasȱtheȱuniversalȱhumanȱtrait.ȱInȱotherȱ words,ȱheȱemphasizedȱthatȱhumanȱbeingsȱallȱshareȱsimilarȱdesiresȱtoȱcreateȱworkableȱ rulesȱofȱconductȱthatȱallowȱparticularȱwaysȱofȱlifeȱtoȱflourishȱwithoutȱthemselvesȱcreȬ atingȱharshȱinjusticesȱandȱcrueltiesȱ(seeȱalsoȱOrgeretȱ2011).ȱ

ForȱaȱlongȱperiodȱofȱtimeȱinȱmostȱEuropeanȱcountries,ȱfreedomȱofȱspeechȱwasȱ veryȱlittleȱdebatedȱandȱbecameȱalmostȱaȱselfȬevidentȱconcept.ȱThenȱthingsȱstartedȱtoȱ change—theȱworldȱbecameȱsmallerȱandȱsocietiesȱmoreȱdiverse.ȱTheȱdebatesȱexplodedȱ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

ȱ withȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱcartoonȱcrisisȱofȱ2006.ȱWhereȱareȱtheȱlimitsȱtoȱbeȱdrawnȱbetweenȱ freedomȱofȱexpressionȱonȱtheȱoneȱhandȱandȱtheȱrespectȱofȱothers’ȱreligionȱonȱtheȱothȬ er?ȱMostȱEuropeanȱstatesȱhaveȱbecomeȱmuchȱmoreȱcomplex,ȱmultiȬethnicȱandȱmultiȬ religious,ȱandȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱremember,ȱnotȱleastȱinȱincreasinglyȱcomplexȱsocieties,ȱ thatȱhavingȱtheȱrightȱtoȱoffendȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱmeanȱthatȱyouȱhaveȱtoȱmakeȱuseȱ ofȱthisȱrightȱatȱallȱtimes.ȱȱ

TheȱgrowthȱofȱnewȱdigitalȱcommunicationȱtechnologiesȱandȱtheȱInternetȱhasȱ raisedȱimportantȱconcernsȱasȱweȱexperienceȱthatȱtheȱInternetȱrepresentsȱaȱnewȱandȱ powerfulȱ toolȱ forȱ hateȱ mongersȱ andȱ extremists,ȱ orȱ toȱ whatȱ hasȱ comeȱ toȱ beȱ calledȱ

“cyberhate”ȱorȱ“cyberȬracism”.ȱEvenȱwithȱlawsȱagainstȱintimidatingȱspeech,ȱtheȱanoȬ nymityȱofȱtheȱInternetȱatȱtimesȱmakesȱitȱdifficultȱtoȱtrackȱdownȱandȱprosecuteȱperpeȬ tratorsȱofȱthreateningȱmessages.ȱInȱtheȱScandinavianȱcountriesȱthereȱhasȱbeenȱaȱworȬ ryingȱincreaseȱofȱharassmentȱofȱfemaleȱpoliticians,ȱjournalistsȱandȱotherȱpublicȱproȬ filesȱtheȱlastȱyearsȱ(seeȱe.gȱBjurwaldȱȱ2013).ȱFemaleȱmembersȱofȱParliamentȱ(MPs)ȱareȱ frequentȱtargetsȱofȱanonymousȱsexualȱharassmentȱfromȱtheȱpublic,ȱoftenȱofȱaȱnatureȱ soȱobsceneȱandȱgraphicȱthatȱtheyȱdreadȱhavingȱtoȱturnȱtheȱeȬmailsȱandȱtextȱmessagesȱ theyȱreceiveȱoverȱtoȱtheȱpolice.ȱTheyȱareȱbeingȱencouraged,ȱthough,ȱtoȱgoȱpublicȱwithȱ theȱproblemȱandȱaȱfewȱdo.ȱSomeȱofȱtheȱharassmentȱisȱsimplyȱmean,ȱinsultingȱandȱdeȬ grading.ȱOtherȱmessagesȱareȱpornographicȱandȱclearlyȱaimedȱatȱupsettingȱorȱfrightȬ eningȱ theirȱ femaleȱ recipients,ȱ includingȱ photosȱ andȱ textȱ messagesȱ soȱ obsceneȱ thatȱ mostȱmediaȱwouldȱnotȱpublishȱthem.ȱTheȱextentȱofȱtheȱproblemȱisȱworrying.ȱWeȱseeȱ similarȱtendenciesȱofȱharassmentȱtowardsȱpeopleȱfromȱaȱdifferentȱethnicȱbackground.ȱ

Itȱisȱaȱseriousȱproblemȱforȱdemocracy.ȱTheȱworstȱoutcomeȱwouldȱbeȱinȱcaseȱfemalesȱ andȱimmigrants,ȱbusinessȱleaders,ȱ researchers,ȱ orȱ politiciansȱ wereȱ threatenedȱ awayȱ fromȱparticipatingȱinȱtheȱpublicȱdebate.ȱThenȱitȱwouldȱtoȱanȱevenȱlargerȱextentȱthanȱ today,ȱbeȱwhiteȱmenȱthatȱsetȱtheȱpublicȱagendaȱandȱpoliticalȱpriorities.ȱȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

Journalismȱandȱtheȱmediaȱshapeȱtheȱwayȱweȱunderstandȱandȱthinkȱaboutȱtheȱ world,ȱtheȱwayȱweȱperceiveȱourselvesȱandȱourȱsurroundings,ȱandȱtheȱwayȱweȱrelateȱ toȱoneȱanotherȱandȱsocietyȱatȱlarge.ȱFurthermore,ȱjournalismȱandȱtheȱpressȱshapeȱtheȱ wayȱinȱwhichȱcoreȱsocietalȱconceptsȱlikeȱ‘democracy’ȱandȱ‘freedomȱofȱexpression’ȱareȱ understoodȱandȱpracticed.ȱJournalismȱandȱtheȱpressȱthereforeȱfunctionȱasȱaȱculturalȱ prerequisiteȱforȱsocietalȱchangeȱatȱlargeȱandȱforȱtheȱdisseminationȱandȱcommunicaȬ tionȱofȱideasȱofȱdemocracyȱandȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱinȱparticular.ȱHenceȱjournalȬ ism,ȱfreedomȱofȱexpression,ȱandȱmediaȱsystemsȱmayȱfunctionȱasȱaȱlitmusȱtestȱforȱdeȬ mocracyȱinȱaȱspecificȱsociety.ȱInadequateȱpluralismȱinȱmediaȱownership,ȱsuppressingȱ ofȱ voicesȱ ofȱ particularȱ views,ȱ orȱ officialȱ orȱ unofficialȱ harassmentȱ ofȱ journalistsȱ andȱ peopleȱwhoȱspeakȱoutȱareȱsignsȱofȱaȱnotȱtooȱwellȱfunctioningȱpublicȱsphere.ȱTheȱrightȱ toȱfreedomȱofȱexpressionȱandȱfreedomȱofȱinformationȱcanȱonlyȱexistȱwhereȱtheȱmedia,ȱ theȱjournalists,ȱandȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱparticipateȱinȱtheȱpublicȱdebateȱfeelȱsecure.ȱ

5EGMSQ

KristinȱOrgeretȱ

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Sennett,ȱRichardȱ(1977)ȱTheȱFallȱofȱtheȱPublicȱManȱNewȱYork,ȱLondon:ȱW.W.ȱNorton.ȱ

Strand,ȱArneȱ(2014).ȱ’DetȱStoreȱJubelåret’ȱinȱDagsavisenȱ3ȱJanuaryȱ2014.ȱ

FreedomȱofȱExpressionȱandȱtheȱRoleȱofȱtheȱMedia

Ward,ȱStephenȱA.J.ȱ(2013)ȱGlobalȱMediaȱEthics:ȱProblemsȱandȱPerspectives.ȱWileyȱBlackwellȱPubȬ lishers.ȱ

Chapter 6

Ethno-Political Conflicts and Diversities in National Identities in Latvia

MihailȱRodins1ȱandȱAlexȱGaponenko2ȱ

Asȱ conceptualȱ guidelinesȱ forȱ theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ ethnoȬpoliticalȱ conflictsȱ andȱ nationalȱ identitiesȱinȱourȱstudyȱinȱLatvia,ȱweȱrelyȱonȱHuntington’sȱ(1993)ȱtheoryȱofȱ culturalȱ identities,ȱorȱ“civilizations”ȱinvolvedȱinȱinevitableȱconflicts.ȱWeȱshareȱtheȱconvictionȱ thatȱtheȱ“identityȱmatters.”ȱOurȱparticularȱcontributionȱconsistsȱinȱfocusingȱonȱmicroȱ ethnoȬpoliticalȱandȱculturalȱcommunitiesȱ andȱ identitiesȱ inȱ oneȱ regionȱȬȱLatvia.ȱ Ourȱ interestȱwasȱcausedȱbyȱtheȱwayȱtheȱLatvianȱnationȱandȱitsȱethnicȱgroups,ȱasȱwellȱasȱ formingȱtheirȱidentitiesȱ(withinȱtheȱWesternȱandȱSlavicȬOrthodoxȱcivilization)ȱconstiȬ tuteȱaȱclashȱorȱaȱtolerantȱcoexistence.ȱ

TheȱinevitableȱnatureȱofȱtheȱpolitizationȱofȱethnicityȱandȱethnicȱconflictȱinȱmulȬ ticulturalȱethnicȱsocieties,ȱwhichȱwereȱpointedȱoutȱinȱtheȱwritingsȱofȱHorowitzȱ(1985),ȱ makesȱupȱtheȱmethodologicalȱfoundationȱforȱunderstandingȱtheȱcausesȱandȱdynamȬ icsȱofȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱrelationsȱinȱLatvia.ȱFromȱtheȱpointȱofȱviewȱofȱtheȱtheoryȱofȱ democracy,ȱethnicȱconflictȱisȱaȱthreatȱtoȱtheȱdemocraticȱregime,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱcaseȱ ofȱtheȱdominantȱethnicȱgroupȱofȱsubordinatedȱethnicȱminorities.ȱȱ

Inȱcurrentȱapproachesȱtoȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱconflictsȱandȱidentities,ȱweȱadhereȱtoȱ theȱprimordialȱversionȱofȱtheȱstudyȱofȱconflicts.ȱAccordingȱtoȱthisȱversionȱofȱethnicȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱAssociateȱprofessor,ȱPh.D,ȱUniversityȱofȱTallinnȱ 2ȱProfessor,ȱDr.Ec,ȱInstituteȱofȱEuropeanȱStudies,ȱRigaȱ

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ȱ studies,ȱtheȱtypeȱofȱprimordialȱethnicȱgroupȱisȱtheȱcauseȱofȱtheȱconflict,ȱwhichȱisȱirraȬ tional,ȱaffectiveȱand,ȱinȱprinciple,ȱinsoluble.ȱ“Theȱnutritionalȱbasis”ȱofȱtheseȱconflictsȱ isȱ “sacredȱ symbols”ȱ ofȱ theȱ past,ȱ religious,ȱ ethnic,ȱ andȱ culturalȱ heritage.ȱ Primordialȱ ethnicȱconflictȱandȱnationalȱidentityȱareȱoftenȱembodiedȱinȱvariousȱformsȱofȱviolenceȱ orȱconfrontationȱ

ȱWeȱdoȱnotȱbelieveȱthatȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱconflictsȱcanȱbeȱexplainedȱonlyȱbyȱaȱ deficitȱofȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱresourcesȱorȱmacroȬeconomicȱcrises.ȱExplanatoryȱcausȬ esȱofȱethnicȱconflictsȱaȱprioriȱincludeȱaȱnumberȱofȱ“factorsȱhardȱtoȱexplain.”ȱThereforeȱ primordialismȱtraditionallyȱviewsȱHuntington’sȱ“clashȱofȱcivilizations”ȱasȱinevitableȱ andȱnonȬpermissive.ȱ

Theȱ fieldȱ ofȱ testingȱ theȱ primordialȱ approachȱ toȱ theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ conflictsȱ andȱ identitiesȱforȱusȱisȱethnicȱdemocracyȱinȱLatvia3.ȱEthnicȱdemocracyȱinȱLatviaȱincludesȱaȱ numberȱofȱfeatures:ȱfirst,ȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱinstitutionalȱdominanceȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnationȱ andȱtheȱtotalȱsupplyȱofȱresourcesȱforȱaȱmonoȬethnicȱhegemonyȱofȱtheȱrulingȱelite,ȱandȱ secondly,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱdemocraticȱrepresentationȱofȱethnicȱminoritiesȱandȱinequalityȱinȱ theȱpossessionȱofȱcivilȱrightsȱandȱliberties.ȱ

Goal

ȱTheȱgoalȱofȱthisȱpaperȱisȱtoȱanalyzeȱtheȱinteractionȱofȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱidentitiesȱofȱ ethnicȱandȱculturalȱpluralismȱasȱaȱcatalystȱorȱconflictsȱinȱtheȱLatvianȱsociety.ȱHence,ȱ theȱmainȱissuesȱwillȱbeȱfiguringȱoutȱ whatȱ areȱ theȱ basicȱ modelsȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identityȱ withinȱtheȱhierarchicȱethnoȬpoliticalȱstratificationȱinȱLatvia,ȱandȱtheȱconditionsȱunderȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

3ȱȱSeeȱS.ȱSmouhaȱandȱP.ȱJaarveȱ(2005)ȱforȱtheȱtheoreticalȱbasisȱforȱthisȱapproach.ȱ

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whichȱpoliticalȱidentityȱandȱtheȱdiversityȱofȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱidentityȱofȱdifferentȱ nationalitiesȱ contributeȱ toȱ theȱ democraticȱ consensusȱ orȱ resultȱ inȱ mutualȱ confrontaȬ tion.ȱ

Theȱdependentȱandȱindependentȱvariables.ȱEthnicȱandȱculturalȱidentitiesȱasȱ factorsȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ andȱ culturalȱ conflictsȱ forȱ usȱ actȱ asȱ theȱ independentȱ variables.ȱ

Demonstrationȱ ofȱ motivationalȱ readinessȱ andȱ behavioralȱ actsȱ ofȱ aȱ conflictȱ betweenȱ theȱvariousȱethnoȬculturalȱandȱethnicȱcommunitiesȱareȱdependentȱvariables.ȱ

Research hypotheses

1. TheȱcommitmentȱtoȱtheȱconflictȱandȱitsȱimplementationȱinȱtheȱactsȱofȱopposiȬ

tionȱ toȱ theȱ regimeȱ inȱ Latviaȱ isȱ directlyȱ connectedȱ toȱ theȱ ethnoȬpoliticalȱ andȱ

ethnoȬculturalȱcomponentsȱofȱnationalȱidentityȱofȱtheȱdominantȱandȱsubordiȬ

natedȱtitularȱethnicȱminorities;ȱ

2. TheȱcrisisȱofȱliberalȬdemocraticȱ multiculturalȱ andȱ ethnicȱ societiesȱ contributesȱ

toȱ theȱ politicalȱ radicalizationȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ andȱ culturalȱ minoritiesȱ thatȱ demandsȱ

greaterȱrecognitionȱandȱimplementationȱofȱtheirȱculturalȱpracticesȱandȱidentiȬ

ties.ȱ

Methods and dataȱȱ

Theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identityȱ andȱ ethnicȱ conflictsȱ inȱ Latviaȱ wasȱ conductedȱ asȱ aȱ sociologicalȱ surveyȱ AugustȱȬȱSeptemberȱ 2011ȱ byȱ prof.ȱ A.ȱ Gaponenkoȱ andȱ prof.ȱ M.ȱ

Rodinsȱ ofȱ theȱ Latvianȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Europeanȱ Studies.ȱ Theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ ethnoȬ politicalȱandȱsocialȱrelationsȱinȱLatviaȱwasȱcarriedȱoutȱbeforeȱandȱafterȱtheȱparliamenȬ taryȱelectionsȱofȱ2010.ȱOnȱtheȱbackgroundȱofȱaȱdeepeningȱeconomicȱandȱinstitutionalȱ crisisȱinȱLatviaȱthisȱstudyȱdescribesȱandȱanalyzesȱtheȱradicalizationȱofȱethnoȬpoliticalȱ behaviorȱandȱmassȱconsciousness.ȱȱ 103

MihailȱRodinsȱandȱAlexȱGaponenkoȱ

Theȱappliedȱresearchȱmethodsȱrepresentȱaȱcombinationȱofȱquantitativeȱanalysisȱ inȱtheȱmeasurementȱofȱnationalȱidentityȱandȱethnicȱconflictsȱandȱqualitativeȱmethodsȱ toȱ describeȱ theȱ characteristicsȱ ofȱ theȱ Latvianȱ ethnoȬdemocracy.ȱ Ourȱ mainȱ intentionȱ wasȱtoȱconductȱaȱoneȬpanelȱpopulationȱstudyȱbasedȱonȱaȱproportionalȱrepresentativeȱ sampleȱofȱtheȱnationalȱsocioȬdemographicȱpopulationȱandȱbyȱapplyingȱstratificationȱ parametersȱ(technicalȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱsamplingȱstrategyȱisȱgivenȱinȱAppendixȱ6.1).ȱ

Pollingȱdataȱwereȱcollectedȱthroughȱquestionnaires,ȱformalȱinterviewsȱwithȱ1,102ȱreȬ spondentsȱ inȱLatvia.ȱTheȱquestionnaireȱ inȱ Russianȱ andȱ Latvianȱ containsȱ moreȱ thanȱ

1000ȱvariablesȱandȱparameters.ȱ

The results of the studyȱ

Political identity in the Latvian political processȱ

Nationalȱ identityȱ canȱ beȱ explainedȱ asȱ aȱ setȱ ofȱ internalizedȱ politicalȱ andȱ culturalȱ normsȱ andȱ typesȱ ofȱ behaviorȱ thatȱ areȱ transformedȱ throughȱ politicalȱ socializationȱ fromȱoneȱgenerationȱtoȱanotherȱwithinȱtheȱappointedȱethnicȱgroup.ȱStructurallyȱnaȬ tionalȱidentityȱconsistsȱofȱtwoȱcommunities:ȱpoliticalȱidentityȱandȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱ identity.ȱ

WeȱpresentȱtheȱfirstȱgeneralȱdataȱmeasuringȱtheȱpoliticalȱidentityȱofȱtheȱresiȬ dentsȱofȱLatvia.ȱPoliticalȱidentityȱisȱgenerallyȱregardedȱasȱtheȱofficialȱmembershipȱinȱaȱ politicalȱcommunityȱ(orȱstateȬterritorialȱentities).ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱselectedȱmethodȬ ology,ȱpoliticalȱidentityȱisȱrevealedȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ inclusionȱ inȱ theȱ politicalȱ comȬ munityȱandȱtheȱinternalizationȱofȱstateȬformingȱnationalȱsymbols.ȱInȱtheȱprocessȱofȱ identificationȱwithȱnationalȱsymbols,ȱpeopleȱtakeȱupȱaȱcollectiveȱidentityȱandȱaȱsenseȱ ofȱcontinuity.ȱNationalȱsymbols,ȱhardlyȱaffectedȱbyȱhistoricalȱmodifications,ȱhaveȱaȱ bigȱethnoȬmobilizingȱroleȱinȱtheȱintegrationȱprocessȱofȱnationȱbuilding.ȱ

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Eachȱofȱtheȱareasȱofȱpoliticalȱidentificationȱhasȱaȱspecificȱsetȱofȱvariables,ȱwhichȱ wereȱselectedȱafterȱaȱpreliminaryȱexaminationȱandȱreflectȱtheȱempiricalȱvalues.ȱMoreȬ over,ȱtheȱresearchȱattentionȱwasȱfocusedȱmoreȱonȱtheȱpersonalȱidentificationȱusingȱaȱ setȱ ofȱ formalizedȱ relationsȱ withȱ theȱ politicalȱ communityȱ andȱ politicalȱ symbolism.ȱ

Basedȱ onȱ previousȱ studiesȱ ofȱ ethnoȬpoliticalȱ processesȱ inȱ Latviaȱ atȱ theȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ

EuropeanȱStudies,ȱweȱchoseȱasȱoperationalȱvariablesȱforȱtheȱidentificationȱofȱtheȱpolitȬ icalȱcommunityȱofȱtheȱrespondents,ȱtheȱfollowingȱitems:ȱgeneralȱattachmentȱtoȱLatȬ via,ȱ Latvianȱ independence,ȱ support,ȱ satisfactionȱ withȱ democracyȱ inȱ Latviaȱ andȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ theȱ institutionȱ ofȱ citizenship.ȱ Alternativeȱ identitiesȱ referȱ respectivelyȱ toȱ

RussiaȱandȱtheȱEuropeanȱUnionȱinȱrelatedȱfields.ȱ

Inȱturn,ȱtheȱformingȱofȱpersonalȱidentityȱbyȱrelatingȱitȱtoȱethnoȬpoliticalȱsymȬ bolsȱandȱvaluesȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱpresentȱmoreȱclearlyȱtheȱboundariesȱandȱcontentȱ ofȱethnicȱcohesionȱandȱintegrity.ȱToȱsuchȱethnoȬculturalȱandȱpoliticalȱsymbolicȱmarkȬ ers—formingȱtheȱcollectiveȱimageȱofȱtheȱethnicȱmajorityȱandȱethnicȱminorityȱcommuȬ nities—belong:ȱȱ

x Nationalȱstateȱsymbols:ȱȱtheȱflagȱandȱanthem,ȱȱ

x Nationalȱholidays:ȱIndependenceȱDayȱȱ(Novemberȱ18ȱ)ȱ,ȱDayȱofȱRestoraȬ

tionȱofȱIndependenceȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱLatviaȱ(Mayȱ4),ȱandȱLigoȱ(Juneȱ

23),ȱȱ

x Nationalȱmonuments:ȱTheȱFreedomȱMonumentȱinȱRiga,ȱMonumentȱtoȱ

theȱLiberatorȱSoldierȱinȱRiga,ȱandȱLatgale’sȱMaraȱinȱRezekne,ȱȱ

x Nationalȱgraveyards:ȱFraternal,ȱPokrov,ȱandȱGarrison.ȱȱ

Asȱ alternativeȱ ethnoȬculturalȱ andȱ politicalȱ symbols,ȱ whichȱ reflectȱ theȱ socialȱ spectrumȱofȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱidentities,ȱtheȱresearchȱinstrumentȱincludedȱRussianȱ

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MihailȱRodinsȱandȱAlexȱGaponenkoȱ

ȱ politicalȱsymbolismȱ,ȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱforms,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱKremlinȱinȱMoscow,ȱVicȬ toryȱDayȱ(Mayȱ9),ȱandȱLaborȱDayȱ(Mayȱ1).ȱ

Inȱadditionȱtheȱresearchȱmodelȱincludesȱindicatorsȱofȱpersonalȱsatisfactionȱandȱ motivationȱtoȱstayȱinȱLatvia:ȱtheȱdesireȱtoȱbeȱbornȱandȱliveȱinȱLatvia.ȱSimilarȱindicaȬ torsȱwereȱaddressedȱtoȱterritorialȱ mobilityȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ Russia.ȱ Theȱ consistencyȱ ofȱ positiveȱimagesȱandȱidentificationsȱbyȱmembersȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnationalityȱandȱethnicȱ minoritiesȱwithȱselectedȱvariablesȱhypotheticallyȱformsȱanȱidealȱmodelȱofȱaȱsuccessfulȱ andȱintegratedȱpoliticalȱidentityȱinȱLatvia.ȱ

AnȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱidentityȱofȱtheȱinhabitantsȱofȱLatviaȱisȱpresentedȱ inȱ Tableȱ 6.1.ȱ Theȱ dataȱ showȱ thatȱ moreȱ thanȱ 80ȱ %ȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ identifyȱ themȬ selvesȱwithȱLatvia,ȱwhich,ȱinȱfact,ȱaȱstrongȱargumentȱinȱfavorȱofȱpoliticalȱintegrationȱ betweenȱ theȱ ethnicȱ majorityȱ andȱ theȱ ethnicȱ minorities.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ Russianȱ andȱ otherȱethnicȱminoritiesȱidentifyȱthemselvesȱsignificantlyȱlowerȱthanȱLatviansȱdoȱwithȱ regardȱtoȱformalȱmembershipȱinȱtheȱLatvianȱstate.ȱMoreover,ȱethnicȱRussianȱalmostȱ equallyȱselfȬidentifyȱthemselvesȱwithȱLatvia,ȱasȱwellȱasȱwithȱRussia,ȱwhich,ȱhoweverȱ,ȱ isȱnotȱaȱcontradiction,ȱbutȱonlyȱfixesȱtheȱsituationȱȱasȱ“imposed”ȱidentities,ȱbecauseȱofȱ bothȱhistoricalȱcoȬexistenceȱandȱmobilityȱinȱanȱeraȱofȱrapidlyȱchangingȱnationalȱandȱ stateȱboundaries.ȱTheȱproblemȱratherȱliesȱinȱhowȱtheȱidentityȱofȱtheȱethnicȱmajority,ȱ subordinatedȱethnicȱminorities,ȱgenerates,ȱor,ȱconversely,ȱnegatesȱtheȱethnicȱconflictȱ inȱtheȱframeworkȱofȱtheȱnationalȱtotal.ȱTheȱfactorsȱthatȱareȱfundamentallyȱdifferentȱ betweenȱethnicȱmajorityȱandȱethnicȱminoritiesȱareȱexpressionsȱofȱsupportȱforȱtheȱinȬ dependenceȱofȱLatviaȱandȱtheȱsatisfactionȱofȱdemocracyȱinȱLatvia.ȱAsȱtheȱdataȱinȱtheȱ

Tableȱ 6.1ȱ show,ȱ onlyȱ 13.9%ȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ Russiansȱ supportȱ Latvia’sȱ independence,ȱ inȱ believingȱthatȱ“Forȱme,ȱtheȱindependenceȱofȱLatviaȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱ importantȱthings.”ȱ

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Table 6.1. Political identity in Latvia by nationalities (%) Question:Peoplealsofeelattachedtotheircountry… Question:Towhatextentdoyousupport...? Questions:Towhatextentyoulikeordonotlike… Question:Wheredoyouwishtoborn/tolive? Variables Nationalities Total Latvians Russians Other AttachmenttoLatvia 83.3 90.1 74.4 81.3 AttachmenttoRussia 26.8 6.4 54.6 26.1 AttachmenttotheEuropeanUnion 34.9 41.2 23.4 21.6 SupportforLatvianindependence 45.0 72.0 13.9 27.6 SatisfactionwithdemocracyinLatvia 34.7 51.0 18.6 16.4 SatisfactionwithdemocracyinRussia 31.6 19.7 47.8 31.4 TheimportanceoftheLatviancitizenship 62.4 60.2 64.4 65.7 TheLatviannationalanthem 83.0 97.5 67.8 68.6 TheLatviannationalflag 85.3 92.6 74.6 70.9 TheRussiannationalanthem 13.6 2.4 27.6 17.1 TheRussiannationalflag 13.0 2.8 25.4 27.0 MonumentofFreedominRiga 71.6 93.9 47.5 52.2 MonumenttotheLiberatorSoldier 48.9 26.0 78.3 53.7 LatgalMarainRezekne 25.2 34.1 13.5 24.7 TheKremlininMoscow 21.3 11.9 34.5 38.1 IndependenceDay(18November) 58.6 86.6 31.2 34.3 DayofRestorationofIndependenceofthe RepublicofLatvia(May4) 44.4 72.2 15.1 17.9 Ligo(June23) 84.4 92.4 76.6 74.7 VictoryDay(May9) 47.3 15.5 82.4 72.4 LaborDay(May1) 21.3 15.6 25.6 31.3 Legionnaires'Day(March16) 25.9 29.2 2.2 2.2 FraternalCemeteryinRiga 64.1 81.5 48.1 46.3 PocrovCemeteryinRiga 14.0 7.2 20.5 23.2 GarrisonCemeteryinRiga 9.9 6.4 12.1 17.1 Salaspilsmemorial 39.3 34.2 45.8 41.0 FraternalCemeteryinLestene 26.5 41.6 9.5 15.6 WishtobeborninLatvia 52.3 68.5 34.9 38.1 WishtoliveinLatvia 17.2 56.8 33.7 35.8 WishtobeborninRussia 8.4 1.3 18.0 9.0 WishtoliveinRussia 30.0 1.8 22.2 9.7 Note:Thistablecontainsonlypositiveresponses("veryattached"and"moreatͲ tached","totallyagree"andagree").

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MihailȱRodinsȱandȱAlexȱGaponenkoȱ

Onlyȱ18.6%ȱofȱtheseȱrespondentsȱareȱsatisfiedȱwithȱRussianȱdemocracyȱinȱLatȬ via.ȱSlightlyȱhigherȱratesȱofȱsupportȱofȱindependenceȱandȱsatisfactionȱwithȱdemocraȬ cyȱinȱLatviaȱexistȱamongȱtheȱremainingȱethnicȱminorities.ȱ

AmongȱethnicȱminoritiesȱthereȱisȱextremelyȱlowȱterritorialȱidentityȱwithȱLatȬ via.ȱTheȱproportionȱofȱthoseȱexpressingȱaȱdesireȱtoȱbeȱbornȱandȱliveȱinȱLatviaȱisȱinȱtheȱ rangeȱofȱ30%,ȱtheȱ“territorialȱlinkage,”ȱwhichȱisȱageȱandȱfamilyȱlevel.ȱAmongȱtheȱrepȬ resentativesȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ nationality,ȱ personalȱ satisfactionȱ andȱ motivationȱ toȱ stayȱ inȱ

Latviaȱdoesȱnotȱexceedȱ70%,ȱandȱtheȱmotivationȱtoȱmigrateȱandȱliveȱinȱtheȱcountriesȱ ofȱWesternȱEurope,ȱtheȱUSA,ȱandȱCanadaȱexceedsȱsimilarȱinterestȱamongȱmembersȱofȱ ethnicȱminorities.ȱ

DataȱconcerningȱpersonalȱidentificationȱwithȱnationalȱsymbolsȱperformȱanȱimȬ portantȱroleȱinȱestimatingȱsuccessfulȱpoliticalȱintegrationȱandȱnationalȱhomogenizaȬ tion.ȱInȱfact,ȱitȱisȱtheȱpersonificationȱofȱtheȱnationalȱsymbolsȱofȱsocialȱgroupsȱthatȱcreȬ atesȱaȱ“nationȬstate”ȱwithȱsignsȱofȱstabilityȱandȱsustainability.ȱAsȱcanȱbeȱseenȱfromȱ

Tableȱ6.1,ȱthereȱareȱstrikingȱdifferencesȱinȱtheȱlevelȱofȱidentificationȱwithȱtheȱnationalȱ symbolsȱamongȱtheȱrespondents.ȱSinceȱtheȱresponseȱtoȱquestionsȱaboutȱtheirȱpersonalȱ attachmentȱtoȱsymbolsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱnationalȱanthem,ȱtheȱflagȱofȱLatvia,ȱandȱtheȱLatviȬ anȱFreedomȱMonumentȱamongȱLatviansȱisȱaȱthirdȱhigherȱthanȱamongȱtheȱminoritiesȱ inȱrespectȱtoȱotherȱidentifyingȱfactors,ȱtheȱpictureȱappearsȱevenȱmoreȱdramatic.ȱ

OurȱresearchȱdataȱallowsȱusȱtoȱexpressȱthatȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱnationalȱsymȬ bols,ȱsuchȱasȱnationalȱmonuments,ȱholidays,ȱandȱcemeteriesȱareȱgroupedȱandȱactȱasȱaȱ formȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ reproductionȱ ofȱ theȱ strictlyȱ separatedȱ groupsȱ ofȱ theȱ ethnicȱ majorityȱ andȱtheȱethnicȱminorities.ȱTheȱorientationȱofȱLatvianȱRussiansȱandȱotherȱethnicȱmiȬ noritiesȱtowardsȱRussianȱandȱSovietȱnationalȱsymbolsȱstrengthensȱtheirȱmultiȬlayeredȱ politicalȱidentityȱandȱsecurityȱstrategyȱfromȱtheȱinstitutionalȱhegemonyȱofȱtheȱethnicȱ 108

EthnoȬPoliticalȱConflictsȱandȱDiversitiesȱinȱNationalȱIdentiesȱinȱLatvia

majority.ȱTheȱprincipalȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱtitularȱnationȱandȱtheȱethnicȱminoriȬ tiesȱinȱtheȱpoliticalȱprocessȱofȱsymbolicȱidentificationȱfixȱ“negativeȱidentity”ȱasȱaȱreȬ sultȱofȱtheȱintegrationȱofȱpseudoȬethnicȱpolitics.ȱTheȱseparation,ȱconsistingȱofȱunreȬ solvedȱ ethnicȱ conflicts,ȱ andȱ theȱ acquiredȱ statusȱ ofȱ peripheralȱ socialȱ formationsȱ byȱ ethnicȱminorities—suchȱareȱtheȱresultsȱofȱethnicȱpoliticsȱandȱpoliticalȱsocializationȱofȱ theȱpopulationȱofȱLatvia.ȱ

Inȱthisȱstudy,ȱourȱhypothesisȱaboutȱtheȱpoliticalȱmodelȱofȱLatviaȱhasȱconfirmedȱ theȱexistenceȱofȱaȱbiȬcommunalȱdividedȱsociety:ȱLatviansȱareȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱrestoraȬ tionȱandȱsupportȱofȱtheȱnationȬstateȱandȱethnicȱminoritiesȱ(mainlyȱRussians)ȱareȱmoreȱ focusedȱonȱachievingȱpoliticalȱequalityȱandȱdemocraticȱrepresentation.ȱ

Ethno-cultural identity in the Latvian political processȱ

Accordingȱtoȱourȱresearch,ȱinȱ1996,ȱ2000,ȱ2003,ȱandȱ2011,ȱtheȱinstitutionalȱdominanceȱ ofȱtheȱLatvianȱnation,ȱwithȱitsȱcharacteristicȱresourcesȱprotectionȱandȱinternalȱcoheȬ sion,ȱ combinedȱ withȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ andȱ linguisticȱ “narcissism”ȱ andȱ culturalȱ revanchism.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱminoritiesȱinȱ

Latviaȱtookȱplaceȱinȱaȱstrictlyȱsubordinatedȱassimilativeȱpolicy.ȱ

Ourȱ conceptualȱ modelȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ andȱ culturalȱ identityȱ inȱ Latviaȱ includesȱ diȬ mensionsȱofȱethnic,ȱlinguistic,ȱculturalȱidentitiesȱandȱculturalȱinterȬethnicȱrelations.ȱ

Letȱ usȱ turnȱ toȱ theȱ analysisȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ identification.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Centralȱ

Statisticalȱ Bureauȱ ofȱ Latviaȱ inȱ 2011,ȱ theȱ populationȱ ofȱ Latviaȱ wasȱ 62.1ȱ %ȱ Latvians,ȱ

26.9ȱ%ȱRussians,ȱandȱ11.0ȱ%ȱofȱotherȱnationalities.ȱInȱourȱstudy,ȱweȱusedȱdemographȬ icȱdataȱpriorȱtoȱpublicationȱofȱtheȱresultsȱofȱtheȱnationalȱcensus,ȱsoȱtheȱtotalȱnumberȱ ofȱLatviansȱwasȱ57.7%,ȱRussianȱ30%,ȱandȱ12.3%ȱofȱotherȱnationalities.ȱStatisticalȱdataȱ asȱwellȱasȱdataȱfromȱmassȱsurveysȱshowȱconvincinglyȱtheȱnumericallyȱsuperiorȱgroupȱ 109

MihailȱRodinsȱandȱAlexȱGaponenkoȱ

ȱ sizeȱofȱethnicȱLatvians,ȱtheȱtotalȱnumberȱofȱwhichȱincreasedȱbyȱ4%ȱinȱ2011ȱandȱmakesȱ upȱmoreȱthanȱtwoȱthirdsȱofȱtheȱpopulation.ȱȱ

Ethnicȱidentification,ȱaccordingȱtoȱourȱresearch,ȱisȱnotȱfundamentallyȱdifferentȱ fromȱ statisticsȱ onȱ ethnicity.ȱ Moreȱ fractionalȱ indicatorsȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ identityȱ canȱ clarifyȱ theȱpicture.ȱOnȱtheȱquestion:ȱ“RepresentativesȱofȱwhatȱethnicȱgroupȱisȱinȱyourȱfamiȬ ly?”ȱ 94.1%ȱ ofȱ Latviansȱ indicatedȱ thatȱ otherȱ familyȱ membersȱ wereȱ Latvians,ȱ whileȱ

12.2%ȱmentionedȱotherȱethnicȱgroups.ȱTheȱsituationȱisȱsimilarȱamongȱmembersȱofȱtheȱ nonȬtitularȱ nation.ȱ Amongȱ Russianȱ Latviansȱ otherȱ membersȱ ofȱ theirȱ familyȱ andȱ friendsȱ areȱ 78.5%ȱ ethnicȱ Russian,ȱ andȱ onlyȱ 2.7%ȱ Latvians.ȱ Representativesȱ ofȱ otherȱ ethnicȱentitiesȱalsoȱmakeȱupȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱtheȱmembersȱofȱtheirȱfamilyȱandȱfriends.ȱ

SufficientlyȱcohesiveȱethnicȱidentityȱinȱLatviaȱisȱakinȱtoȱaȱstrictȱdifferentiationȱ statusȱofȱethnicȱminorities.ȱTheȱquestion:ȱ“DoȱyouȱthinkȱyouȱbelongȱtoȱanȱethnicȱmiȬ nority?”ȱ6.8%ȱofȱLatviansȱareȱwillingȱtoȱacceptȱtheȱstatusȱofȱethnicȱminorities,ȱ33.7%ȱ ofȱtheȱRussianȱpopulation,ȱandȱ55.5%ȱofȱpersonsȱofȱotherȱgroupsȱ(Tableȱ6.2).ȱ

Inextricablyȱlinkedȱtoȱethnicȱidentificationȱappearsȱlinguisticȱidentity,ȱservingȱ asȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱpreconditionsȱforȱnationȱbuilding.ȱAndȱtheȱpossessionȱ andȱuseȱofȱtheȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnationȱbyȱtheȱnationȇsȱethnicȱminoritiesȱareȱnotȱ onlyȱexpressionsȱofȱloyaltyȱtoȱtheȱnation,ȱbutȱalsoȱserveȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱkeyȱfactorsȱinȱ theȱintegrativeȱprocesses.ȱTheȱuseȱ ofȱ nationalȱ languagesȱzonesȱ wasȱ testedȱ byȱ referȬ enceȱtoȱtheȱlinguisticȱsituationȱinȱtheȱfamily.ȱTheȱquestion:ȱ“Whatȱlanguageȱdoȱyouȱ speakȱatȱhome?”ȱ92.7%ȱofȱLatviansȱspeakȱinȱtheirȱnativeȱlanguageȱinȱtheirȱfamilies,ȱ whileȱrespectivelyȱ7.3%ȱandȱ13.4%ȱofȱRussianȱpeopleȱȱandȱotherȱethnicȱgroupsȱalsoȱ speakȱLatvianȱinȱtheȱfamily.ȱConversely,ȱ5.6%ȱofȱLatviansȱspeakȱinȱRussianȱinȱtheirȱ families,ȱwhileȱamongȱRussiansȱ91.2%ȱandȱotherȱgroupsȱ80.6%ȱuseȱtheȱRussianȱlanȬ guageȱinȱtheȱfamily.ȱȱ 110

EthnoȬPoliticalȱConflictsȱandȱDiversitiesȱinȱNationalȱIdentiesȱinȱLatvia

Inȱcontrast,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱLatgalȱlanguageȱinȱtheȱfamilyȱisȱnotȱsignificantȱ(lessȱ thanȱ0.6%).ȱAmongȱtheȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱLatgalȱnationȱtheȱamountȱofȱuseȱofȱtheȱ languageȱdoesȱnotȱexceedȱ3%.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱethnicȱminoritiesȱdemonstrateȱaȱ greaterȱdegreeȱofȱassimilationȱintoȱLatvianȱsocietyȱthroughȱtheȱLatvianȱlanguageȱthanȱ foundȱamongȱtheȱRussianȱpopulation.ȱAccordingȱtoȱourȱdata,ȱtheȱrepresentativesȱofȱ allȱethnicȱminorityȱgroupsȱhighlyȱappreciateȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱlanguageȱ inȱtheȱcommunityȱandȱactivelyȱexpressȱtheirȱmotivationȱtoȱlearnȱandȱuseȱtheȱlanguageȱ ofȱtheȱtitularȱnation.ȱTheȱdifferencesȱrelateȱtoȱaȱsignificantȱreductionȱinȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱ

RussianȱlanguageȱbyȱLatviansȱ(despiteȱtheirȱhighȱlevelȱofȱproficiencyȱinȱRussian).ȱAlȬ soȱthereȱisȱaȱslightlyȱhigherȱproportionȱthatȱmakesȱuseȱofȱotherȱEuropeanȱlanguagesȱ amongȱethnicȱminorityȱgroups,ȱespeciallyȱamongȱtheȱyoungerȱgeneration.ȱ

Linguisticȱ diversityȱ inȱ multiculturalȱ andȱ ethnicȱ societiesȱ inevitablyȱ leadsȱ toȱ certainȱsocialȱbarriersȱtoȱcommunicationȱandȱdiscriminatoryȱpolicies.ȱLinguisticȱdisȬ criminationȱ asȱ aȱ socialȱ problemȱ causesȱ anxietyȱ inȱ 27.6%ȱ Latvians,ȱ 74.9%ȱ Russians,ȱ andȱ56.8%ȱinȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱethnicȱgroups.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱthreatȱofȱextinctionȱofȱtheȱ

LatvianȱnationȱandȱtheȱLatvianȱlanguageȱasȱtheȱcatalystsȱofȱethnicȱconflictȱdoesȱnotȱ exceedȱ20%ȱofȱallȱrespondentsȱregardlessȱofȱnationality.ȱȱ

Inȱgeneral,ȱtheȱinstitutionalȱhegemonyȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱlanguageȱandȱlinguisticȱ assimilationȱcauseȱaȱsenseȱofȱconcernȱamongȱmembersȱofȱethnicȱminoritiesȱandȱserveȱ asȱtheȱreasonȱforȱethnicȱconflictsȱandȱmigration.ȱCulturalȱidentityȱasȱanȱethnicȱidentiȬ tyȱinȱLatviaȱhasȱaȱdistinctlyȱconservativeȱcharacter.ȱMulticulturalȱidentityȱhasȱaȱsignifȬ icantȱlevelȱofȱhomogenization,ȱinternalȱcohesion,ȱandȱselfȬȱdefenseȱforȱdistancingȱitȬ selfȱfromȱotherȱsocialȱgroups.ȱAccordingȱtoȱourȱresearch,ȱtheȱethnicȱgroupsȱinȱLatviaȱ haveȱaȱhighȱdegreeȱofȱculturalȱidentity,ȱwhileȱcrossȬculturalȱcommunicationȱbasedȱonȱ culturalȱ pluralismȱ andȱ socialȱ dialogueȱ isȱ scarce.ȱ Moreover,ȱ theȱ dominantȱ ethnoȬ culturalȱcommunityȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnationȱhasȱallȱtheȱinstitutionalȱandȱideologicalȱreȬ 111

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ȱ sourcesȱforȱethnicȱandȱculturalȱhegemonyȱandȱassimilation.ȱAccordingȱtoȱaȱmajorityȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ respondents,ȱ ethnicȱ minoritiesȱ shouldȱ sendȱ theirȱ childrenȱ toȱ Latvianȱ schoolsȱandȱkindergartens,ȱsupportȱLatvianȱculturalȱorganizations,ȱandȱacceptȱLatviȬ anȱtraditionsȱandȱotherȱculturalȱvalues.ȱMoreover,ȱteachingȱinȱschoolsȱshouldȱbeȱconȬ ductedȱinȱLatvian.ȱInȱthisȱregard,ȱtheȱsurveyȱrevealsȱtheȱattitudesȱofȱrespondentsȱtoȱ theȱprospectȱofȱfutureȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱcultureȱofȱethnicȱminorities.ȱ26.0%ȱLatviȬ ans,ȱ4.9%ȱRussiansȱandȱ10.4%ȱofȱotherȱminoritiesȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱcultureȱofȱRussianȱ andȱotherȱnationalȱminoritiesȱinȱLatviaȱinȱtheȱfutureȱwillȱdissolveȱinȱtheȱLatvianȱculȬ ture.ȱȱȱ

Thisȱ analysisȱ ofȱ attitudesȱ regardingȱ theȱ divisionȱ ofȱ socialȱ andȱ ethnicȱ groupsȱ andȱsignificantȱculturalȱsymbolsȱalsoȱallowsȱusȱtoȱgiveȱaȱpartialȱpictureȱofȱaȱdividedȱ ethnicȱandȱculturalȱidentityȱinȱLatvia.ȱOnȱtheȱquestions:ȱ“Whoȱisȱyourȱnationalȱhero?”ȱ

(Lachplesis,ȱKarlisȱUlmanis,ȱVladimirȱLenin,ȱVladimirȱPutin,ȱMedvedev),ȱandȱ“Whoȱ isȱ yourȱ nationalȱ writer?”ȱ (Janisȱ Rainis,ȱ Francisȱ Trasuns,ȱ Alexanderȱ Pushkin,ȱ Tarasȱ

Shevchenko,ȱ Adamȱ Mickiewicz,ȱ Yakubȱ Kolas,ȱ andȱ Shalomȱ Aleichem)ȱ repliesȱ wereȱ receivedȱthatȱdemonstrateȱtheȱfundamentalȱdifferencesȱinȱtheȱexistingȱethnoȬculturalȱ communities.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

CulturalȱandȱvalueȬbasedȱseparationȱisȱanȱobstacleȱtoȱtheȱconciliationȱandȱtolȬ eranceȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ policy.ȱ Basedȱ onȱ ourȱ research,ȱ itȱ canȱ beȱ concludedȱ thatȱ inȱ Latviaȱ thereȱisȱaȱstrongȱculturalȱdivideȱbetweenȱtheȱethnicȱmajorityȱandȱtheȱminoritiesȱwithȱaȱ mutuallyȱrepellingȱorientationȱtoȱmulticulturalȱintegration.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

Ethnic conflict: causes and extent of leakageȱ

AnȱimportantȱattributeȱofȱtheȱanalysisȱofȱinterȬethnicȱconflictȱisȱtoȱidentifyȱtheȱsourcesȱ andȱcausesȱofȱtheseȱconflicts.ȱHowever,ȱtrackingȱtheȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconflictsȱfacesȱaȱȱ

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Table 6.2. Ethnocultural identity in Latvia by nationalities (%) Question:Whatlanguagedoyouspeakathome? Question:IsthereathreatofextinctionoftheLatviannationandthenationallanguage? Question:TowhatextentareyouconcernedabouttheproblemoflanguagediscriminationinLatvia? Question:DoyouthinkthatLatvianswanttotakerevengefromRussianandotherethnicgroups? Question:What,inyouropinion,thesocialcharacteristicsofapersonarecrucialinLatvia? Question:WhatwillhappeninthefuturewiththecultureofethnicminoritiesinLatvia? Question:Whoareyournationalheroandawriter? Question:What,inyouropinion,itisnecessarytomakethenonͲLatvianstoimproveinterͲethnic relationsinLatvia? Nationalities Variables Total Latvians Russians Other SpeaksLatvianinfamily 51.3 92.7 7.3 13.4 SpeaksRussianinfamily 46.6 5.6 91.2 80.6 SpeaksLatgalinfamily 0.6 0.4 0.2 3.0 ThethreatofextinctionoftheLatviannation 16.7 15.6 19.0 14.2 ThethreatofextinctionLatvianlanguage 18.2 16.3 21.7 15.7 ThethreatofextinctionofthepeopleofLatgale 36.6 28.3 35.3 44.8 ThethreatofextinctionofLatgallanguage 33.5 35.8 51.2 52.7 Languagediscrimination 48.7 27.6 74.9 56.8 Thedominanceofethnicity 61.4 58.0 66.6 59.0 ethnicrevenge 44.7 24.9 67.3 57.5 CultureethnoͲminoritiesinthefuturedissolve 16.2 26.0 4.9 10.4 inLatvianculture LearntheLatvianlanguage 86.6 96.6 75.6 78.4 SendchildrentoLatvianschoolsand 46.1 63.1 28.8 27.6 kindergartens TeachinginschoolsintheLatvianlanguage 35.9 64.7 5.4 11.9 SupporttheLatvianculturalorganizations 38.9 58.8 16.6 24.6 FollowLatviantraditionsandculturalvalues 55.4 72.8 33.6 50.0 Lachplesis 49.0 75.4 20.2 26.1 K.Ulmanis 26.0 43.0 7.1 13.4 VladimirLenin 4.5 2.0 7.6 5.2 I.Stalin 2.8 1.1 5.3 2.0 V.Putin 17.2 2.7 33.7 27.6 D.Medvedev 18.8 2.1 26.3 24.0 J.Rainis 52.0 76.4 23.4 38.1 F.Trasun 5.4 6.7 3.4 6.7 A.Pushkin 43.6 13.5 79.8 58.2 T.Shevchenko 8.3 3.4 11.4 18.7 A.Mickiewicz 4.2 2.5 3.7 12.6 Y.Kolas 3.9 2.7 3.1 11.2 Sh.Aleyhm 3.9 2.0 4.6 9.7 Note: This table contains only positive responses (“very attached” and “more attached”, “totally agree”and“agree“).

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ȱ numberȱofȱdifficultiesȱdueȱtoȱtheirȱspeciesȱdiversity,ȱandȱtheȱabsenceȱofȱclearȱboundaȬ riesȱbetweenȱaȱnumberȱvisibleȱonȱtheȱsurfaceȱandȱtheȱdeeperȱreasons,ȱrootedȱinȱtheȱ sphereȱofȱmentalityȱandȱculturalȱattributes.ȱEachȱconflictȱ(orȱaȱseriesȱofȱconflicts)ȱisȱ unique,ȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ characterizedȱ byȱ itsȱ intrinsicȱ setȱ ofȱ componentsȱ andȱ theirȱ specificȱ combination.ȱHence,ȱanyȱattemptȱtoȱintroduceȱanȱexplanatoryȱdiagramȱofȱtheȱethnicȱ conflictȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱaȱnumberȱofȱhypotheticalȱcausalȱstatementsȱor,ȱonȱtheȱcontraȬ ry,ȱverifiedȱfindingsȱwillȱinitiallyȱbeȱinaccurateȱandȱincomplete.ȱ

Thus,ȱtheȱtypicalȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconflictsȱamongȱexpertsȱandȱrepresentativesȱ ofȱtheȱmassȱconsciousnessȱinȱLatviaȱindicateȱethnicȱoriginȱandȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱtitularȱ nation,ȱattitudesȱtoȱtheȱhistoricalȱpastȱandȱitsȱinterpretation,ȱandȱtheȱfearȱofȱmodernȱ

Russia.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱdetermineȱpossibleȱcausesȱandȱdegreeȱofȱtheȱflowȱofȱethnicȱconȬ flictsȱinȱLatvia,ȱtheȱsurveyȱincludedȱseveralȱquestionsȱtoȱtheȱrespondents,ȱprovidingȱaȱ formalizationȱofȱtheȱresponses.ȱToȱtheȱquestion:ȱ“Toȱwhatȱextentȱȱareȱyouȱconcernedȱ aboutȱ...“ȱethnicȱconflictsȱinȱLatvia,ȱ27.8%ȱofȱLatviansȱrespondedȱpositively,ȱamongȱ

Russianȱ 36.6%,ȱ andȱ membersȱ ofȱ otherȱ groupsȱ 41.0%.ȱ Tableȱ 6.3ȱ showsȱ theȱ possibleȱ confrontationȱbetweenȱtheȱethnicȱmajorityȱandȱtheȱethnicȱminorities.ȱAsȱcanȱbeȱseenȱ fromȱtableȱ6.3,ȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱrespondentsȱdoȱnotȱconsiderȱethnicȱconfrontationȱposȬ sible.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

Table 6.3. Ethno-political conflicts in Latvia (in%).ȱ Question:TodayinLatviatherearedifferentethnicgroups.Whatisyouropinion aboutapossibleconfrontationbetweenthetwogroups?Pleaseidentifyonascale of1to5theextenttowhichthisconfrontationpossible.* Confrontationispossible Confrontationisunlikely 3.2 11.7 26.1 28.0 29.8 Note:*Thetablepresentsonlypositiveanswers:“Confrontationispossible,”“ConͲ frontationisunlikely.“

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Onlyȱaȱsmallȱpartȱofȱtheȱrespondentsȱ(mainlyȱfromȱtheȱnonȬtitularȱnation),ȱareȱ orientedȱtoȱovertȱphysicalȱcollision.ȱBasically,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱrespondents,ȱinȱcaseȱofȱ aȱpossibleȱconfrontationȱthereȱwillȱbeȱonlyȱacuteȱoralȱexchangeȱ(43.3%).ȱȱ

Table 6.4. The causes of ethnic confrontation (in %). Question:Inyouropinion,whatarethereasonsforthisconfrontation,towhatexͲ tent?Pleaseuseascalefrom1to5,where“1”meansͲtoalargeextent,and“5” meansͲinasmallextent.(Oneanswerineachrow).* Variables ToagreatextentToasmallextent Economicinequality 20.6 21.7 24.8 16.3 16.6 groups Politicalgroupinequality 27.5 24.3 24.9 11.6 11.7 Economiccrisis 21.9 24.0 23.1 14.0 17.1 ThethreatofassimilaͲ 12.7 22.2 29.0 19.9 16.2 tion ThepowerstrugglebeͲ tweentheelitesofethͲ 25.6 24.1 21.5 14.8 14.0 nicgroups Lackofcitizenship 23.6 19.0 24.3 18.6 14.5 TheinfluenceofRussia 16.3 17.4 27.4 16.6 22.2 Note:Thetableincludesonlypositiveanswers:“Toagreatextent,”“ToasmallexͲ tent.”

AnȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconflictȱinȱLatviaȱisȱpresentedȱinȱtableȱ6.4.ȱ

PossibleȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconflictsȱinȱLatviaȱinclude:ȱeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱinequaliȬ tiesȱofȱethnicȱgroups,ȱeconomicȱcrises,ȱtheȱthreatȱofȱassimilation,ȱtheȱpowerȱstruggleȱ betweenȱtheȱelitesȱofȱethnicȱgroups,ȱlackȱofȱcitizenship,ȱandȱtheȱimpactȱofȱRussia.ȱTheȱ dataȱshowȱthatȱtheȱhypotheticalȱsetȱofȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconflictsȱsufficientlyȱexpressesȱ theȱpositionȱofȱhalfȱofȱtheȱrespondents.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱlackȱofȱcitizenshipȱandȱtheȱinȬ fluenceȱofȱRussiaȱasȱcausesȱofȱethnicȱconflictsȱwereȱindicatedȱtwiceȱasȱmuchȱbyȱRusȬ sianȱandȱotherȱethnicȱminoritiesȱthanȱbyȱLatvians,ȱwhichȱwasȱtoȱbeȱexpected.ȱ

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Discussion and conclusionȱ

Ethnic stratification and inequality in Latviaȱȱ

TheȱpeculiarityȱofȱethnicȱpoliticsȱinȱaȱmultiethnicȱLatviaȱsinceȱindependenceȱisȱaȱconȬ stantȱsearchȱforȱeffectiveȱwaysȱandȱmeansȱofȱtheȱincorporationȱofȱethnicȱgroupsȱintoȱ theȱtitularȱnation.ȱTheȱformallyȱproclaimedȱideologyȱofȱequalityȱandȱsocialȱintegraȬ tionȱbyȱtheȱLatvianȱrulingȱeliteȱ(theȱlargestȱinterestȱinȱwhichȱisȱdetectedȱsporadicallyȱ inȱtimesȱofȱnationalȱandȱregionalȱelections)ȱwasȱcompletelyȱdiscreditedȱthroughȱasȬ similationȱprocessesȱbyȱ2013.ȱȱ

EthnoȬpoliticalȱ inequalityȱ andȱ subordinationȱ inȱ theȱ distributionȱ ofȱ power,ȱ privileges,ȱandȱresourcesȱresultedȱinȱmodernȱethnicȱstratification.ȱNoteȱthatȱtheȱborȬ dersȱandȱinternalȱstructureȱofȱethnoȱstratificationȱinȱLatviaȱareȱsoȱfarȱnotȱcompletelyȱ finished.ȱȱ

Horowitzȱ(1985)ȱproposesȱtoȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱsocietiesȱthatȱareȱverticallyȱ separatedȱ fromȱ societiesȱ thatȱ horizontallyȱ stratified.ȱ Weȱ mayȱ wellȱ agreeȱ withȱ theȱ findingsȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱresearchersȱledȱbyȱB.ȱZepaȱthatȱitȱwouldȱbeȱwrongȱtoȱconsiderȱ theȱethnicȱsituationȱinȱLatviaȱstableȱandȱunchanging.ȱThisȱfindingȱisȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱ studyȱ“EthnoȬpoliticalȱtensionsȱinȱLatvia:ȱtheȱsearchȱforȱwaysȱtoȱresolveȱtheȱconflict”ȱ

(Zepaȱ2005).ȱ

Theȱ empiricalȱ basisȱ forȱ theseȱ conclusionsȱ isȱ generalȱ demographicȱ data,ȱ theȱ studyȱofȱlaborȱbasedȱonȱtheȱCSBȱandȱdataȱpolls.ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱauthors,ȱinȱLatviaȱ thereȱ areȱ certainȱ areasȱ whereȱ Latviansȱ dominateȱ (publicȱ administration,ȱ education,ȱ agriculture),ȱandȱthereȱareȱareasȱwithȱaȱhigherȱproportionȱofȱnonȬLatviansȱ(transport,ȱ industry,ȱconstruction).ȱHowever,ȱsignificantȱdifferencesȱinȱtheȱincomesȱofȱLatvians,ȱ

Russiansȱandȱotherȱnationalitiesȱareȱnotȱobserved.ȱWhatȱhelpsȱtoȱeaseȱtheȱriskȱfactorsȱ 116

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ofȱethnicȱconflict,ȱasȱsuggestedȱbyȱZepa,ȱcanȱbeȱattributedȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱinȱLatviaȱ ethnicȱgroupsȱareȱnotȱconcentratedȱhomogeneouslyȱinȱconcreteȱregionsȱandȱeconomicȱ industries.ȱTheseȱgroupsȱareȱrepresentedȱinȱvariousȱfieldsȱandȱscatteredȱacrossȱdifferȬ entȱregions,ȱformingȱaȱreticularȱmixedȱmodelȱaccordingȱtoȱRothschildȱ(1981/1985).ȱ

TheȱfinalȱconclusionȱbyȱtheȱresearchȱteamȱofȱZepaȱisȱthatȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱLatvia,ȱ theȱsituationȱwhereȱeveryȱethnicȱgroupȱisȱrepresentedȱinȱvariousȱactivitiesȱandȱthereȱ areȱnoȱsignificantȱdifferencesȱinȱincomeȱbyȱethnicity,ȱthisȱisȱconsideredȱasȱaȱfactorȱthatȱ reducesȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ anȱ escalationȱ ofȱ theȱ ethnicȱ conflict.ȱ Recognitionȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ conflictȱandȱitsȱinclusionȱintoȱscientificȱandȱpoliticalȱrhetoricȱinȱmostȱcasesȱcauseȱexȬ tremelyȱ hostileȱ reactions,ȱ criticismsȱ ofȱ beingȱ unscientificȱ andȱ lackȱ ofȱ loyaltyȱ toȱ theȱ regime.ȱTheȱLatvianȱpoliticalȱelite,ȱdemographically,ȱsocially,ȱandȱintellectuallyȱdoesȱ notȱrepresentȱtheȱLatvianȱsocietyȱsinceȱitȱonlyȱmakesȱupȱlessȱthanȱoneȱpercentȱofȱtheȱ totalȱpopulation,ȱpossessingȱallȱtheȱresourceȱcapabilitiesȱofȱethnicȱmobilization.ȱAbsoȬ luteȱ ethnicȱ hegemonyȱ (overȱ 90%)ȱ characterizesȱ theȱ bureaucraticȱ class,ȱ nationalȱ auȬ thorities,ȱ andȱ regionalȱ government.ȱ Aȱ significantȱ portionȱ ofȱ theȱ nationalȱ budgetȱ isȱ allocatedȱforȱtheȱmaintenanceȱofȱLatvianȱbureaucracy.ȱTheȱlackȱofȱpoliticalȱrepresenȬ tationȱofȱethnicȱminoritiesȱinȱpowerȱandȱcontrolȱareȱnotȱonlyȱaȱbarrierȱtoȱexpressionȱ andȱ theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ theirȱ interests,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ isȱ theȱ reasonȱ forȱ theȱ deficitȱ ofȱ repreȬ sentativeȱdemocracyȱinȱLatvia.ȱȱȱ

National identity as a conflict-generating resource in Latviaȱ

Atȱ theȱ firstȱ approachȱ toȱ theȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ ethnicȱ andȱ culturalȱ identityȱ inȱ Latvia,ȱ thereȱisȱconfusionȱaboutȱtheȱneedȱforȱanyȱnewȱempiricalȱdata,ȱtheȱdetectionȱandȱasȬ sessmentȱofȱwhatȱisȱhappening.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱthereȱisȱneedȱforȱconstantȱmonitorȬ ingȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ ethnoȬpoliticalȱ relationsȱ andȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ growingȱ ethnoȬconflictsȱ inȱ intensiveȱEuropeanȱterritorialȱmobilityȱandȱtheȱcrisisȱofȱEuropeanȱmulticulturalism.ȱ

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“Sleeping”ȱ conflictsȱ andȱ ethnicȱ “frozen”ȱ ethnicȱ relations,ȱ withȱ theirȱ inherentȱ oppositionalȱoralȱhistoricalȱmemoryȱinȱSovietȱLatvia,ȱwereȱtransformedȱintoȱanȱopenȱ confrontationȱinȱtheȱpostȬSovietȱperiod.ȱAtȱpresentȱLatviaȱsteadilyȱhasȱestablishedȱtheȱ dominantȱethnoȬculturalȱidentityȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnationalityȱandȱethnicȱminorities.ȱAnȱ intenseȱandȱpainfulȱperiodȱinȱtheȱ1990sȱofȱsearchingȱandȱfindingȱnewȱregimeȱidentiȬ tiesȱ isȱ over,ȱ butȱ theȱ politicalȱ formulaȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ statehoodȱ hasȱ becomeȱ –ȱ “ethnoȬ culturalȱandȱethnicȱpluralityȱinȱaȱsingleȱwhole.”ȱȱ

DespiteȱtheȱproclaimedȱdemocraticȱprinciplesȱandȱtheȱpublicȱrhetoricȱofȱethnoȬ culturalȱtoleranceȱandȱintegrationȱofȱtheȱpowerȱelite,ȱethnicȱminoritiesȱhaveȱbeenȱefȬ fectivelyȱ“deduced”ȱfromȱtheȱroleȱofȱpolicyȬmakingȱpositions.ȱTrackingȱtheȱregulatoȬ ryȱchangesȱinȱtheȱLatvianȱethnicȱpolicies,ȱoneȱcanȱargueȱaboutȱtheirȱintroductionȱandȱ implementationȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱexpectationsȱandȱinfluencesȱ(andȱsometimesȱsancȬ tions)ȱ ofȱ externalȱ structuresȱ andȱ politicalȱ actors,ȱ inȱ particularȱ theȱ Europeanȱ Unionȱ andȱRussia.ȱȱ

InȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱBalticȱcountries,ȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱtheȱBalticȱRussiansȱandȱotherȱ ethnicȱgroups,ȱwithȱtheirȱparticularȱethnoȬculturalȱidentitiesȱareȱsufficientȱreasonȱforȱ theȱrecognitionȱofȱtheirȱspecialȱrights,ȱasȱwellȱasȱaȱnaturalȱconditionȱforȱtheȱdemocratȬ icȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheseȱpoliticalȱregimes.ȱ

Aȱmajorȱfindingȱofȱourȱstudyȱisȱthatȱethnicȱmajorityȱandȱsubordinatedȱethnicȱ minoritiesȱinȱLatviaȱidentifyȱthemselvesȱwithȱtheȱidentitiesȱofȱ“differentȱworlds”ȱthatȱ theȱresultingȱinȱtheȱethnoȬpoliticalȱandȱculturalȱconflict.ȱFactorȱanalysisȱhasȱidentifiedȱ theȱexistenceȱofȱsustainableȱandȱhighȱcorrelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱvariablesȱofȱethnicity,ȱ language,ȱcultureȱandȱnationalȱsymbols.ȱTheȱhighȱethnoȬculturalȱselfȬidentityȱofȱnaȬ tionalȱandȱethnicȱgroupsȱinȱLatviaȱisȱalsoȱcharacterizedȱbyȱstableȱethnicȱrelationsȱandȱ groupȱcohesion.ȱSurveyȱdataȱgenerallyȱshowȱaȱdeclineȱofȱethnicȱbiasȱandȱ prejudiceȱ 118

EthnoȬPoliticalȱConflictsȱandȱDiversitiesȱinȱNationalȱIdentiesȱinȱLatvia

togetherȱ withȱ hostileȱ attitudesȱ towardsȱ ethnicȱ minorities.ȱ Respondentsȇȱ perceptionsȱ aboutȱtheȱdisappearanceȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱnation,ȱcultureȱandȱlanguage,ȱasȱwellȱasȱnaȬ tionalȱ revengeȱ asȱ commonplacesȱ ofȱ stereotypesȱ areȱ notȱ statisticallyȱ significant,ȱ andȱ contraryȱtoȱtheȱassertionsȱofȱtheȱpowerȱelite.ȱ

Conclusionȱ

Theȱgeneralȱconclusionȱthatȱcanȱbeȱdrawnȱasȱtheȱresultȱofȱtheȱconceptualȱapproachesȱ andȱempiricalȱfindingsȱofȱourȱstudy,ȱasȱwellȱasȱinȱtheȱdetectionȱofȱcivilȱinvolvementȱinȱ socialȱandȱpoliticalȱlife,ȱgivesȱevidenceȱofȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱtwoȱfundamentallyȱdividedȱ politicalȱandȱethnoȬculturalȱcommunitiesȱinȱtheȱinstitutionalȱdominanceȱofȱtheȱtitularȱ nation.ȱ

Theȱ integrativeȱ resourcesȱ inȱ societyȱ appearȱ completelyȱ exhausted,ȱ andȱ theȱ rhetoricȱofȱsocialȱintegrationȱitselfȱ(imposedȱfromȱtheȱoutsideȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱconditionsȱ ofȱEuropeanȱintegration)ȱcausesȱirritationȱandȱonlyȱvagueȱassociations.ȱPerceptionsȱofȱ politicalȱcommunityȱ(otherwise,ȱrelatingȱtoȱtheȱstate)ȱthatȱwereȱratherȱoptimisticallyȱ sharedȱbyȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱLatviaȇsȱpopulationȱbyȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱ1990sȱwereȱcompleteȬ lyȱdevaluedȱbyȱ2013.ȱAttributesȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱstateȱandȱitsȱrecognizableȱmarkers,ȱasȱ wellȱasȱtheȱideologyȱofȱindependence,ȱareȱrapidlyȱleveledȱoutȱinȱoneȱpotȱofȱmarketȱ relations,ȱ Europeanȱ integrationȱ andȱ uncontrolledȱ migration.ȱ Inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ primordialȱ approachȱ ofȱ nationalȱ identityȱ andȱ ethnicȱ conflict,ȱ theȱ titularȱ identityȱ isȱ conservativeȱandȱencapsulated.ȱȱ

Ethnicȱconflictȱisȱnotȱinȱaȱphaseȱofȱopenȱmanifestationȱandȱisȱnotȱfocusedȱonȱ violentȱformsȱofȱconflict.ȱOrientationȱtoȱtheȱresistanceȱtoȱtheȱregimeȱandȱotherȱformsȱ ofȱoppositionalȱstruggleȱtoȱprotectȱtheirȱownȱinterestsȱbyȱethnicȱminoritiesȱisȱrelatedȱ toȱtheȱconstitutionalȱnormsȱofȱindividualȱandȱcollectiveȱselfȬexpression.ȱTheȱpoliticalȱ protestȱasȱanȱexpressionȱofȱdemocraticȱvaluesȱandȱcivicȱresponsibilityȱdoesȱnotȱposȬ 119

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ȱ sessȱtheȱresourceȱlegitimacyȱofȱtheȱrulingȱeliteȱand,ȱinȱgeneral,ȱisȱrealizedȱonlyȱbyȱethȬ nicȱminorities.ȱFocusȱonȱtheȱresistanceȱtoȱtheȱregimeȱandȱotherȱformsȱofȱoppositionalȱ struggleȱtoȱprotectȱtheirȱownȱinterestsȱbyȱethnicȱminorities,ȱisȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱconstituȬ tionalȱnormsȱofȱindividualȱandȱcollectiveȱselfȬexpression.ȱȱ

TheȱpracticeȱofȱeconomicȱandȱpoliticalȱexclusionȱofȱethnicȱminoritiesȱinȱLatviaȱ isȱcloselyȱlinkedȱtoȱtheirȱculturalȱalienationȱandȱculturalȱstatusȱhierarchy.ȱSeparationȱ ofȱRussianȱandȱotherȱethnicȱminorities,ȱethnicity,ȱlanguage,ȱculture,ȱreligion,ȱethnicȱ homeland,ȱ causeȱ fromȱ theȱ Latvianȱ governmentȱ agenciesȱ accusationsȱ ofȱ disloyalty,ȱ andȱleadsȱtoȱaȱlimitationȱofȱtheirȱpoliticalȱrightsȱandȱtheȱsuppressionȱofȱethnicȱminoriȬ tyȱcultures.ȱThisȱfactȱisȱanȱobstacleȱtoȱtheȱdemocraticȱdevelopmentȱofȱethnicȱandȱculȬ turalȱdiversityȱinȱLatviaȱthroughȱculturallyȱinclusiveȱpolicies.ȱ

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References

Apine,ȱȱIlga.,’Integrationȱorȱassimilation?’ȱIn:ȱDaugava,Noȱ4.,1994,ȱpp.145Ȭ146.ȱ

Apine,ȱ Ilga,ȱ andȱ Vladislavsȱ Volkovs.ȱ Latvijasȱ krievuȱ identit¬te:ȱ v¾sturisksȱ unȱ socioloÃisksȱ apcer¾jums.ȱLatvijasȱUniversit¬tesȱfilozofijasȱunȱsocioloÃijasȱinstitĀts,ȱ2007.ȱ

Gaponenkoȱɧ.,ȱandȱMihailsȱRodins.ȱSystemȱcrisisȱofȱLatvianȱsocietyȱȬȱtheȱreasons,ȱscenariosȱ ofȱdevelopment,ȱpossibilityȱofȱovetcoming.ȱBalticȱRimȱEconomies,ȱ29ȱAprilȱ2009.ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

HorowitzȱD.ȱEthnicȱgroupsȱinȱconflict.ȱBerkeley:ȱUniv.ȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress,ȱ1985.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ Huntington,ȱ SamuelȱP.,ȱ Theȱ Clashȱ ofȱ Civilizations?,ȱ Foreignȱ Affairs,ȱȱVol.ȱ72,ȱ́ȱ3,ȱ SumȬ merȱ1993,ȱpp.ȱ22Ȭ49.ȱ

Muižnieks,Nils,ȱed.ȱ(2010).ȱHowȱIntegratedȱIsȱLatvianȱSociety?ȱAnȱAuditȱofȱAchievements,ȱFailuresȱȱ andȱ Challengesȱ /ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Latviaȱ Advancedȱ Socialȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Researchȱ Institute.ȱRiga:ȱUniversityȱofȱLatviaȱPress.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

Rodins,ȱ Mihailsȱ(2012).ȱ Stratifikatsioonȱ jaȱ Venemaaȱ võimueliit.ȬȱPoliitika.ȱ Riigiteadus.ȱ RahȬ vusvahelisedȱSuhted,ȱNr.ȱ4ȱ(13),ȱlk.ȱ87ȱȬȱ111.ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

Rodins,ȱMihailsȱ(2011).ȱIdentityȱandȱpoliticalȱparticipation.ȱIn:ȱJanisȱIkstens,ȱAndrisȱRuncisȱ(eds.).ȱ FoundingȱelectionsȱinȱLatvia,ȱ1993Ȭ1995.ȱAnalysis,ȱdocumentsȱandȱdata.ȱBerlin:ȱSigma,ȱpp.ȱ 102Ȭ122ȱ

RothschildȱJ.ȱEthnopolitics:ȱAȱconceptualȱframework.ȱȬȱN.Y.:ȱColumbiaȱUniv.ȱpress,ȱ1981ȱ

Zepa,ȱ Brigita,ȱ ed.ȱ (2005).ȱ ʝ˘ˑ˓˔˓ˏˆ˘ˆˣʺ˖ˊʲˮȱ ˑʲ˔˕ˮʾʺˑˑ˓˖˘˪ȱ ʵȱ ʁʲ˘ʵˆˆ:ȱ ˔˓ˆ˖ˊˆȱ ˔˙˘ʺˇȱ ˕ʲ˄˕ʺ˦ʺˑˆˮȱ ˊ˓ˑ˟ˏˆˊ˘ʲȱ [Ethnopoliticalȱ tensionȱ inȱ Latvia:ȱ theȱ searchȱ forȱ waysȱ toȱ resolveȱtheȱconflict].ȱBalticȱInstituteȱofȱSocialȱSciences.ȱRigaȱ2005.ȱȱ

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Appendix 6.1. Technical information model of the sample study in 2011 Regions Demographics(%) Totalnumberof Totalnumberof (from18years) respondentsto surveyrespondents thesurvey(%) (%) Total 100 100 100 1.Riga 34.0 34.6 34.8 2.Vidzeme 22.0 22.3 25.2 ͲJurmala ͲRigaregion ͲLimbazhi ͲValmiera ͲCesis ͲGulbene ͲAluksne ͲValka ͲMadonna ͲOgre 3.Kurzeme 11.0 10.8 16.5 ͲLiepaja ͲTulsi ͲVentspils ͲKuldiga ͲSaldus 4.Zemgale 17.0 16.8 12.5 ͲDobele ͲTukums ͲJelgava ͲBauska ͲEkabpils ͲAjzkraukle 5.Latgale 16.0 15.5 10.8 ͲPrejli ͲDaugavpils ͲRezekne ͲLudzas ͲBalvi ͲKraslava

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Stratification parameters Demographics (%) Total number of Total number of (from18 years) respondents to survey the survey (%) respondents (%) Male/Female Total 100 100 100 Man 46.3 46.3 42.1 Woman 53.7 53.7 57.9

Nationality Total 100 100 100 Latvians 57.7 57.7 50.6 Russians 30.0 30.0 37.2 Others 12.3 12.3 12.2

Age of respondents Total 100 100 100 18-24 y. 16.4 17.4 15.6 25-34 18.8 18.0 25.6 35-44 21.5 21.2 19.9 45-54 18.1 18.6 18.1 more than 55 24.2 24.7 20.8

Status Total 100 100 100 Working 63.5 63.6 69.4 Unemployed 36.5 36.4 30.6

Education Total 100 100 100 Elementary 11.6 11.5 2.0 Average 69.5 69.6 51.0 High School 18.9 18.9 46.2

Citizenship Total 100 100 100 Citizens of Latvia 74.2 73.8 82.2 Non-citizens 25.8 26.2 17.8 Note: The table in Appendix 6.1 shows only the positive data.

ȱȱ

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Chapter 7

Diversity Management and Sustainability: The Latvian Case in Baltic Context

JurisȱRozenvalds1ȱ

TheȱideaȱofȱsustainableȱdevelopmentȱtodayȱisȱunderstoodȱnotȱonlyȱinȱrelationȱtoȱreȬ sourcesȱandȱtheȱenvironmentȱbutȱalsoȱinȱrelationȱtoȱpeopleȇsȱabilityȱtoȱarrangeȱtheirȱ livesȱsoȱthatȱeconomicȱandȱsocialȱsustainabilityȱisȱachieved.ȱȱȱContemporaryȱsocietiesȱ areȱbecomingȱincreasinglyȱvariedȱand,ȱinȱthisȱcontext,ȱaȱcrucialȱcomponentȱtoȱtheȱsoȬ cialȱpoliticalȱsustainabilityȱisȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱensureȱtheȱunityȱofȱsociety,ȱrespectingȱvaȬ riety,ȱ supportingȱ pluralismȱ andȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ participationȱ (Unitedȱ Nations,ȱ

2012).ȱȱ

Theȱ stabilityȱ andȱ consolidationȱ processesȱ ofȱ multiethnicȱ societiesȱ dependȱ onȱ severalȱfactors,ȱamongȱthem,ȱweȱwillȱsingleȱoutȱasȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱtheȱpowerȱandȱ historicalȱ tiesȱ toȱ theȱ society;ȱ distanceȱ betweenȱ ethnicȱ culturesȱ andȱ languages;ȱ relaȬ tionshipȱbetweenȱtheȱkindsȱofȱtheirȱinformationȱspace;ȱtheȱsimilar/differentȱinȱtheȱhisȬ toricalȱmemoriesȱofȱtheȱtitularȱethnosȱandȱnonȬtitularȱcommunitiesȱandȱtheirȱrelatedȱ groupȱ identities;ȱ demographicȱ factorsȱ (settlementȱ traditions,ȱ percentageȱ ofȱ mixedȱ marriages);ȱandȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱtitularȱethnosȱandȱnonȬ titularȱcommunities.ȱȱFinally,ȱweȱshouldȱmentionȱtheȱpoliticalȱfactors:ȱbothȱtheȱinterȬ nal—actionsȱofȱtheȱrulingȱpoliticalȱelitesȱandȱrelationshipsȱamongȱtheȱpoliticalȱrepreȬ sentativesȱofȱcommunities—andȱtheȱexternal—theȱinfluenceȱofȱinternationalȱorganiȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱProfessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱPoliticalȱScience,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatvia.ȱ

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zationsȱandȱalliedȱcountries,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱtheȱhistoricȱhomelandȱofȱtheȱ nonȬtitularȱcommunity,ȱparticularlyȱifȱitȱisȱlocatedȱnextȱdoor.ȱȱ

TheȱSovietȱlegacyȱinȱLatviaȇsȱdemographicȱsituationȱandȱmutualȱrelationshipsȱ ofȱethnicȱcommunitiesȱgivesȱriseȱtoȱaȱcontradictoryȱpicture.ȱOnȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱasȱaȱreȬ sultȱofȱaȱwholeȱrowȱofȱcircumstances,ȱLatviaȱhadȱsufferedȱmostȱcomparedȱtoȱitsȱBalticȱ

ȈsistersȈ.ȱPostwarȱmigrationȱprocessesȱledȱLatviansȱcloseȱtoȱtheȱbrinkȱofȱbecomingȱaȱ minorityȱinȱtheirȱhistoricalȱterritory.ȱȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱ1989ȱUSSRȱCensusȱdata,ȱLatviȬ ansȱwereȱonlyȱ52%ȱofȱtheȱtotalȱpopulationȱofȱLatviaȱandȱwereȱaȱminorityȱinȱallȱtheȱ largestȱcitiesȱcomparedȱwithȱ75%ȱinȱ1935.ȱȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱifȱweȱareȱtoȱcompareȱ

Latviaȱ toȱ Estoniaȱ (forȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ reasons,ȱ theȱ demographicȱ situationȱ inȱ Lithuaniaȱ developedȱalongȱsubstantiallyȱdifferentȱlines),ȱaȱmoreȱfavorableȱsituationȱformedȱinȱ

Latviaȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱ1980s,ȱwhich,ȱinȱmanyȱaspects,ȱhasȱpersistedȱtoȱthisȱday.ȱȱ

Evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ proportionȱ ofȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ inȱ Estoniaȱ isȱ onlyȱ slightlyȱ smallerȱthanȱinȱLatviaȱ(24.8%ȱtoȱ27%),ȱLatviaȱhadȱaȱsubstantiallyȱlargerȱpercentageȱofȱ soȬcalledȱȈoldȱ RussiansȈȱ mostȱ ofȱ whomȱ wereȱ citizensȱ ofȱ theȱ Republicȱ ofȱ Latviaȱ alȬ readyȱbeforeȱtheȱwarȱandȱwhoȱwereȱawareȱofȱtheirȱtiesȱtoȱLatvia,ȱbyȱandȱlargeȱsepaȬ ratingȱthemselvesȱfromȱpostwarȱimmigrants.ȱOverall,ȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱcommuȬ nityȱinȱLatvia,ȱcomparedȱtoȱthoseȱinȱ EstoniaȱandȱLithuania,ȱisȱcharacterizedȱbyȱtheȱ relativelyȱhighestȱfeelingȱofȱitsȱpowerȱandȱsocialȱinfluence.ȱIfȱweȱareȱtoȱexpressȱtheȱ selfȬassessmentȱofȱaȱgroupȱonȱaȱscaleȱofȱ0ȱtoȱ1,ȱwhereȱ0ȱisȱaȱtotalȱlackȱofȱinfluenceȱandȱ

1,ȱaȱtotallyȱdominatingȱinfluence,ȱtheȱselfȬassessmentȱofȱLatviaȇsȱRussianȱspeakersȱisȱ

0.51,ȱwhichȱisȱhigherȱ thanȱthatȱofȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ inȱ Lithuaniaȱ (0.49)ȱ andȱ Estoniaȱ

(0.45)ȱ(Ehalaȱ&ȱZabrodskaja,ȱ2011,ȱ30).ȱȱȱ

EnumeratingȱtheȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱLatviaȱandȱEstonia,ȱweȱshouldȱdefinitelyȱ mentionȱtheȱdifferentȱtraditionsȱofȱsettlementȱofȱnonȬtitularȱethnoses.ȱInȱEstonia,ȱtheȱ

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Russianȱ speakingȱ populationȱ isȱ concentratedȱ primarilyȱ inȱ theȱ northeasternȱ partȱ ofȱ

EstoniaȱwhereȱRussiansȱareȱaȱmajority.ȱȱInȱLatvia,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱnonȬLatvians,ȱincludȬ ingȱRussians,ȱareȱmoreȱevenlyȱdistributedȱthroughoutȱtheȱterritoryȱofȱtheȱcountry.ȱWeȱ mustȱnoteȱalsoȱthatȱtheȱRussianȱspeakersȱinȱEstoniaȱareȱmoreȱseparatedȱfromȱtheȱtituȬ larȱnationȱthanȱinȱLatvia,ȱnotȱonlyȱgeographicallyȱbutȱalsoȱsocially.ȱOnȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱ itȱisȱcloselyȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱaforementionedȱsettlementȱtraditions.ȱOneȱthirdȱofȱEstoniaȇsȱ

Russianȱspeakersȱliveȱinȱtheȱnortheastȱofȱtheȱcountry,ȱwhichȱinȱtheȱpostȬsocialistȱEsȬ toniaȱhasȱbecomeȱaȱdepressedȱregion.ȱInȱEstonia,ȱaȱmuchȱlargerȱdifferenceȱinȱwagesȱ persistsȱbetweenȱtheȱrepresentativesȱofȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱcommunityȱandȱtheȱtitȬ ularȱnationȱthanȱinȱLatviaȱ(Hazansȱ2010,ȱ142Ȭ143).ȱȱȱ

Inȱtheȱliteratureȱofȱtheȱsocialȱsciences,ȱtheȱindicatorȱofȱtheȱpercentageȱofȱmixedȱ marriagesȱtendsȱtoȱbeȱsingledȱoutȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱrelationsȱbetweenȱethnoȬlinguisticȱ groups:ȱitȱisȱviewedȱasȱanȱessentialȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheȱȈsocialȱdistanceȈȱbetweenȱethȬ nicȱ groups,ȱ becauseȱ mixedȱ marriagesȱ involveȱ notȱ onlyȱ individualsȱ butȱ alsoȱ widerȱ socialȱgroupsȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱindividualsȱbelong.ȱInȱLatviaȱinȱtheȱpostwarȱperiod,ȱtheȱ numberȱofȱmixedȱmarriagesȱwasȱtraditionallyȱrelativelyȱhighȱduringȱtheȱSovietȱtime;ȱ

Latviaȱwasȱinȱ theȱfirstȱplaceȱamongȱ theȱ republicsȱ ofȱ theȱ Sovietȱ Unionȱ republics.ȱ Inȱ

LatviaȱtheȱnumberȱofȱmixedȱmarriagesȱhasȱnotȱsubstantiallyȱchangedȱwithȱtheȱrestoȬ rationȱofȱindependence,ȱhoveringȱaroundȱ20%ȱinȱtheȱlastȱfortyȱyears.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱ percentageȱ ofȱ Russiansȱ marryingȱ Latviansȱ hasȱ increasedȱ substantiallyȱ fromȱ 16%ȱ atȱ theȱbeginningȱofȱ theȱ1990sȱtoȱ25%ȱ lessȱ thanȱ fifteenȱ yearsȱ laterȱ (Mondenȱ 2005,ȱ 334),ȱ which,ȱ apparentlyȱ canȱ beȱ explainedȱ byȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ duringȱ theȱ massȱ exodusȱ fromȱ

Latviaȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱ1990s,ȱtheȱpartȱofȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱpopulationȱthatȱ leastȱintendedȱtoȱintegrateȱwithȱtheȱLatvianȱsocietyȱandȱcultureȱwasȱtheȱoneȱthatȱleft.ȱȱ

Despiteȱsuccessesȱofȱpoliticsȱofȱ russificationȱȱinȱ Latvia,ȱcomparedȱtoȱEstonia,ȱ thereȱwasȱandȱstillȱisȱaȱhigherȱpercentageȱofȱRussianȬspeakingȱresidents,ȱwhoȱhaveȱaȱ 127

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commandȱofȱtheȱlanguageȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnation.ȱThus,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱ1979ȱcensusȱ results,ȱ 20.1%ȱ ofȱ nonȬLatviansȱ knewȱ theȱ languageȱ ofȱ theȱ indigenousȱ populationȱ ofȱ theirȱ republic,ȱ whereasȱ onlyȱ 13.0%ȱ ofȱ theȱ nonȬEstoniansȱ knewȱ Estonianȱ (Misiunasȱ

1993,ȱ283).ȱȱThisȱdifferenceȱincreasedȱevenȱinȱtheȱtwentyȱyearsȱofȱrestoredȱindependȬ ence.ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱresultsȱofȱtheȱ2000ȱcensus,ȱ37.4%ȱofȱnonȬEstoniansȱhadȱaȱcomȬ mandȱofȱEstonianȱasȱaȱsecondȱlanguage.ȱInȱLatvia,ȱtheȱproportionȱofȱspeakersȱofȱLatȬ vianȱasȱaȱsecondȱlanguageȱwasȱ59.5%ȱ ofȱ nonȬLatviansȱ (Statisticalȱ Officeȱ ofȱ Estonia,ȱ

CentralȱStatisticalȱBureauȱofȱLatvia,ȱStatisticsȱLithuania,ȱ2003,ȱ37).ȱFromȱtheȱpointȱofȱ viewȱofȱsocialȱintegration,ȱitȱisȱfundamentallyȱimportantȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱaccountȱtheȱfactȱ thatȱtheȱbilingualȱsegmentȱofȱtheȱsocietyȱisȱsubstantiallyȱlargerȱinȱLatviaȱthanȱinȱLithȬ uaniaȱorȱEstonia.ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱdataȱofȱM.ȱEhala,ȱsuchȱaȱsegmentȱisȱconstitutedȱofȱ aboutȱ18%ȱofȱtheȱpopulationȱinȱLithuaniaȱandȱEstonia,ȱwhereasȱinȱLatviaȱitȱexceedsȱ

40%ȱ(Ehalaȱ2012).ȱȱȱ

ConcludingȱthisȱbriefȱoverviewȱofȱtheȱsignificantȱfactorsȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱinteȬ gration,ȱletȱusȱturnȱintoȱaȱveryȱimportantȱ(yetȱmostȱdifficultȱtoȱmeasureȱandȱidentify)ȱ issueȱofȱtheȱidentitiesȱofȱethnoȬlinguisticȱgroupsȱandȱtheirȱmutualȱrelationships.ȱTheȱ postȬsocialistȱcollectiveȱidentityȱinȱLatviaȱwasȱsubstantiallyȱinfluencedȱbyȱtwoȱpersisȬ tentȱattitudesȱthatȱweȱwillȱdesignateȱhereȱasȱȈtraumaȈȱandȱaȱȈhopeȱforȱaȱreturnȈ.ȱForȱ

LatviaȱandȱLatvians,ȱsuchȱtraumaȱwasȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱoccupation,ȱmassȱrepression,ȱ deportations,ȱideologicalȱpressures,ȱandȱmassiveȱimmigrationȱandȱrussificationȱproȬ cesses.ȱUnderȱtheȱconditionsȱofȱpostȬsocialistȱtransformations,ȱtheȱsocialȱdiscomfortȱ wasȱexacerbatedȱbyȱtheȱrapidȱchangesȱinȱsocialȱstructure,ȱunemployment,ȱcostȱofȱlivȬ ing,ȱandȱuncertaintyȱaboutȱtheȱfuture.ȱWeȱshouldȱnoteȱthatȱinȱLatvia,ȱsimilarȱtoȱseverȬ alȱotherȱEastȱEuropeanȱcountries,ȱturningȱtoȱhistoryȱasȱaȱstrategyȱofȱsurvivingȱȈtrauȬ maȈ,ȱwhichȱoftenȱturnsȱtoȱreopeningȱoldȱwounds,ȱhasȱbecomeȱanȱintegralȱcomponentȱ ofȱtheȱsocialȬȱpoliticalȱdiscourse.ȱMoreover,ȱinȱtheȱLatvianȱcollectiveȱconsciousnessȱofȱ

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recentȱdecadesȱtheȱȈviciousȱcircleȱ ofȱ culturalȱ destructionȈ,ȱ asȱ Piotrȱ Sztompkaȱ (2000,ȱ

464)ȱcallsȱit,ȱhasȱbecomeȱratherȱpronounced.ȱItȱisȱcharacterizedȱbyȱattemptsȱtoȱchooseȱ theȱ cultivationȱ ofȱ memoriesȱ asȱ aȱ strategyȱ thatȱ maintainsȱ orȱ evenȱ exacerbatesȱ theȱ traumaȱsyndrome.ȱSuchȱanȱapproachȱisȱevidentȱinȱtheȱattemptsȱtoȱresolveȱtheȱinternalȱ problemsȱofȱsocietyȱandȱestablishingȱrelationshipsȱwithȱotherȱcountriesȱbyȱchoosingȱ toȱbeȱguidedȱbyȱtheȱneedȱtoȱovercomeȱpastȱinjustices.ȱItȱshowsȱitselfȱasȱidealizationȱofȱ prewarȱ Latvia,ȱ aȱ blackȬandȬwhiteȱ viewȱ ofȱ theȱ Sovietȱ period,ȱ identificationȱ ofȱ leftistȱ andȱRussian,ȱasȱwellȱasȱattemptsȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱcollectiveȱresponsibilityȱofȱtheȱSovietȱ regimeȱforȱtheȱoccupation,ȱSovietization,ȱandȱRussificationȱofȱLatviaȱaȱmatterȱofȱindiȬ vidualȱ responsibilityȱ ofȱ currentȱ postwarȱ immigrantsȱ andȱ theirȱ offspring.ȱ Here,ȱ weȱ mustȱmentionȱminorityȱcomplexȱasȱaȱpersistentȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱcollectiveȱ consciousnessȱ(Š²erbinskisȱ2004).ȱItsȱrootsȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱcenturiesȬlongȱexperiȬ enceȱofȱbeingȱinȱaȱminorityȱsubjectedȱtoȱvariousȱalienȱpowers,ȱincludingȱtheȱalmostȱ fiveȱdecadesȱasȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱUSSR.ȱȱȱ

Itȱisȱalsoȱassertedȱthatȱ“aȱcoupleȱofȱLatvianȱgenerationsȱhaveȱgrownȱupȱwithȱaȱ minorityȱ complex,ȱ whereasȱ theȱ generationsȱ ofȱ immigrantsȱ haveȱ grownȱ upȱ withȱ aȱ feelingȱofȱimpunityȱandȱdominanceȈȱ(Š²erbinskisȱ2004).ȱLatvianȱlowȱselfȬimageȱwasȱ alsoȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱresearchȱpaperȱofȱtheȱBalticȱInstituteȱofȱSocialȱSciences,ȱȈSocietyȱ

Integrationȱ andȱ Toleranceȱ inȱ LatviaȈȱ (2004),ȱ whichȱ concludedȱ thatȱ “Latviansȱ areȱ characterizedȱbyȱaȱsenseȱofȱendangermentȱbecauseȱLatviansȱinȱtheirȱcountryȱ…ȱfeelȱasȱ anȱendangeredȱmajorityȈȱ(BalticȱInstituteȱofȱSocialȱSciences,ȱ2004,ȱ12).ȱȱ

AccordingȱtoȱtheȱdataȱpresentedȱbyȱM.ȱEhalaȱandȱA.ȱZabrodskaja,ȱLatvianȱselfȬ assessmentȱ(0.66)ȱisȱsubstantiallyȱlowerȱthanȱthatȱofȱLithuaniansȱ(0.74)ȱandȱEstoniansȱ

(0.72).ȱ Similarȱ differencesȱ existȱ alsoȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ titularȱ nationȱ byȱ theȱ relevantȱ

RussianȬspeakingȱminorities.ȱLithuaniansȱhaveȱtheȱhighestȱevaluationȱ(0.78),ȱtheyȱareȱ followedȱbyȱEstoniansȱ(0.74),ȱandȱfinallyȱLatviansȱ(0.70)ȱ(Ehalaȱ&ȱZabrodskajaȱ2011,ȱ 129

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30).ȱAlsoȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱrelativeȱethnicȱpotentialȱofȱtitularȱgroupsȱ(whichȱisȱcalculatȬ ed,ȱcomparingȱtheȱselfȬassessmentȱofȱtheȱtitularȱnationȱwithȱtheȱethnicȱpotentialȱofȱtheȱ

RussianȬspeakingȱminorityȱinȱitsȱevaluation)ȱLatviansȱaffordȱthemselvesȱaȱveryȱslightȱ upperȱ handȱ overȱ Latviaȇsȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ (0.10),ȱ substantiallyȱ laggingȱ behindȱ theȱ

Estoniansȱ(0.23)ȱandȱLithuaniansȱ(0.20)ȱ(ibid.).ȱȱOfȱcourse,ȱitȱisȱdebatableȱtoȱwhatȱexȬ tentȱ suchȱ selfȬassessmentȱ isȱ commensurableȱ withȱ theȱ undeniableȱ factȱ thatȱ Latviansȱ haveȱdominatedȱLatviaȇsȱpoliticalȱlifeȱoverȱtheȱpastȱtwentyȱyears,ȱbutȱinȱthisȱcase,ȱtheȱ stateȱofȱcollectiveȱconsciousnessȱbecomesȱaȱfactȱofȱsocialȱlife.ȱȱ

Theȱminorityȱcomplexȱisȱreflectedȱalsoȱinȱanȱexclusiveȱpoliticalȱcultureȱrootedȱ inȱ convictionȱ commonȱ withinȱ theȱ publicȱ andȱ theȱ politicalȱ elitesȱ alikeȱ thatȱ postwarȱ immigrantsȱhaveȱnoȱrightȱtoȱmakeȱdecisionsȱonȱissuesȱthatȱareȱstrategicallyȱimportantȱ toȱLatviaȇsȱdevelopment.ȱAtȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱ1990s,ȱ52%ȱofȱLatviansȱwereȱofȱtheȱ opinionȱthatȱonlyȱprewarȱcitizensȱandȱtheirȱoffspringȱshouldȱtakeȱpartȱinȱelectionsȱofȱ theȱ restoredȱ state.ȱȱToȱ compare,ȱ onlyȱ 44%ȱ Estoniansȱ andȱ aȱ mereȱ 12%ȱ Lithuaniansȱ sharedȱthisȱopinion,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱclearȱindicationȱofȱtheȱrelationȱbetweenȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱ

Ȉculturalȱ traumaȈȱ (whichȱ inȱ thisȱ caseȱ isȱ inverselyȱ proportionalȱ toȱ theȱ percentageȱ ofȱ theȱtitularȱnationȱinȱtotalȱpopulation)ȱandȱsupportȱforȱexclusiveȱpoliticalȱcultureȱ(Roseȱ

&ȱ Maleyȱ 1994).ȱȱSuchȱ orientationȱ ofȱ everydayȱ consciousnessȱ turnedȱ outȱ toȱ beȱ veryȱ viable.ȱInȱaȱ2013ȱsurveyȱofȱLatvianȱcitizens,ȱ60.3%ȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱrespondentsȱagreedȱ withȱ theȱ statementȱ thatȱ minorityȱ identitiesȱ andȱ culturesȱ shouldȱ beȱ supportedȱ andȱ reinforced.ȱȱYetȱonlyȱ37.5%ȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱrespondentsȱagreedȱwithȱtheȱstatementȱthatȱ

Latviaȇsȱ developmentȱ wouldȱ beȱ promotedȱ byȱ aȱ moreȱ activeȱ participationȱ ofȱ nonȬ

Latviansȱinȱstateȱgovernanceȱ(FacultyȱofȱSocialȱSciences,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatvia,ȱ2013).ȱ

AnotherȱdominantȱfeatureȱofȱLatvianȱpostȬsocialistȱconsciousnessȱcouldȱbeȱreȬ ferredȱtoȱasȱȈtheȱhopeȱforȱaȱreturnȈ,ȱtheȱwidespreadȱconvictionȱthatȱafterȱcloseȱtoȱfiftyȱ yearsȱspentȱinȱtheȱUSSR,ȱLatviaȱbelongsȱtoȱwhereȱitȱonceȱbelonged,ȱi.e.ȱinȱtheȱWesternȱ 130

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world.ȱTheȱhopeȱofȱreturningȱtoȱEuropeȱbecameȱaȱveryȱpowerfulȱconsolidationȱfactorȱ forȱsocietyȱatȱlargeȱbutȱparticularlyȱitsȱLatvianȱpart.ȱBecauseȱofȱit,ȱmanyȱwereȱreadyȱtoȱ makeȱ certainȱ sacrifices,ȱ butȱ onȱ theȱ otherȱ handȱ itȱ alsoȱ meantȱ opennessȱ toȱ pressuresȱ fromȱtheȱWestȱ(Muižnieksȱ&ȱBrandsȱKehrisȱ2003).ȱTrue,ȱitȱmustȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱ thatȱtheȱreturnȱtoȱEuropeȱisȱdeterminedȱbyȱtwoȱinterrelatedȱyetȱdistinctȱfactors.ȱFirst,ȱ itȱisȱtheȱtransformationȱofȱlegislativeȱ normsȱ andȱ politicalȱ institutionsȱ inȱ conformityȱ withȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱCopenhagenȱcriteria,ȱi.e.ȱrequirementsȱthatȱwereȱformulatedȱvisȬàȬ visȱEUȱcandidatesȱatȱtheȱmeetingȱofȱtheȱCouncilȱofȱEuropeȱinȱ1993ȱinȱCopenhagen.ȱToȱ becomeȱmembersȱofȱtheȱEuropeanȱclub,ȱtheyȱhadȱtoȱestablishȱaȱlegalȱandȱinstitutionalȱ frameworkȱofȱdemocracy;ȱensureȱobservationȱofȱhumanȱandȱminorityȱrights;ȱdevelopȱ aȱviableȱmarketȱeconomyȱthatȱcouldȱsurviveȱtheȱpressureȱofȱtheȱEUȱcommonȱmarketȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ takeȱ onȱ theȱ obligationȱ toȱ moveȱ towardȱ aȱ closerȱ political,ȱ economic,ȱ andȱ monetaryȱunion.ȱInȱfact,ȱthatȱmeantȱtoȱcreateȱtheȱformalȱframeworkȱtoȱtheȱprecondiȬ tionsȱofȱdemocracy,ȱwhichȱcouldȱnot,ȱhowever,ȱguaranteeȱtheȱformationȱofȱaȱdemoȬ craticȱpoliticalȱculture.ȱ

ȱAlthoughȱobservanceȱofȱminorityȱrightsȱisȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱCopenhagenȱcriȬ teriaȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱpreconditionsȱofȱtheȱintegrationȱprocess,ȱitsȱparticȬ ularȱframeworkȱremainsȱundefined,ȱgivenȱtheȱdiversityȱofȱapproachesȱwithinȱtheȱEU.ȱ

Theȱestablishmentȱofȱaȱtrulyȱdemocraticȱcultureȱwithinȱwideȱstrataȱofȱtheȱpopulation,ȱ which,ȱinȱturn,ȱisȱaȱfundamentalȱpreconditionȱofȱsustainedȱdemocracy,ȱrequiresȱmuchȱ deeperȱ(andȱrequiringȱlongerȱtime)ȱchangesȱinȱtheȱbasicȱattitudesȱofȱtheȱsocietyȱandȱ theȱbasicȱcharacterizationsȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱprocess,ȱmakingȱthemȱconformȱtoȱtheȱspiritȱ ofȱ Europeanȱ humanistȱ traditions.ȱ Thatȱ isȱ “Europeization”ȱ inȱ theȱ trueȱ senseȱ ofȱ theȱ word,ȱandȱinȱthisȱrespect,ȱLatviaȱstillȱhasȱaȱlongȱwayȱtoȱgo.ȱMoreover,ȱfromȱnowȱonȱitȱ willȱmuchȱmoreȱdependȱonȱtheȱchoicesȱmadeȱbyȱsocietyȱitselfȱandȱtheȱpoliticalȱelitesȱ–ȱ bothȱ becauseȱ thereȱ areȱ noȱ universalȱ prescriptionsȱ forȱ establishingȱ consolidatedȱ deȬ

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mocracy,ȱandȱbecause,ȱwithȱLatviaȱjoiningȱtheȱEuropeanȱUnionȱandȱNATO,ȱtheȱabilȬ ityȱofȱourȱalliesȱtoȱinfluenceȱourȱinternalȱpoliticsȱhaveȱsubstantiallyȱdiminished.ȱȱ

InȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱLatvianȱidentity,ȱtheȱselfȬidentificationȱofȱLatviaȇsȱRussianȱ speakingȱpopulationȱformedȱwithinȱaȱdifferentȱculturalȱtradition.ȱAsȱfarȱasȱRussiansȱ asȱtheȱcoreȱofȱLatviaȇsȱRussianȬspeakingȱcommunityȱareȱconcerned,ȱitȱwasȱtheȱhistoriȬ calȱ experienceȱ ofȱ theȱ greatȱ nation,ȱ whichȱ associatedȱ itselfȱ withȱ powerful,ȱ despoticȱ statehoodȱ(originally,ȱtheȱRussianȱEmpire,ȱlaterȱitsȱheir,ȱtheȱSovietȱUnion).ȱDuringȱtheȱ lastȱyearsȱofȱSovietȱpower,ȱasȱwellȱasȱduringȱtheȱSingingȱRevolution,ȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱ

LatviaȇsȱRussianȱspeakersȱwereȱbearersȱofȱȈnormalȈȱawareness:ȱtheyȱfeltȱthatȱtheyȱbeȬ longedȱtoȱtheȱpoliticallyȱandȱculturallyȱdominantȱpartȱofȱtheȱsociety,ȱandȱinȱtheirȱscaleȱ ofȱvalues,ȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱprioritiesȱdominatedȱoverȱtheȱspecificallyȱethnicȱonesȱ

(forȱinstance,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱnativeȱlanguageȱinȱsocialȱcommunicationȱandȱeducation),ȱ becauseȱ theȱ observanceȱ ofȱ theȱ latterȱ seemedȱȈnormalȈȱ andȱ selfȬevident.ȱ Aȱ kindȱ ofȱ

ȈnormalcyȱmomentumȈȱformedȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱmoreȱpronouncedȱforȱLatviaȇsȱRussianȱ speakersȱifȱforȱonlyȱtheȱreasonȱthatȱ afterȱ theȱ warȱ theyȱ enjoyedȱ aȱ moreȱ comfortableȱ situationȱthanȱinȱtheȱotherȱtwoȱBalticȱrepublics.ȱȱ

TheȱdominanceȱofȱsocialȱandȱeconomicȱprioritiesȱinȱtheȱcollectiveȱconsciousȬ nessȱofȱLatviaȇsȱRussianȱspeakersȱalsoȱmeantȱthatȱtheȱpossibleȱregainingȱofȱLatviaȇsȱ independenceȱ wasȱ perceivedȱ withȱ hopeȱ forȱ aȱ moreȱ rapidȱ socioeconomicȱ developȬ ment,ȱwhichȱwasȱnotȱinȱconflictȱwithȱtheȱdesireȱofȱLatviansȱtoȱrestoreȱtheirȱstatehoodȱ asȱaȱpreconditionȱforȱtheȱsustainabilityȱofȱtheirȱlanguageȱandȱculture.ȱTheȱaboveȱcirȬ cumstancesȱwereȱofȱessenceȱonȱLatviaȇsȱroadȱtoȱtheȱrestorationȱofȱindependence.ȱAcȬ cordingȱtoȱpublicȱopinionȱsurveys,ȱinȱ1990,ȱindependenceȱforȱLatviaȱwasȱsupportedȱ byȱ39%ȱofȱlocalȱnonȬLatviansȱ(Zepaȱ1992).ȱTheȱpollȱonȱnationalȱindependence,ȱwhich,ȱ atȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱ1991ȱwasȱconductedȱinȱLatviaȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱreferendumȱonȱ preservingȱtheȱSovietȱUnionȱconceivedȱbyȱtheȱthenȱleadersȱofȱtheȱUSSR,ȱtheȱproporȬ 132

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tionȱofȱeligibleȱpopulationȱthatȱvotedȱforȱnationalȱindependenceȱ(64.51%)ȱsubstantialȬ lyȱ exceededȱ (byȱ aboutȱ 12%)ȱ theȱ proportionȱ ofȱ Latviansȱ inȱ theȱ totalȱ populationȱ

(52.05%,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱ1989ȱcensusȱdata).ȱThatȱprovidesȱgroundsȱforȱtheȱassertionȱ thatȱaȱsignificantȱportionȱofȱnonȬLatviansȱ–ȱatȱleastȱ25%ȱ–ȱatȱtheȱMarchȱ3,ȱ1991ȱpoll,ȱ votedȱforȱLatviaȇsȱindependence.ȱInȱtermsȱofȱthisȱindicator,ȱLatviaȱsurpassedȱLithuaȬ niaȱwhereȱtheȱproportionȱofȱthoseȱvotingȱforȱindependenceȱwasȱaboutȱtheȱsameȱasȱtheȱ proportionȱ ofȱ Lithuaniansȱ inȱ theȱ totalȱ population,ȱ andȱ itȱ alsoȱ surpassedȱ Estoniaȱ whereȱtheȱnumberȱofȱthoseȱvotingȱforȱindependenceȱwasȱonlyȱaȱcoupleȱofȱpercentageȱ pointsȱ higherȱ thanȱ theȱ proportionȱ ofȱ Estoniansȱ inȱ theȱ totalȱ populationȱ ofȱ Estonia.ȱ

Theseȱdataȱinviteȱtheȱconclusionȱthatȱtheȱsupportȱforȱtheȱindependenceȱideaȱamongȱ minoritiesȱwasȱgreaterȱinȱLatviaȱthanȱinȱLithuaniaȱandȱEstonia.ȱȱ

Atȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱ1990s,ȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱpopulationȱofȱLatviaȱalsoȱ endedȱupȱinȱaȱculturalȱtraumaȱsituation,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheȱreasonsȱwereȱsubstantiallyȱ different.ȱItȱwasȱcausedȱbyȱrapidȱsocioeconomicȱchangeȱandȱchangeȱinȱtheirȱpreviousȱ socialȱstanding,ȱwhichȱwasȱfurtheredȱbyȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheȱdominantȱattitudesȱtoȱlanȬ guageȱ andȱ citizenshipȱ questionsȱ becameȱ stricterȱ afterȱ 1991ȱ whenȱ comparedȱ toȱ theȱ rulesȱ(admittedly,ȱalsoȱpromises)ȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ theȱ Singingȱ Revolution,ȱ andȱ itȱ wasȱ stricterȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ severalȱ fundamentalȱ issues,ȱ thanȱ theȱ attitudesȱ inȱ Estonia,ȱ notȱ evenȱspeakingȱofȱLithuania.ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱhalfȱofȱtheȱ1990s,ȱalmostȱoneȱthirdȱofȱLatviaȇsȱ populationȱ(includingȱaboutȱtwoȱthirdsȱofȱRussians)ȱdidȱnotȱenjoyȱfullȱpoliticalȱrights.ȱ

Theȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ inȱ Latviaȱ quicklyȱ lostȱ theirȱ normalcyȱ illusionsȱ andȱ beganȱ reȬ gardingȱthemselvesȱasȱaȱminorityȱthatȱhasȱtoȱfightȱforȱitsȱrights.ȱItȱisȱstillȱaȱdebatableȱ andȱpoliticallyȱveryȱsensitiveȱquestionȱtoȱwhatȱdegreeȱinȱthisȱprocessȱprivilegesȱwereȱ lostȱthatȱwereȱestablishedȱduringȱSovietȱtimeȱandȱtoȱwhatȱextentȱtheȱnationalizationȱ processȱinvolvedȱinfringingȱuponȱtheȱinalienableȱrightsȱofȱnonȬLatvians.ȱȱ

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However,ȱitȱisȱindisputableȱthatȱinȱLatvia,ȱaȱpotentiallyȱdangerousȱconfrontaȬ tionȱaroseȱbetweenȱtwoȱminorityȱconsciousnesses,ȱwhichȱinȱglobalȱhistoryȱoftenȱhaveȱ hadȱdevastatingȱconsequences.ȱWeȱmustȱnoteȱthat,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱdataȱofȱM.ȱEhalaȱ andȱ A.ȱ Zabrodskaja,ȱ theȱ smallȱ minoritiesȱ ofȱ theȱ Balticsȱ (Lithuanianȱ Russiansȱ andȱ

Poles),ȱ assessȱ theȱ legitimacyȱ ofȱ theȱ interȬethnicȱ relationshipsȱ inȱ theirȱ countryȱ withȱ gradesȱaboveȱaverageȱ(3.77ȱandȱ3.90ȱpoints,ȱrespectively)ȱonȱaȱȱ6ȱpointȱscaleȱwhereȱ1ȱ equalsȱlowȱandȱ6ȱhighȱlegitimacy.ȱTheȱlargeȱminorities,ȱtheȱRussianȱspeakersȱofȱEstoȬ niaȱandȱLatvia,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱgiveȱtheȱlegitimacyȱofȱtheseȱrelationshipsȱaȱmuchȱ lowerȱevaluation:ȱ2.78ȱandȱ2.31ȱpoints,ȱrespectively.ȱInȱLatviaȱoneȱcanȱalsoȱfindȱtheȱ highestȱlevelȱofȱmutualȱdistrustȱbetweenȱethnicȱgroupsȱinȱtheȱBalticȱcountries.ȱLatviȬ ansȱgiveȱitȱ3.29ȱpoints,ȱwhichȱisȱsubstantiallyȱhigherȱthanȱtheȱEstonianȱ3.06ȱandȱLithȬ uanianȱ 2.76ȱ points.ȱ Aȱ similarȱ pictureȱ emergesȱ withȱ Latviaȇsȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ whoȱ assessȱ theȱ mutualȱ distrustȱ withȱ aȱ 3.37,ȱ whichȱ substantiallyȱ differsȱ fromȱ theȱ assessȬ mentsȱ ofȱ Lithuanianȱ andȱ Estonianȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ (respectively,ȱ 2.76ȱȱandȱ 3.16)ȱ

(Ehalaȱ&ȱZabrodskaȱ2011,ȱ36).ȱȱȱ

Becauseȱofȱlimitsȱofȱspace,ȱweȱwillȱnotȱdiscussȱinȱdetailȱtheȱroleȱplayedȱbyȱinȬ ternalȱ factorsȱ (resistanceȱ ofȱ Russianȱ speakersȱ toȱ nationalizationȱ attempts;ȱ theȱ oftenȱ inflexibleȱpoliciesȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱstateȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱlanguage,ȱcitizenship,ȱandȱcivicȱ participationȱofȱminoritiesȱetc.)ȱandȱRussiaȇsȱpoliciesȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱcompatriotsȱinȱ theȱnearȱabroad.ȱWeȱmustȱnote,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱsusceptibilityȱtoȱexternalȱinfluencesȱisȱ usuallyȱexplainedȱbyȱtheȱinternalȱproblemsȱofȱaȱsociety.ȱȱȱ

Flows and ebbs of integrations policies in Latvia

ToȱwhatȱextentȱdidȱtheȱLatvianȱleadershipȱmanageȱtoȱuseȱtheȱhistoricallyȱformedȱopȬ portunitiesȱ forȱ consolidationȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ societyȱ andȱ itsȱ stabilizationȱ onȱ sustainableȱ

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foundationsȱ andȱ toȱ preventȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ mitigateȱ theȱ undesirableȱ dissociationȱ trendȱ betweenȱtheȱcommunities?ȱȱȱ

EvaluatingȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱtheȱlastȱtwentyȬfiveȱyearsȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱintegraȬ tionȱpolicies,ȱseveralȱbasicȱfeaturesȱ standȱ out.ȱ Letȱ usȱbeginȱ byȱ notingȱ thatȱ aȱ fundaȬ mentalȱdifferenceȱexistsȱbetweenȱtheȱachievementsȱofȱspontaneousȱȈfromȱtheȱbottomȈȱ integrationȱandȱtheȱobviousȱskiddingȱofȱtheȱofficialȱintegrationȱandȱconsolidationȱpolȬ icies.ȱInȱtheȱlastȱtwentyȬfiveȱyears,ȱnoȱconsensusȱhasȱformedȱeitherȱamongȱtheȱpolitiȬ calȱelitesȱorȱinȱsocietyȱatȱlargeȱwithȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ integration,ȱ itsȱ methodsȱ andȱdesiredȱresults.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱintegrationȱpoliciesȱoverȱtheȱpastȱtwentyȬfiveȱyearsȱ haveȱ alwaysȱ beenȱ theȱȈunlovedȱ childȈȱ ofȱ theȱ Latvianȱ politicalȱ elite,ȱ withȱ flowsȱ folȬ lowedȱbyȱebbs,ȱandȱactivationȱtakingȱplaceȱmostlyȱbecauseȱofȱexternalȱpressure,ȱaltȬ houghȱtheȱsourceȱandȱdirectionȱkeepȱshiftingȱsubstantiallyȱoverȱtime.ȱ

ȱDuringȱ theȱ Singingȱ Revolution,ȱ theȱ proliferationȱ ofȱ integrationȱ ideasȱ wasȱ promotedȱ byȱ theȱ pressureȱ ofȱ proȬimperialȱ forcesȱ fromȱ theȱ centralȱ structuresȱ ofȱ theȱ

USSRȱandȱtheȱpressureȱfromȱtheirȱsupportersȱwithinȱLatvia.ȱGivenȱtheȱethnicȱcompoȬ sitionȱofȱtheȱthenȱLatvianȱsociety,ȱtheȱnecessityȱtoȱaddressȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱpartȱ ofȱtheȱsocietyȱandȱseekȱoutȱopportunitiesȱforȱmutualȱcooperationȱseemedȱselfȬevident.ȱ

ThisȱapproachȱwasȱexpressedȱmostȱclearlyȱbyȱtheȱfirstȬgenerationȱleadersȱofȱtheȱLatȬ vianȱPopularȱFrontȱ(LPF),ȱwhichȱwasȱtheȱmostȱinfluentialȱnationalȱdemocraticȱorganȬ izationȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱAwakening.ȱȱ

Atȱthatȱtime,ȱsupportersȱofȱtheȱȈlegalȈȱmethodȱofȱrestoringȱindependenceȱcameȱ ontoȱtheȱpoliticalȱstage,ȱassemblingȱinȱtheȱCitizensȱCongressȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱLatȬ via.ȱȱTheyȱconsideredȱallȱpostwarȱimmigrantsȱillegalȱandȱthereforeȱtheȱveryȱquestionȱ ofȱsocietyȱintegrationȱseemedȱsecondary:ȱtheȱfirstȱorderȱofȱbusinessȱforȱthemȱwasȱreȬ instatingȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ theȱ citizensȱ ofȱ theȱ prewarȱ Republicȱ ofȱ Latviaȱ andȱ theirȱ deȬ

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scendants.ȱAtȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱsummerȱofȱ1991,ȱtheȱsituationȱwasȱveryȱfavorableȱforȱtheȱ restorationȱofȱindependenceȱofȱtheȱBalticȱstates:ȱMikhailȱGorbachevȇsȱattemptsȱtoȱsaveȱ theȱUSSRȱfromȱcollapsingȱbyȱmeansȱofȱsigningȱtheȱnewȱUnionȱtreatyȱfailedȱandȱtheȱ defeatȱofȱtheȱAugustȱcoupȱd’étatȱmeantȱaȱradicalȱweakeningȱofȱtheȱUSSRȱhardlinersȱ bothȱinȱLatviaȱandȱMoscow.ȱTheȱburdenȱofȱrealityȱseemedȱtoȱhaveȱbeenȱliftedȱfromȱ theȱshouldersȱofȱLatvianȱpoliticians,ȱandȱmanyȱofȱthoseȱwho,ȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱ year,ȱwereȱinvitingȱnonȬLatviansȱtoȱvoteȱinȱaȱreferendumȱonȱLatviaȇsȱindependence,ȱ promisingȱthemȱcitizenshipȱinȱindependentȱLatviaȱfastȱbecameȱsupportersȱofȱtheȱȈleȬ galȈȱ approach.ȱ Onȱ Octoberȱ 15,ȱ 1991,ȱ theȱ Supremeȱ Councilȱ adoptedȱ aȱ resolutionȱ onȱ renewingȱtheȱbodyȱofȱcitizensȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱLatvia,ȱleavingȱtheȱregulationȱofȱtheȱ citizenshipȱstatusȱofȱpostwarȱimmigrantsȱforȱsomeȱlaterȱdate,ȱwhichȱcameȱonlyȱfourȱ yearsȱlater.ȱWithoutȱmakingȱslightȱofȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱlegalȱsuccessionȱandȱtheȱneedȱ toȱrestoreȱtheȱbodyȱofȱcitizensȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱofȱLatvia,ȱweȱhaveȱtoȱadmitȱthatȱtheȱ opportunityȱwasȱlostȱtoȱdevelopȱcloserȱtiesȱtoȱtheȱrenewedȱLatvianȱstateȱbyȱatȱleastȱ thatȱpartȱofȱtheȱRussianȱspeakers,ȱwhoȱsupportedȱtheȱideaȱofȱLatviaȇsȱindependenceȱ duringȱtheȱAwakeningȱperiod.ȱȱȱ

Duringȱtheȱfirstȱyearsȱofȱrestoredȱindependence,ȱLatviaȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱaȱunifiedȱ integrationȱpolicy.ȱInȱLatvianȱsocietyȱandȱamongȱtheȱpoliticalȱelitesȱofȱtheȱtime,ȱthereȱ wasȱaȱwidelyȱheldȱconvictionȱthatȱtheȱresolutionȱofȱLatvianȱandȱnonȬLatvianȱrelationȬ shipsȱwasȱtoȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱemigrationȱofȱnonȬLatviansȱtoȱtheȱlandsȱofȱtheirȱancesȬ tors,ȱprimarilyȱtoȱRussia.ȱSubsequentȱyearsȱshowed,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱmostȱofȱtheȱRusȬ sianȱspeakersȱinȱLatviaȱandȱtheȱotherȱtwoȱBalticȱcountriesȱdidȱnotȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱmuchȱ ofȱaȱdesireȱtoȱfollowȱtheȱRussianȱmilitaryȱpersonnelȱandȱtheirȱfamilies.ȱȱȱAtȱtheȱsameȱ time,ȱsociologicalȱresearchȱofȱtheȱ1990sȱpointedȱtoȱsubstantialȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱ valuesȱandȱattitudesȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱandȱRussianȬspeakingȱpartsȱofȱtheȱsocietyȱ(Baltijasȱ

Datuȱnamsȱ1997).ȱ

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ȱ Theȱthemeȱofȱintegrationȱcameȱtoȱtheȱforegroundȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱagendaȱ inȱrelationȱtoȱLatviaȇsȱdesireȱtoȱjoinȱtheȱEuropeanȱpoliticalȱstructuresȱandȱtheȱ1997Ȭ

1998ȱcrisisȱinȱitsȱrelationsȱwithȱRussia.ȱInȱthisȱregard,ȱparallelȱtoȱvigorouslyȱexpressedȱ solidarity,ȱLatviaȱalsoȱhadȱtoȱexperienceȱanȱasȱyetȱunknownȱpressureȱfromȱitsȱpartȬ nersȱ inȱ theȱ West,ȱ whoseȱ aimȱ wasȱ toȱ encourageȱ theȱ Latvianȱ politicalȱ eliteȱ toȱ takeȱ measuresȱ toȱ consolidateȱ itsȱ society,ȱ otherwiseȱ threateningȱ toȱ leaveȱ Latviaȱ withoutȱ politicalȱsupportȱfromȱtheȱWest.ȱAsȱaȱresultȱofȱthisȱpressure,ȱtheȱLawȱonȱCitizenshipȱ wasȱamendedȱinȱ1998,ȱandȱworkȱwasȱbegunȱonȱtheȱbasicȱprinciplesȱofȱstateȱpoliciesȱinȱ theȱareaȱofȱsocietyȱintegration.ȱInȱ1999,ȱtheȱconceptualȱdraftȱofȱtheȱstateȱprogramȱȈSoȬ cietyȱIntegrationȱinȱLatviaȈȱwasȱpublishedȱforȱpublicȱreview,ȱandȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱ

2001—overridingȱnationalistȱresistance—theȱprogramȱwasȱapprovedȱbyȱtheȱgovernȬ ment.ȱȱ

ȱ Theȱnextȱebbȱinȱintegrationȱpoliciesȱcameȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱ yearsȱofȱplenty.ȱThisȱsetbackȱwasȱpromotedȱbyȱpressureȱfromȱpoliticiansȱskepticallyȱ inclinedȱtowardȱintegrationȱinȱcombinationȱwithȱtheȱskepticismȱofȱtheȱsocialȱpartnersȱ ofȱtheȱgovernment,ȱwhichȱtoȱaȱgreatȱextentȱreflectedȱtheȱopinionȱofȱtheȱbroaderȱpubȬ lic.ȱInȱtheȱfallȱofȱ2008,ȱusingȱtheȱeconomizingȱofȱfinancesȱasȱanȱexcuse,ȱitȱwasȱresolvedȱ toȱ abolishȱ theȱ separateȱ stateȱ structureȱ responsibleȱ forȱ integrationȱ issuesȱ andȱ toȱ cutȱ financingȱallottedȱforȱcarryingȱoutȱofȱtheseȱfunctions.ȱ

ȱ Theȱ thirdȱ waveȱ ofȱ interestȱ inȱ issuesȱ regardingȱ societyȱ consolidationȱ cameȱtoȱpassȱwithȱtheȱSaeimaȱelectionsȱofȱ2010ȱandȱ–ȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱpreviousȱtwoȱ flowsȱ–ȱitsȱcausesȱwereȱfoundȱdomestically:ȱtheyȱcameȱfromȱtheȱconsolidationȱofȱtheȱ politicalȱrepresentativesȱofȱRussianȱspeakersȱandȱgrowingȱelectoralȱsuccessȱ(28ȱmanȬ datesȱoutȱofȱ100ȱinȱ2010,ȱandȱ31ȱmandatesȱinȱ2011).ȱȱ

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TheȱstateȱpoliciesȱofȱLatvianȱstateȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱconsistentȱupȱtoȱnow.ȱSuccessȱ inȱoneȱareaȱusuallyȱwasȱfollowedȱ byȱ theȱ endeavorsȱ ofȱ theȱ nationalisticallyȱ inclinedȱ partȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱeliteȱtoȱachieveȱreciprocityȱinȱsomeȱotherȱarea.ȱTheȱmostȱstrikingȱ exampleȱ hereȱ areȱ theȱ amendmentsȱ toȱ theȱ Educationȱ Law,ȱ which,ȱ afterȱ theȱ positiveȱ resultsȱofȱtheȱOctoberȱ3,ȱ1998ȱReferendumȱonȱAmendmentsȱtoȱtheȱLawȱonȱCitizenȬ ship,ȱtheȱ6thȱSaeimaȱadoptedȱonȱtheȱlastȱdayȱofȱitsȱauthority,ȱprovidingȱforȱeducationȱ inȱ theȱ stateȱ languageȱ inȱ stateȱ andȱ localȱ educationalȱ establishmentsȱ asȱ ofȱ 2004.ȱ Sixȱ yearsȱlater,ȱimplementingȱthisȱlegalȱ provisionȱ causedȱ massȱ protestsȱ byȱ theȱ Russianȱ speakersȱandȱhadȱseriousȱconsequencesȱinȱareasȱnotȱdirectlyȱrelatedȱtoȱeducationȱisȬ sues,ȱforȱinstance,ȱtheȱcivicȱactivityȱofȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱcommunityȱincreasedȱinȱ closeȱconnectionȱwithȱtheseȱprotestsȱandȱtheȱdegreeȱofȱitsȱorganizationȱgrewȱ–ȱanȱefȬ fectȱthatȱwasȱunexpectedȱandȱunpleasantȱtoȱtheȱLatvianȱpoliticalȱelite.ȱFromȱaȱpolitiȬ callyȱrelativelyȱamorphousȱmassȱitȱbecameȱaȱwellȱorganizedȱpoliticalȱforce.ȱȱ

Finally,ȱanotherȱfeatureȱofȱtheȱhithertoȱconductedȱintegrationȱpoliciesȱbyȱtheȱ

Latvianȱstate,ȱwhichȱisȱdirectlyȱrelatedȱtoȱitsȱfailures:ȱtheȱpronouncedȱpaternalism,ȱi.e.ȱ theȱtendencyȱtoȱresolveȱminorityȱrelatedȱissuesȱwithoutȱtheȱparticipationȱofȱminoriȬ tiesȱthemselves.ȱ

Asȱweȱmentionedȱabove,ȱtwentyȱyearsȱagoȱthereȱwereȱgenerallyȱmoreȱfavorȬ ableȱpreconditionsȱforȱsocietyȱintegrationȱinȱLatviaȱthanȱinȱneighboringȱEstonia.ȱAfterȱ twentyȱyearsȱofȱindependence,ȱweȱhaveȱtoȱconcludeȱthatȱtheȱsituationȱinȱEstoniaȱdeȬ velopedȱinȱaȱdirectionȱthatȱwasȱmoreȱfavorableȱtoȱtheȱstateȱthanȱinȱLatvia.ȱMoreȱfaȬ vorableȱtrendsȱinȱEstoniaȱareȱobservedȱinȱtheȱtransformationȱofȱtheȱidentityȱofȱRusȬ sianȱspeakers.ȱAsȱnotedȱbyȱtheȱEstonianȱresearcherȱTriinȱVhalemm,ȱtheȱEstonianȱRusȬ sians,ȱ afterȱ twentyȱ yearsȱ ofȱ Balticȱ independence,ȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ regardȱ selfȬ determinationȱinȱtransnationalȱandȱcivicȱforms.ȱInȱthisȱconnection,ȱtheȱgenerallyȱproȬ westernȱorientationȱofȱtheȱEstonianȱRussiansȱisȱobservedȱinȱcontrastȱtoȱtheȱbasicallyȱ 138

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proȬeasternȱorientationȱofȱtheȱRussiansȱinȱLatvia.ȱInȱrecentȱyears,ȱaccordingȱtoȱEstoniȬ anȱresearchers,ȱthereȱisȱaȱtendencyȱinȱEstoniaȱofȱhomogenizationȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱculȬ tureȱofȱtheȱEstonianȱmajorityȱandȱRussianȱspeakingȱminorityȱbasedȱonȱvaluesȱofȱconȬ sumerȱsociety,ȱgainsȱfromȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱEuropeanȱUnion,ȱandȱanȱincreaseȱinȱtheȱ useȱofȱtheȱInternetȱ(Vihalemmȱ2002).ȱȱYetȱthereȱisȱstillȱaȱgreatȱdegreeȱofȱseparationȱ betweenȱ theȱ communities,ȱ whichȱ mayȱ resultȱ inȱ furtherȱ segregationȱ ofȱ theȱ RussianȬ speakingȱcommunity.ȱȱ

Table 7.1. Support for Russian parties in Estonian and Latvian parliament elections (1992Ͳ2011.Percent) 1992 1993 1995 1998 1999 2002 2003 2006 2007 2010 2011 Estonia boycotted 5.9 2.0 2.44 1.2 0.9 Latvia 10.0* 12.4 14.1 20.1 22.5 27.5 29.1 Sources: Data of the Estonian and Latvian Central Electoral Committees (Estonian National Electoral Committee, n.d.; CentrƗlƗ vƝlƝšanu komisija, n.d.). Note: *Approximate calculation, taking into account the schism in the "Saskaźa Latvijai" frac- tion of the 5th Saeima.

Inȱ contrastȱ toȱ Latvia,ȱ theȱ degreeȱ ofȱ politicalȱ consolidationȱ ofȱ theȱ RussianȬ speakingȱ communityȱ inȱ Estoniaȱ isȱ low;ȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ Estonianȱ RussianȬspeakingȱ citizensȱinȱparliamentȱelectionsȱvoteȱforȱtheȱȈCenterȱPartyȈȱledȱbyȱtheȱformerȱPopularȱ

FrontȱleaderȱEdgarȱSavisaar,ȱwhich,ȱdespiteȱitsȱdubiousȱassociationȱwithȱ theȱrulingȱ

ȈUnitedȱRussiaȈȱpartyȱofȱRussia,ȱenjoysȱrespectȱinȱaȱsubstantialȱpartȱofȱtheȱEstonianȱ societyȱandȱhasȱparticipatedȱinȱrulingȱcoalitions.ȱTheȱinfluenceȱofȱRussianȱpartiesȱinȱ

Estonianȱpoliticsȱkeepsȱdroppingȱfromȱoneȱelectionȱtoȱtheȱnext,ȱTableȱ7.1.ȱȱ

WithoutȱdelvingȱintoȱanȱanalysisȱofȱtheȱmechanismsȱofȱtheȱEstonianȱpoliticalȱ landscape,ȱitȱmustȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱtheseȱprocessesȱwereȱsubstantiallyȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱ greaterȱ(atȱleast,ȱcomparedȱtoȱLatvia)ȱopportunitiesȱforȱpoliticalȱparticipationȱonȱtheȱ partȱofȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱminority,ȱincludingȱnonȬcitizens.ȱThisȱconcernsȱtheȱrightȱ ofȱ Estonianȱ nonȬcitizensȱ toȱ voteȱ inȱ localȱ elections.ȱ Theȱ OSCEȱ recommendedȱ thisȱ

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measureȱtoȱEstoniaȱandȱLatviaȱalreadyȱinȱtheȱearlyȱ1990s.ȱEstoniaȱwasȱforcedȱtoȱtakeȱ thisȱstepȱinȱaȱsituationȱwhereȱthereȱaroseȱaȱrealȱpossibilityȱthatȱaȱreferendumȱmightȱbeȱ organizedȱonȱseparationȱofȱnorthȬeasternȱEstoniaȱfromȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱcountry.ȱYet,ȱinȱ reachingȱ aȱ compromiseȱ regardingȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ votingȱ rightsȱ forȱ nonȬcitizens,ȱ albeitȱ madeȱunderȱduress,ȱEstoniaȱturnedȱoutȱtoȱbeȱtheȱwinnerȱinȱtheȱlongȱterm.ȱInȱLatvia,ȱ onȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱtheȱsplittingȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱspectrumȱbyȱethnicity;ȱincreasingȱelecȬ toralȱsupportȱtoȱtheȱ“Russianȱparties”ȱfromȱoneȱelectionȱtoȱtheȱnext;ȱtheȱinabilityȱtoȱ findȱaȱcooperationȱmodelȱbetweenȱtheȱLatvianȱandȱRussianȱparties,ȱasȱwellȱasȱrelegatȬ ingȱtheȱRussianȬspeakingȱpoliticalȱrepresentativesȱinȱperpetualȱoppositionȱareȱgivingȱ riseȱ toȱ everȱ moreȱ pronouncedȱ negativeȱ consequencesȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ sociopoliticalȱ processesȱinȱsocietyȱatȱlarge.ȱȱFirst,ȱweȱshouldȱmentionȱanȱunavoidableȱdecreaseȱinȱ politicalȱcompetition,ȱwhichȱhasȱcreatedȱinstabilityȱinȱtheȱworkȱofȱgovernmentsȱandȱ becomeȱaȱsubstantialȱobstacleȱinȱcarryingȱoutȱconsistent,ȱstrategicallyȬorientedȱpoliȬ cies.ȱȱ

TheȱnarrowȱcircleȱofȱpoliticalȱforcesȱformingȱgovernmentsȱandȱtheȱlackȱofȱaȱreȬ alȱalternativeȱcapableȱofȱformingȱaȱgovernmentȱinevitablyȱleadȱtoȱtheȱirreplaceabilityȱ ofȱsomeȱpoliticalȱforcesȱandȱtheirȱdisproportionalȱinfluenceȱonȱgovernmentȱdecisions.ȱȱ

Theȱlowȱlevelȱofȱpoliticalȱcompetitionȱisȱmentionedȱalsoȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱmainȱreasonsȱ forȱtheȱrelativelyȱhighȱlevelȱofȱcorruption,ȱwhich,ȱinȱtheȱassessmentȱofȱinternationalȱ organizations,ȱhasȱbeenȱtraditionallyȱhigherȱthanȱinȱEstoniaȱandȱLithuania.ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱ decadeȱ ofȱ theȱ 21stȱ century,ȱ administrativeȱ corruptionȱ hasȱ diminishedȱ inȱ Latvia,ȱ whereasȱ politicalȱ institutions,ȱ e.g.,ȱ politicalȱ parties,ȱ inȱ theȱ evaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ Globalȱ

CorruptionȱBarometer,ȱareȱlargelyȱaffectedȱbyȱcorruptionȱ(TransparencyȱInternationȬ al,ȱ 2013).ȱ Finally,ȱ weakȱ politicalȱ competitionȱ combinedȱ withȱ theȱ identificationȱ beȬ tweenȱtheȱ“left”ȱandȱ“Russian”,ȱseriouslyȱlimitedȱtheȱformationȱofȱaȱcivilizedȱleftistȱ alternativeȱtoȱtheȱrightȬwingȱpoliticalȱforces,ȱwhichȱhaveȱdominatedȱLatvianȱpoliticsȱ

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inȱtheȱfirstȱtwentyȱyearsȱofȱrestoredȱindependence.ȱThatȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱmainȱreasonsȱforȱ theȱdisproportionalȱgrowthȱofȱsocioeconomicȱinequityȱinȱtheȱcourseȱofȱpostȬsocialistȱ transformations,ȱ whichȱ ourȱ neighboringȱ countriesȱ haveȱ notȱ experiencedȱ toȱ suchȱ aȱ greatȱ extent,ȱ notȱ evenȱ speakingȱ ofȱ suchȱ postȬcommunistȱ countriesȱ asȱ Slovenia,ȱ theȱ

CzechȱRepublic,ȱandȱSlovakia.ȱ

Quo Vadis, integration of Latvian society?

OneȱofȱtheȱmostȱcharacteristicȱtendenciesȱinȱLatvianȱpoliticalȱandȱintellectualȱ elitesȱofȱtheȱlastȱdecadeȱisȱanȱeverȱgreaterȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱpriorityȱofȱLatvianȱethnicȱ valuesȱasȱtheȱmainȱpreconditionȱforȱsustainableȱdevelopmentȱofȱsociety.ȱThisȱisȱeviȬ denced,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ byȱ theȱ differencesȱ inȱ theȱ formulationsȱ ofȱ theȱ integrationȱ proȬ gramsȱofȱ2001ȱandȱ2011.ȱTheȱ2001ȱformulationȱofȱtheȱintegrationȱprogram,ȱwhileȱemȬ phasizingȱtheȱsignificanceȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱlanguageȱandȱculture,ȱneverthelessȱputsȱcivȬ icȱvaluesȱatȱtheȱforegroundȱ(Stateȱprogramȱ“SocietyȱIntegrationȱinȱLatvia”,ȱ2001,ȱ4).ȱ

ȈTheȱBasicȱTenetsȱofȱtheȱNationalȱIdentity,ȱCivicȱSociety,ȱandȱIntegrationȱPolicyȱforȱ

2012Ȭ2018Ȉȱadoptedȱinȱ2011ȱisȱaȱsubstantialȱreconsiderationȱofȱcivicȱandȱethnicȱvalues.ȱ

Inȱtheȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱauthorsȱofȱthisȱdocument,ȱsocietyȇsȱintegrationȱisȱbyȱandȱ largeȱpassedȱonȱLatvianȱethnicȱvalues,ȱandȱcivicȱparticipation,ȱinsteadȱofȱbeingȱaȱfunȬ damentalȱpreconditionȱforȱandȱpartȱofȱintegrationȱprocesses,ȱbutȱanȱoffshootȱofȱinteȬ grationȱ(i.e.ȱwithȱtheȱLatvianȱculturalȱspace)ȱthatȱhasȱalreadyȱtakenȱplace.ȱInȱthisȱreȬ gard,ȱ notȱ evenȱ discussingȱ toȱ whatȱ extentȱ suchȱ anȱ approachȱ correspondsȱ toȱ ideasȱ dominatingȱ inȱ Europeȱ aboutȱ theȱ normsȱ andȱ mechanismȱ ofȱ societyȱ integration,ȱ oneȱ cannotȱbutȱdoubtȱwhetherȱsuchȱanȱapproachȱisȱrealisticȱinȱtheȱcircumstancesȱofȱconȬ temporaryȱLatvianȱsociety.ȱWeȱmustȱemphasizeȱthatȱmostȱofȱLatvianȱresidents,ȱindeȬ pendentlyȱofȱtheirȱethnicity,ȱareȱconvincedȱofȱtheȱneedȱtoȱhaveȱaȱknowledgeȱofȱLatviȬ

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anȱ andȱ assumeȱ thatȱ supportȱ forȱ Latvianȱ languageȱ andȱ cultureȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ fundaȬ mentalȱtasksȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱstate.ȱȱ

Inȱtheȱ2012/2013ȱsurvey,ȱtheȱquestionȱaskedȱwasȱwhetherȱeveryȱLatvianȱcitizenȱ shouldȱknowȱLatvian.ȱDespiteȱtheȱfreshȱmemoriesȱofȱtheȱlanguageȱreferendumȱthatȱ hadȱtakenȱplaceȱaȱyearȱearlier,ȱtheȱrespondentsȱofȱbothȱlargeȱethnoȬlinguisticȱgroupsȱ wereȱ unitedȱ inȱ theirȱ viewȱ ofȱ theȱ necessityȱ forȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ Latvian.ȱ Thisȱ wasȱ theȱ opinionȱ ofȱ 89.7%ȱ amongȱ theȱ respondentsȱ (97.1%ȱ ethnicȱ Latvianȱ andȱ 76.5%ȱ ethnicȱ

Russianȱrespondents)ȱ(FacultyȱofȱSocialȱSciences,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatvia,ȱ2013).ȱȱ

Table7.2.SupportfortheideathatthefoundationoftheunityoftheLatviansociety isLatvianlanguageandculture,byethnicityoftherespondent.(PercentagesofethͲ nicgroup,aggregatedreplies"completelyagree"and"ratheragreethandisagree"). Foundationofunity:Latvianlanguageandculture Ethnicity 2010,n=1004 2013,n=1001 Latvians 89.1 90.9 Russians 46.0 43.1 Others 54.5 60.9 All 71.8 73.2 Sources:NI:HumanDevelopmentReport:Latvia(FacultyofSocialSciences,UniversiͲ tyofLatvia,2010);NI:HumanDevelopmentReport:Latvia(FacultyofSocialSciencͲ es,UniversityofLatvia,2013).

Itȱcanȱbeȱstatedȱwithoutȱanyȱexaggerationȱthatȱafterȱtwentyȱyearsȱofȱrenewedȱ independence,ȱLatvianȱsocietyȱfindsȱitselfȱatȱaȱcrossroadsȱwhere,ȱlookingȱforȱaȱwayȱtoȱ guaranteeȱtheȱsustainabilityȱofȱtheȱstateȱandȱtheȱnation,ȱitȱmustȱchooseȱbetweenȱtwoȱ entirelyȱ realisticȱ scenariosȱ forȱ furtherȱ development.ȱȱTheȱ firstȱ ofȱ theseȱ hasȱ beenȱ mappedȱoutȱinȱtheȱ2011ȱBasicȱTenetsȱofȱIntegrationȱwithȱanȱemphasisȱonȱtheȱLatvianȱ languageȱandȱcultureȱasȱtheȱsoleȱfoundationȱforȱtheȱunityȱofȱsociety.ȱȱTheȱopinionsȱofȱ theȱlargestȱethnoȬlinguisticȱcommunitiesȱofȱLatviaȱareȱradicallyȱdifferentȱonȱthisȱquesȬ tion.ȱȱMoreover,ȱtheȱaggregatedȱdataȱofȱsociologicalȱsurveysȱshownȱinȱTableȱ7.2ȱindiȬ cateȱthatȱtheȱgapȱbetweenȱtheȱLatvianȱandȱRussianȬspeakingȱpartsȱofȱtheȱsocietyȱhasȱaȱ

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tendencyȱtoȱwiden.ȱItȱisȱnotȱclearȱbyȱwhatȱmeansȱitȱcouldȱbeȱbridged,ȱifȱweȱtakeȱintoȱ accountȱtheȱobviousȱriseȱinȱtheȱselfȬconfidenceȱandȱdegreeȱofȱpoliticalȱorganizationȱofȱ theȱRussianȬspeakingȱcommunityȱinȱrecentȱyears.ȱȱThatȱprovidesȱgroundsȱforȱconsidȬ eringȱtheȱBasicȱTenetsȱofȱ2011ȱasȱaȱdocumentȱbasedȱonȱutopianȱassumptionsȱandȱtoȱ assertȱthatȱtheȱimplementationȱofȱtheȱideasȱcontainedȱthereinȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱleadȱtoȱaȱreȬ sultȱcompletelyȱoppositeȱtoȱtheȱexpectationsȱofȱtheȱauthors,ȱi.e.ȱtoȱtheȱreinforcementȱ ofȱaȱtwoȬcommunityȱsociety.ȱȱ

Table 7.3 Attitude to civic values by the ethnicity of the respondent (%oftherespectivegroup;aggregatedreplies"important”and”veryimportant”). What Observerules Paytaxes Beinformed Participatein doesit andregulations aboutwhatis elections meanto happeninginthe bea society good 2010 2013 2010 2013 2010 2013 2010 2013 citizen? n=1004 n=1001 n=1004 n=1001 n=1004 n=1001 n=1004 n=1001 All 87.1 90.3 77.0 86.0 75.8 86.5 78.9 76.7 Latvians 87.7 90.1 76.6 87.7 77.6 86.3 79.3 78.0 Russians 86.6 88.9 76.7 83.4 71.6 85.8 79.6 77.5 Others 85.7 94.5 80.0 84.5 78.1 89.1 74.4 69.0 Sources:HumanDevelopmentReport:Latvia(FacultyofSocialSciences,Universityof Latvia,2010);HumanDevelopmentReport:Latvia(FacultyofSocialSciences,UniverͲ sityofLatvia,2013).

Theȱotherȱscenarioȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱassumptionȱthatȱtheȱfoundationȱofȱtheȱunityȱ ofȱsocietyȱisȱfoundȱinȱanȱemphasisȱonȱcivicȱvalues;ȱaȱrenewedȱconstructiveȱdialogueȱ betweenȱtheȱlargestȱethnoȬlinguisticȱcommunitiesȱofȱLatvia;ȱaȱwideningȱofȱcivicȱincluȬ sionȱ ofȱ theȱ minorities,ȱ andȱ inȱ theirȱ fullȬfledgedȱ representationȱ inȱ makingȱ decisionsȱ importantȱtoȱLatvianȱsociety.ȱȱTheȱdataȱofȱtheȱsurveysȱofȱ2010ȱandȱ2013ȱindicateȱthatȱ theȱattitudesȱofȱLatviansȱandȱnonȬLatviansȱtowardȱcivicȱvaluesȱareȱveryȱsimilarȱ(TaȬ bleȱ7.3).ȱȱȱ

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Historicalȱevidenceȱsuggestsȱthatȱemphasisȱonȱcivicȱvaluesȱisȱaȱratherȱeffectiveȱ meansȱ wherebyȱ theȱ stateȱ canȱ includeȱ andȱ integrateȱ ethnicȱ minoritiesȱ and—inȱ theȱ longerȱterm—aȱmuchȱmoreȱeffectiveȱmeansȱforȱdrawingȱtogetherȱtheȱminoritiesȱandȱ titularȱethnosȱthanȱforcedȱassimilationȱmeasures.ȱInȱtheȱcurrentȱcontextȱofȱLatvia,ȱitȱ wouldȱcreateȱaȱnew,ȱmoreȱfavourableȱclimateȱinȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱtheȱlargestȱ ethnolinguisticȱcommunitiesȱandȱtherebyȱpromoteȱtheȱroleȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱlanguageȱasȱ theȱcornerstoneȱofȱsocialȱcommunicationȱrecognizedȱbyȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱtheȱsociety.ȱȱ

ItȱmustȱbeȱnotedȱthatȱdespiteȱtheȱrecentlyȱincreasinglyȱstrainedȱinterethnicȱreȬ lationships,ȱtheȱpotentialȱforȱcompromiseȱhasȱremainedȱrelativelyȱ high.ȱ Inȱ theȱ2013ȱ surveyȱrespondentsȱ wereȱaskedȱtoȱ chooseȱ amongȱ threeȱ scenariosȱ ofȱ Latvianȱ ethnoȬ culturalȱdevelopment:ȱtheȱideaȱofȱ Latvianȱ Latviaȱ thatȱ wouldȱ involveȱ limitingȱ otherȱ languagesȱandȱcultures;ȱtheȱintegrativeȱmodelȱentailingȱpriorityȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱ

LatvianȱlanguageȱandȱcultureȱwhileȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱprovidingȱsupportȱforȱtheȱdeȬ velopmentȱ ofȱ otherȱ languagesȱ andȱ cultures;ȱ and,ȱ finally,ȱ theȱ meltingȱ potȱ modelȱ whereȱ theȱ relationshipsȱ betweenȱ languagesȱ andȱ culturesȱ wouldȱ beȱ formedȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱofȱfreeȱcompetition.ȱAȱsubstantialȱmajorityȱamongȱtheȱrespondentsȱwhoȱhaveȱanȱ opinionȱregardingȱthisȱissueȱȱ(71.5%)ȱfavorȱtheȱintegrativeȱmodelȱ–ȱaȱmereȱ8.8%ȱsupȬ portȱtheȱideaȱofȱLatvianȱLatvia,ȱandȱ19.7%ȱseeȱLatviaȇsȱfutureȱinȱaȱfreeȱcompetitionȱ amongȱ languagesȱ andȱ cultures.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ moderatesȱ amongȱ theȱ respondentsȱ haveȱanȱobviousȱmajorityȱbothȱamongȱLatviansȱandȱRussiansȱ(78.0%ȱandȱ62.4%,ȱreȬ spectively)ȱ(FacultyȱofȱSocialȱSciences,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatvia,ȱ2013).ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱinȱ theȱ generalȱ socialȱ consciousness,ȱ sustainabilityȱ andȱ aȱ reasonableȱ compromiseȱ goȱ handȱinȱhand.ȱȱ

Inȱ implementingȱ thisȱ scenarioȱ aȱ crucialȱ roleȱ willȱ beȱ playedȱ byȱ theȱ politicalȱ elitesȱ andȱ theirȱ abilityȱ toȱ refrainȱ fromȱ theȱ ethnicȱ cardȱ hithertoȱ playedȱ soȱ oftenȱ toȱ achieveȱtheirȱimmediateȱpoliticalȱaims.ȱȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱpointȱatȱ 144

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theȱroleȱofȱmunicipalitiesȱasȱstructuresȱthatȱareȱcloserȱtoȱtheȱeverydayȱlifeȱofȱinhabitȬ antsȱandȱthatȱcanȱbeȱmuchȱmoreȱflexibleȱinȱadjustingȱtheȱgeneralȱlineȱofȱstateȱpolicyȱtoȱ specificȱ localȱ situations..ȱȱAnyway,ȱ takingȱ intoȱ accountȱ theȱ experiencesȱ soȱ far,ȱ weȱ mustȱrecognizeȱthatȱquickȱandȱeasyȱsuccessȱinȱconsolidatingȱtheȱLatvianȱsocietyȱcanȬ notȱbeȱexpected.ȱȱYetȱitȱisȱveryȱimportantȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱkindȱofȱchoiceȱtodayȱthatȱwouldȱ promoteȱaȱsustainableȱdevelopmentȱofȱtheȱLatvianȱstateȱandȱnation.ȱȱ

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ȱ Chapter 8

Addressing “Health in all Policies” through Regional and Local Authorities: Results from Latvia and Nor- way

GeirȱC.ȱTufte,1ȱCatharinaȱBjørkquist2ȱandȱIvetaȱReinholde3ȱ

Abstract

Aim:ȱ Toȱ impartȱ experiencesȱ ofȱ “healthȱ inȱ allȱ policies”ȱ atȱ localȱ governmentȱ levelȱ inȱ

Latviaȱ andȱ Norway.ȱ Howȱ far,ȱ andȱ inȱ whatȱ ways,ȱ areȱ politiciansȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ imȬ portanceȱofȱpublicȱhealthȱissuesȱandȱwhatȱisȱtheȱreasoningȱofȱlocalȱpoliticiansȱinȱturnȬ ingȱtheirȱattentionȱtoȱissuesȱofȱhealthȬrelatedȱinequalitiesȱatȱlocalȱlevel?ȱȱ

Methods:ȱThisȱarticleȱisȱbasedȱonȱdataȱfromȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱproject.ȱTheȱauȬ thorsȱofȱthisȱarticleȱconductedȱaȱqualitativeȱevaluationȱofȱtheȱproject.ȱȱ

Results:ȱInȱtheȱNorwegianȱlocalȱauthorities,ȱlifestyleȱdiseasesȱandȱchildȱpovertyȱ wereȱseenȱasȱtheȱmainȱhealthȱchallenges.ȱInȱtheȱLatvianȱregion,ȱalcoholismȱandȱlimȬ itedȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱcareȱservicesȱwereȱemphasised.ȱȱ

Conclusions:ȱTheȱprojectȱgaveȱleadingȱpoliticiansȱandȱadministratorsȱanȱopporȬ tunityȱtoȱdevelopȱsharedȱvaluesȱacrossȱtheȱpoliticoȬadministrativeȱdivideȱandȱwaysȱofȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

1ȱAssociateȱprofessor,ȱFacultyȱofȱBusiness,ȱLanguages,ȱandȱSocialȱSciences,ȱØstfoldȱUniversityȱ Collegeȱ 2ȱAssociateȱprofessor,ȱFacultyȱofȱBusiness,ȱLanguages,ȱandȱSocialȱSciences,ȱØstfoldȱUniversityȱ Collegeȱ 3ȱAssociateȱprofessor,ȱDepartmentȱofȱpoliticalȱscience,ȱUniversityȱofȱLatviaȱ 149

GeirȱC.ȱTufte,ȱCatharinaȱBjørkquistȱandȱIvetaȱReinholdeȱ

workingȱacrossȱsectors.ȱSuchȱexperiencesȱareȱcriticalȱinȱdecisionȬmakingȱprocessesȱtoȱ achieveȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”.ȱ

Keyȱwords:ȱPublicȱhealth,ȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”,ȱsocialȱinequalityȱinȱhealthȱ

Introduction

Publicȱ healthȱ challengesȱ haveȱ becomeȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ importantȱ politicalȱ issueȱ inȱ

Westernȱcountriesȱdespiteȱtheȱfactȱthatȱinfectiousȱdiseasesȱnoȱlongerȱdominateȱinȱtheȱ

Westernȱ world.ȱ Here,ȱ lifestyleȬrelatedȱ diseasesȱ dominateȱ andȱ socialȱ inequalityȱ inȱ healthȱisȱaȱrecurrentȱtheme.ȱOneȱmayȱargueȱthatȱhealthȱisȱnotȱonlyȱaȱquestionȱofȱlifeȬ styleȱ [1,ȱ 2,ȱ 3].ȱ Lifestyleȱ diseasesȱ are,ȱ however,ȱ sociallyȱ unequallyȱ distributedȱ inȱ theȱ populationȱ [4].ȱ Localȱ authoritiesȱ playȱ anȱ importantȱ roleȱ inȱ implementingȱ nationalȱ policiesȱ andȱ drawingȱ upȱ localȱ prioritiesȱ withȱ theȱ aimȱ ofȱ addressingȱ publicȱ healthȱ challenges.ȱThisȱpaperȱpresentsȱresultsȱfromȱanȱevaluationȱofȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱpubȬ licȱhealthȱproject4ȱmanagedȱbyȱØstfoldȱCountyȱCouncil,ȱNorway,ȱinȱpartnershipȱwithȱ localȱauthoritiesȱinȱNorwayȱandȱLatviaȱduringȱ2011Ȭ2012.ȱAimsȱofȱtheȱprojectȱwereȱtoȱ increaseȱlocalȱandȱregionalȱawarenessȱofȱsocialȱinequalitiesȱinȱhealthȱandȱtoȱsupportȱ theȱdevelopmentȱofȱlocalȱpoliciesȱandȱinterventionsȱwithȱtheȱlongȬtermȱobjectivesȱofȱ reducingȱsocialȱandȱgenderȱinequalitiesȱinȱhealthȱandȱsocialȱparticipationȱandȱbuildȬ ingȱaȱmoreȱcohesiveȱsocietyȱatȱaȱlocalȱlevelȱ[1].ȱTheȱHEPROGRESSȱprojectȱwasȱconȬ ductedȱinȱtwoȱdifferentȱnationsȱbecauseȱaȱpreviousȱprojectȱhadȱalreadyȱdemonstratedȱ significantȱdifferencesȱandȱsimilaritiesȱbetweenȱtheseȱtwoȱcountriesȱinȱpublicȱhealthȬ relatedȱprocessesȱandȱpatternsȱ[1].ȱThisȱarticleȱpresentsȱsomeȱaspectsȱofȱourȱevaluaȬ

ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

4ȱØstfoldȱfylkeskommune/CountyȱCouncilȱ homepageȱonȱtheȱInternet].ȱSarpsborg:ȱØstfoldȱ fylkeskommune.ȱNoȱdateȱ[citedȱ30ȱJulȱ2013].ȱAvailableȱfromȱ http://www.ostfoldhelsa.no/files/HEPROGRESSȬProsjektbeskrivelse.pdfȱ 150

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tionȱofȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱproject.ȱWeȱargueȱthatȱtheȱresultsȱfromȱourȱevaluationȱhaveȱ valuableȱimplicationsȱforȱpublicȱhealthȱpolicyȱmakersȱatȱregionalȱandȱlocalȱgovernȬ mentȱlevelȱinȱsmallȱandȱmediumȱsizedȱcountriesȱthroughoutȱEurope.ȱTheȱcontribuȬ tionȱ ofȱ thisȱ paperȱ isȱ thusȱ toȱ impartȱ andȱ discussȱ experiencesȱ andȱ assessmentsȱ ofȱ anȱ increasedȱfocusȱonȱpublicȱhealth.ȱ

Methods

ThisȱstudyȱisȱbasedȱonȱdataȱfromȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱproject.ȱTheȱauthorsȱconductedȱaȱ qualitativeȱevaluationȱofȱtheȱproject.ȱTheȱdataȱwasȱcollectedȱfromȱtwoȱsources.ȱFirst,ȱaȱ briefȱquestionnaireȱwasȱdistributedȱtoȱtheȱparticipantsȱofȱtheȱlaunchingȱconferenceȱtoȱ reflectȱuponȱhealthȬrelatedȱproblems,ȱtheȱroleȱofȱsocialȱgroupsȱinȱtheȱlocalȱcommuniȬ ty,ȱandȱpoliticalȱpriorities.ȱSecond,ȱweȱinterviewedȱcentralȱpoliticiansȱinȱeachȱparticiȬ patingȱlocalȱauthorityȱandȱinȱNorway,ȱleadingȱadministratorsȱasȱwell.ȱTheȱselectionȱ ofȱintervieweesȱwasȱbasedȱonȱtheirȱpositionȱinȱlocalȱgovernmentȱandȱtheirȱparticipaȬ tionȱinȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱproject.ȱȱ

Policy context

Norwegian public health policy

TheȱoverallȱobjectivesȱinȱNorwegianȱpublicȱhealthȱpolicyȱareȱ“moreȱhealthyȱlifeȱyearsȱ forȱtheȱpopulation”ȱandȱtoȱ“reduceȱinequalitiesȱinȱhealthȱbetweenȱsocialȱgroups,ȱethȬ nicȱgroupsȱandȱmenȱandȱwomen”ȱ[2,ȱp.ȱ24].ȱPublicȱhealthȱguidelinesȱareȱdevelopedȱatȱ theȱ nationalȱ levelȱ whereasȱ theȱ localȱ levelȱ providesȱ healthȱ servicesȱ andȱ implementsȱ publicȱ policyȱ [3].ȱ Theȱ governmentȱ hasȱ recentlyȱ passedȱ aȱ newȱ actȱ onȱ publicȱ healthȱ promotionȱ whichȱ assignsȱ muchȱ ofȱ theȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ publicȱ healthȱ workȱ toȱ theȱ localȱauthoritiesȱ[4].ȱTheȱactȱisȱbasedȱonȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”,ȱcombatingȱsocialȱineȬ qualityȱwhileȱsupportingȱsustainableȱgrowth,ȱtheȱprecautionaryȱprinciple,ȱandȱparticȬ ipation.ȱTheȱNorwegianȱgovernmentȱhasȱintroducedȱeconomicȱstimulusȱpackagesȱtoȱ 151

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encourageȱ partnershipȱ agreementsȱ forȱ publicȱ health.ȱ Theȱ useȱ ofȱ partnershipsȱ isȱ aimedȱatȱraisingȱawarenessȱofȱpublicȱhealthȱissuesȱandȱinequalityȱinȱhealth.ȱȱ

AccordingȱtoȱtheȱNorwegianȱact,ȱlocalȱpublicȱhealthȱpromotionȱworkȱshouldȱ beȱcrossȬsectorial.ȱSuchȱanȱapproachȱaimsȱatȱensuringȱthatȱhealthȬrelatedȱissuesȱareȱ alsoȱconsideredȱinȱpoliciesȱotherȱthanȱpureȱhealthȱpolicies.ȱTheȱactȱthusȱcontributesȱtoȱ aȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”ȱstrategy.ȱȱ

Latvian public health policy

InȱLatvia,ȱtheȱgovernmentȬapprovedȱ“PublicȱHealthȱStrategyȱ2012Ȭ2017”ȱisȱtoȱbeȱconȬ sideredȱasȱtheȱmainȱpolicyȱplanningȱdocumentȱforȱpublicȱhealthȱissuesȱinȱLatvia.ȱTheȱ

Strategyȱtendsȱtoȱperceiveȱpublicȱhealthȱasȱoneȱofȱtheȱbasicȱvaluesȱthatȱhasȱanȱimpactȱ uponȱqualityȱofȱlife,ȱtheȱwellbeingȱofȱtheȱfamily,ȱandȱsocietyȱatȱlargeȱ[5].ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱ time,ȱtheȱStrategyȱindicatesȱthatȱpublicȱhealthȱisȱaȱkeyȱresourceȱforȱaȱproductiveȱandȱ efficientȱ economy,ȱ thusȱ addingȱ anȱ economicȱ perspectiveȱ [5].ȱ Thisȱ Strategyȱ isȱ alsoȱ basedȱonȱtheȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”ȱapproach,ȱwithȱtheȱaimȱofȱensuringȱcoordinationȱ amongȱ differentȱ policiesȱ andȱ equalȱ accessȱ toȱ healthȱ careȱ services.ȱ Sinceȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ legislationȱregulatingȱpublicȱhealthȱinȱLatvia,ȱtheȱStrategyȱmustȱbeȱassumedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱ documentȱthatȱdefinesȱbothȱtheȱdirectionsȱofȱdevelopmentsȱinȱtheȱfieldȱandȱtheȱdiviȬ sionȱofȱresponsibilitiesȱamongȱtheȱlevelsȱofȱgovernanceȱwhereȱtheȱnationalȱlevelȱdeȬ velopsȱ guidelines,ȱ whileȱ theȱ healthȱ careȱ institutionsȱ ensureȱ implementationȱ ofȱ acȬ tions.ȱȱ

Results

Norway

WhenȱaskedȱtoȱstateȱtheȱmainȱpublicȱhealthȱproblemsȱacrossȱØstfoldȱCountyȱatȱtheȱ launchingȱ conferenceȱ ofȱ HEPROGRESS,ȱ politiciansȱ mentionedȱ dropȬoutsȱ fromȱ 152

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school,ȱtrafficȱcongestion,ȱairȱpollutionȱcausedȱbyȱtrafficȱandȱpoorȱlivingȱconditionsȱ comparedȱwithȱotherȱcountiesȱinȱNorway.ȱTheȱgroupsȱassumedȱtoȱbeȱmostȱexposedȱ toȱtheseȱproblemsȱareȱsingleȱmothers,ȱimmigrantȱfamilies,ȱtheȱunemployedȱandȱchilȬ drenȱandȱyoungȱpeople.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱpoliticians’ȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱmainȱpublicȱ healthȱ issuesȱ changedȱ duringȱ theȱ followingȱ year.ȱ Inȱ theȱ initialȱ personalȱ interviewȱ theyȱ focusedȱ onȱ lifestyleȱ diseasesȱ suchȱ asȱ diabetes,ȱ obesityȱ andȱ drugȱ andȱ alcoholȱ abuseȱinȱadditionȱtoȱchildȱpoverty.ȱLocalȱpoliticalȱactionȱwasȱconsequentlyȱtakenȱtoȱ improveȱpeople’sȱhealthȱbyȱe.g.ȱfocusingȱonȱhealthyȱdietȱprogrammes,ȱstopȱsmokingȱ coursesȱ andȱ schemesȱ toȱ increaseȱ physicalȱ activity.ȱ Whenȱ askedȱ toȱ stateȱ theȱ mainȱ healthȱchallengesȱnearȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱproject,ȱtheȱrespondentsȱdrewȱattentionȱtoȱpovȬ erty,ȱ unemployment,ȱ housingȱ andȱ obesityȱ amongȱ childrenȱ andȱ youngȱ people.ȱ Weȱ findȱthatȱduringȱtheȱprojectȱperiodȱnotȱonlyȱlifestyleȱproblemsȱbutȱalsoȱpovertyȱandȱ unemploymentȱareȱmentionedȱasȱproblemsȱtoȱbeȱaddressed.ȱWithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱissueȱ ofȱpoverty,ȱtheȱpoliticiansȱspecificallyȱemphasiseȱchildȱpoverty.ȱTheyȱalsoȱagreeȱthatȱ manyȱpeopleȱareȱexcludedȱfromȱtheȱlabourȱmarketȱbecauseȱofȱtheirȱpoorȱhealth.ȱPhysȬ icalȱinactivityȱamongȱtheȱelderlyȱisȱnotȱseenȱasȱaȱmajorȱpublicȱresponsibilityȱbyȱanyȱofȱ theȱparticipatingȱpoliticians.ȱHowever,ȱtheyȱagreeȱthatȱtheȱlocalȱcouncilsȱshouldȱarȬ rangeȱforȱpeopleȱtoȱmoveȱaroundȱmoreȱeasilyȱonȱfootȱorȱbyȱbicycle.ȱȱ

Latvia

Atȱtheȱlaunchingȱconference,ȱLatvianȱlocalȱpoliticiansȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱtheȱmainȱpubȬ licȱhealthȱ problemsȱareȱlimitedȱaccessȱ toȱ healthȱ careȱ services,ȱ lowȱ qualityȱ ofȱ healthȱ careȱservices,ȱalcoholismȱcausedȱbyȱunemployment,ȱandȱaȱpoorȱpublicȱtransportȱsysȬ tem.ȱOverȱtheȱyear,ȱtheȱpoliticians’ȱperceptionsȱofȱtheȱmainȱpublicȱhealthȱproblemsȱ changedȱslightly.ȱAlcoholismȱandȱ lackȱ ofȱ preventativeȱ actionȱ inȱ publicȱ healthȱ wereȱ thenȱ mentionedȱ asȱ theȱ mainȱ challenges.ȱ Hereȱ weȱ foundȱ thatȱ politiciansȱ duringȱ theȱ projectȱbecameȱmoreȱawareȱofȱtheȱroleȱofȱpreventativeȱactionsȱinȱhealthȱcareȱsince,ȱasȱ

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theyȱpointedȱout,ȱtheȱpresentȱhealthȱcareȱsystemȱinȱLatviaȱisȱmoreȱtailoredȱtoȱdiagnoȬ sisȱthanȱprevention.ȱȱ

ȱ Weȱalsoȱfoundȱdifferencesȱinȱtheȱresponsesȱofȱlocalȱcouncilȱadministrativeȱstaffȱ receivedȱatȱtheȱlaunchingȱconferencesȱandȱaȱyearȱlater;ȱtheyȱcameȱtoȱseeȱconnectionsȱ betweenȱvariousȱpublicȱhealthȱproblemsȱwhereȱeducationȱinȱselfȬawarenessȱofȱhealthȱ improvementȱplaysȱaȱvitalȱrole.ȱInȱdetail,ȱatȱtheȱlaunchingȱconferenceȱtheȱadministraȬ torsȱemphasisedȱunemployment,ȱaddictions,ȱandȱlimitedȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱcareȱasȱtheȱ mainȱproblems.ȱHowever,ȱafterȱaȱyearȱtheyȱprovidedȱaȱmuchȱbroaderȱperspectiveȱonȱ theȱ complexityȱ ofȱ publicȱ healthȱ care,ȱ indicatingȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ informationȱ onȱ healthyȱ activitiesȱandȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱfinancialȱresources.ȱAlthoughȱeightȱlocalȱauthoritiesȱ ofȱtheȱVidzemeȱplanningȱregionȱwereȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱproject,ȱitȱappearsȱthatȱsimilarȱ publicȱhealthȱproblemsȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱeverywhereȱelseȱinȱLatvia.ȱȱ

Discussion

Aȱ publicȬhealthȱ policyȱ makerȱ isȱ supposedȱ toȱ coverȱ aȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ policies,ȱ asȱ asȬ sumedȱ byȱ theȱ strategyȱ “healthȱ inȱ allȱ policies”.ȱ Forȱ someȱ participantsȱ theȱ HEPROȬ

GRESSȱprojectȱhelpedȱtoȱputȱtrafficȱcongestionȱandȱpoorȱlivingȱconditionsȱhigherȱonȱ theirȱagenda.ȱForȱothers,ȱthisȱappliedȱtoȱlimitedȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱcareȱandȱincreasedȱ consciousnessȱofȱtheȱvalueȱofȱinformationȱaboutȱhealthyȱactivities.ȱȱ

Atȱtheȱinternationalȱlevel,ȱitȱisȱclaimedȱthatȱaȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”ȱperspecȬ tiveȱcontributesȱtoȱpreventingȱrisksȱthatȱinvolveȱtheȱentireȱpopulationȱ[6].ȱTheȱ“healthȱ inȱallȱpolicies”ȱprinciplesȱimplyȱtheȱintroductionȱofȱaȱhorizontalȱgovernanceȱapproachȱ atȱtheȱlocalȱlevel.ȱThisȱentailsȱthatȱmostȱofȱtheȱhealthȱdeterminantsȱthatȱcanȱbeȱaffectȬ edȱareȱnotȱcontrolledȱbyȱtheȱhealthȱsectorȱ[7].ȱExamplesȱofȱsuchȱdeterminantsȱareȱlevȬ elȱ ofȱ income,ȱ incomeȱ distribution,ȱ levelȱ ofȱ education,ȱ andȱ occupation.ȱ Thisȱ clearlyȱ demonstratesȱ theȱ crossȬsectorȱ aspectȱ ofȱ healthȱ promotionȱ andȱ riskȱ prevention.ȱ AcȬ 154

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cordingly,ȱoneȱcanȱargueȱforȱaȱneedȱforȱintegratingȱpublicȱhealthȱworkȱinȱallȱregionalȱ andȱlocalȱplanning.ȱInȱtheȱNorwegianȱcontext,ȱpublicȱhealthȱprofilesȱandȱhealthȱimȬ pactȱassessmentsȱareȱexamplesȱofȱpotentialȱinstrumentsȱforȱcrossȬsectorialȱwork.ȱForȱ

Latvia,ȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱhealthȱprofilesȱisȱaȱnewȱissue,ȱandȱmuchȱeffortȱwillȱstillȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ investedȱ toȱ overcomeȱ crossȱ sectorȱ barriersȱ forȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ

“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”ȱprinciples.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱ“PublicȱHealthȱStrategyȱ2012Ȭ2017”ȱ emphasisesȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ publicȱ healthȱ inȱ economicȱ growth,ȱ itȱ stillȱ maintainsȱ aȱ fragȬ mentedȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱmonitoringȱofȱvariousȱpublicȱhealthȬrelatedȱfactorsȱandȱreȬ portsȱthematicallyȱ(e.g.ȱaȱreportȱonȱchildȱhealth,ȱaȱreportȱonȱadultȱhealth,ȱaȱreportȱonȱ nonȬinfectiousȱdiseases)ȱ[5].ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱ“SustainableȱDevelopmentȱStrateȬ gyȱofȱLatviaȱuntilȱ2030”ȱemphasisesȱpublicȱhealthȱasȱanȱinvestmentȱinȱhumanȱcapitalȱ

[7].ȱ

TheȱNorwegianȱgovernmentȱfocusesȱonȱmeasuresȱwhichȱmeetȱlocalȱchallenges.ȱ

AccordingȱtoȱtheȱNorwegianȱPublicȱHealthȱActȱ[4],ȱtheȱregionalȱgovernmentȱhasȱtheȱ overallȱresponsibilityȱtoȱmonitorȱtheȱhealthȱsituationȱinȱtheȱcountiesȱandȱtoȱacquireȱ knowledgeȱaboutȱfactorsȱwhichȱaffectȱtheȱhealthȱofȱtheȱlocalȱpopulation.ȱContinuousȱ healthȱ monitoringȱ thusȱ becomesȱ aȱ mainȱ instrumentȱ bothȱ atȱ theȱ regionalȱ andȱ localȱ levelȱinȱorderȱtoȱgainȱinsightȱintoȱpoorȱhealthȱandȱriskȱfactorsȱ[8].ȱItȱisȱtheȱlocalȱauȬ thoritiesȱwhoȱareȱresponsibleȱforȱprovidingȱtheȱinformation.ȱHealthȱprofilesȱareȱdeȬ velopedȱatȱaȱnationalȱlevelȱtoȱsupportȱlocalȱgovernmentsȱinȱtheirȱworkȱtoȱidentifyȱmaȬ jorȱ healthȱ challenges.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ suchȱ healthȱ profilesȱ formȱ theȱ basisȱ forȱ planningȱ strategies,ȱdevelopingȱobjectivesȱandȱmeasuresȱaimedȱatȱimprovingȱpublicȱhealthȱatȱ theȱlocalȱlevel.ȱPutȱdifferently,ȱtheȱprofilesȱformȱtheȱfoundationȱforȱwhatȱshouldȱbeȱ theȱshortȱandȱlongȬtermȱfocusȱareasȱofȱlocalȱgovernment.ȱTheȱNorwegianȱpoliticiansȱ referredȱtoȱtheȱhealthȱprofileȱdataȱasȱaȱsourceȱofȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱpopulation’sȱ healthȱratherȱthanȱasȱaȱbasisȱforȱdecisionȬmakingȱorȱaȱtoolȱforȱevaluatingȱandȱselectȬ

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ingȱinterventions.ȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱactȱ“OnȱLocalȱAuthorities”,ȱLatvianȱlocalȱauthoriȬ tiesȱ mustȱ ensureȱ accessȱ toȱ healthȱ careȱ andȱ promoteȱ aȱ healthyȱ lifestyleȱ andȱ sport.ȱ

However,ȱtheȱ“PublicȱHealthȱStrategyȱ2012Ȭ2017”ȱ[5]ȱexcludesȱtheȱlocalȱauthoritiesȱinȱ describingȱtheȱinstitutionalȱsystemȱofȱhowȱpublicȱhealthȱactionsȱcanȱbeȱimplemented.ȱ

TheȱStrategyȱprimarilyȱconcentratesȱonȱtheȱhealthȱcareȱinstitutionsȱ(likeȱhospitals)ȱasȱ theȱmainȱinstitutionalȱresourcesȱforȱpublicȱhealth.ȱThus,ȱlocalȱauthoritiesȱareȱonlyȱinȬ volvedȱinȱpublicȱhealthȱactionsȱinȱsoȱfarȱasȱtheyȱshowȱinitiativeȱinȱtheȱproblemsȱandȱ areȱreadyȱtoȱassignȱlocalȱfundingȱforȱparticularȱsolutionsȱrequiredȱatȱtheȱlocalȱlevel.ȱ

Norway

Asȱ mentionedȱ above,ȱ Norwegianȱ localȱ politiciansȱ emphasiseȱ otherȱ mainȱ publicȱ healthȱissuesȱthanȱthoseȱofȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱprojectȱandȱthusȱactionsȱaimedȱatȱotherȱ socialȱgroupsȱthanȱtheȱtargetȱgroupsȱofȱtheȱproject,ȱe.g.ȱdropȬoutsȱfromȱschool,ȱphysiȬ callyȱinactiveȱelderlyȱpeople,ȱandȱthoseȱexcludedȱfromȱtheȱlabourȱmarketȱbecauseȱofȱ poorȱ health.ȱ Thereȱ is,ȱ however,ȱ reasonȱ toȱ claimȱ thatȱ theirȱ participationȱ inȱ theȱ

HEPROGRESSȱ projectȱ andȱ cooperationȱ withȱ Østfoldȱ Countyȱ ledȱ toȱ newȱ waysȱ ofȱ thinkingȱandȱideasȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱimplementedȱinȱtheȱlocalȱauthorityȱconcerned.ȱThusȱ participationȱ seemsȱ toȱ haveȱ contributedȱ toȱ raisingȱ theirȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ publicȱ healthȱ issues.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheȱpoliticiansȱ pointedȱ outȱ thatȱ everyȱ administrativeȱ unitȱ hasȱaȱresponsibilityȱforȱpublicȱhealthȱcareȱandȱalsoȱunderlinedȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱparȬ ticipationȱbyȱtheȱpoliticalȱrepresentatives.ȱTheȱuseȱofȱhealthȱimpactȱassessmentsȱinȱallȱ presentationȱofȱcasesȱforȱpoliticalȱbodiesȱexecutiveȱworkȱ–ȱintroducedȱinȱMossȱduringȱ theȱ HEPROGRESSȱ projectȱ periodȱ –ȱ allowsȱ forȱ discussionsȱ ofȱ publicȬhealthȱ conseȬ quences.ȱTheȱimpactȱassessmentsȱalsoȱfunctionȱasȱaȱmeansȱtoȱachieveȱ“healthȱinȱallȱ policies”ȱevenȱthoughȱthisȱtermȱisȱnotȱusedȱbyȱanyȱofȱtheȱrespondents.ȱItȱmay,ȱhowȬ ever,ȱbeȱarguedȱthatȱtheyȱenableȱpoliticiansȱtoȱseeȱpublicȬhealthȱaspectsȱinȱotherȱpoliȬ cyȱareasȱthanȱhealthȱcare.ȱȱ

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Aȱrecentlyȱestablishedȱ“healthyȱlifestyleȱcentre”ȱ(Frisklivssentral5)ȱappearsȱtoȱ playȱanȱimportantȱroleȱinȱprovidingȱexperienceȱofȱdifferentȱbehaviourȱmodificationȱ techniquesȱtoȱchangeȱdietaryȱhabits,ȱstopȱsmoking,ȱandȱincreaseȱphysicalȱactivity.ȱInȱ

Moss,ȱtheȱmainȱtargetȱgroupȱisȱimmigrantȱwomenȱbecauseȱtheȱhealthȱprofilesȱrevealȱ thatȱtheyȱhaveȱsignificantȱpublicȱhealthȱproblems.ȱȱ

Withȱregardȱtoȱtheȱproblemsȱofȱunemploymentȱandȱexclusionȱfromȱtheȱlabourȱ marketȱ becauseȱ ofȱ poorȱ health,ȱ theȱ politiciansȱ agreedȱ thatȱ localȱ authoritiesȱ needȱ toȱ takeȱmoreȱactionȱthanȱatȱpresent.ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ willȱ alsoȱ dependȱ onȱ theȱ policyȱ inȬ strumentsȱavailableȱtoȱlocalȱauthoritiesȱthatȱwillȱactuallyȱhaveȱanyȱlongȬtermȱstrucȬ turalȱ effectsȱ atȱ localȱ level.ȱ Theȱ mainȱ actionsȱ suggestedȱ byȱ theȱ politiciansȱ includedȱ moreȱtrainingȱforȱworkȱandȱprojectsȱdesignedȱtoȱhelpȱpeopleȱbackȱtoȱworkȱandȱtoȱenȬ courageȱlocalȱemployersȱtoȱfocusȱonȱemployeesȱonȱlongȬtermȱsickȱleaveȱinȱadditionȱtoȱ theȱlongȬtermȱunemployed.ȱ

Theȱ respondentsȱ fromȱ bothȱ participatingȱ localȱ authoritiesȱ pointedȱ outȱ thatȱ theyȱhaveȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱmajorȱlocalȱprogrammesȱwithȱaȱsocialȱinequalityȱprofile:ȱ anȱactionȱplanȱforȱfightingȱchildȱpovertyȱinȱHobølȱandȱaȱsocialȱhousingȱprogramȱinȱ

Moss.ȱHowever,ȱnoȱotherȱexplicitȱ policiesȱ onȱ preventingȱ socialȱ inequalityȱ inȱ healthȱ wereȱreportedȱbyȱtheȱrespondents.ȱInȱNorway,ȱpovertyȱinȱtheȱtraditionalȱsenseȱisȱnotȱ aȱmajorȱproblemȱcomparedȱtoȱotherȱcountries.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱrateȱofȱchildȱpovertyȱhasȱ beenȱ increasingȱ fromȱ 2000ȱ andȱ onwardsȱ givenȱ anȱ understandingȱ ofȱ povertyȱ whichȱ includesȱchildren’sȱlackȱofȱopportunityȱtoȱparticipateȱinȱsocietyȱandȱdevelopȱonȱequalȱ termsȱ[9].ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ

5ȱAboutȱsixȱmonthsȱafterȱtheȱopeningȱofȱtheȱFrisklivsentral,ȱtheȱlocalȱauthorityȱclosedȱitȱdownȱ asȱpartȱofȱitsȱausterityȱmeasures.ȱȱ

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Whenȱpoliticiansȱdiscussedȱlivingȱconditions,ȱitȱwasȱmainlyȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱreȬ sultsȱfromȱtheȱnationallyȱrunȱhealthȱprofiles,ȱwhichȱgiveȱinformationȱaboutȱtheȱmostȱ vulnerableȱgroupsȱandȱinȱwhichȱurbanȱareasȱtheyȱlive.ȱTheȱintervieweesȱdidȱnotȱhaveȱ anyȱplansȱforȱhowȱtoȱapplyȱtheȱhealthȱdata,ȱwhichȱisȱinȱlineȱwithȱanotherȱNorwegianȱ studyȱwhichȱunderlinesȱthatȱaccessȱtoȱhealthȱdataȱisȱnotȱsufficientȱforȱdecidingȱwhatȱ toȱdo.ȱKnowledgeȱaboutȱhowȱtoȱtranslateȱtheȱdataȱintoȱpracticeȱandȱevaluateȱdifferentȱ interventionsȱisȱequallyȱimportantȱ[10].ȱOnȱbehalfȱofȱMossȱCityȱCouncil,ȱtheȱdeputyȱ mayorȱhasȱnowȱestablishedȱaȱheterogeneousȱgroupȱtoȱinvestigateȱlivingȱconditionsȱinȱ theȱdifferentȱurbanȱareas.ȱ

Latvia

Latvianȱpoliticiansȱtendedȱtoȱviewȱinequalityȱasȱaȱsocialȱphenomenonȱperȱse.ȱTheyȱareȱ lessȱ focusedȱ onȱ particularȱ typesȱ ofȱ inequalityȱ e.g.ȱ healthȬrelatedȱ inequality,ȱ genderȱ inequality,ȱ orȱ inequalityȱ inȱ education.ȱ However,ȱ politicians’ȱ opinionsȱ andȱ percepȬ tionsȱcanȱbeȱinfluencedȱbyȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱfactors,ȱrangingȱfromȱtheȱideologicalȱposiȬ tionsȱofȱtheȱpolitician’sȱpartyȱtoȱpersonalityȱtraits,ȱprofessionalȱbackgroundȱandȱeduȬ cation.ȱ Politiciansȱ areȱ alsoȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ electoralȱ cycleȱ andȱ itsȱ associatedȱ deȬ mandsȱforȱachievementȱofȱtangibleȱresults.ȱItȱisȱaȱquiteȱvisibleȱtendencyȱinȱLatviaȱthatȱ successfulȱlocalȱpoliticiansȱshouldȱbeȱcapableȱofȱcoveringȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱissuesȱandȱ ensuringȱaccessibilityȱtoȱalmostȱaȱfullȱspectrumȱofȱpublicȱservicesȱinȱtheȱlocalȱcomȬ munity.ȱȱ

TheȱgeneralȱsituationȱinȱLatviaȱisȱasȱfollows.ȱLimitedȱresourcesȱ(mainlyȱfinanȬ cial)ȱareȱperceivedȱasȱtheȱmajorȱobstacleȱtoȱimprovementsȱinȱtheȱfieldȱofȱpublicȱhealthȱ andȱ otherȱ publicȱ services.ȱ Thisȱ reflectsȱ theȱ commonȱ trendsȱ inȱ theȱ countryȱ asȱ theȱ wholeȱwhereȱtheȱmainȱemphasisȱisȱonȱtheȱamountȱofȱresourcesȱavailable,ȱnotȱtheȱeffiȬ cientȱ useȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Politiciansȱ tendȱ toȱ createȱ newȱ jobsȱ forȱ publicȱ healthȱ issues,ȱ thusȱ providingȱ proofȱ ofȱ theȱ activitiesȱ andȱ ensuringȱ sustainabilityȱ ofȱ theȱ actionsȱ impleȬ 158

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mented.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱduringȱtheȱinterviewsȱtheȱpoliticiansȱpointedȱoutȱthatȱtheȱ healthȱprofileȱdataȱobtainedȱduringȱtheȱHeprogressȱprojectȱareȱveryȱusefulȱforȱdesignȬ ingȱlocalȱdevelopmentȱprogrammesȱwhichȱintegrateȱpublicȱhealthȱissues.ȱHowever,ȱ regardingȱ theȱ implementationȱ ofȱ suchȱ programmes,ȱ politiciansȱ andȱ administratorsȱ warnȱagainstȱtheȱlackȱofȱfinancialȱresourcesȱforȱactions,ȱandȱtheyȱpartlyȱrecogniseȱthatȱ localȱactionsȱareȱtailoredȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱtheȱeffectsȱratherȱthanȱtheȱcausesȱofȱtheȱprobȬ lems.ȱ Asȱ theȱ responsesȱ toȱ theȱ questionnaireȱ showed,ȱ insufficientȱ fundingȱ forȱ theȱ healthȱcareȱsectorȱinȱtotalȱalsoȱhasȱanȱimpactȱonȱpublicȱhealthȬrelatedȱactivitiesȱinȱothȬ erȱsectors.ȱȱ

Comparing Latvia and Norway

TheȱevaluationȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱprojectȱledȱtoȱgreaterȱawarenessȱofȱ healthȱissuesȱamongȱtheȱparticipants,ȱespeciallyȱaboutȱstrategiesȱrelatedȱtoȱ“healthȱinȱ allȱpolicies.”ȱTheȱLatvianȱpoliticiansȱviewȱlimitedȱresourcesȱasȱtheȱmajorȱobstacleȱtoȱ publicȱ healthȱ improvementsȱ inȱ theirȱ localȱ authority.ȱ Inȱ contrast,ȱ Norwegianȱ politiȬ ciansȱpointȱtoȱspecificȱtopicsȱsuchȱasȱschoolȱdropȬouts,ȱimmigrantȱwomen,ȱairȱpolluȬ tion,ȱ trafficȱ congestion,ȱ etc.ȱ Also,ȱ publicȱ healthȱ policiesȱ inȱ Latviaȱ areȱ onlyȱ recentlyȱ gainingȱacceptanceȱasȱbeingȱmoreȱthanȱmerelyȱaȱpartȱofȱtheȱhealthȱcareȱindustry.ȱ

TheȱLatvianȱandȱNorwegianȱpoliticiansȱagreeȱonȱtheȱbenefitsȱofȱhavingȱattendȬ edȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱproject.ȱTheyȱalsoȱagreeȱthatȱtheyȱgainedȱmoreȱfromȱtheȱfirstȱ projectȱmeetingȱthanȱtheȱsecondȱandȱthirdȱ(last)ȱmeetingȱinȱtermsȱofȱwhatȱtheyȱneedȬ ed,ȱ relevantȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ information,ȱ andȱ theȱ possibilityȱ toȱ applyȱ suchȱ knowledgeȱandȱinformationȱinȱtheirȱwork.ȱTheȱNorwegianȱpoliticiansȱchangedȱtheirȱ opinionsȱaboutȱtheȱmainȱpublicȱhealthȱissuesȱduringȱtheȱprojectȱperiodȱwhileȱtheȱLatȬ vianȱ politiciansȱ didȱ notȱ revealȱ anyȱ suchȱ change,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ focusedȱ simplyȱ onȱ ineȬ quality.ȱȱ

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OneȱofȱtheȱstrengthsȱofȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱprojectȱisȱtheȱroleȱitȱgaveȱtoȱleadingȱ localȱpoliticians.ȱTheȱinvolvementȱofȱtheseȱpoliticiansȱalongsideȱleadingȱadministraȬ torsȱenhancesȱtheȱchancesȱofȱdevelopingȱsharedȱvaluesȱandȱconceptsȱacrossȱtheȱpolitiȬ coȬadministrativeȱ divide,ȱ andȱ ofȱ developingȱ waysȱ ofȱ workingȱ acrossȱ sectors.ȱ Suchȱ sharedȱexperiencesȱseemȱtoȱbeȱcriticalȱduringȱdecisionȬmakingȱinȱpublicȱhealthȱpoliȬ tics,ȱasȱindicatedȱbyȱresearchȱ[11].ȱHowever,ȱtheȱpossibilitiesȱofȱtransferringȱtheseȱexȬ periencesȱ toȱ otherȱ localȱ authoritiesȱ dependȱ onȱ theȱ abilityȱ ofȱ theȱ projectȱ owner,ȱ

Østfoldȱ Countyȱ Councilȱ inȱ Norway,ȱ toȱ disseminateȱ theȱ experiences.ȱ Thisȱ aspectȱ ofȱ theȱHEPROGRESSȱprojectȱisȱalsoȱoneȱofȱitsȱlimitations,ȱinȱthatȱtheȱLatvianȱpartnersȱ lackȱ theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ spreadȱ theȱ sameȱ experiencesȱ toȱ otherȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ country,ȱ mainlyȱbecauseȱofȱlackȱofȱresources.ȱȱȱȱȱ

Concluding remarks

TheȱevaluationȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱHEPROGRESSȱprojectȱresultedȱinȱgreaterȱawarenessȱ amongȱtheȱparticipantsȱaboutȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱthinkingȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”.ȱTheȱ participantsȱwereȱkeyȱpublicȱhealthȱpolicyȱmakersȱinȱtheirȱcommunities,ȱandȱinȱsuchȱ rolesȱtheyȱmayȱbeȱchampionsȱforȱdisseminatingȱthisȱawareness.ȱInȱsoȱdoingȱtheyȱcanȱ actȱasȱcatalystsȱforȱtheȱideaȱofȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies”.ȱTheȱuseȱofȱhealthȱimpactȱasȬ sessmentsȱmayȱalsoȱenableȱaȱcrossȱsectorȱapproachȱtoȱpublicȱhealthȱissuesȱandȱthereȬ byȱalsoȱ“healthȱinȱallȱpolicies.”ȱ

Theȱcontinuousȱenhancementȱofȱawarenessȱandȱinvolvementȱinȱpublicȱhealthȱ issuesȱinȱtheȱtwoȱNorwegianȱlocalȱauthoritiesȱmayȱbeȱdemonstratedȱbyȱtheȱfactȱthatȱ theyȱhaveȱbothȱadoptedȱsocialȱprogrammesȱdirectedȱatȱmarginalisedȱgroupsȱsuchȱasȱ childrenȱ andȱ youngȱ people.ȱ Theȱ mainȱ problemsȱ toȱ beȱ handledȱ areȱ poverty,ȱ unemȬ ployment,ȱ andȱ housing.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ Latvianȱ localȱ authoritiesȱ (e.g.ȱ Amataȱ andȱ

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Vecpiebalgas)ȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱprojectȱhadȱadoptedȱtheȱdevelopmentȱprogrammesȱforȱ theȱnextȱfiveȱtoȱsixȱyears.ȱȱ

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References

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