HONG KONG SAR

Tse Shek Kam The University of Hong Kong

Language and Literacy The Cantonese dialect of Chinese is the everyday mother tongue of the overwhelming majority of residents in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. English and Chinese have equal status as official languages of state, even though only 1.4 percent of the population uses English as their everyday lingua franca. Cantonese is the daily language used by 88.1 percent of the population; Putonghua, also known as Mandarin and the official spoken language of the People’s Republic of China, is the first language of 3.9 percent of the population; and other dialects of Chinese are regularly used by 3.7 percent of Hong Kong citizens.1 Chinese has been the official medium of instruction (MOI) in most secondary schools since 1998 and is the preferred language of instruction in all government funded primary schools.2 Pursuant to the Fine-Tuning the Medium of Instruction for Secondary Schools policy issued in 2009, all schools are required to formulate their own MOI plans in accordance with the MOI framework. The incidence of schools using Chinese as the MOI was stepped up at the Secondary 1 level in the 2010–2011 school year, and is expected to progress year by year to higher forms in secondary schools.3 Schools are required to formulate their own MOI arrangements, taking into account their local situation and environment.4

Overview of the Education System The education system in Hong Kong is for the most part decentralized, with the Education Bureau being responsible for formulating, developing and reviewing policies, programs, and legislation from preprimary to tertiary level. It has oversight of the implementation of educational programs, delegating authority to schools and encouraging school-based curriculum development.5 Such provision calls for the active support of and participation from various members of the community.6 Different modes of on-site support were provided by the Education Bureau to 372 primary and 309 secondary schools in the 2014−2015 academic year alone, including support services for school-based curriculum development.7 In 2010, approximately 880,000 students were enrolled in kindergarten, primary, and secondary education. Of the total enrollment across all educational levels, 21 percent of students were in kindergartens, 39 percent in primary schools, and 40 percent in secondary schools.8 Although no up to date statistics are available about recent initiatives, more than 60 percent of students ages 17 to 20 have had access to post-secondary education.9

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Preprimary education provision consists of childcare for children ages 2 to 3 and kindergarten for children ages 3 to 6. In September 2016, 184,032 children were enrolled in Hong Kong’s 1,014 kindergartens and the student-teacher ratio was 8.7 students to a teacher.10 From the 2017−2018 school year onward, the Education Bureau will implement a Free Quality Kindergarten Education policy.11 As part of this new policy, eligible local nonprofit kindergartens participating in the program will be provided with a basic subsidy for the provision of a three year, half day service for all eligible children. A subsidy also will be provided for participating kindergartens offering whole day and “long whole day” (operating longer service hours) kindergarten services, with parents paying a small subsidized school fee. The 575 primary schools in Hong Kong provide free schooling for children ages 6 to 11. During the 2016 school year, 349,008 children were enrolled in primary schools and the average class size was 27.2 students.12 The numbers of students enrolled in primary schools in Hong Kong began to decline appreciably in the 2005–2006 academic year. During that year, 429,900 students were enrolled in primary schools, with the number falling to 348,500 students in the 2009–2010 academic year. A further decrease was reported in the 2010−2011 academic year, with only 334,400 students enrolled in primary schools.13 To capitalize on this trend and enhance the quality of teaching and learning, the Education Bureau conducted the “Small Class Teaching” study involving 37 primary schools. Small Class Teaching has gradually been implemented in public sector primary schools, starting with Primary 1 in the 2009–2010 school year.14 The government provides free schooling at the secondary level. Under the new academic structure implemented in September 2009, all students have the opportunity to study until Secondary 6.15 In September 2016, 338,152 children were enrolled in secondary schools, the average class size in secondary schools (Secondary 1 to 6) being 28.1 students. The student-teacher ratio was 11.8 to 1 in 2016.16 At the tertiary level, Hong Kong has 20 degree-awarding higher education institutions, including eight universities funded by the University Grants Committee, 11 self-financing institutions, and one publicly funded institution.17 Nine campuses under the Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education offer skill-oriented programs. Besides government and aided schools, Direct Subsidy Scheme schools constitute a sizable sector of schools within the education system. In September 2015, there were 73 such schools—52 at the secondary level, 12 at the primary level, and nine with classes both at the secondary and primary levels.18 As of September 2015, there also were 51 international schools, including 15 schools run by the English Schools Foundation in Hong Kong. These establishments offer various nonlocal curricula—namely American, Australian, British, Canadian, French, German-Swiss, Japanese, Korean, and Singaporean—and provide for approximately 41,000 school-age children.19 Most of these schools have curricula culminating with conventional “A-level” final examinations; some offer International Baccalaureate programs.

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Language/Reading Curriculum in the Fourth Grade Reading Policy The main goal of the overall reading policy in Hong Kong (and especially for Grade 4) is to enable all children to read with comprehension for learning, information, and pleasure. A principal objective of education reforms in recent years has been for all students to develop proficiency in reading independently in both official languages, Chinese and English. The Curriculum Development Council updated the curriculum in 2014, drawing together and reiterating the overall aims of the school curriculum and its framework. In the updated version of the basic education curriculum guide, the objective of “Reading to Learn” was summarized as “students are not only expected to have considerable experiences in and a passion for reading but also to master ‘Reading to Learn’ skills, which enhance one’s overall learning capacity leading to lifelong learning and whole-person development.”20 Through extensive and broad reading, students hopefully will link their experience and knowledge and achieve the following objectives:21 • Acquiring, constructing, and applying flexibly different areas of knowledge • Enhancing the language abilities essential for communication, academic studies, and intellectual development • Unlocking potential and nurturing thinking and generic skills • Cultivating a broad spectrum of interests, lifting the quality of life and enhancing their taste • Cultivating their temperament and moral and affective qualities to strengthen their sense of responsibility toward self, family, society, the nation, and the world • Fostering open-mindedness to accommodate different opinions, views, values, and cultures • Extending students’ understanding of life and preparing them to positively rise to the challenges in life Various strategies have been suggested by the Education Bureau for promoting the Reading to Learn objective. The bureau suggests that schools: • Help students progress from “Learning to Read” to “Reading to Learn” • Promote a whole school reading ambience and atmosphere • Foster students’ reading interests and habits • Implement “Reading Across the Curriculum” by providing opportunities for students to engage in reading across various knowledge domains and in eight key learning areas: Chinese Language Education; English Language Education; Mathematics Education; Personal, Social, and Humanities Education; Science Education; Technology Education; Arts Education; and Physical Education

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Lower primary school students are expected to master the basic skills of reading and writing and to develop an interest in and a habit of reading. Upper primary school students are expected to be able to apply their reading and writing skills with increasing fluency, communicate effectively orally and in writing, and to use their reading skillfully as a vehicle of learning. The promotion of a reading culture has been identified as one of the key components of lifelong learning in curriculum reform.22 Reading to Learn is one of the four key components of curriculum programs in kindergarten and in primary and secondary schools. Reading Across the Curriculum, in the sense of teaching students to use and apply their reading competence in all lessons on the timetable, is promoted by the Education Bureau. Resources including seminars and special training courses, lists of reading materials, and the dissemination of local initiatives are available for schools and teachers.23,24 These resources enhance teachers’ professional subject knowledge and pedagogy and help them develop strategies for helping students cope with various types of texts and literacy demands associated with all subjects across the curriculum. In addition to specially focused seminars and courses for teachers, schools are encouraged to develop systematic programs for inculcating reading skills in students in lessons such as drama, to organize reading clubs in the various year groups, and to liaise with parents about promoting students’ reading at home and in the social environment.

Summary of the National Curriculum Although schools are permitted to modify the school curriculum and timetable to meet the needs of their school intake and locality, the Education Bureau offers clear and central guidance to all schools. Official guidance decrees that all students in Hong Kong will be taught reading in primary school starting at age 6. Many students begin learning to read in kindergarten, and some children are already able to read to varying degrees when they start school. Schools are encouraged to draw upon the support of parents and the community in promoting good reading habits in students and encouraging a culture of leisure reading at home for every child. Innovative teaching strategies may be introduced when and where appropriate in order to motivate students and to hone their reading comprehension. The effective use of reading programs helps to sustain students’ interest, efforts, and reading stamina. At the same time, the availability of quality reading materials both in schools and in public libraries is crucial for attracting students to read avidly in school and at home. In terms of central guidance, the Curriculum Development Council drew up and established clear reading goals for schools in 2010. The whole school staff and community are expected to be involved in the promotion of reading and in helping to build a vibrant culture of reading within the school. Language teachers are expected to focus specifically on the teaching of reading strategies and skills, while other teachers are expected to broaden and strengthen students’ reading abilities by having them read both for information and for learning in their own subject area and across the curriculum. The school librarian also plays a crucial role in developing students’ information seeking skills and strategies, and in encouraging independent reading prowess. In Primary 1 through 3, students should:25

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• Acquire basic reading abilities

• Read different types of reading materials • Acquire vocabulary and sentence structures • Have a basic knowledge of language • Understand and become knowledgeable of Chinese culture • Develop positive habits and attitudes toward reading In Primary 4 through 6, students should: • Develop their basic reading abilities • Read different types of reading materials • Develop independent reading ability • Acquire vocabulary and sentence structures • Improve basic knowledge of language • Improve understanding and knowledge of Chinese culture • Develop positive habits and attitudes toward reading The Curriculum Development Council recommends that reading strategies be addressed from the start. Students should be able to:26,27 • Use appropriate language knowledge and experiences to understand reading materials • Identify and use key words, sentences, and paragraphs in specific language situations • Raise expectations and ask appropriate questions to guide reading • Use inference and verification skills • Select different reading strategies to facilitate different reading objectives • Develop an interest in reading, a positive attitude toward it, and the habit of reading for pleasure • Read independently for information and for pleasure • Use reading skill techniques to access a range of reading materials

Teachers, Teacher Education, and Professional Development Teacher Education Specific to Reading Pre-service and in-service teacher education programs at the nondegree and degree levels are provided by tertiary institutions funded through the University Grants Committee. From 2005 onward, all new graduates from pre-service teacher training programs for primary and secondary education have been degree holding graduates. As part of the government’s comprehensive strategy to enhance students’ language proficiency, proficiency levels have been specified and benchmark requirements for English

PIRLS 2016 ENCYCLOPEDIA HONG KONG SAR 5 and Putonghua teachers have been established. From 2004 onward, teachers wishing to teach English and/or Putonghua have been asked to demonstrate basic language proficiency before being offered a language teaching position. At the same time, in light of lessons learned through Hong Kong’s involvement in international comparison surveys of children’s scholastic attainment (e.g., PIRLS), courses for the professional training of preservice and in-service language teachers in Hong Kong have been modified and adjusted. Course adjustments have been made that currently apply to the teaching of Chinese, English, or both.28

Requirements for Ongoing Professional Development in Reading for Teachers In-service professional development courses for teachers are provided by the Education Bureau, universities, and other professional organizations. Training programs also are provided to enhance teachers’ professional knowledge and their ability to cater to students’ learning needs. These programs also help teachers to keep abreast of new teaching techniques and curriculum innovations. The Committee on Professional Development of Teachers and Principals recommends the completion of 150 hours of linked professional development over a three year period, including time spent on structured learning and other professional development activities that contribute to school development.29 The Education Bureau also organizes various training courses for teachers throughout the year that include curriculum development and implementation, and courses on teaching children with specific learning difficulties in reading and writing.30

Reading Instruction in the Primary Grades Instructional Materials Before the 2000 Education Reform Act, the chief focus of teaching centered on proceeding systematically through prescribed texts, with most Chinese language teachers tending to rely on textbooks prescribed by the school. About six to seven periods per week were assigned for Chinese language teaching, during which Chinese language teachers tend to use most of their lesson time explaining texts, providing background information about the authors of the texts, reviewing vocabulary, and discussing the themes of paragraphs and the use of rhetoric. Following the reform act in 2000, the Curriculum Development Council suggested the widening of teaching materials to include Web-based and audiovisual materials. In addition to reading materials recommended by the Education Bureau, schools were advised to allow students to choose what they want to read in class, and to read materials covering a variety of theme and text types from different sources.31

Use of Technology The introduction of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has enabled students to access information independently at their own pace and at a time of their own choosing at home and in school. Teachers are encouraged to help students develop relevant knowledge, ICT skills, and appropriate attitudes toward using ICT, the Internet, and educational software. Many computer

PIRLS 2016 ENCYCLOPEDIA HONG KONG SAR 6 literacy programs can give instant feedback and record the user’s learning progress, enabling personal assessment and monitoring of progress and learning.32 One example of ICT reading instruction is the HK Reading City website set up by Hong Kong Education City. This website helps schools promote a rich reading culture by providing an online reading service and experience to students. It recommends books and other reading resources for teachers and school librarians, and offers the latest information on reading materials to the public. 33 In the latest update of the curriculum guide, schools are encouraged to implement cross-curricular reading programs that enrich students’ reading experiences, broaden their horizons, and develop a broad spectrum of interests and abilities.

Role of Reading Specialists Language teachers and teacher-librarians are chiefly responsible for teaching reading, having received special training on initial and in-service teacher training courses. However, the concept of “Reading Across the Curriculum” implies that teachers of subjects besides literacy will accept a measure of responsibility for helping students learn vocabulary and conventions associated with specialized texts used in subjects across the curriculum. These include ICT specialist conventions and language usage, map reading, historical date charts, mathematical and science formulas, tables and charts, and specialized vocabulary.

Second Language Instruction When Hong Kong was under British colonial rule, most schools in the colony used English as the medium of instruction (MOI). When Hong Kong became a special autonomous region of the People’s Republic of China in 1997, the new government raised the status of the mother tongue. There still is support for the learning of English, mainly on the grounds that English is a most useful second language for worldwide communication and commercial trading. Hence, although Chinese is the MOI in the majority of primary schools, English is taught as a core subject from Primary 1 onward. In fact, although schools have officially been encouraged to adopt Chinese as the MOI, many are reluctant to move away from using English because of parental preferences for children to learn English. Although Chinese is the first language for most students in Hong Kong, school enrollment statistics indicate an increasing number of ethnic minority students. Few of these students know Chinese; the usual languages spoken at home include Urdu, English, Nepali, Tagalog, and Hindi. These students generally are referred to as “non-Chinese speaking students.”34 In this sense, Chinese is their second language. With this in mind, the Education Bureau has issued a supplementary guide to the Chinese language curriculum for non-Chinese speaking students, providing suggestions and resources for schools to help these children learn Chinese. A research team from the University of Hong Kong has developed for schools teaching packages designed to help non-Chinese speaking students learn Chinese. Teaching strategies are demonstrated at regularly conducted seminars and workshops for teachers. The government is committed to encouraging and supporting the integration of non-Chinese speaking students into the community, including facilitating their early adaptation to the local

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Education Bureau for schools and non-Chinese speaking students to learn the Chinese language, the Chinese Language Curriculum Second Language Learning Framework has been implemented starting from the 2014–2015 school year. In essence, the learning framework provides a systematic set of objectives and expected learning outcomes that apply to the learning progress of non-Chinese speaking students at different stages. Teachers and curriculum overseers in such schools are encouraged to set progressive learning targets, learning progress markers, and expected learning outcomes. These generally are monitored using a “small step” learning approach to map and enhance the learning effectiveness of non-Chinese speaking students. In parallel, module exemplars, assessment tools, and supporting learning and teaching materials are provided to help Chinese language teachers systematically adjust the Chinese language curriculum in a progressive manner based on individual learners’ needs. Such curriculum adjustments hopefully will help non-Chinese speaking students overcome the difficulties of learning Chinese as a second language.35

Accommodation Policies for Instruction and Testing The Education Bureau jointly collaborates with tertiary institutions and other parties to provide multiple pathways for non-Chinese speaking students. For non-Chinese speaking students who have a late start in learning the Chinese language or have not been given full opportunities to learn the local Chinese language curriculum, Chinese examinations as part of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE), and General Certificate of Education (GCE) are recognized as alternative Chinese qualifications for consideration under the Joint University Programmes Admissions System and for enrollment in sub-degree programs.36,37 Starting in 2017, new special arrangements for non-Chinese speaking students, newly arrived children (students emigrating from mainland China), and students with special educational needs will be provided for within the Territory System Assessment. For details on the TSA, please refer to the Monitoring Students’ Progress in Reading section in this chapter. Special arrangements for non- Chinese speaking students to take part in the TSA Chinese Language Assessments include the following:38 • A bilingual instruction sheet will be provided to non-Chinese speaking students in all sub-papers of Chinese language assessments. These students will be assessed in a separate classroom. • For audiovisual and listening assessments, a special version of audio-visual media with questions and options to be read aloud will be prepared for non-Chinese speaking test takers. • For reading assessments, an extra package with instructions for reading aloud to non-Chinese speaking test takers will be provided. • For writing assessments, an extra package will be prepared for reading aloud the writing topic for non-Chinese speaking students. These students will be assessed in a separate classroom.

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Students with Reading Difficulties Diagnostic Testing It is not unusual for teachers to encounter children with reading difficulties. In an effort to ascertain the reasons for this situation, schools need to diagnose the reasons for this phenomenon and to decide on strategies for helping learners overcome problems. The early identification of children with special educational needs and reading disorders is paramount. In Hong Kong, assessments to diagnose children with dyslexia and other reading difficulties are available at Hong Kong government hospitals, the Education Bureau, and private educational, medical, and psychological practices and establishments. Government assessment services for school-age children are provided by the Education Bureau, the Department of Health, and the Hospital Authority. The Education Bureau provides assessment services for students in public sector primary and secondary schools who have learning and adjustment difficulties and speech and sensory impairments. Child assessments services of the Department of Health and the Hospital Authority provide assessment procedures for children under age 12 who have developmental problems.39 Assessment instruments additionally have been developed by educational psychologists and other experts for use with students in primary and secondary schools to help diagnose the nature of specific learning difficulties in reading and writing.40 Students found to have such difficulties usually receive remedial intervention.

Instruction for Children with Reading Difficulties Students with reading difficulties invariably require extra time to learn, and deliberate and focused planning by schools is needed if these children are to make satisfactory progress. Support from parents and teachers is required if the children are to learn and keep pace with fellow students in the class. Teachers are encouraged to cater to these children in their lesson planning and to use differentiated planning, multisensory teaching, and one on one, hands on experience to boost students’ learning. Daily Assessment and Teaching for Primary Aged Children also has been suggested, whereby parents, teachers, or senior students spend about 15 minutes daily teaching five to 10 words to individual students until they have been mastered. The words selected are identified with reference to known weaknesses and language demands in forthcoming lessons. Paired reading is encouraged on a regular basis to help students access meaning, complete learning tasks, and read for enjoyment.41 Learning via games has been found to be an enjoyable approach for students to help them learn the Chinese characters. Students learn simple written and frequently used words before moving on to more complicated character combinations. The understanding of character structures and the meaning of radicals helps students recognize characters and to use them in stress-free game situations. The teaching of basic stroke writing and character component patterns is essential for writing Chinese correctly.42

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Monitoring Students’ Progress in Reading Reading comprehension is routinely tested in most schools as part of language instruction provision in the classroom. The Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority organizes annual public examinations for students who have completed the six year secondary education phase. The Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination (HKDSE) aims to help course leaders to measure the attainment of students accurately. The HKDSE was administered for the first time in 2012 with the use of standard-referenced reporting to report candidates’ assessment results for Chinese and English language papers (reading, writing, listening, speaking, and integrated language skills). Chinese language and English language are two of the four core subjects in the HKDSE.43 Some schools also offer alternative overseas curricula to give students an option other than the regular HKDSE public examination. Whereas government subsidy schools are restricted to the local curriculum, alternative Chinese language programs such as GCE “A-level” and International Baccalaureate courses are offered in a number of Direct Subsidy Scheme schools that possess greater autonomy.44 The government also prepares three standardized tests for use in education: the Basic Competence Test, the English Language Proficiency Test, and the Chinese Language Proficiency Test. The Basic Competence Test involves the Student Assessment and the Territory System Assessment (TSA). The Student Assessment is an online program that helps teachers to better understand the learning needs and problems of students in Chinese, English, and mathematics so timely assistance can be provided to enhance learning effectiveness. At the same time, the TSA provides school officials with useful information on students’ standards at the end of each key learning stage (Primary 3 and 6 and Secondary 3) in the three subjects mentioned above. It was introduced to Primary 3 students in 2004; to Primary 6 students in 2005; and to Secondary 3 students in 2006. The citywide test has adopted a modification of the PIRLS framework as its own Chinese reading comprehension assessment framework. The government requests that schools arrange for all students to participate, especially non-Chinese speaking students in TSA Chinese language assessments, with a view to assisting the authority with collecting data for relevant research, policy review, and the provision of relevant support. Such assessment provides feedback to schools on learning and teaching, curriculum enrichment, and the quality of teaching.45 In 2015, numerous educators and parents complained about the pressure imposed by schools on children by heavy over-drilling for the TSA. A committee tasked by the government to review the Primary 3 TSA was set up in consequence. Per the recommendation of the committee, the Primary 3 test was suspended in 2016, and a tryout of a revised TSA with simplified tasks (the 2016 Tryout Study) was conducted in 50 primary schools. The Education Bureau has announced plans to put all primary school students through a new assessment program called The Basic Competency Assessment Research Study starting in 2017.46,47,48,49,50,51

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Special Reading Initiatives The Education Bureau has over the years introduced a series of initiatives to boost literacy standards in Hong Kong. Promoting the use of reading as a vehicle of learning and as a source of pleasure have been significant goals of recent curriculum reforms. “Reading to Learn,” a school development project, was launched to help primary schools improve the teaching of reading and develop school-based strategies for cultivating a reading culture in classrooms; and Book Works, a reading website for students, has been publicly promoted. 52 Seminars and training programs have been conducted strategically in an attempt to widen the use of children’s books in schools. Further, to encourage students to make full use of the resources available in Hong Kong public libraries and develop reading as a lifelong habit, the Library Cards for All School Children program has been jointly organized by the Education Bureau and the Leisure and Cultural Services Department.53,54 Generous funding from the Quality Education Fund has specifically been allocated to encourage schools to experiment with reading projects and initiatives.

Use and Impact of PIRLS Hong Kong has participated in largescale scholastic international assessments conducted in 2004, 2007, 2010, 2013, and 2016. Scholastic assessment in many schools and by government funded research initiatives generally have adhered to the reading skill framework established by PIRLS, which has investigated the current state of Chinese and English reading literacy at Grade 4 in Hong Kong, and the impact of approaches and strategies that schools are using to enhance the quality of the teaching and learning of reading. Hong Kong-inspired surveys have extended and modified the Hong Kong component of the PIRLS surveys specifically to examine in depth the Chinese and English reading proficiency of Grade 4 students as well as factors influencing attainment. Such follow-up to the 2004 Hong Kong study addressed the progress that Grade 4 students had made with respect to bilingual reading in English and Chinese. The evidence prompted cause for concern about teachers’ reading pedagogy and their use of resources and procedures to promote bilingual reading competence in an era witnessing a boom in children’s processing of written information on computerized devices and technology in and outside of school.55,56 Numerous educational reforms have been introduced since 1997, and the topic of children independently using the Chinese language as a tool for learning has become a major area of concern. Promoting a “reading culture” has become a key curriculum objective from kindergarten onward, with attention being directed to helping students “learn how to learn.” When an interim review of the education changes and reforms was formally announced during PIRLS 2006, many of the findings from PIRLS surveys were already being used to add support to the justification of further reforms in Hong Kong. Key items in the education reforms were noticeably being inspired by Hong Kong students’ distinctive progress in PIRLS research, especially changes to the official Chinese language curriculum. Many of the education reforms recommended by the Education and Manpower Bureau

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(EMB, which became the Education Bureau), have deliberately been aligned with elements of the

PIRLS undertaking. In fact, fundamental education reforms typically have quickly followed publication of PIRLS findings since the inaugural 2001 cycle. As part of the initial responses to the PIRLS findings, the Permanent Secretary of the EMB set up a “Reading Task Force” led by the Deputy Secretary of the EMB in May 2002. The task force was organized to develop and implement a plan for promoting a reading culture in schools, aligned with initiatives in the Reading to Learn education reforms. In essence, the task force was a high level organization composed of representatives from all of the main bodies concerned with the teaching and learning of reading in Hong Kong.57 Directed by the Deputy Secretary of the EMB, it was made up of heads of department in the EMB and included key learning areas, school-based support, the library section, and principal regional educational officers. This high level task force possessed great authority and included representatives from numerous literacy-related bodies in Hong Kong.58,59 Officials provided school-based curriculum advice, school support programs, and expert consultants to schools. The government also provided extra financial resources to primary schools to set up class libraries and a central library in each primary school. The EMB funded primary schools to employ teacher-librarians to manage school libraries, and to oversee and guide students’ leisure and study reading activities. School libraries and teacher-librarians thus began to play a more significant and pivotal role in helping students and teachers gain access to the knowledge and information needed for the learning and teaching processes.60 PIRLS findings also have influenced the design and use of teaching materials in schools. For instance, the length of passages in textbooks gradually became longer as teachers saw that passages in the PIRLS tasks were longer than those in the comprehension books commonly used in Primary 4 lessons. Some schools began using texts from well-known fiction for teaching the Chinese language, with the aim of boosting students’ motivation to read and to acquire regular reading habits.61 The PIRLS Hong Kong research team has provided training for school principals and staff and leading schools to gradually accept the notion of a school-based curriculum, rather than the “one size fits all” official curriculum for all students to follow, regardless of their linguistic prowess and interests. In the PIRLS 2001 Curriculum Questionnaire, one question asked was whether the school had school- based programs for teachers geared toward the improvement of reading instruction in the school. In PIRLS 2001, only 33.7 percent of the 142 participating schools said they had such a program. In PIRLS 2006, 61.8 percent of the 138 participating schools had such school-based reading programs, and in PIRLS 2011 almost all participating schools (98.5 percent) had their own school-based reading syllabus. Responses in the same PIRLS questionnaire indicated that the mean number of hours that teachers spent on reading instruction or reading activities per week had increased from 2.4 hours in 2001 to 5.1 hours in 2006, and decreased to 4.9 hours in 2011. A set of questions regarding teachers’ activities in PIRLS 2001 proved helpful for improving the impact of reading instruction.

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Suggested Readings Curriculum Development Council. (2014). Basic education curriculum guide: To sustain, deepen, and focus on learning to learn (Primary 1–6). Retrieved from https://cd.edb.gov.hk/becg/english/index-2.html

Education Bureau. (2017). Figures and statistics. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/about-edb/publications- stat/figures/index.html

Tse, S.K. (2010). Chinese language education in Hong Kong: Twenty five years of educational research in Hong Kong. Educational Research Journal, 24, 231–256.

Tse, S.K., Loh, E.K.Y., Lam, R.Y.H., & Lam, J.W.I. (2010). A comparison of English and Chinese reading proficiency of primary school Chinese students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 31(2), 181–199. doi: 10.1080/01434630903514212.

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19 Poon, L.F. & Stoker, S.M. (Eds.). (2015). Education. In L.F. Poon & S.M. Stoker (Eds.), Hong Kong Yearbook (pp. 119–136). Retrieved from http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2015/en/pdf/E07.pdf

20 Curriculum Development Council. (2014). Basic education curriculum guide: To sustain, deepen and focus on learning to learn (Primary 1–6). Retrieved from https://cd.edb.gov.hk/becg/english/index-2.html

21 Curriculum Development Council. (2014). Basic education curriculum guide: To sustain, deepen and focus on learning to learn (Primary 1–6). Retrieved from https://cd.edb.gov.hk/becg/english/index-2.html

22 Curriculum Development Institute. (2002). Reading to learn: The promotion of a reading culture at school. Hong Kong: HKSAR Government.

23 Education Bureau. (2011). Reading to learn: Seminars and training courses. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=3710&langno=1

24 Education Bureau. (2011). Reading across the curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=6546&langno=1

25 Curriculum Development Council. (2008). Suggested key learning area for primary Chinese language. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/kla/chi- edu/pri_chi_lang_lo_web_version.pdf

26 Education Bureau (2004). Guide to Chinese language curriculum (Primary 1 to 6). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=4278&langno=2

27 Curriculum Development Council. (2008). Suggested key learning area for primary Chinese language. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/kla/chi- edu/pri_chi_lang_lo_web_version.pdf

28 Tse, S.K., & Loh, E.K.Y. (2012). The impact of PIRLS in the Hong Kong SAR of China. In K. Schwippert & J. Lenkeit (Eds.) Progress in reading literacy in national and international context: The Impact of PIRLS 2006 in 12 countries (pp. 107–128). Münster: Waxmann.

29 Education Bureau. (2009). Continuing professional development of teachers. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/teacher/qualification-training-development/development/cpd-teachers/index.html

30 Education Bureau. (2011). Training calendar. Retrieved from https://tcs.edb.gov.hk/tcs/publicCalendar/start.htm

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31 Education Bureau. (2004). Guide to Chinese language curriculum (Primary1 to 6). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=4278&langno=2 32 Education Bureau. (2004). Guide to Chinese language curriculum (Primary1 to 6). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=4278&langno=2

33 Hong Kong Education City. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.hkreadingcity.net/

34 Education Bureau. (2008). Supplementary guide to the Chinese language curriculum for non-Chinese speaking students (English translated version). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/curriculum- development/kla/chi-edu/ncs-curriculum-documents.html

35 Education Bureau. (2014). Enhanced Chinese learning and teaching for non-Chinese speaking students (Education Bureau Circular No. 8/2014). Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/sch- admin/sbm/about-sbm/CM_2014%2006%2005_E.pdf

36 Education Bureau. (2016). Education opportunities in Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/student-parents/ncs- students/overview/Education%20Opportunities%20in%20HK_%20October%202016.pdf

37 Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority. (2016). GCE/ GCSE/ IGCSE/ IAL. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/IPE/gce_gcse_igcse_ial/

38 Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority. (2016). TSA 2017: Briefing on submission of school data and selection of special arrangements (Primary 6). Retrieved from http://www.bca.hkeaa.edu.hk/web/TSA/zh/2017BriefingSession/briefingSession/2017SpecialArrangement_power point_P6.pdf

39 Education Bureau, Department of Health, Hospital Authority. (2009). Government assessment services for school-aged children suspected to have developmental disorders. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_2555/dev%20disorder%20leaflet-eng.pdf

40 Hong Kong Specific Learning Difficulties Research Team. (2011). Diagnostic assessment tools. Retrieved from http://www.psychology.hku.hk/hksld/index_e.html

41 Education Department. (2002). Understanding and help students with special educational needs: A guide to teaching. Hong Kong: Education Department

42 Education Department. (2002). Understanding and help students with special educational needs: A guide to teaching. Hong Kong: Education Department.

43 Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority. (2017). Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.hkeaa.edu.hk/en/hkdse/introduction/

44 Yau, E. (2015, December 2). Hongkongers’ university dreams dashed by HKDSE Chinese exam. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/families/article/1885152/hongkongers-university- dreams-dashed-hkdse-chinese-exam

45 Education Bureau. (2016). Schedule for the territory-wide system assessment of Chinese, English, and mathematics at P6 and S3 in 2016/17 (Education Bureau Circular Memorandum No. 82/2016). Retrieved from http://www.bca.hkeaa.edu.hk/web/TSA/zh/pdf/EDBCM16082E.pdf

46 The Coordinating Committee on Basic Competency Assessment and Assessment Literacy. (2016). Report on review of the territory-wide system assessment. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/curriculum-development/tsa/fullreport.pdf

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47 Zhao, S. (2015, June 23). Hong Kong teachers urge the government to scrap territory-wide system assessments in schools. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/hong -kong/education - community/article/1824970/hong-kong-teachers-urge-government-scrap

48 Chiu, P. (2016, June 14). Primary three pupils from 50 Hong Kong schools take revised Chinese TSA exam, but some sit out after controversy. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/hong- kong/education-community/article/1975357/primary-three-pupils-50-hong-kong-schools-take

49 Ng, K.C., & Chiu, P. (2016, February 5). Hong Kong education minister says controversial TSA exam could return next year. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education- community/article/1909670/hong-kong-education-minister-says-controversial

50 The Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. (2017). EDB announces arrangements for basic competency assessment research study [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201701/23/P2017012300338.htm

51 Chiu, P. (2017). Revamped tests extended to all Hong Kong primary schools. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/education-community/article/2064721/revamped-tests- extended-all-hong-kong-primary

52 Education Bureau. (2011). Reading to learn. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=2398&langno=1

53 Education Bureau. (2011). Reading to learn. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=2398&langno=1

54 Education Bureau. (2011). Reading to learn—What’s new. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/curriculum-development/4-key-tasks/reading-to-learn/whats-new/index.html

55 Tse, S.K., Lam, J. W.I., Loh, E.K.Y., Hui, S.Y., & Ng, R.H.W. (2013). A comparison of Hong Kong primary 4 students’ relative progress in Chinese and English reading attainment. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies, 1(4), 1–16.

56 Tse, S.K., Hui, S.Y., Ng, H.W., & Lam, W.I. (2014). A comparison of Hong Kong primary 4 Students’ relative progress in Chinese and English reading attainment in 2013. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Studies, 3(2), 37–54.

57 Li, A.K.C., & Leung, S. (2003). Reading literacy of students. Retrieved from http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/about- edb/press/legco/replies-written/2012/20040129116071.html

58 Wardlaw, C. (2005, January 16). HK's language standards on the rise. On the Record. Retrieved from http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/ontherecord/050114/html/050114en11003.htm

59 Wardlaw, C. (2006). Professionalism, trust and accountability: Supporting conditions for curriculum reform. In C. Wardlaw (Deputy Secretary), The 2nd Hong Kong School Principals’ Conference 2006. Retrieved from http://www.ied.edu.hk/cird/principalconference2006/paper_ppt/Forum_Chris%20Wardlaw.pdf

60 Curriculum Development Council. (2009). Senior secondary curriculum guide: The future is now: From vision to realisation (Secondary 4–6). Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council.

61 Tse, S.K. (2009). Chinese education system in Hong Kong: Twenty five years of education research in Hong Kong. Educational Research Journal, 24(2), 231–255.

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