An Introduction ·to '·-~ the History of Western Europe

By ]AMES HARVEY ROBINSON

REVISED AND ENLARGED By JAMES T. SHOlWELL

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

II

GINN AND COMPANY ·*' BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS

SAN FRANCISCO • TORONTO • LONDON 'tOPYR.IGllT, 1946, liY GINN Am> COMPANY

toPYJUGHT, 19020 19030 1904, 1924, 1934, BY ]AMES HARVEY ROBINSON

ALL JUGBTS RES&RVED

546.12

PREFACE FOR THE 1934 EDITION

This volume, which relates mainly to the development and spread of European civilization during the past two centuries, is an attempt to present a rather broader conception of history than that hitherto current in our colleges. It includes some account of the growth of knowledge, as well as the political and economic changes. Man's future seems to depend largely upon his discoveries, their dissemination and application. The unprecedented and incredible increase of scientific knowledge is the_ chief distinguishing characteristic of the age in which we live, and consequently it should engage the attention of every historical student. Portions of the volume are borrowed, with the necessary modifications and readjustments, from the Development of Modern Europe, written by Charles A., Beard and myself. It happens that the greater part of the material here taken from that book was essentially my own work, but there are portions of chapters and pages here and there which were written by Dr. Beard or are the result of our ever-friendly cooperation. I have his generous permission to include these where it has ..seemed unnecessary to attempt any restatement. In the present ~dition the narrative has been brought down to the beginning of 1934. Chapter XXXVII has been readjusted, Chapter XL has been enlarged so as to include a fuller ac­ count of Russia, Italy, and Great Britain, and a new chapter is added on international problems. Several important maps have also been inserted. J. H. R. PREFACE FOR THE EDITION OF 1946 .

The task assigned to me to revise the last sections of the History of Western Europe and.bring it up to date is both a high privilege and a challenge which is hard to meet. It is not too much to say that for some thirty years this work exer­ cised a deep and lasting influence upon the study and teaching . of history in the United States. Indeed, in the earlier years of the century its influence was revolutionary; for it brought into the classroom not only scholarship of a high order, but clarity of historical perspective through the elimination of a vast amount of unnecessary detail. It concentrated upon the «living past"-that part of our heritagf:: which is still molding the thought of men and the policy of nations. In spite of the contributions of the great historians, textbooks were still too often the dust-dry record which each generation of textbook writers had copied from those preceding it, with something of the unquestioned acceptance of authority typical of the medieval chroniclers. Professor Robinson cut through this mass of detail and brought the past to life again. for the in­ tellectual enrichment of all those who studied the history of Europe in American schools and colleges. Since Professor Robinson's text was completed, however, a vast new chapter of human history has been opened up, in which civilization itself has been at grips with destiny. The First World War, in which three great empires disappeared, raised issues which were not fully met in the peace settlement, and rampant nationalism first weakened the League of Nations from within and then, in a vast revolutionary movement, over­ threw it from without. Neither these crises nor the Second World War which followed could have been foreseen when the ill iv PREFACE last edition of this volume was prepared. The revision and .• completion of the text therefore called for the same kind of .editorial procedure-that. of concentrating upon the central .. t}u!me of our own day-as was followed by Professor Robin­ son throughout in the making of his history. This meant that parts of the thoughtful and thought-provoking chapters on the human problem with which the former text of the history concluded had to make way for a narrative of the most critical era in all the long record of the human past. No one can regret more than I this elimination of part of the Robinson text in order to make way for the history of · these last years. I still recall reading lhe manuscript of the first chapters which Professor Robinson wrote in the opening year of the century. It was my privilege, first as student and then as colleague and friend, to watch and to share in the development of this work as it first took shape and then was recast time and time again, with infinite care, by the author. The years have amply justified his historical scholarship. It could not have been otherwise; for this work was based upon the original sources, and the interpreter was one of the great- . est of American teachers of history .. It is my hope that, despite the cilmost impossible task of reducing to a few pages the great drama of our time, this drama will lend an added inter­ est to the whole story of the evolution of Western civilization, which is the theme of this book. J. T. S. CONTENTS

CllAPn:Jt PAGE XXI. Tli:E DRAWING TOGETHER OF EASTERN AND WESTERN EuROPE . The Cosmopolitanizing of the World, I • The Asiatic Hordes, 5 • How the Slavs occupied the Balkan Peninsula, 7 • Origin of Bulgaria, 9 • The Mag­ yars and Hungary, I I • Beginnings of Russia, I3 • Separation of the Latin and Greek ChUiches, I6 • Cyril's Alphabet, I8 • Constantinople attacked by Western Christians and Eastern Mongols, I9 • The Coming of the Ottoman TUiks; End of the Eastern Roman Empire, 22 • Suleiman the Magnificent, 25 • Growth of Russia before Peter the Great, 27 • Peter the Great and his Efforts to EUiopeanize Russia, 32 • Russia secUies an Outlet to the Sea, 36 • The Constructing of the Kingdom of Prussia, 39 • The Great Elector (164o-1688) and his Successors, 4I

XXII. Tli:E WARRING GOVERNMENTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY . 44 France and England about I7IS, 44 · War of the Polish Succession (I733- I 735): Italy the Apple of Discord, 48 • Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa, 51 • War of the Austrian Succession (174o-1748), 55· The Seven Years' War (I7S6-I763). s8 • Three Partitions of Poland, I772, I793. and 1795, 62

XXIII. EUROPEAN EXPANSION OVERSEAS ...... 68 How the Globe became EUiope's Market Place, 68 • India and its Peoples, 71 • Struggle of the British and French for India, 77 • Founding of the British Power in India, 82 • British and French in North America, 85 • How Great Britain lost her American Colonies, 89

XXIV. QUESTIONING OF AUTHORITY-HEAVENLY AND EARTHLY . . . • 96 Settled Beliefs versus Inquiry, 96 • Francis Bacon (IS6I-I626), .oo ·How. Alchemy and Astrology grew into Chemistry and Astronomy, 105 • How Scientific Progress aroused Religious Opposition, no • Questioning the Supernatural; the Deists, I 13 ·Witchcraft and its Decline, I 18 • Monarchs by the Grace of God, and their Critics, I25

XXV. FuRTHER QUESTIONING, ESPECIALLY IN HOLLAND AND FRANCE • • 133 Censorship and Toleration, I33 • Holland, the Thinkers' Asylum, I38 • Ancients and Moderns, 142 ·Voltaire, 146 • Diderot and the Encyclopczdia, ISO • Montesquieu; Rousseau; Beccaria, IS3 • The Birth of Modem Political Economy, IS7

XXVI. MEDIEVAL SuRVIVALS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY; REFORMING DESPOTS ...... • . ., . . . I62 Development of the Idea of Progress, I 62 • Condition of the Country People, x6s • The Towns and the Guilds, 167 • The Nobility, I70 • The v vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE State and Religion, 173 • The Question of the Jesuits and mtramontanism, 176 • Intolerance and Censorship, 1So • The Peculiar Religious Situation in England, 181 • The English Origin of the Idea of Constitutional Gov­ ernment, 183 • The Enlightened Despots of the Eighteenth Century, 189

XXVII. Tm: FRENCH REVOLUTION, FIRST PHASE • • • • . . . • • . I95 The Inequalities of the Ancien Regime, 195 • Growing Unpopularity of the Privileged Classes, 199 • Condition of the Third Estate, 202 • French Despotism and its Limitations, 204 • Louis XVI as a Benevolent Despot, 208 • How the Estates General came to he summoned in 1789, 213 • Transformation of the Estates General into a Constitutional Assembly, 218 • Paris Mobs begin to take a Hand in Affairs, 222 • First Reforms of the National Assembly, August-October0 1789, 225 ·The National As­ sembly in Paris, October, 1789, to September, 1791, 229

XXVill. Tm: FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC ...... 237 The Weakening of the Monarchy, I791-1792, 237 .·Origin of the Revo­ lutionary Wars, 241 • France becomes a Republic, 246 ·Enemies of the New Republic, Foreign and Domestic, 252 • Origin of the Reign of Terror, 256 • Terror the Order of the Day, 259 • The Constitution of the Year Ill: ~e Directory, 265

XXIX. RisE OF NAPOLEON BoNAPARTE Bonaparte's Opening Successes, 269 • Character and Ambitions of Gen­ eral Bonaparte, 272 • Bonaparte, Chieftain of France, 274 • Europe en­ joys a Brief General Peace, 278 • Bonaparte begins the Consolidation of Germany, 28o

XXX. EUROPE Dt1RING THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD Bonaparte restores Order and Prosperity in France, 284 ·Napoleon's War with Austria (r8os), 290 • The End of the Holy Roman Empire, 294 • Napoleon humiliates Prussia and makes Terms with the Tsar (18o6- 18o7), 295 • The Continental Blockade, 298 • Napoleon at the Zenith of his Power (18o8-1812), 301 • Napoleon intervenes in Spain, 303 • Great­ est Expansion of Napoleon's Empite, 306 • The Russian Disaster (r8u), 308 · Revival of Prussia, 3II • The Fall of Napoleon, 314

XXXI. EUROPE AFTER THE CoNGREss OF VIENNA . . . . 317 The Settlement at Vienna (1814-1815), 317 • Problem of Germany after its Reconstitution by Napoleon, 323 • Spain and the Revolt of her Colo­ nies, 327 • Italy "a Geographical Expression," 330 • The Restored Bour­ bons in France, 333 • The French Revolution of 1848; the Second Em­ pire, 337 • Belgium and Greece, 339

XXXII. Tm: UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY: THE ThiRD FRENCH . REPUBLIC ...... 341 The Fall of Metternicb (1848), 341 ·How Austria reestablished her Con- trol (1849), 345 • Failure to reconstruct Germany, 347 • Founding of the Kingdom of Italy (r86r), 349 ·Founding of the North German Federa- CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER PAGE tion, 1866, 352 • The Franco-Prussian War (I87o-I87I), 357 • Rome be­ comes the Capital of Italy, 360 • The German Empire, 362 • The Third FrenchRepublic,365

XXXill. GREAT BRITAIN AND HER EMPIRE. The Coming of Machinery, 368 • Effects of the Factory System, 371 • Reforming the British Parliament, 374 • General Reforms in Great Britain, 378 • The Irish Question, 381 • The British Empire: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, 386 • South Africa, 390 • British India, 393

XXXIV. WoRLD TRADE AND THE=Gaowrn o:r lMPERIAUSM ••••• 396 Modern Means of Communication, 396 • Modern Imperialism, 399 • Europe and the Far East, 401 ·Western ln1luences in China, 404 ·Par­ tition of Africa among European Powers, 408 • End of Spanish Do­ minion in the New World, 412

XXXV. RussiA AND THE NEAR-EASTERN QUEsTION .....••• 415 Russia under Alexander I and Nicholas I, 415 • Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, 419 • The Russian Terrorists, 42 I • Economic Expansion of - Russia, 423 • Development of Discontent under Nicholas II (I894- I9I7), 425 ·Autocracy and the Duma, 429 • Greek Independence: the Crimean War {r854-1856), 431 ·The Russo-Turkish War (r877-1878) and the Congress of Berlin, 435 • Balkan Wars in the Early Twentieth Century, 438

XXXVI. THE FIRST WoRLD WAR. 443 European Armaments, 443 • The Hague Conferences, 1899 and 1907, 445 • National Rivalries and Contentions, 446 • Outbreak of the First World War, 1914, 451 • Course of the War, I9I4-I9I5, 454 • The Blockade and the Submarine, 458 • The Campaigns of 1916, 459 • The United States enters the War, 461 • The Russian Revolution, March, 1917, 464 • The Bolshevik Revolution, November, 1917, 466 • The Wilson Program, 467 • The Campaigns of 1917 and 1918, 468 • Collapse of the Central Powers, 1918, 471 • End of the First World War, 475

XXXVII. EUROPE AFTER THE FIRST WORLD wAll 478 The Treaty of Versailles, 1919, 478 ·The New Map of Europe, 481 • Reparations and Inter-Allied War Debts, 490 ·The League of Nations, 495 • The World Court, 500 • Disarmament and Security, 502 • The Locarno Treaties, 504 • TpPact of Paris, 1928, 508

XXXVIII. THE Al'TERJI[ATH OF THE FII!.ST WORLD WAR su Financial and Economic Ruin, 5II • The Bankruptcy of Austria and Germany, 516 • DevastateJ France, 520 • Great Britain Carries On, 523 • Disappointed Italy, 525 • Russia Suffers Most, 526 • The United States-Prosperity and Depression, 528 • Nationalism-Economic and Political, 531 • The Minorities, 535 viii CONTENTS

CHAPTEa PAGE XXXIX. Tm: OLD ORDER PASSES 538 From the First to the Second World War, 538 ·Progress under Free­ dom, 540 • Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, 541 • Reform and Reformers, 544 • Beginnings of Socialism, 546 • Marx and the Theory of the Class Struggle, 549 • Opposition to Socialism, 556 • The Bolshevik Experi­ ment in Government, 559 • Development of a Dictatorship in Ger­ many, 565 • The Fascist Government of Italy, 570 • The Spanish Re­ public, 573 • The British Way, 574 • The British Commonwealth of Nations, 581 • The Indian Question, 585

XL. THE PRELUDE ro THE SECOND WoRLD Wu 59 I Japan Resorts to Force against China, 591 • Twilight of the League of Nations, 595 • The Tragic History of Spain, 6oo • Hitler, 002 • The Rhineland is Occupied, oo6 • Austria is Overrun, 007 • Czechoslovakia is Partitioned, 6o8 • The Polish Question Brings War, 611 • The Causes of the Second World Wu and the Responsibility for It, 614

XLI. Tm: SEcoND WoRLD Wu-FIRST PHAsE The Fifth Partition of Poland, 617 • Soviet Russia Moves to the Baltic, 6zo· The"PhonyWar''on the Western Front and theWarat Sea, 621· Hitler Attacks the Neutrat.--Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Belgium, 623 • The Conquest of France. 6~7 • The Battle of Britain, 631 • Mussolini Enters the War, 633 • Hitler Strikes South, 634 • The Invasion of Russia, 637 • The Attitude of the United States, 647 • The Atlantic Charter, 649

XLII. Tm: SECOND WORLD WAll-SECOND PHASE 65o Japanese Invasion of China, 65o • Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, 655 • The United States and the United Nations Enter the War, 657 • The Aleutians, 663 • The Burma Campaign, 664 • Campaign in the Mediterranean, 665 • "Operation Overlord," 671 • D-Day, June 6, 1944, 673 • The Recovery of Northern France, 678· The Problem of Supplies, 68o• Aachen, 682 ·The "Battle of the Bulge," 682 ·Crossing the Rhine, 684 • Allied Offensive in the Pacific, 689 • Liberation of the Philippines, 692 ·Okinawa, 696 • The Atomic Bomb, 697

XUll. Tm: UNITED NATIONS 702 Roosevelt's "Good Neighbor" Policy, 702 • Special International Or­ ganizations: Roosevelt's Method, 704 • FAO, 705 • UNRRA, 7o6 · In­ ternational Monetary and Financial Organizations, 706 · Planning the Organization of the United Nations, 709 • The Charter of the United Nations, 713 • The Security Council, 714 · General Assembly, 717 ·In­ ternational Economic and Social Cooperation, 718 • The Economic and Social Council, 718 • International Trusteeship System, 719 • The In­ ternational Court of Justice, 720 • The Secretary and Staff, 721 CONTENTS ix

XLIV. THE WoRLD oF SciENCE The Age of Science, 723 • The Fundamental Rate of Knowledge in Human Affairs, 725 • The Great Age of the Earth, 727 • The Theory of Evolution: Darwinism, 730 • The Study of Living Cells and its Re­ sults, 735 • Bacteria and the Germ Theory of Disease, 737 • The Constitution of Matter: Atoms and Molecules, 741 • Control of Atomic Energy, 746 • Problems of the Atomic Age, 751 • The Atomic Age and International Or­ ganization, 754 • Summing Up, 759

SUGGESTIONS FOR READING INDEX xxiii

LIST OF MAPS

Northeastern Europe in the Time of Peter the Great Europe after the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, 1713-1714 'Territories of the Great Elector of Brandenburg . . . , . . The Italian States in 1750 ...... Prussia at the Accession of Frederick the Great in 1740 and at the Death of Frederick the Great in 1786 . · ...... 54 The Partition of Poland ...... 62 India about 1763 and England; France, and Spain in America, 1750 ... 70. The Provinces of France in the Eighteenth Century, showing Interior Customs Lines ...... • 197 Map showing the Amount paid in the Eighteenth Century for Salt in Various Parts of France ...... 198 Central Europe to illustrate Napoleon's Campaigns, 1796-1801 271 Bonaparte's Egyptian Campaign ...... 275 Europe at the Time of Napoleon's Greatest Power about 1810 . 310- Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 326 .. The Zollverein ...... 326 The Various Races of Austria-Hungary 342 Italy, 1814-1859 . . ' ...... 350 German States seized by Prussia in 1866 355 The German Empire, 1871-1918 358 The British Empire, 1914 ...... 390 Ocean Trade Routes after the World War. '398 Asia in 1913; Asia at the Present Time. . 406 Africa until 1914; Africa since the World War 408 Southeastern Europe, 1914 . . 441 Europe in 1914 ...... 454 The Western Front, 1914-1917. 456 The Eastern Front, 1914-1917 . 457 The Polish "Corridor" ...... 479 The Austrian Republic and the Hungarian Monarchy 482 X LIST OF MAPS

PAGE Europe after the First World War...... 484 Yugoslavia, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes 485 Map of the Peace Zone ...... 505 Western Portion of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1919-1945 560 Eire and Northern Ireland ...... 584 How Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union 618 Hitler's Bloodless Conquests ...... 624 The Nazi Occupation of France ...... 629 What Rumania gained and lost in Two World Wars 635 The Russo-German Front . 640 The Middle East 642 Path of the Red Army . . 644-{;45 Operation Avalanche .. 668 From Cassino to the Arno .. 669 Operation Overlord 676-{;77 Ardennes Counteroffensive .. 683 Battle of Germany . . . 686-{;87 Central Pacific Advance 69o-{;91 Philippine Liberation ... 694-{;95' l'he Arena of Victory 698-{;99 INDEX

Abyssinia, Italy and, 361 Amiens, rupture of treaty of, 291; in Academy of Sciences, Berlin, 52, r ro First World War, 460, 469; in Academy of Sciences, French, no Second World War, 627 Acre, Bonaparte's defeat at (1799), 275 Ammianus Marcellinus, 6 Admiral Graf Spee, 622 f. Amritsar, outbreak at, 395 Adowa, 598 Anresthetics, 739 Adrianople, 24; capture of, by Rus­ Analogy of Religion, us f. sians {1878), 437; capture of, by Ancien. Regime, 195 ff. Bulgarians (1912), 440; recovery of, Ancients and modems, 142 ff. by Turks (1913), 440, 442 Anglican Church, 128, 181, 183; in Africa, partition of, 364, 367, 390 ff., Ireland, 381 ff. 409 ff., 446 ff.; exploration of, 408 f.; Anglo-Japanese Treaty (1902), 404; mandates in, 479; in Second World renewal and extension of (1905), 447 War, 637, 665 f. and note Agadir incident, 448 Angora, 489 "Aggression and aggressor," definition Anne, Queen, 46 of, 503 f. . Antonescu, 635 Aircraft, 68; in First World War, 456; Antwerp, 455 in Second World War, 617, 626 ff., Arbitration, international, 44/l-, 496, 631 f., 634, 636, 651, 6ss, 664, 672, 50S f. 675, 68o, 683, 696, 697 ff. Arbitration, Permanent Court of, 445· Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of (1748), 58 See also Permanent Court of Inter. Akbar, 76 · national Justice Aland Islands, 499 Areopagitica, 134 ff. Albania, under Turkish rule, 24, 438; Argonne Forest, 471 _in Balkan Wars, 440; independence Aristotle, 98, 105, 107' 134 of, 442, 450; boundaries fixed, 499; Arkwright, Sir Richard, 369 conquered by Mussolini, 610 Armaments, competition in, 443 ff.; Alchemy, ro6 ff. question of, at Hague conferences, Aleutians, 663 f. 445 f.; increase of, in 1913, 450; the Alexander I, Tsar, 292 and note, 297 f., League of Nations, 496, 502 f.; the 309 f., 415 ff., 426, 432 Washington conference, 502 f.; gen­ Alexander II, Tsar, 418 ff., 435, 437 eral disarmament conference, 503; Alexander III, Tsar, 422 f. Geneva conference, 503; London Alexander I of Yugoslavia, 486 conference, 503; Hoover proposal, Alexander of Bulgaria, 438 so6 f.; and German militarism, Alexius, Tsar, 31 603 f. Algeciras, conference at, 448 Armistice between Germany and Allies Algeria, conquered by France, 367,446 (1918), 475 Allenby, General, 472 Article 10 of the Covenant of the Alsace, ceded to France, 196; ceded to League of Nations, 496, 498 Germany, 358 f. and note; restored Artois, count of, 222, 224, 238, 334· to France, 479, 536 See also Charles X of France American colonies of England, revolt Aryas, 73 of, 89 ff. Asiatic hordes in Eastern Europe, 5 ff. "American plan" for outlawing war, 503 Asoka, 74 and note- American Revolution, 93 ff. Aspern, battle of, 306 xxiii xxiv INDEX

Asquith, Herbert, 379 Avars, II AsrignaU, 233, 266, 284 Averroes, 98 - Astrology, 1o6, 1o8 Axis Powers, 539 f., 636 f., 703. See Astronomy, medieval knowledge of, also Second World War, Germany, 1o8; discoveries of Copernicus, 109, Italy, Japan 112 n.; modern, 728 f. Aswan dam, 411 Baber, 76f. Atlantic Charter, 649, 658, 704 Babeuf, 547 Atomic bomb, 697 ff., 722, 749.ff. Bacon, Francis, roo ff., II2 n., 144, 726 Atomic energy, 724, 743; control of, Bacon, Roger, 105 f. 746, 752 ff.; uses for, 749 f.; prob­ Bacteria, 737 ff. lems of, 751 ff., 755 ff.; sources of, 754 Baden, 282 f., 294, 327, 343, 356, 359 Atomic theory, 742 Badoglio, Marshal, 667 Atoms, 741 ff. Bagdad, railway to, 450; in First World Augustine, St., 727 War,457 Augustus II of Poland, 37 Balance of power, 47 Augustus ill of Saxony and Poland, 63 Baldwin, Count of Flanders, made Aurungzeb, 77, 8o f. "Latin Emperor," 20 Austerlitz, battle of, 293 f. Baldwin, Stanley, 576, 578 Australia, 388 f.; in First World War, Balkan Alliance, 440 457; at the Peace Conference, 478; in Balkan States, 8 ff.; Turkish conquest League of Nations, 498; governor­ of, 23 f.; nationalism and wars of general of, 582; in Second World independence in, 432 ff., 488 ff. War, 613,662 Balkan Wars (1912-1913), 440 Australian ballot, 390 Baltic States, 416, 426, 456, 467, 488, Austria, conflicts with Turks, 27; gen­ 560 ealogical tables of, 53; at war with Bank for International Payments France, 245, 252 ff., 264, 270 ff., 274; (World Dank), 492 war with Napoleon {18os), 292 ff., Baptists, 182 {1809), 3o6 f., (1813), 314; influence Bastille, fall of the, 223 f., 235 of, .after 1815, 321 ff.; opposition of, Bataan, 661 to German unity, 324 f., 341; rev

Benes, 609 f. 439, 449 ti.; added to Yugoslavia, Bengal, So, 82 f. 48S Berkeley, Bishop, us, 147 n. Bossuet, Bishop, 130, 177 Berlin, Academy of Sciences, 52, no; Botha, General, 391 in the eighteenth century, 312; Con­ Boulogne, Napoleon's army at, 291 f. gress of, 437 f., 449; fall of, 688 Bourbon, House of, so, 54, 57, 318, Berlin Decree, 299 f. 330,333 fl., 360 n., 592; genealogical Berlin-Rome Axis, 6o7,61o table, 336 Bernadotte, 314 Bourgeoisie, 225, 230, 337, 551 Bessarabia, 432, 488, 634 f., 646 Boxer Rebellion, 404 f. Bhagavad Gita, 73 Boycott, of British goods by India, Biology, 730 fl. 395. s88; of Japanese goods by Bismarck, 352 fl., 358 f., 363 f., 447, China, 594 453, srS, 604 Boyle, Robert, 107 Bizerte, 666 Braddock, General, 88 "Black and Tans," 385 Brahmans, 75 1 "Black Hole" of Calcutta, 83 Brahminism, 75' "Black Hundreds," 430 Brandenburg, electorate of, 39 fl., 62. Black Sea, 36, 432; neutrality of, 43S See also Prussia Black Shirts, Italian, 571; German, Brazil, 412 n., 478 6os Bremen, 282, 308, 356, 458 Blanc, Louis, 549 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 467 Blitzkrieg, 6 I 7 Bretton Woods conference, 708 Blockade, in the Napoleonic wars, 2911 Briand, soB, 6rs 298 11., 309 f.; in First World War, Britain, Battle of, 631 f. 458 f., 461 fl., 468; in Second World British Commonwealth of Nations, War, 632 581 fl. Blount, Charles, us British East Mrica. See East Mrica, BlUcher, 314, 316 British Blum, Leon, 630 British Empire, 47, 69, 386 fl., 410 ti., Bodin, Jean, 120 f. 58 I Boer War (r89g-1902), 391 Brittany, 258 Boers, 390 f. Brotherhood, 542 f. Bohemia, early history of, 14 and note; Brown Shilts, 6os in the War of the Austrian Succes­ Brunswick, manifesto of the duke of, sion, 54 f.; in the Seven Years' War, 248 f., 254 n., 297 6o; in I 848, 341 fl., 345 Brussels, in First World War, 454 Boleslav I of Poland, 14 and note Bucharest, 440; Treaty of, 442 Bolingbroke, Lord, us Buda taken by Suleiman, 26 Bolsheviki, 466 f., 559 f., 562 f. Buddha, 74 f. Bombay, 79 Buddhism, ~4 ti. Bonaparte, Jerome, 297,315 Buflon, 730 f. Bonaparte, Joseph, 296, 304 f. Bukowina, 488, 635 Bonaparte, Louis, 296, 3o8 Bulgaria, origin and early history of, Bonaparte, Lucien, 276 7, 9 fl.; principality of, 437 fl.; as Bonaparte, Napoleon, analysis of char­ constituted by the Congres~ of acter of, 272 fl. See also Napoleon Berlin, 438; independence estab­ Boniface VIII, Pope, struggle with lished, 438 f.; in Balkan Wars, 440; Philip the Fair, 174 gains in territory after Balkan Wars, Books, censorship of, 1.34, 328, 418, 425 442; in First World War, 46o, Bordeaux, 258 f., 455, 628 472; after First World War, 488; Boris I of Bulgaria, 10 Greek invasion of, 499 f.; in Second Borodino, battle of, 310 World War, 636, 646 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 24; revolt against Bulgarian atrocities, 436 Turkey, 435 f.; annexed to Austria, Bulgars, 7 11., u xxvi INDEX

"Bulge, Battle of the," 682 f. Chamberlain, Neville, 581, 6o7, 609, Bundesralh, 356, 362 613, 622 Burke, Edmund, 84 and note, 92 Chambord, count of, 360 n. Burma, 72, 77 Champ de Mars, 240 Burma Road, 651, 664 f. Chapultepec, 712 Burnet, Thomas, us Charles VI, Emperor, 49, 52 Butler, Joseph, us f. Charles VII, Emperor, 55 f. Byzantine Empire. See Eastern Empire Charles I of Austria, 473, 483 Charles II of England, 78 f., 182 Cabinet, British, 187, 376; French, Charles X of France, 335 ff. See also 365 f. Artois, count of Cable, Atlantic, 399 Charles IT of Spain, will of, 45 Cahiers, 219 f., 227 Charle!t ill of Spain, 49 f., 178, 189, Calcutta, 78 n.; "Black Hole" of, 83 • 193 f. Calendar, Russian, 35; French repub- Charles IV of Spain, 304 and note lican, 251 and note Charles XII of Sweden, 37 f. Caliph, title of, 25; abolition of, 489 Charles, Archduke, 3o6 Caliphate, 25 Charles Albert of Sardinia, 343 f., 347 Calonne, reforms proposed by, 213 ff. Charles Edward, Prince, 58 n. Calvin, 131 Charter, French, of 1814, 334 f., 337 Cameroons, 364, 409 Charter, the Great, of England, 205 Campo-Formio, peace of, 272 Chartist movement, 377, 549 Canada, France and England rivals in ChAteau-Thierry, 470 settlement of, 45, 86, 88; ceded to ChAteaux, burning of the, 226 and England, 88, 91, 387; and the note Quebec Act (1774), 387; in the War Cheinical warfare, 456 of 1812. 387; Lord Durham's report Cheinistry, modem, 105 ff., 471 ff. on, 387; the Dominion of, created, Chiang Kai-shek, 651 388; in First World War, 457, 468; Child labor, 372 . at the Peace Conference, 478; and China, Opium War (1839), 401; rela­ League of Nations, 498; governor­ tions with Europe, 401 JL; conces­ general of, 582; in Second World sions to Great Britain, 402, 404; and War,613 opening of "treaty ports," 402; war Cape Colony, 390 with France and England (1858), Cape to Cairo railway, 392 402; war with Japan (1894-1895), Capet, Hugh, 196 403; Boxer Rebellion, 404 f.; re­ Capitalism, 371 ff., s6o, 562, 564 forms in, 404; Westernizing of, 404, Carbi»UJJ'i, 33 I f. 4o6; relations with Russia, 405; Carlos, Don. See Charles ill of Spain republic of (1912), 4o6; revolution Cannagnole, 250 n. in, 4o6; civil war in, and secession Carnot, 259 of southern China, 407; and First Carol II, king of Rumania, 635 World War, 407; industrial revolu­ Casablanca, 665 tion in, 4o8; German settlements in, Cassino, 670 454; at Versailles, 478; in conflict Caste system of India, 75 f., 587 with Japan in Manchuria, 591 ff.; Catherine II of Russia, 31 n., 38, 63 ff., invaded by Japan, 591, 595, 650 ff.; 189 ff., 255. 432 appeals to League, 594, 596; in Catholic Church. See Church, Clergy Second World War, 664. See also Catholics, in America, 182 n.; in Eng- Korea, Manchuria land, 183; in Canada, 387 Chino-Japanese War (I894-:1895), 403 Cavaliers, 186 Chosen. See Korea Cavour, 349 ff., 361, 435 n. Christian socialism, 554 n. Cells, study of living, 735 ff. Church, separation of Latin (Roman), Censorship. See Press censorship· from Greek (Eastern), 16 ff.; serv­ Chamberlain, Austen, 615 ices of, to civilization, 16; into!- INDEX xxvii

erance of, IJ4, I So ff.; attack of perialism, 399 f., 446; destruction of. Voltaire on, I48 and note; and German, in First World War, 458 f; State, I7J ff.; in the eighteenth after First World War, 515 century, I79 ff.; in France before Commercial war between Holland and the Revolution, I99 f.; property of, England, 78 f. confiscated by the National Assem­ Committee of Public Safety, 256, 259 bly, 2JI ff.; lands of, secularized, Commons, House of. Su Parliament 28I; separation of, from State in Commune, Paris, 225, 229 f., 250 ff., France, 285 and note, 286, 337, 366; 258, 264; insurrection of, 1848, in Italy, 361, 573i in Russia, 563; 338 f.j Of 1871, 359 f. in Germany, 569; in Spain, 6or. Communes, establishment of, in Su also Anglican Church, Clergy, France in 1789, 225 Greek Church, Pope, Protestant Communication, modem means of, revolt . 68 f., J17 f., 396 ff. Churchill, Winston, becomes prime Communism, in Russia, 466, 527 f., minister, 622; quoted, 63I, 66r; and 533, 538, 539 f., 561 f.; in Hungary, Atlantic Charter, 649; in conference 484, 563; in Italy, 526, 57o; in at Washington, 657; at Yalta, 712 Germany, 562 f., 565 ff.; interna­ Cisalpine Republic, 272, 278 f. tional, 562 f., 565 City of God, The, Augustine's, 727 Communist M anijesto, 549 Civil Constitution of the Clergy, Concordat of 18o1, 286 f., 366 233 ff., 244 f. Conde, 238 Civilization, beginnings of, in Asia and Condorcet, 163 f. Africa, 4; perpetuated by the CondoUiui (Italian mercenary troops), Christian Church, I6; and China, 269 22; diffusior. of western-European, Confederation, the German, 324 ff., 68 f., J17 f. J4I, 347, 352 f.; dissolution of, 354 "Class struggle," 549 ff. Confederation of the Rhine, 294 f., Classics, Greek and Roman, I42 ff., JI5, JI9 146 n. Congo, Belgian, 392, 409i portion of Clemenceau, 478, 48I French, ceded to Germany, 448 Clergy, in France before the Revolu­ Congo Free State, 409 tion, 2oo; representatives. of, join Congress of Berlin, 437 f., 449 third estate, 220, 222; Civil Con­ Congress of Vienna, JIB ff., 48I stitution of, 233 ff.; nonjuring, in Conscription, 444, 460, 464, 603 France, 233 ff., 238, 241, 244 f.; in Conservative party in England, I86 n., Spain, 6o1 376 ff., 383 f.; (1895-I924), 575,.578, Cleves, 40 f., 282 58o Clive, Robert, 82 If. Constance, Council of (1414), 25 f. Coal, use of, 371 Constantine I, the Great, 4 Coal tar, utilization of, 745 Constantinople, capital of Eastern Code Napol&ln, 265, 288 Empire, 2 ff.; threatened by Bul­ Colbert, So, 158 gars (679), 9i attacked by Russians Collective security, 502 ff. (86o), 14; patriarch of, I6 f.; cap­ Colombia, 328, 397 ture of, by Crusaders (1204), 20; Colonies, French and English, in North captured by Turks (1453), 24; de­ America, 45, 61, 86 ff.; in India, 6I, sire of Russia for, 432; and Great 70 f., 77 ff.; Dutch, 69, 79i Portu­ Britain, 434i and Germany, 450; guese, 86, 94,412 and note; Spanish, in First World War, 457; ceases to 86, 88 f., 94, 28o, 328 f., 412 f. Su be capital of Ottoman Empire, 489 also Africa, partition of, Far Eastern Constitutional Democrats in Russia, Question, Imperialism, Dominions 430 Commerce, development of world, Consul, title of Bonaparte, 276 68 If., 396; in Spain, 193; competi­ Continental blockade, 291, 298 ff., tion for foreign, 396, 399; and im- 309 f. xxviii INDEX

Continental system, 301 , pute with Poland, 499; partitioned, Contraband of war, 458 I 6o8 ff. Convention, French, 251,253 ff., 262 ff. Czechs, 345; in Fin:t World War, 471 Cook,Captain,388 Coolidge, President, 501 f. Dail Eireann, 385, 584 Copenhagen, siege of, 37 Daladier, 6oQ Copernicus, 109 D'Aiembert, 151 f., 154, 190 Coral Sea, battle of, 662 Dalton, 741 Cordeliers, 240 Danton, 240, 249 f., 260, 262 f. Com Laws, 379 Dan2ig, free city of, 479 Cornwallis, Lord, 85 n., 94, 292 f. Dardanelles,457,489 Corsica, 269 f. Darwin, Charles, 731 ff. Cortes,Spanffih, 193,328 "Darwinism," 730 ff. Corvee, 211 f. Davy, Sir Humphry, 739 Cosw-ave, William, 583 Dawes plan, 492, 577 Cosmopolitanizing of the world, Iff. D-Day, 673 ff. Cossacks, 416 n., 429 Debts, inter-Allied, 490 ff., 516; to Cotton "gin," 370 United States, 493 ff., 528; national, Council of State, French, 276 f. 514 ff.; repudiation of, by Russia, 564 Council of Trent, 25, 134, 176 Decembrist conspiracy, 417 Council of Workingmen's and Soldiers' Declaration of Independence, Ameri­ Delegates, Russia, 466 can,93,95 Coup d'elal, 276, 339 Declaration of Panama, 702 Courland, 456, 467. Su also Latvia Declaration of the Rights of Man, Courts, ecclesiastical, 173 ff., 183 227 f. Credit after First World War, 514 f. Declaration of the United Nations, Crete annexed to Greece, 442; in 658, 703 f. Second World War, 634, 636 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Crimea, under Turkish protection, 31; Gibbon, 2 ceded to Russia, 432 De Gaulle, Charles, 621, 630 Crimean War, 418, 434 f. Deists, II3 ff., 148 n. Criminal law, in the eighteenth cen­ De Launay, 223 f. tury, 156 f.; in England, 378 Delhi, 76, 81 · Cripps, Sir Stafford, 590 Demilitarized zone (Germany), 504 Croatia, 450. Su Yugoslavia Democracy, 318, 481, 538, 539, 543 f., Croatia-Slavonia, 636 56o, 572, 574 Croats, 13 Demonologie of James I, 123 Cromwell, Oliver, 78 Denikin, General, 563 Crusade, Fourth, 20 Denmark, in Great Northern War, 37; Cuba, 94, 413, 464 at war with Austria and Prussia, Culloden, battle of, 58 n. 354; and Treaty of Versailles, 479; Curie, Irene, 746 in Second World War, 623, 625 f. Curie, Marie, 743, 746 Su also Schleswig-Holstein Curzon line, 617 f., 634 Departments in France, 227 Customs lines in France, 199, 2o8 Depression, world. 514 ff., 530 f., 578 Customs union, German, 327; German- · Desaix, General, 279 Austrian attempt at, 483 f. Descartes, 139 f., 144, 726 Custozza, battle of, 344 Desmoulins, Camille, 223, 240, 26o ff., Cyclotron, 746 265 Cyril, apostle of the Slavs, 18 f. "Despots, the enlightened," 18o ff. Cyrillic alphabet, 19, 34 Dictatorship, in Hungary, 484; in Czar. Su Tsar Yugoslavia, 486; in Poland, 487; Czechoslovakia, republic of, 478, 482; in Turkey, 490; in Russia, 527, 565; in Little Entente, 486; invaded by in Germany,565ff.; inltaly,57off.; Poland, 486, 61o; in boundary dis- in Spain, 574, 6oo ff. INDEX xxix

DictaJus of Gregory VII, 17 in Prussia, 312; public, in Italy, Diderot, ISO ff., 190 f., 207, 726 362; in France, 366; in England, Diet of German Confederation of 1815, 378; in Turkey, 490; in Russia, 563 325, 348, 354 . :a::uward VII of Great Britain, 44i, s8r Directory, French, 267, 270, 27S f. Edward VIII of Great Britain, 581 Disarmament, 506 ff. See also Arma­ Egypt, Bonaparte's expedition to, ments 274 f.; British occupation of, 410 f., Discoveries, modem scientific, 725, 447; conquered by the Arabs in 726. seventh century, 41o; rule of the Disraeli, Benjamin. See Beaconsfield, Khedives, 410; Turkish conquest of, Earl of in IS17, 410; British protectorate Dissenters, 181 ff., 186 over, 4II, 447, 457; independence of, Divine right of kings, 125 ff., 186, 204 acknowledged (1922), 4IIi nation­ Divorce, Doctrine of, by Milton, 134 f. alist upri3ing in, 4II f.; after First Dobrudja, 488, 634j - World War, 489; in Second World Dole, 523, 579 War, .633, 634, 636, 637. See also Dollar, devaluation of, 516 Sudan Do!Uuss, 6o7 Einstein, Albert, 743, 748 Dominions, British, s8z ff. Eire, 584, 632. See c!s:J Irebnd Don Carlos. See Charles III of Spain Eisenhower, General, 671, 673, 682 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance, 503 El Alamein, 637 Dravidians, 73 Elba, 315 Dresden, battle of, 314 Elders, Council of, 267 Duma, Russian, 42:) f., 46 51 Electors in empire, 47 n. Dum barton Oaks conference, 711 ff. Electrons, 744 Dumouriez, 246, 2S2, 255 Elizabeth of England, 123, 130 f. Dunkirk, 259, 627 f. Elizabeth of Russia, sS, 6r, 63 Dupleix, 81 f. Elizabeth of Spain, 4? f., 56 Durham, Lord, 387 Emancipation Act, Driti~~. 378 Dutch, commerce of, 78. See also Emancipation proclamation, Russian, Boers, Holland J 419 Embargo acts of the United_ Sta~es, Earth, age of, 727 ff. 300 • East Africa, German, 364,392, 409; in F;migrant nobles, 224, 238, 244, 334 f. First World War, 391; British, 392; Emile, ISS British mandate over former Ger­ Emperor, title assumed by Napoleon, man, 392 289, 29s; title assumed by Austrian East India Company, Dutch, 7o; Eng- ruler, 295; title assumed by German lish, 70 f., 77 ff., 393 f.; French, 8o f. ruler, 3S9, 362 "East Indies," 70 Encyclopcedia, 150 ff., 190, 207 Eastern Church. See Greek Church Engels, Friedrich, 549 Eastern Empire, 2 f. and note; in Enghien, duke of, 292 Middle Ages, 3; and Asiatic hordes, Engine, steam, 317, 370 f. 7i extent of, 7 f.; division of, under England. See Great Britain "Latin Emperor," 2o; Mongol in­ "Entangling alliances," 497 vasions of, 20 f.; overthrow of, 24 Entente cordiaJe, 447, 448, 453 Eastern Question, origin of, 27 Equality, 542 Ebert, Friedrich, 475, s65 f. Estates General, 184 f.; demanded by Ecclesiastical courts, 173 ff., 183 the parlement of Paris, 215 ff.; sum­ Ecclesiastical states, disappearance of, moning of, 217 ff.; meeting of 280 ff. ' (1789), 220 ff. Economic and Social Council, 712, Estonia, ceded to Russia, 38; inhabit­ 718 f. ants of, 39 n.; occupied by Germans Education, in France, reorganization in First World War, 456; republic of, of, by Napoleon, 3QI f.; reform of, 482, 488, 495. s6o XXX INDEX

Ethiopia, sSo, 597 f., 633 (1914-1915), 454 ff.; the Eastern Eurasia, 4 Front (1914-1915), 456; the war in Europe, relations of eastern and west­ the air, 456; British campaigns in em, 2 f.; expansion of western, 3, Mesopotamia and Palestine, 457; 68 f., 487 f.; Asiatic hordes in, s; Gallipoli campaign, 457i nations during theNapoleonic period, 284 fl.; at war in 1915, 457; war on the after 1814, 317 ff.; after the First seas, 458 f.; British blockade, World War, 478 ff. See also Eastern 458 f.; German submarine blockade, Empire 458 f., 461 fl.; in Serbia, 459; Evans, Arthur, 435 Anglo-French drive (1916), 46o; Evolution, theory of, 730 ff. siege of Verdun, 46o; the Italian Front (1916), 460 f.; German peace Fabian Society, 555 and note proposals, 462; peace proposals by "Factories," 70, 77 President Wilson, 462, 467; United Factory system, in England, 371 f., States at war with Germany (April 374, 378; in Russia, 423 6, 1917), 46.3 f.; nations at war in Falangists, 6o1 f. · 1917, 464; Russian revolution and "Family compact," the (1761), 57 retirement from, 465 fl.; Western Far Eastern Question, 401 fl. Front (1917-I918), 468 fl.; German Fascism, 526, 538, 540, 570 ff. drive (March, 1918), 468 f.; General "Fashoda incident," 447 Foch made commander in chief of Febronius, 178, 192, 194 Allied forces, 469; second German Ferdinand I, Emperor, brother of drive (April, 1918), 469; American Charles V, 26 troops in France, 469 fl.; third Ger­ Ferdinand IV of Naples, 295 man drive Guly to September, 1918), Ferdinand VII of Spain, 304 and note, 470 f.; surrender of Bulgaria, 472; 328f. surrender of Turkey, 472; collapse Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 438 of Austria, 473; armistice with Ger­ Ferdinand of Rumania, 437 many, 474 f.; casualties, 475 f.; na­ Feudal dues, in France, 201 f.; aboli­ tional debts of participants, 4 76, tion of, 226 f., 233 n., 253 490 fl., 495i ruin after, su ff.; Fichte, 312 costs of, 513 ff.; scars of, 520 fl.; and Finland, annexed by Russia, 416 f.; nationalism, 531 ff. independence of, established, 467, Fisher, H. A. L., on Napoleon, 316 487 f.; struggle between Nationalists Fiume, 486 and BolshevilQ in, 471; republic of, Five Hundred, Council of, 267 482, 487 f.; admitted to League of "Five-Year Plan," 564 Nations, 488; war with Russia, Florence, so, 168, 344· See also Tuscany 62of. Foch, General, 469,470,474 Finno-Ugrians, II Fontenelle, 145 and note Fust World War, causes of, 446 ff.; Food and Agriculture Organization, 705 assassination of heir apparent of "Four Freedoms," 649 Austria, 451; outbreak of, 451 fl.; Fourier, Charles, 547, 551 Austria's ultimatum to Serbia, 451; Fourteen Points, the, 467,480 efforts for mediation, 451; :first Fox, Charles James, 254 n. declaration of war, Austria to Serbia Fox, George, 182 Guly 23, 1914), 451; Germany de­ France, condition of, at end of reign clares war on Russia and France, of Louis XIV, 48; joins in War of 452; German ultimatum to Belgium, Austrian Succession, 55 fl.; in alli­ 452; Germany invades Belgium 453; ance with the Hapsburgs, 59, 61; Great Britain declares war on losses of, at close of Seven Years' Germany, 453i nations at war in War, 61, 88; in India, 79 ff.; North 1914, 453 f.; German occupation of American possessions of, 86; in the Belgium, Luxemburg, and northern eighteenth century, 88, 195 fl.; aids France, 454 ff.; the Western Front the United States, 93 f.; causes of INDEX xxxi

first Revolution in, 203, 219 f.; French Indo-China, 367 absolute monarchy in, 204 £.; course French Revolution, 195 ff.; causes of, of Revolution in, 214 ff.; first re~ 203, 219 f.; opening of, 2r3; second, public in, 251 ff.; Reign of Terror 236 ff. in, 256 ff.; and the Constitution of Friedland, battle of, 297 the Year III, 266 ff.; reforms of Friends, Society of, 146, 182 Bonaparte for, 284 ff.; separation of Fulton, Robert, 291 n. Church and State in, 285 f., 366; restoration of the Bourbons in, 315, Galicia, 307, 456, 461 318, 333 ff.; after r8r5, 318; revo­ Galileo, 109, II2 · lution of 1830 in, 335 ff.; revolution Gallican liberties, D~laration of, of 1848 in, 338 f.; second empire in, , 178 f. and note 339; second republic in, 339; third Gallipoli, captured by Turks (1356), republic in, 358, 360, 365 ff., 63o; at 23; in First World War, 457 war with Prussia (187o), 358; under Gamelin, General, 621 the Commune, 36o; constitution of, Gandhi, M. K., 395, 589 360, 365 f.; colonial expansion of, Garibaldi, 351, 360 409, 446 ff.; depreciation of franc, Gas, use of poison, in First World War, 491, 522; and the occupation of the 456 Ruhr, 492; after First World War, Gautama. See Buddha 520 ff.; and Ethiopia, 599; and General Assembly of the United Na­ Spanish Civil War, 6o2; and Ger­ tions, 717 f. man aggression, 6o6 ff.; conquest of, Geneva, League of Nations at, 495; 627 ff.; Vichy government of, 63o; Conference (1927), 503; Protocol of resistance of, 630 f.; liberation of, 1924, 503 f., 510 678 f. See oJso First World War, Genoa, 26, so, r68; given to Sardinia, Second World War 319 Francis I, Emperor, 58 Geology, 727 ff. Francis II, Emperor, assumes the title George, Henry, 554 n. of Emperor of Austria, 295 George I of Great Britain, 46 f., 186, Francis I of France, 26 376 Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, 451 George II of Great Britain, 55 Francis Joseph I, accession of, 346, George III of Great Britain, 6o, 91 f., 348; death of, 483 187 f., 253 Franco, Francisco, sSo, 6or f. George V of Great Britain, 581 Franco-Prussian War, 358 ff. George VI of Great Britain, 581 Frankfurt, National Assembly at, 343, Germ theory of disease, 737 ff. 347 f.; annexed by Prussia, 356 German Confederation (r81s-r84o), Franklin, Benjamin, 91, 93 324 f., 341, 347, 352 f.; dissolution Frederick I of Prussia, 42 f. of, 354 Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia, German Empire, proclamation of, 359; 43, sr f., 54, 62, 6s, r89 ff. See oJso Germany Frederick William, the Great Elector, German language, Fichte on, 312 4If. Germany, territorial reorgani2ation of, Frederick William I of Prussia, 43 in 1803, 280 ff., 319; condition of, Frederick William II of Prussia, 66, 255 in r8r4, 319; effects of Napoleonic Frederick William III of Prussia, 292, era in, 323; in 1848, 343, 347 f.; 296 f., 320, 325 unification of, 352 ff.; under the Frederick William IV of Prussia, 348, Empire (187I-1914), 359, 362 ff.; 352 n. constitution of, 362 f.; colonial Free French, 630 f., 636 expansion of, 364, 403, 413, 448; Free trade in England, 378 f., 576, 578, growth of industry and commerce sSo of,. under William II, 364;. and.the Freedom, progress under, 540 ff. Near East, 450; republic of 1.918 French and Indian War, 88.£. in, 4 "14J.; terms of. armis.tice ::with, xxxii INDEX

475; loss of colonies by, 479; pro­ involved in war with France (1793), visions of the Treaty of Versailles 254, 259, 274 f., 27S, 2So; renews imposed on, 479 f.; reparations pay­ war with Napoleon, 2QI f., 29S ff., ment by, 4So, 49I f., 514, 520; 309 f., 316; Industrial Revolution depredation of currency in, 4QI, in, 36S ff.; extension of suffrage in, SIS ff.; admitted to League of Na­ 374 ff., 57S; political parties in, tions, 499; resigns from League of 376 ff.; reforms of the nineteenth Nations, 507, 57o; bankruptcy of, century in, 3 7S ff.; the Irish question SI6 ff.; taxation in, SIS; Nationalism in, .~S1 ff.; and the Empire, 3S6 ff.; in, 533, 567 ff.; Republican constitu­ expansion of, in the nineteenth cen­ tion of I919 in, s6s f.; development of tury, 3S6 ff.; and the Boer War, dictatorship in, 565 ff.; Third Reich, 39I; in China, 40I ff.; in alliance 566, 569 f.; anti-Semitic policy of, with Japan, 404, 447 and note; gains s69; "private" armies of, s6Q; eco­ control of Suez Canal, 4Io; makes nomic recovery of, 6o3; militarism agreement with Russia regarding of, 603 ff.; occupies Rhineland, Persia, 447 f.; at the Peace Confer­ 6o6 f.; overruns Austria, 6o7 f.; ence, 47S; takes mandates in Africa, occupies Sudetenland, 6oS ff.; at- 479; after. First World War, SI4, - tacks Poland, 611 ff.; air force of, 523 ff.; unemployment in, 523, 579; 6I7, 626, 632; attacks neutrals, goes off gold standard, 525, sSo; po­ 623 ff.; strikes south, 634 ff.; gains _litical parties in, since IS95, 575 f.; Rumanian oil, 635; invades Russia, government by the Labor party in, 6.~7 ff.; defeated at Stalingrad, 643; 577 ff.; deserts free trade, 57S, sSo; declares war on United States, 657; National Government in, 579 f.; surrender of, 6SS. See also First position of king in, sSI; relations of World War, Second World War dominions to, 5SI ff.; and Ethiopia, · Gestapo, 6I9, 621 599; and Spanish Civil War, 6o2; Gibbon, 2, IO and German aggression, 6o6 ff.; Gibraltar, 45, 57_ promises support to Poland, 612; Giraud, General, 665, 666 expeditionary force to France, 621; Girondists, 244 ff., 256 ff. Churchill prime minister, 622; Royal Gladstone, W. E., 3S3 f., 436 Air Force, 63I; campaigns in Africa, Glanvil, Joseph, I24 633, 637, 666; aid to Greece, 633 f.; Goebbels, 612 in Crete, 634; in Near East, 636 f.; Gold, 579 f., 707, 754 loss of Singapore, 66o, 66I; and Golden Horde, 2I, 2S f. Monroe Doctrine, 703; and foreign "Good neighbor" policy, 702 f. trade, 709· See also British Empire, Gordon, General, 411 First World War, Second World War Government ownership, 547 f., 552 f., Great Charter of England, 205 s62, s6s Great Elector of Prussia, 41 f. Grain trade, regulation of, in France, Great Northern War, 37 f., 45 2IO, 266 Greece, creation of the kingdom of, Gravitation, universal, I09 339, 434; intervention of European Great Britain, colonies of, in North powers in support of, 433 f.; procla­ America, 45, 79, S6 ff.; the succes­ mation of independence of, 433; at sion in, 46 and note, 57 f. and note; war with Turkey (1S97), 43S; at war genealogical table of succession in, with Turkey (1912), 440; at war 46 n.; union of England and Scot­ with Bulgaria, 440; extension of land in, 46 and note; in the War of territory of, 442; in First World the Austrian Succession, 55, 57; in War, 464; at war with Turkey the Seven Years' War, 6I, S8f.; (1922), 4S9 f.; republic of, 490; re­ settlements of, in India, 70 ff., S4 f.; turn of George II, 490; in dispute colonial possessions of, at end of with Italy and Bulgaria, 499f.; in eighteenth century, S6; constitu­ Second World War, 633 f. tional government in, 1S3 ff., 375; Greek Church, in Bulgaria, to; in INDEX xxxiii

Russia, I4 f., 29, 3I, 416, 563; sepa­ "blood purge," 6os; persecutes Jews, ration of, from the Latin, 16 ff.; in 6os f.; overruns Austria, 6o7 f.; the Balkans, 432 attacks Poland, 6u ff., 617 ff.; offers Greek Empire, IS. s~ aJso Eastern peace to England, 619; attacks neu­ Empire trals, 623 ff.; early gains by, 634; Gregory VII, Pope, I 7 invades Russia, 637 ff. Grey, Lord, 451, 453 Hobbes, Thomas, 126, I32, I44l Guadalcanal, 663 Hohenlinden, battle of, 279 Guilds, craft, 169 f., 373 and note; Hohenzollern, House of, 39, 474, 482 abolition of, in France, 2II f. Holland, French invasion of (1747), Guillotin, 260 and note 57 n.; colonies of, 69, 79 f. and note; in commercial war with England, Habeas corpus, 154, r84 78 f.; as refuge of dissenters, I38 1!.; Haeckel, 734 conquest of, by Napoleon, 27o; Hague, Peace Conferences at the Louis Bonaparte, king of, 296; an­ (r899-1907),445 f.; WorldCourt,soo nexed to France, 308, JI5j made a Haile Selassie, 598, 633 kingdom, 319; in Second World Hamburg, 282, 308, 356, 458 War, 626. s~ aJso Netherlands Hanover, electorate of, 47; House of, Holstein. s~ Schleswig-Holstein 47 n.; occupied by Napoleon, 291; Holy Alliance, 321 f. n., 415, 6oo relations of, with Prussia, 296, 354, Holy Roman Empire, joins coalition 356; ends "personal union" with against France (1793), 255; con­ Great Britain, 356 n. solidation of, in x8o3, 280 ff.; dis­ Hanseatic towns annexed ):o France, solution of, 294 f., 532 282, 308 Holy Synod of Peter the Great, 35 f. Hapsburg, House of, 307,432,473,483 Home Rule. S~ Ireland Hardenberg, Count, 323 Homilies, The, 128 f. Harding, President, 498, sox, 502 Hontheim. s~ Febronius Hargreaves, James, 369 Hooker, Richard, I3I Hastings, Warren, 84 and note Hoover, Herbert, 493 ff., SI6j and war Hawaiian Islands, 413 debts, 5I6; disarmament proposal, Hebert, 261 ff. so6 / Hejaz, the, 478, 489 Hordes. s~ Asiatic hordes . Henderson, Arthur, 579 Horthy, Admiral, 484 Henry II of England, Irish policy of, 381 House of Lords. See Parliament Henry VIII of England, 381 Hubertsburg, Peace of, 61 Herbert of Cherbury, Edward, Lord, Hughes, C. E., 502 n. II3 ff. Hugli, 78 Herzegovina. s~ Bosnia-Herzegovina Hull, Cordell, 6sx, 702, 708 f., 7II Hesse, 283, 327, 359 Humanitarianism. s~ Reform .and Hesse-Cassel, 327, 354, 3.S6 reformers Hildebrand. s~ Gregory VII Humboldt, William von, 312 Himmler, Heinrich, 619 Hungarians. s~ Magyars Hindenburg, General von, 456, 566 f. Hungary, emergence of, II f.; Mongd, "Hindenburg line," 468 invasion of, 2r; Turkish conquest Hinduism, 74 ff. of, 25 ff.; under Hapsburg rule. 26, Hindustani, 77 n. sx, ss, I92, 308, 432; in :ill4o, 341 II.j Historian, task of, I 346; dual union of, '.":ith Austria History, scope of, r; military and dip­ (r866-1918), 346; revolt of (1918), lomatic, 44; "materialistic interpreta­ 473; communist revolution ir. tion" of, sso; knowledge and, 725 (1919), 484; counter-revoluticn in, Hitler, Adolf, leader of the Nazis, 520, and monarchy established under 567,614 ff.; remilitarizes Rhineland, "regent," 484; republic of (1918), 599, 6o6 f.; and Spanish Civil War, 484, 563; takes hmd nom Slovakio, 6o2; becomes chancellor, 602 f.; 6Io. s~ aJso Aust:'.o :xxxiv INDEX

Huns described by Ammianus Marcel- Invention, modern, 317 J., 368 ff., 445, linus, 6 725 Huss, John, I4 n. Iran, 636. See oJso Persia Hutchinson, Francis, 124 f. Iraq, 636 Hutton, James, 729 Ireland, land problem in, 38I, 383; Huxley, T. H., 734 relations of, with England, 381 ff.; Hydrogen, 742, 746 Scotch Protestant colonists in, 381 ff.; anti-Catholic legislation in, Iconoclastic controversy, 17 n. 382 f.; land acts for, 383 f.; Home Illyrian Provinces, 307 Rule in, 384 f.; and republic of Imperialism, 69, 400 ff., 446, 448. See I9I9, 385; and World War, 385; oJso Colonies, Far Eastern Question admitted to League of Nations, 386; Index of Prohibited Books, 134 after creation of Irish Free State, India, British East India Company in, 386; and "Government of Northern 70 f., 77 f., 393; Portuguese seek a Ireland" in Ulster, 386; abolishes sea route to, 7o; peoples of, 71 ff., oath of allegiance, 583 ff.; cleavage 393; extent of British, 72, 85; na­ in, 583 ff. tive states of, 72, 84; religions of, Iron industry, 371 74 ff.; Europeans in, 78 f.; French Irredentism, Italian, 457, 526 and English rivalry in, 79 ff.; Ismail I of Egypt, 410 British administration of, 84 f., 393, Italy, in eighteenth century, 48 ff.; 585 ff.; sepoy rebellion in, 393 f.; Bonaparte's campaign in, 292; after empire under British crown1 394; 1815, 330 ff.; constitutions granted and Government of India Act ~1919), to various states of, 331, 343 f.; 395, 586; nationalist movement in, war for independence of (I848), 395, 588; British India and Indian 342 ff., 347; war for independence states, 586; central government of, of (I859), 350 f.; unification of, 586 f.; National Congress of, 587, 3so f., 36o; formation of the present 589; civil disobedience in, 588; kingdom of, 351, 361; colonial ex­ "round table conferences,'! 588 f.; pansion of, 361; increase of arma­ Government of India Act (1935), ments by, 361 f.; at war with , 589; in Second World War, 590, 613 Turkey (I9II), 361; industrial prog­ Indo-China, 367, 652 f. reSs of, 362; enters Triple Alliance, IndustrialRevolution,368 ff.,423 f.,5sr 446 f.; and its relations with Yugo­ Infiation, 516 ff. See oJso Money slavia, 486; after First World War, Innocent VITI, Pope, II9 f. 49I, 525 f.; under Mussolini, 526, Inquisition, 99, 305, 328 570 ff.; corporate state in, 572; and "International," First, Second, and Ethiopia, 58o, 597 f., 633; conquest Third, 555 f. of Albania, 61o; in Second World International Bank for Reconstruction War, 628, 633, 657; invasion of, and Development, 708 666 ff. See oJso First World War, International Commission on Human Piedmont, Sardinia,· Second World

Rights, 5371 7I51 718 War International Control of Atomic Ivan Asen of Bulgaria, IS Energy, Report on, 754 ff. Ivan the Great, Tsar, 29 f. International Court of Justice, 720 f. Ivan the Terrible, Tsar, 30 f. and notes International Justice, Permanent Court · of, 445, 496 ff., 500 f. Jacobins, ·242 f. and note, 258, 264 International Labor Organization, 497, Jacobites, I86 and note 710 Jahangir, 76 International monetary and financial James I of England, 46 n.; Demonol­ organizations, 7o6ff. ogie of, I 23; Irish policy of, 381 International trusteeship system, 719 f. J ansenists, I 79 n. Internationalism, 446. See oJso Hague, japan, policy of isolation of, 402; League of Nations opening of, to Western trade, 402; INDEX XXXV

modernizing of, 402 f.; at war with Kemal Pasha, 489 f."·,_ China (1894-1895), 403; in alliance Kerensky, Alexander, 466 with Great Britain, 404, 447 and Khartum, 410 f, note; at war with Russia (1904- Kiaochow, 364,403 1905), 405 f.; in First World War, Kiel Canal, 458 447, 453; at Versailles, 478, 479; Kiev, 13 f., 21, 27, 639 attacks Manchuria, 591, 593 fi.; King, position of, in Middle Ages, military party in, 592 f.; interests 172 f.; of England, 184, 377 n., 581,. of, in Manchuria, 593 fi.; attacks 582; of France, 204 ff. See also Shanghai, 595; withdraws from Divine right of kings League, 597; invades China, 6so fi.; King, Mackenzie, 648 negotiates with United States, 653 fi.; "King of Rome," 307 f. attacks Pearl Harbor, 655 fi.; at­ Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slo­ tacks Philippines, 66o f.; captures . venes. See Yugoslavia Singapore, 661; in Oceania, 661 ff.; Kishinev, massacres at, 426 in Aleutians, 663 f.; in Burma, Kitchener, General, 4u, 447 664 f.; defeat of, 689 ff. Kleber, General, 258 Jefferson, Thomas, his opinion on the Knights in Germany, disappearance of, condition of France, 202; embargo 283n. acts of, 300; and "entangling alli­ Koch, 738 ances," 497 Kolchak, General, 563 Jemappes, battle of, 253 Koniggrau, battle of, 355 Jena, battle of, 297, 313 Konoye, 651 f., 654 f. Jenghi:z Khan, 20, 28 Korea and Japan, 403,405 f. and note; Jenkins's Ear, the War of, 56 Russia in, 428 Jenner, Edward, 739 Kosciusko,67, 250 Jerusalem, "holy places" in, 434; in Kossovo, battle of (1389), 24 First World War, 472 Kossuth, Louis, 346 Jesuits, order of, 176 fl., 181 Kruger, Paul, 390 f. Jews, in Russia, 426 f., 430; in Ru­ Kublai Khan, 21 mania, 535; in Poland, 535; in Ger­ Kumans, 12 many, 569, 6os f. Kun, Bela, 484, 563 Jinnah, 589 Kurusu, 655, 656 Joffre, General, 450, 455 John III (Sobieski) of Poland, 27 Labor and capital, 371 ff. See also Joint Four Nation Declaration, 7II Socialism Joseph II, Emperor, 189,191 ff., 235,246 Labor legislation, in Germany, 363 f.; Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 296, in England, 389 f.; in New Zealand 304 f. and Victoria, 389 f. Josephine, 287, 289 n., .307 Labor party, British, 555, 576 ff. Jugoslavia. See Yugoslavia La Fayette,94, 95,221,225,229,236,240 July revolution (r83o), 335 ff. Lafssez jaire, 159 Junkers, 519, s69, 603 Lamarck, 730 Junot, General, 304, 309 Land Acts (Irish), 383 f., 583 Jutland, battle of, 458 n. · Landholding, in France, 201; in Prus- sia, 3II f.; in Ireland, 38r, 383 ff., Kang Teh, Emperor, 594 583; in Russia, 419 ff., 565; in Bul­ Kapital, Das, 550 garia, 488; in Rumania, 488 f. Karlowiu, Peace of (1699), 27 Latin America, 413 f. Karlsbad Resolutions, 325 f. Latin Church, separation of, from the Karolyi, Count, 484 Greek, 16 ff. See also Church Kasars, 18 Latin Empire. See Eastern Empire Kasserine Pass, 666 Latin language, knowledge of, pre­ Kellogg, F. B., so:z n., so8 served by the Church, 16. See also Kellogg Treaty, soB f., 5II Classics, Greek and Roman xxxvi INDEX

Latvia, republic of, 482, 488, 620 Locamo, treaties of, 504 if., 720 Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), 489; con- Locke, John, 132, 136 ff., 141, 147 and ference at, 494 note, 173 Laval, Pierre, 599, 630 Locomotive, 398 La Vendee, revolt of, 258, 264 Lombardy, 279, 330, 341 if.; added to Lavoisier, 112 n. ' Piedmont, 350 Lawrence, E. 0., 746, 748 London, in 176o, 167 f.; Treaty of League of Nations, founding of, 495 if.; . (1827), 433; Treaty of (1913), 440; Covenant of, 495 f.; members of, Naval Conference (193o), 503 495, 498 f.; organization of, 495, Lords, House of. See Parliament 499i registration of treaties with, Lorraine, so; added to France, so, 496 f.; mandates under the, 497; 196; portion of, ceded to Germany, United States and, 498, 507; work 358 f. and note; restored to France, of, 499 f.; appeal by China, 594; 479. 536 twilight of the, 595 if.; appeal by Louis XIV of France, 45, 48, 79 f., 86, Ethiopia, 598; Germany and Japan 177, 196, 254 withdraw from, 597, 6r6. See also Louis XV of France, 48 f., 58 f., 61, 196 International Labor Organization. Louis XVI of France, 93, 197, 204; Permanent Court of International character of, 209 ff.; and Estates Justice, United Nations General, 221 f.; removes to Paris, Le Clen:, Jean, 141 229 f.; and the Civil Constitution. Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 109 f. 234, 238 f.; flight of, to Varennes. Legion of Honor, 302 2.19i imprisonment of, 25o; trial and Legislative Assembly, 241, 245, 248, 251 execution of, 253, 264 Legitimists, 36o n. Louis XVII of France, 318 n. Leipzig, battle of, 314 Louis XVIII of France, 318, 329, Lend-Lease, 648 . 333 ff. Lenin, 466, 527 f., s6o, 562 Louis II of Hungary, 26 Leningrad,639.643 Louis Philippe, 332, 3.17 f., 341, 346 Leo X (Medici), Pope, 26 Louisiana, 88 f., 94, 28o Leopold II, Emperor, 193, 238, 241, 246 Louvain, 455, 461 f. Leopold II of Belgium, 409 Lubeck, 2R2, 3o8,356 Leopold ill of Belgium, 627,628 Ludendorff,General,469 Leopold of Hohenzollem, 357 • Luft-dJ(JjJe, 617, 632, 672 Lesseps. Ferdinand de, 397 Luneville, Treaty of, 28o Lellers on the English, by Voltaire, 147 Lusilania, 459, 462 Ldtres de cachet, 204 f., 223 Luther, Martin, 120 Letts, 39 and note Lutzen, battle of, 314 Leuialhan, The, 126, 132 Luxemburg, 357; invaded by Ger­ Liberal party in England, x86 and mans in First World War, 452, 454, note, 376, 379 f., 383 f., 436; (1905- 455; in Second World War, 626 1915), 575 if. Lyell, Sir Charles, 729 Liberty, 541 f. Lyon, 258 ff., 264 Liberum '1/cJo, 64, 66 Lytton commission, 596 f. Liege, siege of, 454 Ligurian Republic, 291 f. - MacArthur, General, 66o, 689, 6Q2, Lister, Joseph, 739 693 f., 701 Lil de justia, 2o6 Macassar Strait, battle of, 662 Lithuania, 29 f., 62, 67, 467, 482, 488; MacDonald, Ramsay, 412, 576 ff., absorbed by U.S.S.R., 62o 579 f., 589 Little Entente, 486, so6, 535, 6o9 Macedonia, under TUikish rule, 438; Livingstone, David, 4o8 and the Congress of Berlin, 438; Livonia, 37 f., 456,467. See also Latvia revolt of 1912, 440; partition of, by Lloyd George, David, 379 f., 385, 478, the Treaty of Bucharest, 442 481, 575 f. Machinery, introduction of, 368 ff., 374 INDEX xxxvii

Madagascar, 409 Michael I, king of Rumania, 635 Madras, 78, 82 Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Con- Maginot line, 621, 627 stantinople, 17 Magna Carta (Great Charter), 205 Microscope, 10<) f., 736, 737, 738, 741 Magyars, II f., 532, 535 Midwah 659, 662 f. Mahabharata, 73 Milan, 49 f., 168, 271 f., 279; given to Malaya, 66o, 661 Austria (1815), 319; revolt of, Manchu dynasty, 4o6, 594 against Austria, 342; modem city of, Manchukuo, 594 362 Manchuria, 403, 405 f., 428, 593 ff. Milan Decree, 299 f. Mandates and mandatories, 479, 497 Militarism. See Armaments Manor, 165 ff. · Milton, John, 134 ff. Mantua, 271 1 Milyoukov, Paul, 425 Manufacture, medieval, 168 f.; mod­ Minorca, 57 em, 369 f.; domestic system of, 371. Minorities, 535 ff. See also Factory system Mirabeau, 205, 222, 230 Marat, 226 n., 230, 239 f. Missions and imperialism, 400 f. Marengo, battle of, 279 Modena, so, 272, 330 f., 332; added to Maria Louisa, 307 Piedmont, 350 f. Maria Theresa, so ff., 65 · Mogul empire, 76 f., So f. Marie Antoinette, 209, 229, 247, 26o Mohacs, battle of, 26 Mark, the North, 39 f. See also Bran- Mohammed II of Turkey, 24 denburg Mohammedans in India, 76 f. Markets, competition for foreign, 399 Moldavia, 298 and note, 434· See Marne, battle of the (1914), 455 also Rumania Marriage of the clergy, 17 n., 281 Moldavians, 24 Marseillaise, the, 249 and note Molecules, 741 ff. Marseille, revolt of, 258, 264 Molotoff, V. M., 7II Marx, Karl, 549 ff. Monasteries, in France, 179; in Aus­ Masaryk, Thomas, 484, 534, 536 tria, 192; in Spain, 3 28 Massena, General, 278 Money, in Austria, 483; in Italy, 491; Mather, Cotton, 120 f., 124 in France, 491; devaluation of, Matter, constitution of, 729, 741 ff. 491 f., 516 ff.; in Germany, 491 f.; Mazzini, 3.32, 345 British, 52.~. s8o; in Russia, 564 Medici, so Mongol emperors of India, 76 f. Medicine, modem advance in, 738 ff. Mongols, 20 f., 28 Mehemet Ali, 410 Monr:>e Doctrine, 329, 498, 702 f. Mein Kampf, 615,638 Montaigne, 97 and note, 121 f., 14j f. Meitner, Lise, 747 f. Montenegro, 436 f., 440,442, 449, 454, Memel, 4Q9 • 457 Mercantilism, 158 f. Montesquieu, 153 f., 191, 207 Mesopotamia, 25; in First World War, Montgomery, General, 637,666 4~7; escapes from Turkish control, Moore, J. B., 502 n. 489 Moravia, 18 and note, 19, 54· See Metchnikov, 740 also Czechoslovakia Methodist Church, 182 Moravians, 345 Methodius of Salonika, 18 f. Morea, 433 Metric system, 265 Morley, John, on Voltaire, 15o; on Metternich, 307, 314, 321 f., 325 f., the Encyclopredists, I 53 329 ff., 341 f., 433; overthrow of, 342 Morocco, French in, 446 f.; German Metz, 358 f. and note, 471 intervention in, 448 f.; French pro­ Mexico, independence established, tectorate in, 448; Spanish defeat in, 328 f.; Napoleon's expedition to, 573 357; and the League of Nations, 499 Moscow, princes of, 28 f.; patriarch Mic®el, Tsar, 31 · of, 29, 31, 35; early capital of xxxviii INDEX

Russia, a8: Napoleon at, 310j Natural laws, discovery of, III Soviet capital, 467; Treaty of, 62o; Naval armament, limitation at Wash­ battle for, 0;19 ington Conference, 502 f.; at Ge­ Moscow Conference, 7II neva, 503; at London, 503 Moslem League, 589 Navarino, battle of, 433 Mountain party, 257 ff. Navigation Act, 78 f., 8<) f. Mukden, 591 Nazis, come to power, 567 II.; object Munich Conference, 6o9, 6n of, 569 f.; and German militarism, MUiad I of Turkey, 24 604 f.; treatment of Poles and Jews Murat, king of Naples, 304, 3II by,6o6,619 Muscovy. See Russia Nazism, 538, 567 II. Mussolini, rise of, 526, 570 ff.; and the Near-Eastern Question, 431 II., 446 Church, 573; conquers Ethiopia, Necker, 212 f., 217 f., 223, 225 597 f.; sends army to Spain, 6o2; Nehru, 589 f. invades Albania, 61o; declares war Nelson, 275, 293, 410 on France, 628; African campaigns, Netherlands, Spanish, ceded to Aus­ 633; attacks Greece, 633~ resigna­ tria, 48; in War of the Austrian tion, 667; death, 67I Succession, 57; revolt of, 193, 246; in possession of France, 253, 255, Nabobs, 83 n. 270, 272; Louis XIV claims, 254; Nanking, Treaty"of, 402 in possession of Austria, 25.5 f.; Nantes, massacre at, 26o, 264 annexed to Holland, 319; estab­ Naples, kingdom of, 49; reaction in, lished as independent kingdom of after IBIS, 327; constitution granted Belgium, 339 f.; in Second World to, 331; revolution in {182o-I821), War, 626. See also Belgium, Holland 331 f.; revolution in (I848), 343 f.; Neutrality Act, 647, 703 occupied by Garibaldi, 35Ij added New Atlantis, of Bacon, 104 to the kingdom of Italy, 35I New Economic Policy, 527 Napoleon Bonaparte, 267 ff.; expedi­ New York, 79 tion to Egypt, 274 f.; :first consul, New Zealand, 389, 457, 478, 498, 613 276, 278 f., 288; emperor, 289 f.; Newfoundland, 581 idea of a EUiopean empire, 29o; Newspapers, origin of French, 242; public works of, 301; Russian cam­ Napoleon's attitude toward, 289. paign of, 3Iof.; abdication and See also Press censorship exile, 315 f.; Memoirs of, 316 Newton, Sir Isaac, 109, I46 Napoleon ill, 339; intervenes in Italy, Nicholas I of Russia, 417 f. 350 f., 354, 36o; position of, after Nicholas II of Russia, 425 ff., 445, 465 1866, 357; fall of, 358; in China, Nigeria, 392 402; in Crimean War, 434 Nirvana, 74 Narva, 37 Noailles, viscount of, 226 Nassau, 356 Nobility, in Poland, 63; in the eight­ Natal, 390 eenth century, 170 ff.; established National Assembly, :first French, 195 f., by Napoleon, 289, 302 22I ff., 236, 238; of 1848, 338 Nobles, privileges of, in France, 199 ff., National guard, 225, 246 226 f. and note; French emigres, National Socialist German Worker's 224, 238, 244, 334. 335 party, 567 Nomura, 655, 656 National workshops, 338 f. Nonjuring clergy, 233 ff., 238, 241, Nationalism, 128, 317, 446 II.; in Ger­ 244 f., 285 f. many, 312, 324, 532, 568; in Italy, Normandy, invasion of, 671 ff. 332, 571; in Austrian Empire, 341; North America, EUiopean possessions in India, 39Si in Egypt, 4II f.; in in, in 1750, 86 Greece, 433; in Turkey, 489 f.; eco­ North America Act, British, 388 nomic and political, 531 ff. North German Federation, 355 ff., 359 Nationalization of vro!)erty! 562 ff. Northern Ireland. 583 INDEX xxxix

Norway, 623 f. · Pascal, 179 n. Notables, meeting of, 214 f. Pasteur, 738, 740 · . Novara, battle of, 347 ~: Patriarch, of Constantinople, 14, x6 f., Novgorod, 13 f., 28 f., 30 n. 29; of Moscow, 29, 31, 3S Peace Conferences. See Hague, Peace Observatories, establishment of, 110 Conferences at the; Paris, confer­ Odessa, 639 ence in (1919) Oil in Second World War, 63s, 637 Pearl Harbor, attack on, S39, 6ss fl., "Operation Avalanche," 667 658 f. . · "Operation Husky," 667 Peasants, condition of, in Poland, 63; "Operation Overlord," 671 fl. in France before the French Revolu­ Opium, traffic in, 499 tion, 201 fl.; in Prussia before 18o6, Opium War, 401 f. 311; in Spain, 328; French, under Oran, 665 the third republic, 366; 1n Russia, Orange Free State, 390; annexed by 4r9 ff., 430 f., s62, 564, 565; in Great Britain, 391 Turkey, 436; in Bulgaria, 488; in . "Organic artides," 287 n. Italy, S25 Origen, u6 Peerage in England, 171 Origin of Species, 731 Permanent Conciliation Commission, Orlando, 478 n., 481 so6 Orleanists, 360 n. · Permanent Court of Arbitration, 44S Ottawa Economic Conference, S24 Permanent Court of International Otto the Great of Germany, II Justice, establishment of, 44S, 496 ff., Otto I of Greece, 434 sos; decides against Austro-German Ottoman Empire. See Turkey customs union, 483 f.; relation of, to Outlawing of war, S03 f. League of Nations, soo f.; position Owen, Robert, S47, 548, 551 of the United States in ,regard to, sox; and World Court, 711, 720 Palestine in First World War, 4S7 Perrault, Charles, 142 Panama, 464 Perry, Commodore, 402 Panama Canal, 397 Pershing, General, 470 Pan-American Congress, 414 Persia, British and Russian spheres of Pan-American Union, 414 influence in, 448 Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848, 345 Petain, 469 n., 628 ff. Papal States, so, 307 f., 330, 332, 351, Peter III, Tsar, 31 n., 6x, 64 · 360 f. See olso Pope Peter the Great, Tsar, 32 ff. Pariahs, 75, 587 Peter II, king of Yugoslavia, 636 Paris, x68; Treaty of (1763), 6x, 82, Petrograd, 46S 88; importance of, in the Revolu­ Petschenegs, 12, IS tion, 229 f.; occupied by Allies Phagocytes, 740 (1814), 315; insurrection of (June, Phalaris, 145 1848), 338 f.; insurrection of (1871), Philip V, first Bourbon king of Spain, 359 f.; Treaty of (1856), 435 and 48 f., 56 note; conference in (1919), 478 fl.; Philip the Fair of France, struggle of, Pact of (1928), so8 fl. with Boniface VIII, 174 Paris, count of, 360 n. Philippine Islands, 413, 66o f. Parlements, French, 205 fl., 215 fl., 217 Philosopher's stone, xo6 f. and note and note "Phony war," 621 Parliament, British, 184 fl., 235, 37S fl., Piave, battle of the, 461, 473 380 and note, 575 fl., 582 f., 587, 588; Piedmont, 49 n.; revolutions of x82o- Italian (1861), 351; German, 362 f.; x82I and 1830 in, 332; constitution French, 365; Italian (1928), 572; granted to, 343 f., 347; in the Irish Free State, 584 Crimean War, 349; development of, Parma, 49 f., 58, 282 f., 330 f.; added 349 f. See also Sardinia to Piedmont, 350 f. Pigeon houses in France, 201, 226 x1 INDEX

Pillnitz, Declaration of, 241 f. after ISIS, 322; in Germany, 326; in Pilsudski, jusef, 487, 6r.J Spain, 328; in France, 335; in Eng­ Pitt, William, the elder, 6o, 88 land, 378; in Russia, 418, 425: in Pitt, William, the younger, 253 f. and Italy, 573 note Pressburg, Treaty of, 294 Pius IX, 333, 343 ff. Pretender, the Young, sB n.; the Old, Plassey, battle of, 83 I86 Plato, 98, 102, 143 Prime minister, I86 Plebiscite, 277, 339 Primo de Rivera, General 5741 - Plehve, 426 f. · Privileges in France, I99 ff.; abolition Poincare, Raymond, 522 of, 226 f. Poland, early history of, 14 n., 62 ff.; Progress and Poverty, 554 n. partition of, 65 ff., 254 n., 255; Na­ Proletariat, 56o ff.; dictatorship of poleon's"' campaign in, 297; dispute thc,466,5sr, 56o,s6s over, at the Congress of Vienna, Protestant revolt, 105 n., 175 f. 319 f.; reduced to Russian province, Protestantism in France, 180 f. 417; revolts of 183o-1831 and 1863 Protocol for the pacific settlement of in, 417 and note; in First World international disputes (1924), 503 f. War, 456, 462; at Versailles, 478 f.; Protoplasm, 736 independence of, established, 478, Provence, count of, 244 486; ha!O boundary disputes with Prussia, rise of kingdom of, 39 ff., 51 ff.; Czechoslovakia, the Ukraine, and at war with France, 248, 252, 255, Lithuania, 486, 499, 6zo; at war 264; at war with Napoleon, 296 f.; with Russia (I9IQ-192o), 486 f.; strengthening of army of, 312 f., 352; under Pilsudski, 487, 614; Jews in, acquires district on left bank of 5.35; minorities in, 536; attacked by Rhine at Congress of Vienna, 320 f.; Hitler, Puerto Rico, 413 position of, in the Church, 98 f.; Pultava, battle of (1709), 37 attitude of, toward Italian unity, 330, Pyramids, battle of the, 275 344; position of, in 1870, 361; posi­ tion of, since 1929, 573 Quadruple Alliance, 321 f. and notes, Port Arthur, 403, 405 f.· 329 Portsmouth, Treaty of, 400 Quakers, 146, 182 Portugal, explorations by mariners of, Quebec, 88 7o; colonies of, 86, 412 and note; Quebec Act, 387 Napoleon and, 304 f., 309 Quisling, Vidkun, 625 Posen ceded to Poland, 479 Postal system, 398 f., 404 Radar, 632, 672 "Poynings's Act," 381 f. Radetzky, General, 344 Pra:sidium, 561 Radio, 68, 318 Pragmatic Sanction, Austrian, 52 f., 58 Radioactivity, 742 ff. Prefects, French, 277 Radium, 107 n., 743 Preslav, 10 Railroads, development of, 360, 392, Press censorship, in the seventeenth 398, 404, 424 century, 133 ff.; in the eighteenth Rajputs, 75 century, I8o f., I83; in Prussia, 19o; Ratislav, 18 INDEX xli

Reaction, in Germany, 32Si after Na­ Rontgen, 742 poleon's downfall, 327 ff.; in Russia, Roosevelt, F. D., disarmament mes­ 416 ff., 42S f. sage, so7; and Munich Conference, Reason, worship of, 261 f. 6o9; proclaims neutrality, 6q; and Red Army, s62, 563 Lend-Lease, 648; and "Four Free­ Red Sunday, 428 f. doms," 649; meeting with Churchill, Reform Act,.English, 377 649; and relations with Japan, 6S4, Reform and reformers, 96 ff., 481, S4I, 6s6, 6s7; relations with French, S44 ff.; in England, 373 ff. 66s f.; "good neighbor" policy, Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, 281 f. 702 f.; and United Nations, 704 f.; Reichsrat, German, s66 at Yalta, 712 Reichstag, German, 363, s66 f. Roosevelt, Theodore, and the Panama Reign of Terror, 237, 2S9 ff.; origin of, Canal, 397; and the Treaty of 256 ff.; customs of, abolished, 287 Portsmouth, 406 Reims, 4SS, 462, 470 "Rotten boroughs," I8S, 375, 377 Renaissance, xos n. Rotterdam, 626 Rentenmark, SI9 Roundheads, 186 Reparations by Germany, 479, 490 ff. Rousseau, 1S4 ff., 261 . 61S Royal Air Force, 631, 632 Reparations Commission, 480, 491 ff. Royal Society of London, no Republic, the "red," in France, 338 Ruhr valley, ceded to Prussia, 320 f.; Republican calendar, 251 and note, invasion of, by French and Belgians 26S (1923), 492; in Second World War, Republican party in France, 239, 672 33S ff., 337 f. Rumania, origin of, 15, 434, 437; Revolution of 1848, 338 f., 341 ff.; re­ independence of, established (1878), sults of, 349 437i inade a kingdom (1881), 437i Revolutionary Tribunal, 2S9 ff. in Balkan War (1913), 440; in First Rhine, the Confederation of the, World War, 461; in Little Entente, 3l9 486; annexes Bessarabia, Bukowina, Rhine, left bank of, ceded to France, and Transylvania, 488; mixed pop­ 28o f., _283; portions ceded to Prussia, ulation of, 488; reforms in, 488 f.; in 320 f., 323; Allied occupations of, Second World War, 634 f., 646 after First World War, 47S, 479 f.; Rumelia, Eastern, 438 demilitari2ed zone on, sos; Rhine­ Rurik, 13 land, occupation of, 6o6; in Second Rus, 13 World War, 672 Russia, settled by Slavs and Swedes, Rhodes,.capture of, by Turks, 2Si an~ 13 f., 27; relations of, with Eastern nexed by Italy, 439 Empire, 14; reign of Vladimir the Rhodesia, 392 Great (98o-1oxs), 14 f.; growth of, Rights of Man, Declaration of, 227 f., before Peter the Great, 27 ff.; re­ 266 f. and note forms of Peter the Great, 33 ff.; Rig-Veda, 72 f. struggle for access to sea, 36 ff.; at Robespierre, 261 ff. war with Turkey (xno), 64 f.; rela­ Roland, Madame, 244 f., 260 tions of, with Napoleon, 292 f., 297 f., Roman Empire, Eastern. See Eastern 309 ff.; at war with Japan, 40S f., · Empire 428; in the nineteenth century, Romanov, House of, 31 and note, 46s, 415 ff., 434 ff.; terrorism in, 421 f.; 482 expansion of, in-central Asia (1863- Rome, made a republic, 34Si Napoleon 1886), 424 n.; revolution in 19os, III intervenes against annexation of, 428 f.; Duma established, 429 f.; at 3SI, 360 f.; added to kingdom of war with Turkey (1877), 437; rela­ Italy, 361; "Black Shirts" enter tions of, with Great Britain, 447 f.; (1922), S71 relations of, with Serbia, 449 f.; Rommel, General, 637,666 mobilization of (1914), 452; in First :xlii INDEX

World War, 456, 459, 461, 464 f.; Saxony, 54, 57, 59, 354; question of, revolu tiol! of March (I 9 I 7), 464 f. ; at the Congress of Vienna, .F9 f., provisional government (IQI 7), 465 f.; 323; in I848, 343; member of North abdication of Tsar, 465; Bolshevik German Federation, 356 revolution, and "dictatorship of the Scharnhorst, 3I2, 3I3 proletariat," 466 f., 527, 559 fl.; at Scheidt River, 254 war with Poland (I9I9-I92o), 486 f.; Schiller, 250 , repudiates indebtedness, 492; and Schleswig-Holstein affair, 353 f. League of Nations, 499, 62o n.; rec­ Schuschnigg, 6o7 · ognition of the Soviet government Schwarzenberg, 346 of, 538; constitution of the Soviet Science, modern methods of, 100 ff., Republic of, 56o ff.; abolishes Greek 726; age of, 723 fl.; discoveries in, Church, 563; religion in, 563; "Five­ 726, 735 fl.; and religion, 727, Year Plan" of, 564; education in, 73I 565; interest of, in Manchuria, 593; Scientific expeditions, no f. and fifth partition of Poland, 6I7 f.; Scotland, union with England, 46 and expansion of, 62o; invaded by Hitler, note 637 fl.; "scorched earth" policy, 639; Scott, Reginald, I22 and note turns Germans back, 643 f.; in Second World War, causes of, 539 ff., Hungary, 646; captures Warsaw, 6I4 fl.; prelude to, S9I fl.; beginning 646; takes Berlin, 688; insists on of, 613; first phase of, 6I7 fl.; war veto in United Nations, 7I6 . at sea, 622; Nazi conquest of neu­ Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Re­ trals, 623 ff.; Nazi conquest of public, 559 fl. France, 627 fl.; Battle of Britain, Russo-Japanese War, 405 f., 428 631 f.; Mussolini comes in, 633 f.; Russo-Turkish War (I828-I829),433 f.; in Russia, 637 fl.; in Africa, 637, (I877-1878), 437 666; in Far East, 650 ff., 689 fl.; Ruthenia, 6xo in Pacific, 655 ff., 689 ff.; United Rutherford, Ernest, 743 f. • States enters, 657 fl.; United Na­ tions enter, 658; in Mediterranean, Sadowa, battle of, 355 665 f.; in Italy, 666 ff.; in France, Saint Helena, 316 671 fl.; in Germany, 68o ff. Saint-Just, 261 fl. Security Council, 709 f., 711 f. St. Mihiel, 471 Security Pact, 504 fl. St. Petersburg, founding of, 38 Sedan, battle of (I87o), 358 St. Quentin, 471 Self-determination, 474 n., 48I, 533 f. Saint-Simon, 547, 551 Selim I of Turkey, 24 f. Salonika, 442, 460 Sepoy rebellion, 393 f. Salt tax, French, 199 Sepoys, 81 Salzburg, 28.~. 307 September massacres, 252 Samoan Islands, 413 Serbia, kingdom of, under Stephen San Francisco Charter, 537 Dushan, xs; subjection of, to Turks, San Francisco Conference, 712, 713 fl. 15, 24; autonomy of (I8I7), 432; "Sans-culotte," 247 at war with Turkey (I878), 436 f.; Sanskrit, 73 independence recogni2ed, 437; at San Stefano, Treaty of, 437 war with Turkey (I9I2), 440; at Sardinia, 49; kingdom of, sx, 55 fl., war with Bulgaria (1913), 440; gain 270 f., 327, 332; at war with Austria in territory after Balkan wars, 442; (I848-1849), 343 f., 347; at war with relations of, with Austria, 449 f.; rela­ Austria (1859), 350 f.; alliance with tions of, with Germany, 450; rela­ France, 35o; at war with Austria tions of, with Russia, 450; Austrian (I866), 354 f.; in the Crimean War, ultimatum to (I914), 451; in First 435 n. See also Piedmont World War, 457, 472. See also Yugo­ Savoy, 51, 252, 254; France deprived slavia · of, JI8, 350 Serbs (Serbians), 13 INDEX xliii

Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, kingdom South Mrica, Union of, creation of of the. See Yugoslavia (1910), 390 ff.; population of, 391 n.; Serfdom, 12, JI, 35, I65 ff., I90 ff., _,;6o; in First World War, 391, 457; at abolished in France, 226; abolished Versailles, 478.; in League, 498; de­ in Prussia, 3 I I f.; abolished in Japan, clares war on Germany, 613 403; abolished in Russia, 4I9 ff. South African Republic. See Transvaal Sevastopol, 434 f., 639, 64I South America, 328 f. Seven Years' War, 58 ff., 82, 88; in Southwest Mrica, German, 364, 409; India, 59 conquest of, in First World War, 391; "Sextant Conference," 67I administered by the Union of South Shaftsbury, Lord, rr6 f. Mrica, 392 Shah Jahan, 76 f. Soviets, 466, 559 ff. Shanghai, attacked by Japanese, Spain, colonies, 45 f., 48, 86, 88 f., 94, 594 f. 28o; war with Great Britain, 55 ff.; Shantung, Germans in, 364, 403 reforms of Charles ill, 193 f.; joins Siam, 478 coalition against France, 255, 27o; Sicilies, kingdom of the Two, 49 f. and Napoleon attempts to control, 304 f., note, 330, 35I 309; loses American colonies, 328 f.; Sicily, invasion of, 666 f. reaction in, after r8xs, 328; revolu­ Sieyes, 2I9, 22I tion of 182o, 329, 334; crown Sigismund, Emperor, 25 f., 39 offered to Leopold of Hohenzollern, Sikhs, 588 357; revolt of Cuba against, 4I3; Silesia, 2I, 54 ff., 62, 536 f. war with America (I898), 413; Simeon I of Bulgaria, IO dictatorship in, 574, 6oo ff.; re­ Simon Commission, 588. public of, 574, 6oo f.; constitution Singapore, 66o, 661 of, 574; clergy in, 6oi; civil war in, Sinn Fein, 384 f. 6o2 Silzkrieg, 622 Spanish-American War (1898), 4I3 Slave trade, England and the Mrican, Spanish Succession, War of the, 45 45 Spartacists, 563 Slavonia, 450. See also Yugoslavia Spencer, Herbert, 731, 734 Slavs, settlement of, in Europe, 8 f., Spinoza, 140 f. I2 f., 39; in the Balkans, 345 f., 432, Spirit of Laws, The, 154 - 449. 484f. Stack, General, 4I2 Slovakia, 6Io Stalin, Joseph, 528, 561, 562, 617, 643, lmith, Adam, I6o · 712 Smuts, General, 39I Stalingrad, siege of, 641 f. Smyrna, 489 Stamp Act, 91 Snowden, Philip, 577 Stanislaus I (Leszczynski) of Poland, Sobieski, John, 27 37.49 f. Social Contract of Rousseau, ISS f. Stanislaus II (Poniatowski) of Poland, Social Democrats, in France, 3.~8; in 63, 64,66 Germany, 363, 566 ff.; in Russia, Stanley, H. M., 408 f. 427; in England, 554 Statute of Westminster, 582, 583, Socialism, in Germany, 363 f.; aims of, 585 374; in Russia, 427, 465 f., 538; in Steam, application of, 317,370 f., 396 f. Italy, 525 f.; rise of, 546 ff.; Marxian, Steamboats, 317, 396 f. and note 549 ff.; in England, 554 f.; opposi­ Stein, reforms of, 296, 3rr, 323 tion to, 556 ff.; international, 562 f. Stephen I of Hungary, 12 Socialist parties, 554 Stephen Dushan of Serbia, rs Soissons, 455, 470 Stephenson, George, 398 Solomons, Fifth Battle of, 663 Storm Troops, 6os · Somaliland, British, 392; French, 409 Strasbourg, seized by Louis XIV, 196; Somme, battle of the (I9I6), 46o; ceded to Germany in I87o, 3S9 and battle Qf the (1918), 47o note xliv INDEX

Stresemann, 615 "Tennis-Court" oath, 221 Strike, general, in Russia, 429; in Italy, Terrorism, Russian, 421 ff. 571; in Spain, 573; in Great Britain, Teutonic order, 25, 40 578 Thailand, 66o "Struggle for existence," 7.32 f. Thennidor, 9th, 263 Stuart, House of, 57 f. and note Third estate, 202 f., 218 ff. Submarines, 68; in First World War, "Third International," the, 556 - 458 f., 462, 463, 468 f., 472 f.; in Third Reich, 569 f. Second World War, 622, 623, 632, Thrace, 488, 489 · 648f. Tilsit, treaties of, 297, 309 f. Sudan, revolt of the Mahdi, 411; Timur, 76 French expedition to upper, 447 Tithe, in France, abolished, 226, 232 Suez Canal, 397, 410 Togo, Admiral, 405 Suffrage, in France, 250, 267, 337; in Togoland, 364, 409 Great Britain, 374 ff., 575, 578; in "Toiling masses," s6o, 562, 565 Ru~ia, 429, 561 f.; in Rumania, Tojo, 655 488 f.; in India, 588 Toleration, Act of {1689), 183 Suleicnan the Magnificent, 25 Toleration, religious, 133 ff., 180 f.; in Sun Yat-sen, 407 France, 18o; in England, 181 ff.; in Surajah Dowlah, 83 Prussia, 190; in Austria, 192; in Surat, 70, 79 f. Ireland, 382; in Canada, 387 Surgery, modem, 739 f. Tories, 186 and note Swastika, 568 Towns, in the eighteenth century, Sweden, under the rule of Charles 167 f.; growth of the modem, 371, XIII, 37 f.; in Seven Years' War, 374 . 59 f.; joins allies against Napoleon, Trade Agreements Act, 708 f. 314 Trade-unions, origin of, 373 Swedes and origin of Russian state, 13 Trans-Siberian Railroad, 398, 403, Swift, Jonathan, 142 ff. 424f. Switzerland declared independent, 319 Transvaal, 390; annexed to British Syria, Turkish conquest of, 23, 25; Empire, 391 Bonaparte's campaign in, 275; in Transylvania, 27; annexed to Ru­ First World War, 472, 489; in mania, 461, 488, 634 Second World War, 636 f. Treaties, registration of, with League of Nations, 496 f. Tacitus, 26o Trench warfare, 456 TaiUe, 200, 204, 211 Trent, Council of, 25, 134, 176; occu­ Taj Mahal, 76 f. pied by Italians, 473 Talleyrand, 281, 320 Trianon, Treaty of, 532 Tamerlane, 76 "Trident Confereuce," 666 and note, Tanaka memorial, 653 671 Tanks, 46o, 638, 643, 681 Trieste, 457, 473 Tariff, German, 363. See also Free Triple Alliance, 447,448, 454 trade in England Tripoli annexed by Italy, 361, 439 f. Tartars, 6 n. Trotsky, Leon 466, 528, 562, 563 Tasmania, 388 f. Trusteeship, international, 719 f. See Tatas, 6n. also Mandates Taxation, without representation, 91; Tsar, title of, 30 of church property, 19.i, 2oo; in Tugendbund, 312 France, 199 f., 204, 213 ff., 226; in Tuileries, 247 ff., 287, 338, 360 Great Britain, 379 f.; in Turkey, Tunis, France and, 409, 446, 637 436; due to First World War, 490 f. Turgot, 159, 209 ff., 212 n. Teheran, 671 Turin, 49 n., 51 Telephone, 318, 399' Turkey, extent of, under Murad I, 24; Telescope, 109 under Selim I, 24 f.; height of INDEX xlv

Ottoman Empire punder Suleiman, 716; insists on veto in United 25; defense of Europe against, 25 fl.; Nations, 716 decline of, 27; alliance of, with United Nations, enter Second World Charles XII against Russia, 37 f.; War, 6.'i7i subscribe· to Atlantic defeated by Napoleon in Syria and Charter, 658; Declaration of, 703 f.; Egypt, 275; Crimean War, 418, signatories of, 704 n.; organization of, 434 f.; desire of Austria and Russia 709 fl.; unanimity rule, 710; Char­ for partition of, 432, 435; loss of ter­ ter of, 713 ff., 756; and International ritory by, on Black Sea, 432; revolt Court of Justice, 72o; secretary and of Greece and the Balkan states staff of, 721; and Atomic Energy against, 432 fl.; and Treaty of Lon­ Commission, 756 ff.. don, 433; and Treaty of Paris, 435; United Provinces, 57 n. at war with Russia (1877-1878), 437; United States, industrial expansion and and Treaty of San Stefano, 437; and world trade of, 413; at war with Congress of Berlin, 437 f.; at war Spain (1898), 413; annexes Puerto with Greece (18<)7), 438; revolution Rico ~nd the Philippine Islands, 413; of "Young Turks" (1908), 439; at neutrality of, in First World War, war with Italy (19II-1912), 430; 461; protests against German sub­ loss of Tripoli and Rhodes by, 439 f.; marine policy, 462; declares war on and Balkan wars (1912-1913), 440; Germany, 463 f.; war debts to, 493 f.; and Treaty of London (1913), 440; failure of Senate of, to ratify Treaty and Treaty of Bucharest (1913), 441; of Versailles, 49!1 f.; joint resolution loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 449; of Congress ends state of war with in First World War, 454, 456 f., 472; Germany, 498; attitude regarding Republic of (1923), 482, 489 f.; de­ World Court, 501 f.; the Washington feat of Greece by, 489; and Treaty Conference, 5o2; attitude on dis­ of Lausanne (1923), 489; enters armament, 5o6 ff.; between wars, Leage of Nations, 499 514 fl., 528 fl.; and Manchuria inci­ Turks, 22 f.; Seljuk, in central Asia dent, 596, 597; and Ethiopia, 599; and Minor, 23; coming of the Ottoman, Spanish Civil War, 6o2; Neutrality 23; in Asia Minor, 23; conquest of Act, 613, 622; in Second World War, the Balkan Peninsula by, 23 f.; cap­ 647 fl., 657 fl.; attacked by Japan, ture of Constantinople by, 24. See 655 fl. See also American colonies of also Turkey England, American Revolution, First Tuscany, 49 f., 283, 330 f.; added to World War, Second World War kingdom of Italy, 351 Universities, German, 312, 325 f.; in Two Sicilies, kingdom of the, 49 f. and Russia, 417, 425 note, 330, 351 UNRRA, 7o6 Upanishads, 73 Ukraine, independence declared by, Ural-Altaics, 5 fl. 467; republic of, 471; united to fed­ Uranium, 742, 743, 747 f. eration of the Soviet Republics, 482, Urdu, 77 n. 56o; invaded by Poland, 486; over­ Urey, 746 run by Nuis, 639 Ussher, Archbishop, chronology of, 727, Ulster, 381, 384 fl., 585 728 Ultramontanism, 177 Utrecht, Peace of, 51 Unigenilus, bull (1713), 179 n. Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, Vaecination, 739 recognized, 538, 577; republics in, Valera, Eamon de, 385, 583 ff. 559 f.; constitution of, 560 fl.; and Varangians, 13 f. ' Baltic republics, 56o, 62o; war on Vatican City, 573 capitalism, 562; religion in, 563; civil Vendee, La, revolt of, 258, 264 war in, 563; Five-Year Plans, 564 f.; Venetia, given to Austria, 319,341,343, and fifth partition of Poland, 617 f.; 350; ceded to Italy, 360 expelled from League of Nations, Venezuela, 328 f. xlvi Th"DEX

Venice, commerce of, 26; in 1750, so, Wesley, John, 182 r68; destruction of republic of, 272; "West Wall," 621 in r!48, 344- Sa also Venetia Westminster, Statute of, 582 f., 585 venizelos, 440, 464. 490 Westphalia, Peace of (1648), 42, 254; Ve~dun, fall of (1792), 252; siege of, in kingdom of, 297, 315 FIISt World War, 400 Weygand, General, 628 Vergniaud, 244 f., 251, 256 Whlgs, 186 and note, 376 v emacular languages, 143 f. Whlte Russia, 482, 4'17, soo Ve10na, Congress of, 329 Whitney, Eli, 370 Versailles, court of, 202, 210 Wilkes, John, 188 Versailles, Treaty of, 478 f.; Germans William IV of Orange, 57 n. sign Treaty of, under protest, 48o; William I of Prussia, character of, 352; failure of United States Senate to organization of army by, 352 f.; ratify Treaty of, 498 chosen empeiOr, 359; death of, 364 Vestiges of the ltaJ11ral H islory of Crea­ William II, Emperor, accession of, 364 tion of Robert Chambers, 730 and note; industrial development Victor Emmanuelll,347.349ff.,36I,667 during reign of, 364; naval program Victoria, Queen, proclaimed empress of of,~444; abdication and flight of, 474 lndia.394 Wilson. Woodrow, President, declara­ Vienna, siege of, by Turks, 26 f.; Con­ tion of neutrality by (1914), 461; gress of, 318 ff., 481; revolution of efforts of, for peace, 462; address of, rl48 in, 342, 346 to Congress (April 2, 1917) on Ger­ V1adimir the Great of Rus.<;ia, 14 f. many, 463; "Fourteen Points" of, \1adivostok, 471 467 f., 48o; at the Peace Conference Voltaire, 1 f., 52 f., 146 ff., 190 f., 207 in Paris and Versailles, 478; and the Vratislav I of Bohemia, 14 n. League of Nations, 495,497, 704 Witchcraft, 118 ff. Wagram, battle of, 307 Women, employment of, 372, 378; Wallace, Alfred R., 733, 734 status of, 542, 575, 578 Wallachia, 298 and note, 4J4. See also World Bank. See Bank for Interna­ Rumania tional Payments Wallachians, 24 World Court, 711. See also Permanent Walpole, Sir Robert, 56, r86 f. Court of International Justice, Inter­ Wandewash, battle of, 82 national Court of Justice War, and Covenant of League of Na­ World War. See First World War, tions, 496; plans and pacts to end, Second World War 502 ff., 511 ff.; outlawing of, 503 f.; \\"range), General, s63 · cost of total, 512 ff.; elimination of, Wiirttemberg, 282 f., 294; granted a 1ssf. constitution, 327, 343 War guilt, 454, 48o Warsaw, grand duchy of, created by X rays, 742, 746 Napoleon, 297, 307 f.; restoration Yalta Conference, 712 of, as kingdom of Poland (1815), Yorck, General, 313 319 f. See also Poland Young, Arthur, 202 f. Washington, George, 93 ff., 250,497 Young Italy, 332 Washington Conference (1921-1922), Young plan, 492, 493, 494, 515 502 f. Yugoslavia (kingdom~of Serbs, Croats, Waterloo, battle of, 316 Slovenes), creation of, 485 f., 488; Watt, James, 370 f. races in, 485, 535 f.; dispute with Wealth of NaJioJJs, The, roo Italy ovei Fiume, 486; in Little Weihaiwei, 404 Entente, 486; acquires fund from Weimar republic, 475, 518, 565 fl., 568, Bulgaria, 488; partitioned, 636 614f. Wellesley, Lord, 85 n. Zhukov,General,646 Wellington, 85 n., 309, 315 f. Zoll!Je1'ein, 327 PJUNTED IN THE~ STATES 01' ..UrERICA