Partnership

Perception Fifteen of the past thirty months have been spent at my field site in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere, South Africa. I lived in a small house on the bound- Poaching ary between the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, with the Kruger National Park (KNP) twen- ty minutes to the east and the Blyde River Canyon twenty minutes to the west. The Kruger to Canyons Biosphere (K2C) is a 4.8 million hect- are region designated by UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme as being of high economic development and conserva- tion importance. The aim of the Biosphere programme is to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of KYLE L. CLIFTON relationships between people and their environments. PARTNERSHIP, PERCEPTION, & POACHING │ KYLE L. CLIFTON BRIDGING ECOLOGY, CULTURE, & GOVERNANCE FOR EFFECTIVE CONSERVATION

The eastern portion of the K2C encompasses a The aim of my study is to determine the effec- to build constituency between the reserve and section of the continent’s flagship national park, tiveness of private nature reserve partnership community. They include programs such as em- Kruger National Park, from just north of the Phal- programs at addressing development priori- ployment in the reserve, education programs held aborwa Gate to the Paul Kruger Gate in the south. ties in communities and alleviating conflict be- within the reserve or community, or financing in- KNP is iconic; a world-renowned wildlife reserve tween private reserves and nearby communities frastructure development in communities. Rhino roughly the size of New Jersey. It borders Zimba- related to development and wildlife conserva- poaching is most topical internationally, but I am bwe to the north and forms a ~360km border with tion. Partnerships are transboundary manage- also interested in occurrences of other types of Mozambique to the east. To the west and south ment programs between private reserves and conflict such as community demonstrations and of the Kruger is a patchwork of private, provin- nearby communities. They are activities initiat- complaints against the reserve, or wildlife dam- cial, and community owned protected areas man- ed or sponsored by the private reservte that act aging community property or killing livestock. aged for conservation. This network of protected spaces is collectively known as the Greater Kru- ger. The western portion of the K2C Biosphere in- cludes the Blyde River Canyon, which is one of the largest canyons in the world and is also impres- sively biodiverse. In between the Kruger and the Canyon are the network of protected spaces, min- ing operations, and over 1.6 million people living in relatively high-density rural communities.

As much as the K2C is an impressive combination of geology, flora, and fauna, it also encapsulates a confluence of historical and current human con- flict and challenges. While there was historically settlement in the region, forced relocations under the Apartheid government’s homeland policies, as well as displacement during the creation of protected areas (e.g. national parks), caused the White rhinos with poached horns in rehabil- itation at the Hoedspruit Endangered Spe- human population to both concentrate and grow. cies Center in the K2C and warning signs to And though eco-tourism and mining in the areas poachers dot the roadsides and fence lines provides some employment, there are few indus- throughout the area. (credits: Kyle Clifton) try sectors to provide significant employment to support the population. And as is the case in pro- tected area management around the world, these human dimensions have the capacity to under- mine conservation activities.

The Greater Kruger area has long been re- nowned for ecotourism, but more recently the of eliminating demand for wildlife products, it is world is turning its eyes to the region as the still critical to understand the effects these tactics epicentre of the ‘War on Poaching’. In response (namely, ‘Green Militarization’) and rhetoric have to a rapid rise in rhino poaching, protected ar- on the communities surrounding protected areas. eas in the Greater Kruger have turned to milita- That is, it is important to identify potentially un- ristic tactics to curb rhino population declines. intended consequences or second-order problems While this militaristic response may be seen as that may ultimately further threaten the integ- a stop-gap solution to the ultimate resolution rity of protected areas and species within them.

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I conducted semi-structured interviews with Wildlife College. Affiliation with known, South stakeholders from private nature reserves and African institutions helped to validate me as a members from three case-study communities, researcher and will help in the future to dissemi- each of which was adjacent to a different private nate findings to both groups of stakeholders, and reserve. I spoke with reserve stakeholders about add my work to the broad body of knowledge and (a) community partnership programs with which research on the area. their respective lodge or reserve was engaged, (b) deterrents to initiating or engaging in these Results of my study will be provided to participat- programs, and (c) their perceptions of the degree ing reserve wardens and executive committees, as of conflict with communities and of the efficacy well as Tribal authorities and Community Devel- of these programs to address development goals opment Forums of participating communities. It or alleviate conflict. The general topics of the is my goal to provide communities with relevant study—conflict with communities, the efficacy of information to support effective communication development programs, and rhino poaching—are with adjacent reserves, as well as to aid reserves all sensitive subject matter for the reserves. Infor- in tailoring their partnerships with communities mation regarding anti-poaching initiatives in par- to improve relationships, reduce conflict, and ticular is held very close to the chest. Detection, achieve conservation goals. response, and intelligence operations are largely carried out as covertly as possible. Because of Collaboration with local actors and institutions this, it was crucial for me to spend time in the enabled my fieldwork by facilitating access and area to meet at least once with key stakeholders. encouraging trust. But, more fundamentally, it in- This helped stakeholders to understand the aims stilled value in my project by shaping its design and desired outcomes of my study and to estab- to ensure it was addressing a needed knowledge lish a relationship to build trust. gap and by integrating it into the broader body of work in the region. The merit of the connections Interviews with community members were con- and collaborations I mentioned here, as well as ducted with the aid of an interpreter, Lydia Masha- others I have been able to make, is one of the big- bane, when necessary. Lydia is affiliated with a gest takeaways of my time in South Africa. While local organization called Plough Back to the Com- I came to study the effects of partnerships be- munities. They collaborate with the University of tween reserves and communities, I quickly found the Witwatersrand and local tribal authorities in how much my study itself was affected by part- assisting researchers working in communities Article title images: White rhino and the Blyde River nerships. in the area. The motive of their work is to pro- Canyon in the K2C. Above: a community member showing off the mat she just completed. Left: Lydia vide research findings back to the communities Mashabane and the author. (credits: Kyle Clifton) to facilitate interventions that contribute to the improvement of the standard of living of commu- nities [ploughback.org]. Linking with Plough Back long-term, and permanent researchers, students, to the Communities facilitated my community en- or tourists. WRF provided an environment that try and helped to establish trust with community allowed me to mingle with other researchers leaders, and it will also assist in the crucial final studying a variety of topics—from HIV interven- step of providing findings back to the communi- tion, to the economics of natural resource use, ties within which I collected data. to witchcraft beliefs in local cultures. I was able to link with professors there to receive guidance Kyle L. Clifton While there, I lived at the University of the Witwa- and feedback on the design and implementa- Texas A&M University tersrand Rural Facility (WRF). This is a large prop- tion of my project. I also collaborated with and Dept. of Ecosytem Science & Management erty that offers accommodations for short-term, was aided by researchers at the South African Email: [email protected]

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