Mexican War of Independence

Committee Background Guide

General Crisis Committee Empire Model United Nations Conference VI New York University - November 2019

Table of Contents

Welcome Letter 2

History 3 Pre-colonial and early colonial history 3 The Viceroyalty of New Spain 4 The Habsburgs and the Bourbons 6

Political Situation in Mexico 7

Political Situation in Spain/Europe 11

Economy of Mexico 12 ​ Colonial Trade with Spain 14 ​ Society and Culture in Mexico 14 ​ Military situation 16 ​ Spanish colonial troops 16 ​ Independence-aligned forces 17 ​ International Relations 17 ​ Europe 17 ​ World Revolutions 19 ​ American Revolution 19 French Revolution 21 Haitian Revolution 23 Latin American Colonies Fighting for Independence 26 Bolivian Independence Movement 26 ​ Independence Movement Paraguay 28 ​ Independence Movement of Venezuela 29 ​ Independence Movement in Chile 29 ​ Independence Movement of Peru 31 Independence Movement in Argentina 32

1 Welcome Letter Dear Delegates,

It is our pleasure to welcome you to the Mexican War of Independence Committee at EmpireMUNC VI. Serving as your Crisis Director is Carlos Martinez-Mejia, a sophomore in the College of Arts and Science, studying Anthropology and Global Public Health. Your Chair is Punn Siwabutr, a junior in the College of Arts and Science triple majoring in International Relations, History, and German and Linguistics. Acting as Vice Chair is Kelly Zhang, a sophomore in Liberal Studies whose potential major is International Relations.

Inspired by the American and French revolutions of the late 18th Century and occurring amidst the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars, the Mexican War of Independence is one of the defining events of Latin American history. As the Kingdom of Spain’s hold over its New World colonies grew more and more tenuous at the start of the 19th Century, discontent and eventually various nationalist movements spread throughout the Spanish possessions, particularly in New Spain - the region we now know as Mexico. A tale of dramatic battles, clashing personalities and plenty of heroism, this committee will give you the opportunity to influence one of the most influential, although one of the least-discussed, episodes of history. We have worked tirelessly to craft an opportunity for thoughtful and constructive discussion as well as creative backroom actions as you lead various freedom fighters to independence - or elsewhere.

If you have any questions about the topic, the conference, or Model UN in general, do not hesitate to reach out to us at the emails below!

Regards,

Carlos Martinez-Mejia Punn Siwabutr Crisis Director Chair Mexican War of Independence Mexican War of Independence [email protected] [email protected]

2 History

Pre-colonial and early colonial history

The history of our region before the arrival of the conquistadores from across the Atlantic ​ ​ is hazy at best, having been trampled like so many stalks of corn by Spanish boots. What we do know is that the first explorers found a number of large cities here, the largest rivaling any in the

Old World in terms of size, if not splendor. Various civilizations—in the local tongue, the

Olmecs, the Maya, Teotihuacan, the Toltecs, and the Aztecs1—have risen and fallen in the past

3,000 years, each contributing its own layer to the mystery that is the history of Mexico prior to

Cortes’s arrival. These people were known to participate in rituals2 involving human and animal sacrifices, as they believed their heathen gods demanded constant blood sacrifices in order to stave off their version of Judgement.

Spanish conquistadores encountered the last of these civilizations, the Aztec Empire, ​ ​ when they landed in the early 16th Century. The Aztecs ruled over the entire region in a system not entirely dissimilar to—although far less sophisticated than—the Holy Roman Empire in

Central Europe, where the various city-states retained a large degree of local autonomy, paying taxes to the central Aztec Emperors in exchange for military protection. Despite outnumbering

Cortes’s men, their primitive weapons were no match for Spanish steel and shot, the impressive but poorly-defended Aztec cities falling in short order. The diversity of the Mexican city-states was turned against the Aztecs, with a number defecting to join the Spanish Empire in exchange for the protection of their noble rights.3

1 http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570777/native_americans.html ​ 2 http://www.ancientmexico.biz/ancient-mexico-blog/religion-in-pre-columbian-mesoamerica/ ​ 3 Castillo, Bernal Díaz del, J. M. Cohen, and Betty Radice. T he Conquest of New Spain. London: Penguin, 1963. ​

3 Before the establishment of formal colonial rule, Cortes and his crew laid the groundwork for the entrenchment of Spanish rule. The political system of Mexico did not change drastically; the hegemony of the Aztecs was simply replaced by that of Spain, with the system of feudal lords and vassals preserved. Human sacrifices and other facets of the local religion were strictly prohibited, and missionaries from Spain were brought in to begin the process of Christianization.

Individual conquistadores were awarded rights over the tributes and labor of the indigenous ​ ​ people they conquered in what was known as the encomienda system. ​ ​ The history of the transition from rule by the conquistador elite to the Viceroyalty of ​ ​ New Spain is muddled, to say the least. It is unclear whether Cortes and his comrades desired autonomy from the Spanish Crown out of frustration at Spain’s lack of recognition of their efforts or their own lust for power and wealth. Either way, relations between the initial settlers and the Crown deteriorated.4 Cortes was appointed Governor, but he was under the constant oversight of a number of royal officials. As governor, he continued to enjoy a degree of autonomy from the crown until the appointment of Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain.5 Cortes, for his part, returned to Spain a disgraced debtor, eventually dying in

1547, but he lit the torch we carry now — the torch of independence from the Spanish Crown.

The Viceroyalty of New Spain

Spaniards began to sail once again across the Atlantic Ocean, this time to settle, rather than to conquer. Enticed by promises of labor under the aforementioned encomienda system and ​ ​ untold deposits of gold and silver, Spanish settlers arrived in droves. When they arrived, the

4 Chasteen. John Charles. Born in Blood and Fire a Concise History of Latin America. New York: Norton, 2001. ​ ​ 5 Altman, et al. The Early History of Greater Mexico. Pearson 2003, 69. ​ ​

4 native Mexicans began to die off in large numbers;6 between the 1520s and now, around nine in every ten have died. We can only speculate as to the exact cause of this, but it is suspected that the diseases which had previously wracked Europe had not been faced by these people, and so only those who had truly turned to God survived. The defeat of the Incan empire had also spawned a sister colony to New Spain — the Viceroyalty of Peru — who are now our brothers in seeking independence from Spain.

As has been mentioned, the early part of the Viceroyalty’s history was marked by the large presence of Christian missionaries in the region.7 While their purpose was initially to force the conversion of the natives to the Church, they performed the arguably more valuable task of learning their languages and acting as communicators. While at first there was some coexistence between our Church and theirs — they had accepted our God into their pantheon — this did not sit well with the authorities back in Spain. Future waves of missionaries arrived to ‘civilize’ the natives by burning their holy books, executing their priests and banning their rituals. This evolved into a Mexican Inquisition which, like its Spanish counterpart, continues to combat the spread of liberal, secular ideas throughout New Spain.8

Now that the natives had been dealt with, the settlers could begin the real work of expanding the colony. Mexico City was built on the foundations of the Aztec capital

Tenochtitlan in 1521, with other now-major cities springing up throughout the 16th Century.

While the first Viceroys of Peru were establishing their territory in South America, New Spain

6 Portilla, Miguel León. The Broken Spears: the Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon Press, ​ ​ 1992. 7 Clendinnen, Inga. Disciplining the Indians: Franciscan Ideology and missionary Violence in Sixteenth-Century ​ Yucatán, Past & Present, Volume 94, Issue 1, February 1982, Pages 27–48, https://doi.org/10.1093/past/94.1.27 ​ ​ ​ 8 Álvarez, José Rogelio. E nciclopedia De México. Ciudad de México: Enciclopedia de México, 2000. ​

5 expanded northward past the Rio Grande into Texas, New Mexico and California.9 Some of our sailors even crossed the Pacific to establish the Spanish East Indies with its capital Manila, allowing for trade between the Orient and — via New Spain — Iberia, fulfilling Columbus’s original mission.

The Habsburgs and the Bourbons

Dynastic politics in Europe saw the collapse of the Trastamara dynasty that had launched the first expeditions to the New World, and their replacement by the Austrian Habsburgs. This particular disruption did not greatly affect affairs in the Americas, where Spain’s colonies continued to bring great profit back to the motherland. Unlike in Peru, where the natives were already involved in silver mining, the mines that have since made Mexico rich were discovered after the first European ships landed. While the part of Spain’s silver income from Peru was mined by the natives already in place, slaves bought from African markets worked the mines in

Mexico, alongside natives brought in from other parts of the colony.10 With no unified culture or ethnicity to call their own, these quickly assimilated to Hispanic culture, leading to the diversity in those who can — or soon will be able to — call themselves Mexican.

Unfortunately for Spain, this vast wealth was not put to use in developing their own or their colonies’ territory. Instead, it was used to fund the various European wars the Kingdom continued to find itself in. The Bourbon dynasty, who had displaced the Habsburgs in the early

18th Century, found the ports of the New World to be under defended, and so stationed a

9 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Viceroyalty of New Spain.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia ​ Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/place/Viceroyalty-of-New-Spain. ​ ​ 10 Altman et al, 2003.

6 standing army in New Spain starting in 1764.11 Furthermore, the local autonomy that had persisted since the establishment of the Viceroyalty through the time of the Habsburgs was taken away; by now, most key administrators of the colonies have been Spanish-born, and have been constantly rotated out of their positions to prevent them from going native. In South America, two new Viceroyalties were created out of the territory of Peru: the Viceroyalty of New Granada held the northern territory along the coast, bordering New Spain, and the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata was formed out of the territory east of the Andes Mountains, with Peru retaining the western slope of the Andes. Altogether, these decisions have caused a flare-up in the resentment towards the Crown that has existed in some capacity since the first conquistadores established ​ ​ their holdings in the New World, which has grown to the point that it is today.

The Bourbon years also featured numerous wars between Spain and other European powers which, for the first time, involved the New World as a theatre of war. The Seven Years

War, in particular, saw the loss of Spanish Florida to Britain and the acquisition of French

Louisiana by Spain in exchange; that territory has since been returned to France then sold by

Napoleon Bonaparte to the United States of America. Spain also aided in the independence of the aforementioned United States, for its part in which it regained Florida after fighting British troops in the American South and the Caribbean. These are the events that have led up to the world situation as it currently stands; we, brothers, are on the cusp of revolution. We need now only to light the match.

11 Archer, Christon I. El ejército En El México borbónico: 1760-1810 . México: Fondo de cultura económica, 1983. ​ ​

7 Political Situation in Mexico

The Mexican War of Independence came about during a time of great change. Many

European and American nations started to use ideas from The Enlightenment to try and change the political landscape of their nation. The Enlightenment was a period characterized as a time of philosophical and political change. Major publications were written that described the importance of rulers to have the consent of the people, individual freedoms, and to question absolute monarchies. During this time many more ideas and philosophies came about that would push average people to question the authority of their ruling class.12

The Enlightenment and the philosophies that were starting to spread around that time took France and America by storm. In the New World, America had quickly started to lose loyalty against The British as a variety of issues and acts started to show American’s that the

British were not treating the colonies the way they believed they should be. Taxing them too much, attacking their protesters, and much more. These issues escalated into a full war, the colonists (and some European aid) going against the might of the British Crown. The 13 colonies were able to win their independence against their former rulers- The English around 1783. 13

The French under the Royal Crown and ruled by King Louis XVI, were greatly unhappy with the conditions they were in. Most people were very poor and had little to no food, money, or land. They envied the upper class people and abhorred the royals and their wasteful spending.

14 Looking at the American Revolution as a guideline, the people of France took the nation by

12 "What Was the Enlightenment? - Live Science." 7 Jul. 2016, https://www.livescience.com/55327-the-enlightenment.html. ​ 13 "American Revolution | Causes, Battles, Aftermath, & Facts | Britannica ...." 12 Jul. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution. ​ 14 "French Revolution | Causes, Facts, & Summary | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution. ​

8 storm- literally storming important government buildings, prisons, weapon-storage-areas, and much more.15 After a long and bloody revolution, the people were able to behead their selfish

King and his family.16 All these influences shaped the world that Mexico and Spain were currently in. The Mexican’s saw these revolutions as glimmers of hope against the detached and oblivious rulers from Spain.

The Spanish first came to the New World and quickly destroyed the native culture and society that was once there. As the Spaniards brutally began to take control of the native people, ​ a rigid racial hierarchy was crafted.17 At the very top and considered to be the ‘purest’ according the Spanish were the Spaniards- people who were born in Spain and are now reading in the colonies, this was the only group of people who could hold high positions of governmental power. The next group on the hierarchy were called creoles, their parents were both from mainland Spain but they were born in the colonies. Although they could be very successful, it was incredibly rare for creoles to find a place in government. The third group were the mestizos, these are people who have some Spanish ancestors and some Indigenous ancestors. They were often looked down upon by both the Spanish and the indigenous populations because of their parental and blood mixture. The fourth and lowest group on the hierarchy were the indigenous people who had no Spanish heritage, they had to work the most laborious and dangerous jobs

15 "French revolutionaries storm the Bastille - HISTORY." 24 Nov. 2009, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/french-revolutionaries-storm-bastille. ​ 16 "King Louis XVI executed - HISTORY." 9 Feb. 2010, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-louis-xvi-executed. ​ 17 "The reign of Spain was mainly brutal - Telegraph." 8 Dec. 2002, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4729402/The-reign-of-Spain-was-mainly-brutal.html. ​

9 and were often discriminated against. This group would also contain people from Africa who were brought to New Spain as slaves. 18

Since then, there had been various revolts and conspiracies from various groups that tried to push for independence or a revolution against the Spanish Crown’s government at the time.

For many years Spanish America was under corrupt politicians and representatives from Spain.

Elites and upperclassmen in New Spain began a small upheaval of a vicery Marqués de Gelves after they believed he was corrupt. This small event eventually created other movements and revolts against government officials and The Spanish in general. 19 William Lamport, a man from

Ireland wanted to unite creole elites, indigenous people, and those from Africa so that they could fight for an independent nation. He would later be executed for his actions in 1642 but his ideas stayed with the people and the idea of independence rang across the nation for years to come.20

Another revolt in 1692 fought against the elites that would later burn down the viceroy palace, it sought to revolt against the Spanish people. This class warfare put even more tension against the upper and lower classes. 21

These social classes would ramp up the pressure between the Spanish colonies and

Spain. As trouble started to brew in the colonies, more trouble could be seen in mainland Spain as France’s Napoleon Bonaprte started to invade European nations.

18 "New Spain Social Hierarchy | Hierarchystructure.com." 5 Dec. 2017, https://www.hierarchystructure.com/new-spain-social-hierarchy/. ​ 19 "Gelves, Marqués de (1500–1600) | Encyclopedia.com." https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/gelves-marques-de-1500-1 600. ​ 20 "The Man Behind the Mask of Zorro - History Ireland." https://www.historyireland.com/early-modern-history-1500-1700/the-man-behind-the-mask-of-zorro/. ​ 21 "Pueblo Rebellion | history of North America | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Pueblo-Rebellion. ​

10 Napoleon was able to conquer Spain and with his rule, he was able to put Joseph

Bonaprte as the ruler of Spain. Those in the colonies believed his rule was illegitimate and only vowed to the previous ruler, King Ferdinand VII. Under his rule more and more people in the

New World colonies began to see this as a perfect time to declare independence from The

Spanish and Portuguese Crown.22 Around 1810, a priest by the name Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla saw mainland Spain’s chaos as the perfect moment to foster the idea of an independent nation, his words began to travel far and wide, the found foundation to Mexico’s revolution had been set. 23

Political Situation in Spain and Europe

The French Revolution had just ended but France was still in a culmination of violence and destruction. Napoleon's forces were currently taking over most of Europe during this time and it looked like it wasn’t going to end anytime soon. Napoleon had managed to go to war with almost every nation in Europe had been widely successful in his efforts to create a French

Empire.

Most recently, Napoleon wanted to show the French’s might against Britain, he decided that he wanted to financially isolate Britain. To do this, Napoleon needed to take control of

Portugal, they were the only ally that Britain had in contiental Europe who did not abide by the

Continetal System. Napoleon created the Continental System which united most of contienlt

22 "Joseph Bonaparte | king of Spain and Naples | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Bonaparte. ​ 23 "Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla | Facts, Accomplishments, & Biography ...." https://www.britannica.com/biography/Miguel-Hidalgo-y-Costilla. ​

11 Europe- which was under France, it created a contiental size embargo against The United

Kingdom. 24

At this time, Napoleon was allies with the Spanish Royal Bourbon family. After

Napoleon took control of Lisbon in Portugal, he decided it was time to overthrow his Spanish ally and put his brother- Joseph Bonaprte as the ruler of Spain and the Spanish Kingdom. 25

In 1807 Napoleon's forces and his proxy government in Spain went to war with the

Spanish crown and those still loyal to King Ferdinand VII of Spain, the Spanish also had the help of the British who believed Napoleon was a tyrant - The Peninsular war was in full swing.26

Around the same time, Napoleon oversaw the Treaty of Schönbrunn, this treaty ended the war between Austria and France in 1809, one of the points of this treaty was that Western Galicia from Austria was to be annexed to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.27 Russia believed this action was a prelude for France to invade the Russian nation, they formulated a plan to protect themselves from the possibility of a French invasion. Tsar Alexander I of Russia removed the nation from the Contienal System which Napoleon believed to be a sign of aggression. 28

Napoleon sent 500,000 soldiers to rage war against Russia, Napoleon's forces marched across Russia as the Russian army moved inland burning any settlements and supplies along the way. The bitter cold winter made this war all the more costly on both nations but France was

24 "Continental System | European history | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Continental-System. ​ ​ 25 "1807 Napoleon's Troops Enter the Iberian Peninsula and Usurp the ...." https://research.kent.ac.uk/warandnation/1807-napoleons-troops-enter-the-iberian-peninsular-and-usurp-the-king-of- spain/. ​ 26 "Peninsular War | European history | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Peninsular-War. ​ ​ 27 "Treaty of Schönbrunn | Europe [1809] | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Schonbrunn. ​ 28 "Continental System | European history | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Continental-System. ​ ​

12 taking big hits to their forces. 29 With most of Europe is under Napoleon's control, Spain fights back with everything it has to try and take control of its former kingdom.

Economy of Mexico

During the colonial era, the economic structure of Mexico was largely divided between the elites, which were mainly Spanish-born merchants and silver miners, and the peasants, indigenous peoples who worked in the mines or in agriculture. The peasants paid the elites tribute, which took on the form of maize, beans, chile, and cotton cloth, among other things.

Maize, beans, and wheat were staple crops grown by the agricultural sectors. Silver mining and agriculture dominated the economy, as Mexico served to provide resources and food for Spain. Mexico also had a small and underdeveloped industrial sector. The industrial and manufacturing sector could not grow both due to lack of investment by the Spanish and the fact that the prominence of silver in the Mexican economy effectively put Mexico on the silver standard, which made their goods uncompetitive on the world market,

When the Bourbons came into power in Spain, they launched what they called a

“reconquest” of Mexico, as Mexico had been influenced by French, Dutch, and British commercial interests during the Hapsburg rule. They did this through levying taxes. Up until the start of the War for Independence, taxes levied on Mexican citizens increased both in number and value.

In the late eighteenth century, the previously strict regulation of Mexico’s international trade by Spain relaxed, allowing trade in Mexico to grow while prices of goods fell due to

29 "Napoleon Invades Russia | National Geographic Society." 16 Dec. 2013, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/jun24/napoleon-invades-russia/. ​

13 increased competition. Silver mining, a prominent industry in Mexico, also increased in productivity due to technological advancements in excavating brought on by the use of gunpowder. However, this increase in trade did not lend much to economic prosperity, as

Mexico entered the nineteenth century in a period of economic stagnation. There was also pressure put on by the Bourbon rulers, as military engagements in Europe meant that Mexico had to shoulder on war debts.

Colonial Trade with Spain

As a colony of Spain, Mexico was expected to be a source of resources and wealth for the

European country. Like many other Latin colonies, Spain wanted Mexico for their silver. For this reason, Mexico’s silver mining industry was much more developed than their agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Spanish presence, however, did open up international trade in Mexico, which was a positive force on the Mexican economy. The Bourbon Regime, in particular, made great strides in the deregulation of international trade with Mexico.30

Society and Culture in Mexico

Before becoming a colony of Spain, many indigenous people inhabited the region that would go on to become the nation of Mexico. When the Spanish took power in the region, the official language instituted was Spanish, but many other languages such as Maya, Huastec,

Tarastec, and Nahuatl were spoken. Mexico also adopted Catholicism as the official religion,

Catholic missionaries playing a significant role in converting indigenous people and uniting them

30 https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-economic-history-of-mexico/ ​

14 under Catholicism in order to consolidate Spanish rule. The patron saint of Mexico is the Virgin of Guadalupe. According to tradition, the Virgin Mary appeared to an indigenous man named

Juan Diego in 153131. Her appearance is symbolic of the blend of Spanish and native cultures, as though she comes from the Catholic tradition, she is often depicted with brown skin and native features.

Folk arts, derived from indigenous and Spanish cultures, became characteristic of

Mexico. Crafts include clay pottery, colorfully embroidered cotton garments, and colorful baskets and rugs. Mexican architecture was also impressive; monuments, public buildings, and churches were influenced by European styles, especially the dramatic and emotive Baroque style.

32

Although the encomienda system had been formally abolished in Mexico by royal decree in 1717, the system remained in most remote areas despite the royal decree. The feudal structure established by centuries under the system, however, lingered throughout Mexico as landed elites, mostly Spanish or of Spanish descent, were placed in the upper echelons of the socioeconomic hierarchy while many natives were essentially peasants that worked for the elites.33

At the onset of the Mexican War of Independence, many different ideologies existed among the multitude of societal groups in Mexico. The prospect of revolution was brought on by most Mexicans’ rejected of rule by Napoleon Bonaparte and his brother Joseph, who replaced

Ferdinand VII on the Spanish throne. Spanish Royalists were mainly conservative Mexicans of

Spanish descent, while liberals called for outright independence. Conspiracies sprung up

31www.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fvirgen-de-guadalupe_n_4434582&psig=AOvVaw3vBytYsRgUoaQe-8efHDP2& ust=1562423619590609 32 http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/1064-mexican-muralists-the-big-three-orozco-rivera-siqueiros 33 http://countrystudies.us/mexico/7.htm

15 everywhere throughout the country, in every social circle. When open rebellion for the cause of independence began, lower-class Mexicans of native or mixed blood who mainly fought for outright independence warred with Spanish-born or Spanish-descending Royalists who wanted to return Mexico to the rule of Ferdinand VII.34

Military situation

This section will overview the situation on the ground as regards to the forces currently available to both sides of this brewing conflict. Note that our men are still scattered and have yet to be fully organized, so the numbers provided may not be wholly accurate. On the same token, we can only rely on what outdated documents and frontline reconnaissance we have for our estimates of the Spanish armies, so these numbers are also subject to change. Nevertheless, these should serve as a good guideline for us to plan our next steps carefully. Viva la Revolución.

Spanish colonial troops

It is known that, across all of its holdings in the New World, Spain has fielded close to

45,000 troops. Many of these are tied up with the ongoing insurgencies in the former

Viceroyalties of Peru, New Granada, and the Río de la Plata; we should nevertheless assume that

Spain is able to field up to 15,000 in the defense of New Spain alone, discounting any militias and garrisons they have established in the various towns they hold. While their navy has been greatly weakened in the ongoing Napoleonic Wars, we cannot discount its ability to ship troops from Iberia, should our war of independence escalate to an extent that the Crown deems it a priority. The current Viceroy of New Spain is Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 1st Count of Venadito,

34 https://www.historynet.com/mexican-war-of-independence-father-miguel-hidalgos-revolt.htm

16 who has had some repute as a naval commander, but is greatly unpopular among those surrounding him. While he is completely loyal to the Crown, his sub-commanders may not be completely loyal to him.

Independence-aligned forces

Our forces, on the other hand, are an exercise in extremes. On one hand, we could potentially greatly outnumber the Spanish troops. While our most conservative estimates place the most number we could reliably call upon at 5,000, tens of thousands more could rise up and join our army in support of our cause, if we are able to inspire or convince them to do so.

Additionally, our men are very well-motivated, in comparison to the Spanish troops whose morale is unquestionably lower, fighting so far away from home, for a cause not of their own.

Unfortunately, this is where the advantages end. We can only procure the most rudimentary melee and ranged weapons — swords, spears, slings, and bows — as the Spanish have kept their arsenals and the muskets within under close watch. Our troops, while numerous and zealous, have no training at all and, as such, lack the discipline and cohesion necessary for open warfare. Even though the core of the Spanish army is engaged in European battles, the colonial troops they have can far outmatch ours man for man in training, equipment, and discipline. Thus, we will need to either completely overwhelm them with numbers — a costly tactic — or come up with more creative means of fighting.

17 International Relations

Europe

The event that engendered the Mexican War of Independence, Napoleon’s conquest of

Europe, ended when Austria, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia banded together. These great powers also established the Congress of Vienna, which was held from November 1814 to June

1915 in order to establish a long-term peace plan for Europe in the post-Napoleonic era. Their first order of business was the restore the monarchies that Napoleon had overthrown, including the Bourbon kings of Spain. Unfortunately, the Congress was largely attended by conservatives and with the alliance of the four major powers, the conservatives were very successful in maintaining a status quo, as well as making large acquisitions in territory for themselves at the expense of smaller European countries and the New World colonies that funded it.35

At a time when national and liberal movements were sprouting all over Europe (and the world), Austria, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and later France campaigned against these revolutionary movements as the Concert of Europe, establishing a Conservative Order.

Republicanism was the foremost threat to the Concert of Europe, as they believed that peace and stability can only be established under the rule of monarchs of old ruling families. The Concert of Europe were reactionaries that sought to suppress the ideas that were popularized during the

French Revolution, including republicanism, nationalism, social equality, and liberty of thought.

In Europe, smaller European countries that fought for national identity and freedom from the rule of the major powers were suppressed. However, the second mass uprising against Ottoman rule

35 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-congress-of-vienna/

18 in Serbia began in 1815, and the Serbian Revolution was already well underway, serving as a precursor for the multitude of revolutions that will erupt throughout Europe in 1848.36

In Spain, the newly restored King Ferdinand VII’s politics aligned with those of the

Concert of Europe, as he was also an absolutist who abolished the liberal constitution of 1812.

Under his reign, Spain would see an outbreak of independence movements and go on to lose many of its New World colonies during this time, including what would be known as

Mexico.37

World Revolutions

American Revolution

The late 1700’s and early 1800’s were a time of great change around the world. European kingdoms slowly started to lose their colones in the New World and people across the globe began to fight for freedom and better- more representative governments.

One of the first independence movements that occured in the era was the American

Revolution. The 13 colonies were under the control of the Bristish crown. The people and government officials of the 13 colonies began to feel as though they were being used by their mother nation and were getting very little in return. 38

After the French and Indian war, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 was created to stop colonists from advancing further west. Colonists disobeyed this royal decree as they wanted to find more and more land to settle on. 39

36 https://study.com/academy/lesson/major-revolutions-around-the-world-in-the-1800s.html 37 https://love2fly.iberia.com/2017/07/spanish-history-lesson-a-look-back-at-spains-ruling-bourbon-dynasty/ 38 "The 13 Colonies - HISTORY." 17 Jun. 2010, https://www.history.com/topics/colonial-america/thirteen-colonies. ​ ​ 39 "The Royal Proclamation of 1763 [ushistory.org]." http://www.ushistory.org/us/9a.asp. ​ ​

19 The British Crown began to impose taxes on a variety of items to increase the wealth of the mother nation after it spent a large amount of money helping the colonies fight the battles in

The New World. These taxes angered many colonists because they believed if they were going to get taxed, they should at least have representation in the British government. 40

The people chanted “No taxation without representation”. Angered colonists began to execute various plans to send a proper message to the British government. These protests ended up devolving into the Boston Massacre which spread around the colonies as the British government being tyrannical.41 Colonists devised a plan to board a trade ship in the Boston

Harbor that was carrying tea- the colonists then threw the tea into the harbor- destroying the goods onboard the ship.42 The British response was to close down the Boston Harbor and enact the Intolerable Acts which took away Massachusetts right to self govern.43

Armed conflict finally erupted after King George sent troops to destroy colonial military supplies. This was the first of many battles that would spiral into the full revolutionary war.

The Continental Congress in the colonies rejected King George as the ruler of the colonies and on July 4th 1776, the colonies declared their independence.44 After a full fledged war was on its way, the French government decided to aid America against the British and with

40 "Parliamentary taxation of colonies, international trade, and the ...." https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/parliamentary-taxation. ​ 41 "Boston Massacre - HISTORY." 27 Oct. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/boston-massacre. ​ 42 "Boston Tea Party - Definition, Dates & Facts - HISTORY." 27 Oct. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/boston-tea-party. ​ 43 "Intolerable Acts | Definition, Summary, & Facts | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Intolerable-Acts. ​ 44 "History of the Fourth of July - Brief History & Early Celebrations ...." 16 Dec. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/holidays/july-4th. ​

20 their combined efforts- the British were defeated.45 The Treaty of Paris declared peace between

Britain and the officially recognized the new nation of America on September 3rd, 178346

French Revolution

The people of France had been under the control of the French Royal Crown for many years, at the time- they were under the control of King Louis XVI. Under this monarchy the poor owned very little land, had little food, and were treated horribly by the upperclassmen.

At this time, France had three Estates or socioeconomic classes, the third Estate, although having the biggest population had the least amount of land and money.47 After helping the

American’s in their independence movement, France’s national debt had grown and the government began to tax the poor more and more. To make matters worse, King Louis XVI’s wife- Queen Marie Antionette was living lavishly and was seen as someone who was wasting large amounts of money on frivolous materials.48

One horribly cold winter destroyed and limited many crops that the local French farmers were growing, which caused hunger across the nation.49 These actions pushed the citizens of

France to riot for better conditions, they realized that they had great strength in their large numbers and used their united forced to take action.

45 "The Role of France in the American Revolutionary War - ThoughtCo." 23 May. 2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/france-american-revolutionary-war-1222026. ​ 46 "Treaty of Paris - Definition, Date & Terms - HISTORY." 13 Nov. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/treaty-of-paris. ​ 47 "The French Revolution 1789-1815 The Three Estates." https://www.sfponline.org/Uploads/91/19-1uploadtowebsite.pdf. ​ 48 "Marie Antoinette of Austria - Madame Déficit - History of Royal Women." https://www.historyofroyalwomen.com/marie-antoinette/year-maria-theresa-maria-antonia-madame-deficit/. ​ 49 "Harvest failures - Alpha History." 15 May. 2019, https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/harvest-failures/. ​ ​

21 The people went to storm The Bastille- a political prison and fortress, they were able to weaponize and march through the streets in France.50 Seeing that the people were ready for a total overthrow, King Louis XVI gave power to the French National Assembly so they could write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Even though this was a good first step, the people of France were still unhappy with a lot of what the French government was doing.51

The Women’s March on Versaille was when a huge group of women stormed the royal

French palace in Versailles looking for the King Louis XVI and Marie Antionette.52 The women were able to find the Queen and made the royal family move to Paris to be closer to the general public. They were placed under house arrest.

At this time, Prussia and Austria condemned the actions of the revolutionaries and wanted to contain this coup, they didn’t want these revolutionary ideas to spread anywhere else.

Both Prussia and Austria went to war with France. 53

Around this time, King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antionette, and their family- tried to flee the country to go to Austria (Marie Anionette’s home country). They were found trying to escape the nation and were charged with high treason.54 The family was imprisoned and January

1793- King Louis XVI was beheaded by Maximillian Robespeirre. 55

50 "French revolutionaries storm the Bastille - HISTORY." 24 Nov. 2009, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/french-revolutionaries-storm-bastille. ​ 51 "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen | Summary ...." https://www.britannica.com/topic/Declaration-of-the-Rights-of-Man-and-of-the-Citizen. ​ 52 "Women's March on Versailles: French Revolution - ThoughtCo." https://www.thoughtco.com/womens-march-on-versailles-3529107. ​ 53 "France declares war on Austria and Prussia.." https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255/kat_anna/war.html. ​ 54 "Louis XVI's flight from Paris | History Today." https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/louis-xvis-flight-paris. ​ 55 "King Louis XVI executed - HISTORY." 9 Feb. 2010, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-louis-xvi-executed. ​

22 The King’s execution ended the monarchy but started The Reign of Terror under

Maximillian Robespieree, a murderous time in France where many people were beheaded.56

France would go on to see various changes of hand to their government in a time where the country was very political destabilized. A famous war hero finally put a stop to this destabilized era and took control of France in a coup d'etat, Napoleon Bonaparte had officially taken control of France in 1799.57

Haitian Revolution

In 1789, the French colony of Saint-Domingue was one of the most profitable and successful colonies that the French kingdom currently had.58 At the time, most of the population were enslaved people of color from Africa. Most positions of power were held by white people from France, there was a small population of free people of color but legislation was passed to greatly discriminate against this population. This social-racial class system would begin to create more and more tension between those in power and those who greatly lacked it.

The French Revolution was in full swing across the Atlantic Ocean. King Louis XVI had the French National Assembly write the Declaration of the Rights of Man of the Citizen- this document was written to outline the freedoms that people had. When the slave owners and the people in power heard about the revolution in France, they thought that it would be a great time to declare independence from France to rule the island of Saint-Domingue on their own. 59

56 "Reign of Terror | History, Significance, & Facts | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Reign-of-Terror. ​ 57 "Napoleon takes Power in France | History Today." 9 Nov. 2001, https://www.historytoday.com/archive/napoleon-takes-power-france. ​ 58 "Saint-Domingue | French colony, West Indies | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Saint-Domingue 59 "The Haitian Revolution 1788—1790 - Brown University Library." 27 Oct. 2015, https://library.brown.edu/haitihistory/3.html. ​

23 When the African population heard about the actions that the French people of power wanted to take, they sided with the royalist of France. They new under the French Crown there could be at least some prevention of harsher treatment as opposed to the horrible treatment they knew they would endure if the current slave owners took control of the island. 60

The free people of color in Saint-Domingue saw the French Revolution as the perfect time to fight for equality and their rights. Julien Raimond and Vincent Ogé hearing about the ​ ​ declaration that the French National Assembly had made, demanded equality and the right to vote.61 The rulers of the island reject their advancement and a brefi battle was fought by Vincent

Ogé and 300 free Africans who were ready to fight for their rights. Vincent Ogé was captured and brutally killed for these actions. 62

Since that point, various smaller uprisings took place in which slave owners and freed slaves fought. On August 21st, 1791- thousands of slaves conspiracy to overthrow their slave ​ owners. A ceremony was held and later that day a massive storm came and ravaged the island, during the darkness of the night- slaves went to kill and overthrow their slave owners. 63

The previously enslaved population quickly took over the ruling French- killing and overthrowing many of them. Hearing about the news overseas, the French National Assembly granted freedom to people of color in the French colonies. A new governor and various French troops were sent on the island. Léger-Félicité Sonthonax (a supporter of the Frrench Revolution)

60 "Haitian Revolution | Causes, Summary, & Facts | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution. ​ 61 "Julien Raimond - TLP." 11 Sep. 2007, https://thelouvertureproject.org/index.php?title=Julien_Raimond. ​ ​ 62 "Vincent Ogé - JStor." https://www.jstor.org/stable/41239138. ​ ​ 63 "This Day in Labor History: August 21, 1791 - Lawyers, Guns & Money." 21 Aug. 2016, http://www.lawyersgunsmoneyblog.com/2016/08/this-day-in-labor-history-august-21-1791. ​

24 abolished slavery in the northern areas of the island and opposed the powers of the slave oweners as he belived they were loyal to the royals of France. 64

At this time, France was at war with Britain and the British believed taking over the island of Saint-Domingue would be profitable and be good leverage against the French. At the same time, the Spanish had control of the rest of the island- their area was known as Hispaniola.

65 The British and Spanish were both fighting the French in Saint-Domingue. The British were able to take control of various parts of the island and kick most French people out of the area- they reinstated slavery in most places they inhabited.

Maximillan Robespiere, the current ruler of France (who overthrew the King and Queen and also saw the Reign of Terror) officaly abolished slavery in France and all of its colonies. 66

Toussaint Louverture with the help of the Haitian population and an epidemic of Yellow

Fever was able to take the Spanish and British out of Haiti. 67 A variety of bloody battles occurred and Toussaint Louverture was able to gain power over the island.

After Napoleon Bonaparte took control of France, he sent an army and his brother-in-law

Charles Leclerc to try and take control of Haiti.68 The French were able to capture Toussaint

Louverture and he would later die in prison. The Frecnh were able to take control of the island one more time. 69

64 "Léger-Félicité Sonthonax | French colonial official | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leger-Felicite-Sonthonax. ​ 65 "Hispaniola | Geography, History, & Facts | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Hispaniola. ​ ​ 66 "Maximilien Robespierre | Biography, Facts, & Execution | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maximilien-Robespierre. ​ 67 "The 1802 Saint-Domingue yellow fever epidemic and the Louisiana ...." https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23169407. ​ 68 "Charles Leclerc | French general | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Leclerc. ​ ​ ​ 69 "Haitian Revolutionary Toussaint Louverture Dies | History Channel on ...." https://www.historychannel.com.au/this-day-in-history/haitian-revolutionary-toussaint-louverture-dies/. ​

25 The French and the British soon broke out into war over in Europe. Britain saw this as a great opportunity to block Saint-Domingue from French supplies. The British started to support ​ the Haitian rebels and soon after the Haitians were able to take control once again with the help of Jean-Jacques Dessalines. On January 1st, 1804, Jean-Jacques Dessalines declared haiti was ​ ​ independent.70

The Haitians angered over the way the French had treated them in the past declared them barbarians. Jean-Jacques Dessalines oversaw over the French Massacre in 1804. At the end of this bloody era, almost all of the white population was killed or pushed out of the island.71

The Haitians created their own republic but the socio-economic class system that the

French previously enforced proceeded to have impacts on the Haitian society.

Latin American Colonies Fighting for Independence

Bolivian Independence Movement

The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was a large Spainish territory in South America which is now where present day Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and parts of Peru are. 72

During this time, there was a rigid social class based on ethnicity and nationality- a social class that was also used in Mexico.73 When the French and America revolutions broke out, the colonists started to first get ideas of fighting for their independence. They believed they were getting taxed too much and had little say in the Spanish government. Ethnic tensions were also

70 "Haitian Declaration of Independence, January 1, 1804 – Haiti Chery." 30 Dec. 2011, https://www.dadychery.org/2011/12/30/haitian-declaration-of-independence-january-1-1804/. ​ 71 "Haitian Revolution | Causes, Summary, & Facts | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution. ​ 72 "Río de la Plata | estuary, South America | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Rio-de-la-Plata. ​ ​ 73 "Latin America Social Hierarchy Chart-Hierarchystructure.com." 22 Mar. 2018, https://www.hierarchystructure.com/latin-america-social-hierarchy/. ​

26 rising as indigenous people would riot against the colonists. The event that kicked off the independence movement was the Peninsular War, where Napoleon overthrew the Spanihs king

Ferdinand VII and gave Joseph Bonaprte the reins to the Spanish Kingdom. 74

Hearing the news, Princess Carlota (King Ferdinand’s sister) declared she would rule over the Latin American colonies- at the time, she was in Brazil.75 The government officials in the colonies believed that this would be a great way to give more power to the people in Latin

America while also distancing themselves form Spanish rule. Although Princess Carlotta was favored by the officials, the overall population did not like the idea of her ruling over them. The

Aduencia in the region fought in a vicious battle that took place between two neighboring municipalities. The victor was the one that sided with the royals in Europe- they killed the revolutionaries. This battle would eventually spiral into a larger independence movement. 76

Rebel states started to form around Bolivia in the hopes they could force an independence movement, they were called republiquetas. The local upperclassmen who ruled over these states also allied themselves with the indiegnious population. Meanwhile, Simón Bolívar was storming through various South American colonies pushing and fighting for an independence movement to free them from the Spanihs rule.77 José de San Martín was also assisting in these various battles.78

74 "Peninsular War | European history | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Peninsular-War. ​ ​ 75 "Carlota (1775–1830) | Encyclopedia.com." https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/carlota-1775-1830. ​ 76 "Bolivian Independence – History of Bolivia - don Quijote." https://www.donquijote.org/bolivian-culture/history/independence-bolivia/. ​ 77 "Simón Bolívar and the Independence of Bolivia and Ecuador from ...." 6 Aug. 2012, https://nadeaubarlow.com/simon-bolivar-and-the-independence-of-bolivia-and-ecuador-from-spain/. ​ 78 "José de San Martín | Argentine revolutionary | Britannica.com." ​ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-de-San-Martin. ​

27 With many battles continuing forward and various groups bidding for power- Bolivia is in the mits of a full blown movement for freedom.

Independence Movement Paraguay

More chaos in South America can be seen in the region known as Rio de la Plata (now modern day Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Paraguay).79 The Spanish king, King Ferdinand

VII has recently been dethroned and backstabbed by Napoleon and his brother Joseph.80

The British saw this as an opportune moment to try and take control of Rio de la Plata in

1807 and 1807. The people of Paraguay had been ready to fight for control of the region. 81

As more junta’s started to form in the area in direct opposition to the Spanish Crown,

Paraguay stood loyal to King Ferdinand and sent troops to defend the area. At this point, although officially Paraguay sided with Spain, other groups were also trying to gain control of the area for their own plans. In 1810 a conspiracy was uncovered that wanted to take power from the region and place it under the control of the whole Viceroyalty. Paraguay was able to defend its area against the attackers.

Late May 14th, 1811- a coup was planned to change the power dynamics that the region of Paraguay currently had. Known as the Revolution of May 14, an army marched onto the

79 "Río de la Plata | estuary, South America | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Rio-de-la-Plata. ​ ​ 80 "Joseph Bonaparte | king of Spain and Naples | Britannica.com." 24 Jul. 2019, ​ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Bonaparte. ​ 81 "British Invasions, Río de la Plata | Encyclopedia.com." https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/british-invasions-rio-de-la -plata. ​

28 governors property demanding for power.82 The current governor at the time, Governor Bernardo de Velasco y Huidobro didn’t want any violence, and gave his powers to the army awaiting him.

This action would push the people and government of Paraguay to declare their independence from their distant mother country of Spain.

Independence Movement of Venezuela

Similar to other Latin American movements, the colonies did not believe that the French placed Joseph Bonaparte had any power over them. On April 19th April 1810, the people pushed the Spanish governor Vicente Emparan and created a junta in its place.83

The new government originally wanted to rule under the Spanish crown but with the

French invasion the current government administrators looked at other independence movements and people like Simon Bolivar and Francisco de Miranda who were greatly in favor of independence. Factions quickly started to grow in different areas of Venezuela- a civil war had broken out between the groups. Venezuelan officials declared Venezuela's independence on the

5th of July, 1811. 84

The civil war and independence movement in Venezuela created power vacuums and bloody battles across the nation, each faction wanting to gain power.

82 "Paraguay Independence Day | Article about Paraguay Independence ...." ​ https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Paraguay+Independence+Day. ​ 83 "Vicente de Emparan y Orbe - Venezuela Tuya." https://www.venezuelatuya.com/biografias/vicente_emparan.htm. ​ 84 "Venezuela - The independence movement | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Venezuela/The-independence-movement. ​

29 Independence Movement in Chile

Chile was one of the smallest and poorest colonies under the Spanish Crown at the time, with the French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula- the people of Chile started to feel their government begin to tumble.85 Around the same time, the governor had died and with the invasion in Europe- the Spanish were not able to appoint a new official. Francisco García ​ ​ Carrasco, a prominent army official took power with the governor's death. 86

Around the same, Princess Carlota- sister to King Ferdinand VII was living in Brazil and was trying to take control of these Latin America colonies. She believed since the rest of her family had been captured, she was next in line to rule the Spanish Crown.87 With Francisco ​ ​ García Carrasco taking control of the region, he ruled with authority and might and his status had started to divide the elites in the area. Factions started to arise that favored total independence, the rule of King Ferdinand VII, and then those who sided with Princess Carlota. Francisco ​ García Carrasco who was caught up in a huge scandal known as the Scorpion Scandal was ​ quickly losing favorability in the region.88 He sided with Princess Carlota and wanted to push the people in that direction. Toward the end of his rule, he started to detain people without due process.

With the May Revolution in Argentina occurring at similar times, elite criollo’s were inspired and angered by Francisco García Carrasco corrupt leadership.89 The elites pushed ​ ​

85 "Chile - Colonial period | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Chile/Colonial-period. ​ ​ 86 "Francisco Antonio García Carrasco - TheBiography.us." https://thebiography.us/en/garcia-carrasco-francisco-antonio. ​ 87 "Carlota Joaquina (1775–1830) | Encyclopedia.com." https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/carlota-joaquina-1775-1830. ​ 88 "Scorpion scandal | Revolvy." https://www.revolvy.com/page/Scorpion-scandal. ​ ​ ​ 89 "The May Revolution in Argentina - ThoughtCo." 25 May. 2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/argentina-the-may-revolution-2136357. ​

30 Francisco García Carrasco out of office and he was replaced by the extremely old Mateo de Toro ​ Zambrano Count of la Conquista. This was seen a huge step because Mateo de Toro Zambrano ​ ​ ​ Count of la Conquista was a criollo (someone born in the colonies) as opposed to a pennsinualar ​ (someone born in Europe), this made the criollo elites push Mateo de Toro Zambrano Count of la ​ ​ Conquista into creating a new Junta for Chile.90 ​ Mateo de Toro Zambrano Count of la Conquista created a junta for Chile and took oath to ​ ​ King Ferdinand VII. Different political parties were elected into the new Chilean government, they all had different plans for the government but most did not want to bide for independence from Spain. Very quickly, extremist in the movement had begun to vow for independence.

Around the same time, José Miguel Carrera returned to Chile after being in Spain. José

Miguel Carrera organized a coup against the current government and took power as a dictator of the region around 1811.91 He also advocated for Chilean Independence.

With so many grabs for power, Chile is in a political tug-of-war, with advocates on so many sides of the political spectrum, Chile is in a volatile place in its history.

Independence Movement of Peru

Río de la Plata was the region that Peru was in at the time, it also housed various other latin colonies that were fighting for independence.92 After Napoleon's invasion of Spain and King

Ferdinand VII’s dethronement, the colony of Peru under a royalist control- fought for the

Spanish Crown.93

90 "Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1st Count of La Conquista | Revolvy." ​ https://www.revolvy.com/page/Mateo-de-Toro-Zambrano%2C-1st-Count-of-La-Conquista. ​ 91 "José Miguel Carrera - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_Carrera. ​ ​ 92 "Río de la Plata | estuary, South America | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Rio-de-la-Plata. ​ ​ 93 "Peninsular War | European history | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/event/Peninsular-War. ​ ​ ​

31 Around 1813, a radical movement for independence arose as indigenous people began to riot. Various battles and factions fought during this time in hopes of changing/reforming the

Peruvian government.94

The idea of independence slowly looms over Peru as the government officials greatly side with the royals and condemn any nation or colony that goes against the Spanish Crown.

With more and more tension arising, Peru begin to see Chile and its revolution as a threat to

Peruvian stability. Time will tell if Peru will be the final stand for the Spanish Crown or if it will push for independence from its mother country.

Independence Movement in Argentina

Argentina was part of Río de la Plata, an area under the control of the Spanish Kingdom.

95 The area was hit with various invasion attempts by the British a few years earlier during the

Anglo-Spanish war, which ended when Britain and Spain were both targeted by Napoleon's forces.96 Due to these battles, Argentina was a huge military state, the population was ready for any fight that would come to them.

With Spain in ruin, the criollo elite of the region wanted to have power in government and didn’t want so many Peninsulares creating all the laws.

Princess Carlota- sister to King Ferdinand VII, told the people of Argentina that she was their rightful leader- most Argentinian’s did not listen or care for her royal proclamation.97

94 "History of Latin America - The independence of Latin America ...." ​ https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America/The-independence-of-Latin-America. ​ 95 "Río de la Plata | estuary, South America | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/place/Rio-de-la-Plata. ​ ​ 96 "British Invasions, Río de la Plata | Encyclopedia.com." ​ https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/british-invasions-rio-de-la -plata. ​ 97 "Carlota Joaquina (1775–1830) | Encyclopedia.com." ​ https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/carlota-joaquina-1775-1830. ​

32 The local legislators pushed to created their own represnastive Junta. There were various internal conflicts on who should rule over the region now that the King was taken away. This conflict would kick off an ongoing civil war that Argentina would face.98

Argentina would also go on to fight various battles against their neighbors in various bides for power. They failed various times at these offensive tactics.

Argentina then appointed Jose de San Martin to lead a unit into battle.99 The Revolution of October 8th, 1812 would depose of the royal leaning government and institute a more independence-pushing agenda in the region.100 An assembly was created to push for Argentinian independence. Around the same time, word got out that the Spanish were sending a navy to suppress the riots. A makeshift navy was created to try and stop the Spanish, they appointed

William Brown as their leader in this battle.101 Even though these ships were made under a strict time constraint, the colonists in Argentina won and defeated the Spanish. After various fights and battles, royal menaces around the area were disbanded.

Argentina, overjoyed with its recent wins, now sees independence as a very real possibility. With their recent military wins, the people and officials of Argentina look like they’ll be fighting for their independence very soon.

98 "Argentina Celebrates 200 Years of Independence | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/story/argentina-celebrates-200-years-of-independence. ​ 99 "José de San Martín | Argentine revolutionary | Britannica.com." https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jose-de-San-Martin. ​ 100 "First Triumvirate (Argentina) | Revolvy." https://www.revolvy.com/page/First-Triumvirate-%28Argentina%29. ​ ​ 101 "Admiral William Brown - The Irish Founder Of Argentina's Navy ...." 26 Oct. 2018, https://nomadflag.com/admiral-william-brown/. ​

33