Demands and Strategies of Hungarian Trade Union Women

CEU eTD Collection

Erasmus Mundus Master’sin Women’s and Gender Studies In In partial fulfillmentthe of req Demands and Strategies of HungarianDemands andStrategiesof Trade Co - Supervisor: ViolaZentai(Central Supervisor: University)European “You will get as much asmuch “You will get asyoufight for” Supervisor: Teresa Ortiz GómezOrtizSupervisor: Teresa Granada) (Universidadde Department Gender of Studies Central European University by Judith by Langowski Union Women Budapest, HungaryBudapest, Submittedto 2015

uirements for the degree of

CEU eTD Collection

E In In partial fulfillmentth of Demands and Strategies of HungarianDemands andStrategiesof Trade rasmus Mundus Master Co - Supervisor: ViolaZentai(Central Supervisor: University)European “You will get as much asmuch “You will get asyoufight for” Supervisor: Teresa Ortiz GómezOrtizSupervisor: Teresa Granada) (Universidadde Appro Viola CentralZentai,European UniversityViola ved by:______ved Department G of Central European University by Judith by Langowski Union Women Budapest, HungaryBudapest, Submittedto ’ s in Women e requirements for the degree o 2015

ender Studies

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CEU eTD Collection away universalizing tendencies feminism. from of Western spec in experiences women’s and feminisms on research the to contributes also It policies. equality gender effective of implementation the strengthen and borders separate European across women's movements women's unions' of trade of cooperation functions fruitful further can the organizing on knowledge specific However, (CEE). Europe Eastern combat to gendered accor organization, tool a as section women’s separate the use women The possibilities. their influence the limits which unions trade in structures organizational genderedexperience also activists women context adverse current the In demands. their influences which equality, women’s and womanhood of understanding specific locally a construct women union a that state of argue intersection I contexts. institutional specific their in use they strategies which and policy workingconditions. state after declined power unions’ While work. domestic and paid combine to opportunities women’s impact especially which policies, welfare neoliberal by accompanied was economy market capitalist the a policy as them marginalizing and function their destabilizing unions, trade of situation the on impact tremendous a had economy the of deregulation and Privatization The Scholarly literature has so far neglected the experiences of women in trade unions in Central in unions trade in women of experiences the neglected far so has literature Scholarly equality gender on voice women union trade Hungarian demands which analyzes thesis This - post socialism, Hungarian union wom union Hungarian socialism, - socialist transition brought many changes in the labor market structure of Hungary. of structure market labor the in changes many brought transition socialist

- oils lgce ad uoenzd edr qaiy om, ugra trade Hungarian norms, equality gender Europeanized and legacies socialist ding it a function that is adapted to the local institutional environment. adapted thatis a it ding function tothelocal institutional en continue to fight for women’s equality and improved and equality women’s for fight to continue en Abstract i

ific post ific that Hungarian trade unions face, face, unions trade Hungarian that - ctors. The development of development The ctors. socialist contexts, moving contexts, socialist the t

CEU eTD Collection en el actual feminismo oeste del parecen que universalizar de tendencias las de alejándose possocialismo, de específicos contextos género de igualdad También de efectivas. políticas de implementación la reforzar y europeas fronteras a de sindicatos través en mujeres de cooperación la mejorar puede mujeres para separadas organización embarg Sin ahora. hasta (CEE) Central Este ambiente local. institucional e la ( mujeres usan para mujeres separada Las de sección influir. de posibilidades sus limitan que sindicatos de organización la en confrontan,sindicatos húngaros los que actual adverso contexto el En exigencias. sus influye que género, de igualdad de normas de europeización la y socialista estado del legados los de intersección la en mujeres institucionales de igualdad contextos sus en usan entendimi estrategias un construyen mujeres estas que cuales Argumento específicos. y género de igualdad de políticas de trabajo. estado, del socialismo condiciones ymejores mujer la de igualdad la para luchando del siguen sindicatos en húngaras mujeres después disminuyó sindicatos los de poder el Mientras doméstico. cuales neoliberales, a sociales afectan políticas especialmente de acompañado fue capitalista mercado del desarrollo El políticos. actores como sindicatos los marginalizando y función su desestabilizando sindicatos, tuvier economía la de deregulación y Privatización tutrs e eiula e l ognzcó d sniao, ádl ua ucó aatd a un a adaptada función una dándole sindicatos, de organización la en desigualdad de structuras La transición después del socialismo trajo muchos cambios en el mercado laboral de Hungría. Hungría. de laboral mercado el en cambios muchos trajo socialismo del después transición La La literatura académica ha descuidado las experiencias de mujeres en sindicatos en Europa Europa en sindicatos en mujeres de experiencias las descuidado ha académica literatura La sobre expresan sindicatos en húngaras mujeres las exigencias cuales analiza trabajo Este

contribuye a la investigación en feminismos y experiencias de mujeres en en mujeres de experiencias y feminismos en investigación la a contribuye a ootndds e uee d cmia taao aao trabajo y pagado trabajo combinar de mujeres de oportunidades las

. mujeres activistas también experimentan estructuras de desigualdad desigualdad estructuras también de experimentan activistas mujeres oe’ section women’s Abstract (Español) , ooiino seíio or ls srcua de estructuras las sobre específico conocimiento o, ii

cm ua ermet pr cmai estas combatir para herramienta una como ) n n mat eom e l stain de situación la en enorme impacto un on

ento específico de feminidad y feminidad de específico ento

CEU eTD Collection evenings onthe balcony. Danke! und Köszönöm sane. me keeping for Eva sister my to Thanks way. the along all support their and their valuablethe field. into insights for Granada in Mujer la de Instituto the and Budapest departmentin Studies Gender the ateveryone Center, Writing Academic the to thanks especially toSanjayfor Kumar consultations. thehelpful Many time. their and comments helpful topic, my more wr I fromcould them than much learned have I stories. and energy, time, their dedicated generously who Section, Women’s is dedicatedwhowere therewithme toall those thesis This future. exciting an to doors opened They discover. languages, learn abroad, study to had l the in Ilearned what of much that say Ican thesis, the on working of months these After ideas. new many to eyes my opened and stories with me inspired who friends, and mentors many period, this ast five yearsIgratefulI wayamast thefollowingimmensely theopportunities five into pages. foundto its st of years five closes thesis This Special thanks to Diego, for all his support, translations, suggestions, critical suggestions, translations, support, his all for Diego, to thanks Special my thank to want I to Theoryand Feminist of possibilities the to me introducing for Barad Karen to grateful am I in interest their for Ortiz, Teresa and Zentai Viola supervisors, my to thankful especially am I MASZSZ the from partners interview my without impossible been have would work this All

parents for always motivating me, reading through the rough first drafts drafts first rough the through reading me, motivating always for parents ite downhere.

udy in four different countries. I have met many people in in people many met have I countries. different four in udy Acknowledgments

- iii

Nancy,Granada,Budapest. and Santa Cruz,

discussions and discussions

CEU eTD Collection ListInterviews of Bibliography Conclusions Chapter 4:Resisting Gendered through Organization Women’sSections Chapter Voice: 3:Finding Trade aUnionStrategies Current New Chapter 2: State Chapter and theShifting 1: Europeanization Norms ofGender Meanings Equality Theoretical Methods Frameworkand Introduction 4.2. Gendered as and a theWomen’s Tool ofResistance Organization Section 4.1. Gendered of Trade Organization Unions 3.2. 3. Interviews 2.2. UnderstandingsWomanhood: ofwiththeTrade UnionWomen Influence2.1. ofState 1.2 1.1. EuropeanizationGender of Equality Policies

1. Opportunity and Structures Constraintsfor Hungarian Trade Unions 4.2.2. The of Function theMASZSZ Women’sSection 4.2.1. Gendered inthe Hungarian Organization Trade UnionMovement 4.1.2. Women's ConstituenciesandStrategies ofTrade Other UnionWomen 4.1.1. The ConceptOrganization” of“Gendered Importance3.2.2. Strategies The for Activism: Cooperation of 3.2.1. PerceptionsTradeLandscape ofthe Union Image:3.1.3. TryingRustyLegal a toPolish ofUnions. Current and Constraints Perceptions Fragmentation,3.1.2. Effects Transition: Hostility, of Marginalization Legacies3.1.1. State of 2.2.3. Sectoral Experiences Professional 2.2.2. Motherhood Sensit asCommon Shared and Characteristics of Women 2.2.1. TheandProfessional AssumedSocial Role 2.1.2. Post Theories2.1.1. The Socialist Question”: “Woman and Emancipatory Policies 1.2.3. Sectoral inPolicy Differences Demands 1.2.2. Specific Gender Equality Demands 1.2.1. Europe andEquality Hungary:oftheP Perceptions Gender 1.1.3. Gender thePost Equality in 1.1.2. EuropeanizationGenderLocal of and Equality Norms Actors Policy ofEuropean1.1.1. AimsandMeanings Gender Equality Policy . Gender EqualityLocal Policy: Demands and Perceptions Navigating Constraints:Experiences ofHungarian the Trade UnionWomen

...... - - Socialist Transition and Its TransitionSocialist and Women Effect on Socialist Legacies Socialist ofWomanhood inthe Meaning

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és Energia és - Szakszervezetek Szövetsége

Federationof ChemicalHungary Workersof

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United Media Trade Union List of Abbreviations of List evztie Szövetsége zervezeteinek - - -

United Transportation Union Trade Trade Union of the Inota IndustryTrade UnionofAluminium the

Hungarian Trade UnionConfederation - Bloc of Intellectuals’Bloc ofUnions Trade - -

National FederationWorkers’ of Councils TradeIndustry the Canning Unionof Workers ConfederationAutonomous Trade of Unions v - -

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Defense Workers’ Trade Union Defense Trade Workers’ s zláttsa Dloó Szakszervezete Dolgozók Szolgáltatásban és -

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Democratic League of IndependentTrade Leagueof Democratic -

National Confederation of Hungarian of Confederation National

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The Democratic Pedagogues’ Union (PDSZ) demonstrated for free education and better working and studying studying and working better and freeeducation for demonstrated Union (PDSZ) Pedagogues’ Democratic The

grew. Since 1989, trade unions in Hungary are struggling with declining membership, due to due membership, declining with struggling are Hungary in unions trade 1989, Since grew. h post The The growing number of women in the global paid workforce has started to bring the bring to started has workforce paid global the in women of number growing The such sectors, infeminized asrevaluationHowever, forofwork health recent the mobilizations

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ition has brought many changes to the labor market structure of of structure market labor the to changes many brought has ition es, and to build up their career (Fodor 2013, Szikra 2014). This thesisThis 2014). Szikra 2013, (Fodor careertheir up build to and es, Introduction

Unions can benefit from the integration of demands of of demands of integration the from benefit can Unions diversity in trade unions have also studied the role of of role the studied also have unions trade in diversity 1

Their marginali Their 1

seily ic 21, neo 2010, since Especially - American context, and what strategies what and context, American - etr cnet (enne 1997, (Fernandes contexts Western Hungary

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that there are women in women are there that y 12th, 2015, and and y2015, 12th, - iea social liberal topic of of topic - time time

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women in trade unions in post in tradeunions in women cknowledged in the analysis (Koobak and Marling 2014). I analyze 13 analyze I 2014). Marling and (Koobak analysis the in cknowledged - socialist experiences of their female constituency. female their of experiences socialist 2

and Europeanized gender equality norms, equality gender Europeanized and - socialist countries has been neglected by countriesneglectedbeen has socialist

o cptls eooy a be the been has economy capitalist a to - cultural context of a post a of context cultural ty demands of Hungarian trade Hungarian of demands ty r equality policy, as well as policy, equality r

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two chapters examine chapters two

the trade union women in the context of Europeanized gender equality norms. Their norms. equality gender Europeanized of context the in women union trade the

- Perceptions of Difference for a Politics of Equality of Politics a for Difference of Perceptions

Europeanization of Gender Equality Policies Equality Gender of Europeanization - active constituency, but bear the risk of isolating equality issues. The analysis of analysis The issues. equality isolating of risk the bear but constituency, active of these naturalizedof these differences. union processes that discriminate against discriminate that processes union ther minority constituencies remains debated, as they have the advantage they the have ther as remains debated, constituencies minority what

Hungarian trade union women are fighting for today, while the while today,for fighting are women union Hungariantrade

understandings of womanhood that form the basis for for basis the form that womanhood of understandings - socialist and Europeanized norms becomes visible becomes norms Europeanized and socialist 3

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CEU eTD Collection 2014; USA: Cobble (ed.) 1993; France: Pochic and Guillaume 2012; Guillaume and Pochic France: 1993; (ed.) USA: Cobble 2014; 2 the “facing is it as feminism, transnational within situation its and thought feminist CEE specific as East a further the They 2014). portraying Marling and without (Koobak West the acknowledged behind “lagging” be can region the in feminisms and concepts post and postcolonial they feminismsuggest comb (2014: tendencies 332), to to decenterofWestern the universalizing Thus, context. this in feminism specific locally of interactions diverse the neglected has scholarship T thought. feminist transnational within post characterize (2014) Marling Raili and Koobak Redi contexts, “non production knowledge feminist between imbalancepower the highlightsmatter this vis scholars The 2010). post Guillaume in and Pochic 2006, (Ledwith perspective Western a from mostly done was spaces socialist conducted been has that research the 2011), (eds.) al. et Moghadam 1997, (Fernandes cases. European Western universalizing male Western and organizational the in present hierarchies other and gendered neglect to tendency a has unions trade on research existing of majority The unions. trade of constraints current the manage employto they strategies which and policy, equality gender for demands women’s researching by

Some examples are: UK: Colgan and Ledwith 2000, Lawrence 1994, Cockburn 1991; Canada: Briskin 1983, 1999, 1983, Briskin Canada: Cockburn 1991; Lawrence 1994, 2000, Ledwith and Colgan UK: are: Someexamples - à - - West”. West”. on voices European Eastern Central published of lack the However subject. research the vis M Theoretical Framework D R esearch on women in trade unions has been conducted, however mostly on Anglo on mostly however conducted, been has unions trade in women on esearch sie h tasainl un n eiit coasi ad t atnin o non to attention its and scholarship feminist in turn transnational the espite y aim is to introduce a feminist perspective in the study of post of study the in perspective feminist a introduce to is aim y

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Austria/Germany: Kirsch and Blaschke 2014. Blaschke and Kirsch Austria/Germany:

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LIGA, ASZSZ, MSZOSZ, SZEF, ÉSZT, and MOSZ. For detailed names, please check the List of Abbreviations, p. vi. p. Abbreviations, List of the check please names, detailed MOSZ. and For ÉSZT, SZEF, ASZSZ,MSZOSZ, LIGA, - em ciit wo r nt at f h cret oe’ Scin I otce al f them of all contacted I Section. Women’s current the of part not are who activists term T T T T he women represent different sectors and professions, which makes their experiences in the in experiences their makes which professions, and sectors different represent women he an (SZEF), confederation unions’ service public a of confederation a is MASZSZ he women’s active an of existence the is focus, research my as MASZSZ the chose I reason he unions. trade Hungarian the of situation current the mapped first I contacts, potential find o er, three represent the service sector (retail, education, and public transportation), while transportation), public and education, (retail, sector service the represent three er, emains an associated confederation within the MASZSZ. anassociated confederationemains within

ö Tagozat Nöi

the regime change. Through contacting the Vice the contacting Through change. regime the

ie Grd cls ln o tosn uin” (2013). unions” thousand of “land calls Girndt ainer

), I received contact information of all 30 members and of some some of and members 30 all of information contact received I ), 8

eir actions received externaleir received support. actions , two the SZEF, and the remaining nine remaining the and SZEF, the two , erent unions within the MSZOSZ. the within unions erent ö Választmány Nöi

- President of the MASZSZ MASZSZ the of President 3

n 03 three 2013, In , hc was which ), ZOSZ) and and ZOSZ)

CEU eTD Collection Abbreviations on p. vi. p. on Abbreviations ( Steering Committee (2) and/or 4 in women union differentlabor ofthemarket segments trade Hungarian of situation the of overview general my a time, get same to the allows research At well. as differences and trends sectoral address chapters analytical My

Nemes László Siraky Anonymous Pálinkás Ladányi Tóth Ratio of women in leadership = ratio of women within all members of the (1) member union’s Leaders memberunion’s (1) members ofthe womenwithinall of ratio = leadership women in of Ratio (last name)(last P articipant

able 1: Interview Participants

4 5 6 5 5 6 6 ) (approx. Age

4 4 9 7 0 0 3

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- 4 ), data retrieved from the respective union’s homepage. See List of See homepage. union’s respective from the data retrieved ), .

H OSZ Union/MSZ Miners’ M ZOSZ P ómok E ZOSZ H ZOSZ T SZ union/MSZO M SZOSZ Union/Confed KDSZ/MS KSZ/Auton ávSzak/MS ODOSZ/M VDSZ/MS OL ining

Member Member eration

M retired Committee, Steeringthe C full V unpaid Committee, Women’s H full Committee, Sub Secretary o Works Council, P retired Committee, Steering M retired Committee, Women’s H unpaid Committee, Steering Union, status resident of onsultant in ead of of ead of ead ice Function in ember of ember of - - Member - time, paid time, paid - President, President,

N N on (VDSZ)) confederati industry N Y N N Y Section in Women’s o o o (only in es o /A es Member Union?

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)

CEU eTD Collection Lupkovics Eper Veres Jenes Steer Kiss (last name)(last P articipant -

Rigó

6 5 5 5 7 3 ) (approx. Age

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ómok I E P OSZ K OSZ K ZOSZ HVDSZ/MS K Union/Confed ASZ/Auton SZ/SZEF MSZ/SZEF DSZ/MSZ ASZ/MSZ ASZ and Member Member eration

Secretary, Union C unpaid V time, paid Secretary, part R Union, retired former Head of Secretary, O time, paid Secretary, full O Consultant I time, paid ndependent ndependent Union, status ompany eg rganizational rganization ice Function in Member ional ional - President, President,

level level full

al al

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male 1/3, leader V male 2 female 2 male leader 4 male leader 1 male l 3/9,1/3, HVDSZ: male leader 19/27,1/2, K Leadership Women in eader /5, /5, leader /2, leader /11, 19/27,/2, Ratio Ratio of DSZ: ASZ: Union

CEU eTD Collection the post within diversity for quest a by underlined is research My other. each upon build and influence that transnational of scope broadened a feminist to contribute to hope I women, union trade Hungarian of genderequality womanhood and Through of context. understandings local focusingthis navigate on sur that opportunities and constraints Section toresist the obstaclesgendered of organization. the within equality gender of perception their examine I Further, on. based are these that womanhood and equality gender of understanding the analyze I policy, equality gender towards demands their Collecting women. s the without and within is simultaneously researcher being a hybrid, as situation My knowledge. gather to experiences their on focusing MASZSZ, M S A ummary lthough the interviews form the central part of the study, I situate them in the institutional the in them situate I study, the of part central the form interviews the lthough - y thesis uses in uses thesis y

socialist spacesocialist containing many different itself, k layers, knowledge

loig o te co the for allowing - depth interviews with women in the Hungarian Trade Union Confederation Union Trade Hungarian the in women with interviews depth

organizations they act in and how they use the MASZSZ Women’s Women’s MASZSZ the use they how and in act they organizations round them and present the strategies that the women use to use women the that strategies the present and them round - rsne f ies udrtnig o gne equality, gender of understandings diverse of presence 11

ocio - utrl otx o te interviewed the of context cultural nowledges and feminisms. nowledges

CEU eTD Collection their meaning,oftheto the specific women’s according activism. context norms “Europeanized” of presence a shows topics and furthered I actors. policy in women of demands the influences 69) 2012: Popa and (Krizsán Europeanness” desired and shared a of “idea the how and policy equality gender of field the in Europeanization union women inthe broader European context. trade Hungarian the of understandings and demands the these situate on me Drawing help 2003). will approaches (Liebert norms the of meanings shifted a to contribute that patterns be thus can approach constructionist A 2012). Lombardo and (Forest level national the on norms new these internalizing of process the study to discourses and actors d more act which measures, policy soft by furthered mostly is field this as policy, equality gender of scholars by critiqued been has norms EU to states member of compliance the on focus the However, 2003). norms European how demonstrate to studied post and during Hungary, to specifically (EU) directives, influences wo Union European and measures law soft through Hungary to travel which norms, equality gender of “Europeanization” the how out find to want I it, towards demands their and process policy equality interview the analyzing By women. union trade of demands the in The first part of the chapter focuses on how gender equality norms travel through Europe, Europe, through travel norms equality gender how on focuses chapter the of part first The shown becan genderequalityEuropeannorms of influence whetheranchapter examines This n t In C hapter 1: Europeanization and theShiftinghapter and 1: Europeanization Gender NormsMeanings of Equality he second part I analyze how the interviewees’ discursive strategies contribute to to contribute strategies discursive interviewees’ the how analyze I part second he iffusely on different policy actors. Scholars argue for acknowledging a plurality of policy of plurality a acknowledging for argue Scholars actors. policy different on iffusely what ou o te nevees rsoss on responses interviewees’ the on focus

their demands towards national gender equality policy are. An analysis of both of analysis An are. policy equality gender national towards demands their men’s unionactivism. trade

- EU accession. Processes of “Europeanization” have been have “Europeanization” of Processes accession. EU nlec dmsi isiuin (özl n Risse and (Börzel institutions domestic influence 12

n h itriwe’ icus, hc sit in shift which discourse, interviewees’ the in

how

gender equality policy should be be should policy equality gender ees’ perceptions of the gender the of perceptions ees’ tr con fr discursive for account tter

trade unions as unions trade

CEU eTD Collection 6 2010 5 than promoting changegender sustainable roles. in wome through economy the of strengthening a for aims This roots. structural its addressing than rather inequality, gender of symptoms the on lies policy career options(2003:161). th in disadvantaged are and norm male a to adhere to have still they women Thus, inequalities. gender structural disregarding market, labor the in women more integrating of change superficial (2003), Lombardo Emanuela to economic social policyjustice or rather(Elson redistributive Stratigaki than 2006; 2004). co being ideas feminist of danger out point equalitysubstantial has and addressed arenot genderinequalities causesof root the why explain not does this competences, of distribution the through explained be can policy over labor market policies. competence has EU the competence, states’ member the is policy welfare While competence. and function their in differ that regimes two policy, employment equal and welfare of intersection the 2009). (Krizsán measures law” “soft through fields other towards expanded be can which policies, market labor regarding only policy gender in competence a on relies and policies employment to access equal of women’s on frame focuses policies dominant equality gender The European 2008). Wahl 2008; (Ferree coincide democracy social and liberalism of 1.1. Europeanization Gender Policies Equality

One example for “soft law” measures, is the National Strategy for the Promotion of Gender Equality in Hun ofGender thefor Promotion Strategy National isthe measures, “soft law” for Oneexample Findings from the author’s earlier research for a term paper theon 2010 termpaper a for research earlier from the author’s Findings - 2021, which reflects the European Union’s Roadmap for Gender Equality 2006 Gender for Roadmap Union’s European whichthe 2021, reflects coas ae characteriz have Scholars Meanings and Policy1.1.1. Aims Gender ofEuropean Equality Feminist

formally liberal conception of gender equality. This is not surprising, as the EU has has EU the as surprising, not is This equality. gender of conception liberal formally scholars critique that while the labor market orientation of EU gender equality equality gender EU of orientation market labor the while that critique scholars

Incurrent Equality Gender (2010 Strategy the for

ed the EU gender policy as a “hybrid” model, where concepts of of concepts where model, “hybrid” a as policy gender EU the ed

the EU’s policy focus on the labor market has only achieved the the achieved only has market labor the on focus policy EU’s the - opted by supra by opted 13 6

n’s accession to the labor market, rather rather market, labor the to accession n’s 5

- European gender European national or national entities for aims of aims for entities national or national - 2015 EU Gender Strategy. Gender Equality EU 2015 -

2010 (Fodor 2013). (Fodor 2010

not been achieved.been They not -

2015) the focus of EU focus EU 2015) theof equality policy lies at lies policy equality

According gary of gary

eir

CEU eTD Collection oit pas n motn pr i te hfig n rfaig f h dmnn lbrl U policy EU liberal dominant the of reframing and shifting the in part important an plays society effective less or more implemented were and Hungary to traveled also norms norms analyzed, by afocus response and simple than compliance. onthe States’ Member equality gender of transmission the Thus norms. of these construction around the meanings in actors policy different of interaction the to receptive more is Lombardo a (Forest measures law soft of case the in especially norms, embedded the of contestations and meanings divergent to lead policies EU the to actors policy different of Reactions interactively. process this the in that argue They 2012). Popa and Krizsán 2012, Lombardo and Forest 2003, (Liebert scholars feminist by insufficient as criticized been has which state, the of level the to applied mostlybeen has conceptThis context. domestic the in norms of outcomes policy and impact the explore studies Europeanization 2003). (Featherstone locally onwomen’s everyday specific influences experienc to according meaning, their in shift also they But 2008). (Wahl ideals democratic social and liberal l measures soft through policy, equality gender on ideas European of diffusion the by influenced are meanings These assured. be cannot women European for legislation gender of effectivity the for, loc if However, implementation. its and equality gender on norms uniform creating in challenge a poses this Union, European the Within socio the on dependent and divergent equality gender of meanings are so Jus 48). 2009: Walby 2009; Verloo and Meier (Lombardo, nature contested ike the European Strategy for Gender Equality 2010 Equality Gender for StrategyEuropean the ike edr qaiy s cnet f eiit oiis s o sai, n shlr are n its on agree scholars and static, not is politics feminist of concept a as equality Gender In the process of Hungary’s EU accession in 2004, the dominant European gender equality equality gender European dominant the 2004, in accession EU Hungary’s of process the In Union” European the of policies to responses “the defines Europeanization basic, most its At of1.1.2. Europeanization Local Gender Norms and Policy Actors Equality nd Lombardo 2012). The pluralistic approach suggested by Maxime Forest and Emanuela and Forest Maxime by suggested approach pluralistic The 2012). Lombardo nd ally specific meanings of gender equality are not accounted accounted not are equality gender of meanings specific ally 14 field of gender equality, many actors take part in part take actors many equality, gender of field

- 2015, which can be characterized as reflecting reflecting as characterized be can which 2015, es.

t as gender is not fixed, not is gender as t ly. The impact of civil of impact The ly. - historical specificity. specificity. historical

can be better better be can

European

CEU eTD Collection periodneo and thefollowing accession the during policies gender effective and sustainable for will political lacking between w spirit, same the the advance in further to them developing policies and process equality accession gender European adopting between continuum a of Instead 2013). (Fodor proposed strategy new a was neither and evaluated not was equality gender for plan 2010 The 2014). (Szikra unions trade of work the restricting particularly neo to led 2010 of change are developments accession post the while 2012), Krizsán and Popa 2008, Kakucs and Petö (e.g. Hungary in period this of effects the examined studies Several clearly. Europ Eastern Central the in norms equality gender European EU norms. politic unstable an and environment political conservative post currentthe debateto the extend Ito wantThus, adverse. much more is tradeunions forenvironment th Today, government. socialist the and unionists trade between cooperation political good the emphasized therefore and 2010, of turn governmental conservative the before conducted goals own their implement to opportunity equal on directive European the used women union (2010) trade how Guillaume studied Cécile and Pochic Sophie unexplored. quite remains norms equality gender 200 (Krizsan studied been has process this in organizations society civil women’s of input the While 25). 2008: (Wahl period this during - U ceso cnet wee ead o te rd uin oe fc a neo a face women union trade the of demands where context, accession EU uig h acsin eid (2003 period accession the During in1.1.3. Gender Post the Equality

of gender equality within the trade union movement. However, this study was was study this However, movement. union trade the within equality gender of - -

osraie n neo and conservative liberal/ atclry neetn i te ae f ugr. h governmental The Hungary. of case the in interesting particularly - conservative dismantlingconservative of the welfare state since 2010. 9), the labor movement’s contribution to the reframing of of reframing the to contribution movement’s labor the 9), - - Accession CEE context accession period has been less analyzed. However, post However, analyzed. less been has period accession - 05 o egt e mme states, member new eight of 2005) 15

- iea cags n efr ad oil policy, social and welfare in changes liberal al mood regarding the implementation of implementation the regarding mood al ean context, could be analyzed very very analyzed be could context, ean

cn bev a continuum a observe can e - 2011 governmental acti governmental 2011 h tasoiin of transposition the political e - liberal/

on - -

CEU eTD Collection 7 discourse around strategica strategic Europeanizednorms the that find I policy. national and consciousness social into transferred are norms gender EU how characterizes actors, society civil through agenda and by 2009), (Krizsan policy learning” national the on norms equality gender further to 2012) gende missing of aware is population the that suggests however study Another 2008). Wahl 2008, Kakucs receptionmissing, negative of due state tothe conte accession the during that argue government, of gender implementation was equalitypartial. therefore norms only ( missing also was organizations women’s with employment superficial, implement to managed only institutions gender of power missing the and will, political lacking 2009), (Krizsán machinery” gender “failed of Equal of2003 Opportunity Treatmentothers thePromotion onEqual in theAct and among interest” “special of subgroup one as included already were women because difficult, was Kakuc Noémi 188). 2008: Petö and (Kakucs EU” the of demands “minimum the only meeting still is and was norms, these of implementation the However, 2009). (Krizsán process accession the during legislation

Act CXXV. of 2003, 2003, of CXXV. Act ugr ws osdrd mdl o i for model a considered was Hungary In this context, civil society actors make “strategic use of ‘Europeanness’” (Krizsán and Popa and (Krizsán ‘Europeanness’” of use “strategic make actors societycivil context, this In scholars Some diverge. norms equality gender these for support popular the on opinions The r equality provisions andr equality overallof providingequality provisions 2009). supportive (Krizsán measures http://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/data/SZMM094B.pdf s and Andrea Petö argue that the implementation of specific gender provisions gender specific of implementation the that argue Petö Andrea and s

lly is also usedlly by as is policyactors. tradeunionwomen xt the perceived need for gender equality measures was was measures equality gender for need perceived the xt - ts fast integration of EU equality norms in national national in norms equality EU of integration fast ts imposed equality measures under socialism (Petö and and underimposed equality socialism (Petö measures 16 Petö and Kakucs 2008). Even under the socialist socialist the under Even 2008). Kakucs and Petö

- , related measures. The cooperation The measures. related retrieved on May 27th, 2015. Mayon27th, retrieved Te set f “social of aspect The .

7 . Further, the

CEU eTD Collection as one respondent laments, and difficult to app to difficult and laments, respondent one as hinder their implementation, ordifferentgender understandingsequality. of reality their from removed practically are but them, to apply should which ideal, as norms equality gender European of perception their shows This activists. union female other with views exchange easily could she where Section, Women’s MASZSZ the act women’s of space local the in represented better much ideas own her found foreign She NGO. a by organized workplace the at policies equality gender on event an at NGOs, foreign t points One interviewee (Steer). here” work of lot a requires still these of implementation local the that you I'm telling why that's but examples, these know “We norms: “European” of implementation the allow Hung in that clearly, out points respondent another But(Ladányi). positions leading in women for quota a of norm” European the with complying “not are company mining her in structures equality gender formal lacking the Bányász), (MOL Industry an Oil the of Union Hungarian the of delegate the For process. policy the on views women’s interviewed the characterizes norm, ideal the as Europe, connections. positive through strategicallynew, locally toconstructgender specific meanings equality. of th at that argue I Europeanization. the shape that interactions varied the of analysis the in them introduce and actors policy as activists labor integrating by analyses existing of scope the broaden will This demands, their of analysis concrete a and process 1.2 . Gender Policy: Demands Local Perceptions and Equality itreto o dfeet nlecs te ue hs Erpaie gne eult norms equality gender Europeanized these use they influences, different of intersection e n h floig I il rsn te nevees preto o te edr qaiy policy equality gender the of perception interviewees’ the present will I following, the In The current Hungarian equality legislation as based on the law of 2003, is seen as too broad, broad, too as seen is 2003, of law the on based as legislation equality Hungarian current The g European Hungary: and 1.2.1. Europe Policy Perceptionsofthe Gender Process Equality ender equality norms are present in the women’s discourse, although not always not although discourse, women’s the in present are norms equality ender te ifrne ewe hr nepeain f edr qaiy n toe of those and equality gender of interpretation her between difference the o ly in the specific defense of workers’ interests. But But interests. workers’ of defense specific the in ly 17

ary she does not see the structures that would would that structures the see not does she ary ouig n h ifune f Europeanization. of influence the on focusing , due to institutional lacunae, which lacunae, institutional to due ,

d Gas Mining Mining Gas d

ivism at ivism

CEU eTD Collection political particip political 9 i An struggle. the else that paid unionwork. womenhave totake work, next and domestic care work, of, (Pálinkás) representative one says windmills”, one explains kids, the for against care fight a is “It burden. a and as responsibility this experience women home some However, respondent. go to has woman a if shifts other’s each covering the at situations difficult overcome them helps women between Solidarity (Nemes). it” to never commit will man aa because (...),for up stand should women that again, topics, example, For opportunities. equal and of equality representative for sensibility a have inherently women that assume they Further, issues. policy these about care not do who men, to contrast in society, abou care to assumed are They issues. this demands. policy equality gender their of furthering in Hungary“famil isvery 2013). (Fodor 2012 in cut been has budget Authority’s Treatment Equal the while Affairs, Family and Social of been have Opportunity Equal for Hum of Ministry the Directorate into integrated it of parts and and dismantled Ministry the 2010 In 2010). Dorsch and Berger 2013, the (Fodor texts legal the from pay disappeared plan opportunity equal an enact equal to companies since of requirement the Further, 2012, of 2003). Code Labor the (Lombardo and 2011 strategies of Law Fundamental equality gender EU in measures equality gender neglecting market, labor the in insertion women’s on now focusing are measures equality Gender principles. equality of application weakened a to contribute also changes budgetary and ministerial

However, these findings are not necessarily in line with opinion polls, that show a lacking support for women’s for support lacking showa that polls, withopinion line in necessarily not are findings these However, For other participants, men and their cooperation in the fight for equality are a crucial part of of part crucial a are equality for fight the in cooperation their and men participants, other For a imagine they how shows process policy the on perceptions respondents’ the of analysis The nqaiis n bodr oitl ee. hs a b as lne t msig substantial missing to linked also be can This level. societal broader a on inequalities ation (Fodor 2013). (Fodor ation 8

One interviewee mentions this and criticizes that the gender equality policy process policy equality gender the that criticizes and this mentions interviewee One

a public transport union views policy on domestic abuse as “one of those societal societal those of “one as abuse domestic on policy views union transport public a triwe rm h mnn sco fns ht eult i nt ny bu us about only not is “equality that finds sector mining the from nterviewee

y - oriented” (Lupkovics). oriented” (Lupkovics).

t and stand up for each other and weaker members of members weaker and other each for up stand and t . Gender equality policy is perceived as something something as perceived is policy equality Gender . 18

Women are mainly seen to be responsible for responsible be to seen mainly are Women an Resources, under the Department the under Resources, an

oklc, uh as such workplace,

n for and

CEU eTD Collection interests, whileassuming responsibilityas wom women’s of protection better a demand They companies. their specifically, and Hungary in topics both on norms of implementation lacking the critique women contrast, In origin. “European” a to experiences also invery vary sectors, different along their these demands sectoral lines. state the from legacies with merges which womandhood, of understanding specific locally a by justified are demands these that Iargue norms. lea plans opportunity equal women. unionist Europeanizationgender of equality construction normsand of the new meanings. the in play movements labor in women that part the into insights provide them with interviews and the of level the on demands equality gender further mainly who ones the also are they Thus, equality. gender about care to women of sensibility inherent an as it see and women, as issues these in realizable be to seen always not is which Europe, Western of ideal the women’s to Hungary the in in situation the present compare are They discourse. norms European happen. to change practical for order in change be to t acknowledge assumed and expect is some although policies task, women’s equality gender of furthering The (Steer). them” with home at stay to decide and children of care take can men that accept to needs whole a as society and men “Both change to in also needs Industry thatsociety out Union points Food Workers’ head the of former The (Anonymous). men” the with cooperation in also but autonomously, working [women] esi positions dership The topics of equal pay and equal opportunities come up in the interviews, set i equal upintheinterviews, equalTheand come opportunities topics of pay as“European” Influences?Equal Pay andEqualOpportunities The of Europeanization gendereq Demands1.2.2. Specific Gender Equality

I suggest that this becomes most visible in their discourse around discourse their in visible most becomes this that suggest I ter ead hwvr hw sitd enn o tee edr equality gender these of meaning shifted a show however demands their , O to te topics, other two On . Hungary. However, the interviewees take on responsibility over over responsibility on take interviewees the However, Hungary. uality norms is reflecteduality is of specificthetrade demands norms inthe - oils eacptr pol emancipatory socialist en foren thefurthering ofequality norms

19 care child

hat men and society as a whole needs to to needs whole a as society and men hat

evcs n te ubr of number the and services

ce. u t ter work their to Due icies.

n clear relation equal pay equal .

this sense:this oe in women union union

and

CEU eTD Collection esr i srtgcly sd y h rsodn t frhr e dmn o icuig women’s including of demand her further to respondent the by used European” strategically “Western a is as measure quota The (Ladányi). fulfill” even not do [we] “that but countries”, o quota a for argues she this, of light In company. the of plan opportunity equal the or union the of agenda work the in whether inthehigherwoman no is there But somehow. in smuggled be should this And plan! the in up come not does "woman" which shea considers shame: big wo however exists, plan opportunity equal an company her in that stresses opportunity ordisability,all, ethnicity,example.However, independentlywoman forone age, of a not is opportunity Equal views. shared necessarily not and it of perception women’s the among diversity issues, an social of aware more being of characteristics certain fulfill women that understanding the with line in plans.Thisis implementation ofsuch for the fight onestheyabout who are equality,the therefore opportuni equal and women between connection clear a see does she However, opportunity. equal of view broader a with us presents rather she goals, her among women of mention specific no is There problems. her or his with alone not is individual the accountable, employers hold to helps this that hopes She agencies. protection workers’ the and unions trade other with cooperation in company, the for standards minimum set to is goal The curr is section women’s local the of leader and company bus a of representative The one. implement to wish they or company, Many interviewees also mention equal opportunity plans, if they helped create one in their their in one create helped they if plans, opportunity equal mention also interviewees Many h dmns ht oe ad oe’ ise hv sol b itgae i te picture, the in integrated be should have issues women’s and women that demands She that include could she maybe and woman, a is Resources Human of head “The a show nevertheless policies, opportunity equal concerning have women these that goals The wy mnind n eain o edr qaiy bt fe mr gnrly s equal as generally more often but equality, gender to relation in mentioned lways d have ad havecapacity better of kind policy.furthering of this supervisory committee anywhere” ently trying to implement an equal opportunity plan in her company. company. her in plan opportunity equal an implement to trying ently f women in leadership position, which “exists in Western European Western in “exists which position, leadership in women f

ty measures. According to her, women care women her, to According measures. ty

(Ladányi).

men are not mentioned, mentioned, not are men -

the word the so that so

CEU eTD Collection recurring demand for more women in leadership positions as a sign of “Europeanness” can be seen seen be can “Europeanness” of sign a as positions leadership in women more for demand recurring information to access or time, struggle ends tomake meet. more it makes Hungary dif in situation economic current the However, poverty. of feminization a to leads wages in inequality the that and breadwinners, the as seen mostly are men that mention intervie The well. as Hungary that standards equality gender international those of one as seen is pay equal plan, opportunity equal an Like interviewees. most of discourse political the in importance lower.” little a always still is salary women’s wage, women’s (munkakör), occupation same the of employees e to relate wages equalityand wages. women’s inmen’s an for make professions sector public the in categories wage that explains unionist sector public retai the in example for underpaid, therefore and feminized already are professions certainthat or level,regional the on inequalities but more problem, themain arenot pay inequalities against case strong a make to ratio pay the on data enough not simply is there that explains respondent One itself. issue the simplytowomenMost attention moredemand it. reduce strategyto common aunions of lack the a arguments of variations The policy. genderequality for demands positions. intere iut o tae no wmn o ru fr oe’ hge py we ams eeyn hs to has everyone almost when pay, higher women’s for argue to women union trade for ficult sts in the equal opportunity plan and additionally raise the number of women in leadership leadership in women of number the raise additionally and plan opportunity equal the in sts Pay equity is another issue that nearly all interviewees mention, when asked about their their about asked when mention, interviewees all nearly that issue another is equity Pay h itriwe’ epne so ta i Hnay eti factors certain Hungary in that show responses interviewees’ The an gap” pay “gender words the which with regularity The men’s and women’s how is about, talk always we what too, others at and [company], our “At

(Siraky). ach other. Because although it is not allowed to make a difference in the wages of of wages the in difference a make to allowed not is it although Because other. ach

the gender pay gap. However, other interviewees mention that gender that mention interviewees other However, gap. pay gender the

wed women are aware of the issue of pay inequality. Some of them of Some inequality. pay of issue the of aware are women wed -

ae qa pa equal make

a uatial iel o tee women. these for ideal unattainable an y d “equal pay” come up shows an shows up come pay” “equal d round the gender pay gap reflects gap genderpay the round should be should -

akn pltcl will, political lacking

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CEU eTD Collection political particip political 9 wome in us, represent you that think [men] you opinion, children,” tha differently act differently, think women because leaders], policy fields: certain for men than apt more supposedly them make which characteristics, “feminine” sh assumed to linked are positions leadership in women more for demands that find can one respondents. the by women of advancement the for fundamental as such measures, under the among few a only and women, no are there ministers the among “here, that regrets respondent one Europe, Western to Compared 2013). wh Hungary of context the in understandable European unions. throug equality, gender of topics in unionist the of demands the influences Europeanization that argument the strengthen would This women. union trade Hungarian of demands the on influence an have might and already pay equal of issue current the in important less w abroad, as unions with cooperate interviewees The context. legal demand constrained this dismiss male, mostly are who leaders, union if internal struct that suggests This equality. pay for demand their further to women union of argument strategic a as

However, these findings are not necessarily in line with opinion polls, that show a lacking support for women’s for support lacking showa that polls, withopinion line in necessarily not are findings these However, Another one points out, that out, points one Another female more were there [if us upon dawn and start could life better nicer, different, “A is which leadership, of positions in women of lack the out call all women union trade The Women’s anExemplary as Demand Representation Higher

says industry aluminum intervieweeworks the in (Eper). one who ation (Fodor 2013). (Fodor ation ural inequalities hinder the furtheringuralequalunion demand,as inequalities especially ofa pay trade

the quota, which are implemented in other parts of Europe, are seen as as seen are Europe, of parts other in implemented are which quota, the

“as a woman, they [men] don't leave us the space, to tell our our tell to space, the us leave don't [men] they woman, a “as ere only 9% of parliamentarians are women (Várnagy women are parliamentarians of 9% only ere “oil erig i te oprto wt Western with cooperation the in learning” “social h 22

- sectaries” (Ladányi 2015). Affirmative action action Affirmative 2015). (Ladányi sectaries” n's questions. It is not even sure that I want I that sure even not is It questions. n's mn Epcal toe ht have that those Especially men. n 9

Analyzing the statements closely, statements the Analyzing hich have taken on the on taken have hich

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CEU eTD Collection care and employment. Since socialism and especially through new austerity po austerity new through especially and socialism Since employment. and care “worker a as woman the viewed that ser social work. domestic and work paid combining and care child towards propose women liberal justifying equality, “Europeanized” local ideas normwith onspecific gender of meaning shifted a show demands these for justifications The position. leadership in women more get to demand the for basis the is traits “feminine” and sha women’s on Assumptions society. of spheres all in leadership, of positions into get can women more if happen only can concerns equality gender in change opinion, interviewees’ trade from steeringunions’ largely committees, thatare still evenmasculinized, unions. invery feminized also but leadership, political the from expected only not is question this on Change orde in government, the by possible made be should this that demands She commitments. childcare their to due level, education higher reach to men as possibilities same the given not are women that fact the to points interviewee Another role. and women of expectations traditional more emphasizes which tone, social current the to refers She children. on focus only not and career a build to opportunity the have to structures l for aiming when benefitwill why womenis get and more that they decision should passed somefor” social sensibility weaswomen issues, that have more they Or side. different a from it approach or differently it solve would I but different, something However, the interviewees are aware of the structural discrimination that women experience women that discrimination structural the of aware are interviewees the However, shar women that assumed Itis hs oal seii meaning specific locally This ConceptionShifted ofCare Services of lack The vices has affected women disproportionately, who were used to the former state policy state former the to used were who disproportionately, women affected has vices

oe i laesi pstos s etoe i ams al neves I the In interviews. all almost in mentioned is positions leadership in women eadership positions. As one of them explains, women need to have better better have to need women explains, them of one As positions. eadership e certain characteristics and affinities towards social issues, that issues, social towards affinities and characteristics certain e - aig mre ee mr cery n h sltos ht the that solutions the in clearly more even emerges making - mother” (Pollert 2003) and made it easier to combine child combine to easier it made and 2003) (Pollert mother”

r to get more qualified women in leading positions. leading in women qualified more get to r 23 “feminine”characteristics.

- making power. making

(Nemes).

litics (Szikra 2014), (Szikra litics

red experiences experiences red The decline of of decline The their maternal their

CEU eTD Collection rich families, cutting support for child care institutions (Juhász 2012: 5). 2012: institutions(Juhász care child for support cutting richfamilies, http://www.mkogy.hu/fotitkar/sarkalatos/benyujtott.htm of2011, CCXI Law (Act FamilyProtection 2011 the on Juhászcomments Borbála formergovernment. 10 to accommodatefamily theirand work obligations. manywomen that explain sector private the from representatives Two option. care child suitable a find to even or period, transition the for loan good a get to or apartment new personal a find to divorce a through went who her explains interviewee One conditions tough through women. women get working to commitment the to relation personal a shows can accommodate nowbetter theirwith child care obligations union (Kiss shifts certain to the appointed being or agreement, this Through officials. company repr by children with women towards oftraditional statesolution whi mentioned, not is contrast, in care, Public possibility. a as shifts work flexible and workers, women with problems individual of discussion the care, child on company the and i the from emerge and women are strugglingchild care tofindadequate facilities. Europe ( children and career of criticizes. of reintegration the weakens leave re the Additionally, 2013). (Fodor care day public in are years 3 under children of 10% than less and reduced drastically been Hungary have in facilities care child

In 2011, the Orbán government reestablished the third year of the maternity leave, which was cut as a reform by the the reformby a cutwas which as maternityleave, oftheyear the third reestablished government the Orbán In2011, esentative explains, women with children are given more flexibility when it comes to choosing to comes it when flexibility more given are children with women explains, esentative he dfeet ouin t t ipoe h wrpae iuto o wmn ih children with women of situation workplace the improve to to solutions different Three h scn slto aie fo te oe’ fnto a wres rpeettvs which representatives, workers’ as function women’s the from arises solution second The attention improved the to led have agreements collective Union, Employees’ Retail the At n onre sc a Gray wee rdtoa one traditional where Germany, as such countries an

While Hungarian women have been used to public care which enabled the combinationthe enabled whichcare public to used been have women Hungarian While

come to them with their issues. They strive to find individual solutions for the womenthe for solutions individual find Theyissues.to theirstrive with them to come nterviews. The union women mention collective agreements between their union their between agreements collective mention women union The nterviews. gyermekvállalás

- socialist emancipatorysocialist policies.

women in the workplace afterwards, as one interviewee interviewee one as afterwards, workplace the in women ), their situation today is more reminiscent of some Western some of reminiscent more is today situation their ), - Rigó). In the very competitive retail sector, these women women these sector, retail competitive very the In Rigó). ) as having “strong catholic tendencies”, and supporting mostly supporting and tendencies”, “strongcatholic having as ) 24

Se a aray epd eae co female helped already has She .

the expectations ofthe employer. -

breadwinner family models prevail, prevail, models family breadwinner - establishment of a long maternity maternity long a of establishment le this was the was this le - workers workers

CEU eTD Collection 3rd year. The first two years (including maternity leave) are covered by the “GYED” benefit (Fo benefit by “GYED” the covered are maternity leave) firstyears(including year. twoThe 3rd 13 by th provided 12 2015). (Eurostat 19.6% 11 policies, emancipatory socialist both of influences show ideas women’s interviewed The equality. serv care child around proposed carefor children. her to responsibility woman’s a and motherhood on centers which womanhood, of understanding an to thu demands The equality. gender of understanding their to central is mothers as role women’s on agreement widespread the show examples (Steer).The success achievepolitical v a is that (GYES, leave paternity on go can men that happy very am “I caring families for themselves. their on taking carers, and mothers of roles social their fulfill to conditions working model. care family a towards shift a reflects demands soci under shifts In afternoon. the “worker the of combination the enabled which care, public in of provision the contrast, again up them picking and morning the in school to children the bringing solutio practical a is it opinion, respondent’s one In p.m. 4 to a.m. 8 from workplace the at be to children with workers allowing facilities, care child the to adapt that hours work shifts”: “mother’s are Hungary of context economic the in realistic 6 taking of option the have workers television, national situation, economic tight the to due Hungary, in option sit workplace mothers’ improve

In 2014, In2014, “GYES” is the abbreviation for the benefit after the second year of the parental leave, which can last up to the child’s the child’s to up canlast which leave, oftheyear parental second the the benefit after for abbreviation the “GYES”is “Family care” is seen here in opposition to public care services, subsidized by the state, or private care services, care private or state, the by services,subsidized care public to opposition inhere seen is “Familycare” Finally, flexible work shifts are another suggestion that the trade union women make to to make women union trade the that suggestion another are shifts work flexible Finally, h aayi o te ead fr oe oe i laesi pstos n te solutions the and positions leadership in women more for demands the of analysis The respondents: two or one of exception the with unquestioned, mostly remains assumption This only15 ofall 6% r go tig” as n itriwe epaiig h spot ht oe ne to need women that support the emphasizing interviewee, one says thing,” good ery e company or private marketentities. private or company e alism, is not seen as the solution anymore. Instead, the interviewed women’s women’s interviewed the Instead, anymore. solution the as seen not is alism,

- 64 year old employees in Hungary worked part worked employeesinyear Hungary old 64

uation. Although part Although uation. cs sos h lcly pcfc meaning specific locally the shows ices,

n that enables women to work full time, while while time, full work to women enables that n 12 - time work is not a very popular or available or popular very a not is work time

The interviewed women wish to have better have to wish women interviewed The - 11 h

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now too, now

CEU eTD Collection agreement withso agreement an majorityand conservative 2/3 the ruling to thanks it passed Nevertheless, 2011). (HVG actors international 14 years 8 years.to Up 40 the in included arenot education yearsof the as longer, work to they have if however, respondents, the of majority The workforce. the of out women taking by rate unemployment the lower to government the of move a as it sees she But professions. care and sector retail feminized the in especially underpaid, and overworked worke women of health deteriorating the benefits its acknowledges She populist. being re been has years 40 the of role natural woman as mother. assumed the to specifically more is and equality women, gender to relating that as shows seen primarily also critique This dependence. economic into fall easily more work, buteven work theypart if only can they that good It's backlashes. has also this So (GYES). leave maternity the during out kicked says:“ family. after and during protected well not are women working that comment unionists the topic, first the Regarding age. retirement topics: two through policy equality gender gender equality, are contingent which onthe specific environmentwomen. ofthe interviewed of conceptions new creating both, from away shift a see can we time same the at But demands. thei of justification the in merge which norms, equality gender of Europeanization the as well as

The Labor Code is valid since 2012 and was met with harsh criticism by union activists, the civil sphere, and even even and sphere, thecivil unionactivists, by criticism waswithharsh met and 2012 issince valid Code Labor The Demands around the new Labor Code Labor new the around Demands The Code new Labor The second topic is topic second The protected less are women that criticize interviewees The part work to possibility the is there Although [I]f she starts working [during her maternity leave], she losestheprotection working shestarts leave], her [during maternity [I]f

cial partners, that the trade union confederations reluctantly accepted (Tóth 2012). (Tóth accepted reluctantly unionconfederations that the trade partners, cial

- established by the FIDESZ government. One respondent criticizes this law as as law this criticizes respondent One government. FIDESZ the by established

women’s early retirement age, as the possibility of women to retire after after retire to women of possibility the as age, retirement early women’s

their maternity, which hinders their attempts to combine work and and work combine to attempts their hinders which maternity, their

- time, there'snomore protection” 14

eilto o mtriy oiy n wmns early women’s and policy maternity on legislation further exempl further 26

- time during the paternal leave, one respondent respondent one leave, paternal the during time

acclaim the new law. They see it as a burden a as it see They law. new the acclaim ify this locally specific conception of conception specific locally this ify since the new Labor Code and can can and Code Labor new the since

(Jenes).

that she can't be be can't shethat rs, who are who rs,

CEU eTD Collection fulfill these rolesbasis ofthe demands. forms interviewees’ the to ability Women’s questioned. rarely is which carer, and mother the of role women’s emphasize liberal, the social in fit not does which women, of characteristics shared certain assume also they but states, member EU other in quotas of existence the by justified are women of representation higher respons firm’s the as it see they cases some in or family, and mother the towards care of provision the shift women the socialism, under case the was it as everyone, for the in shifts societal carer. and role ofmother years 40 the whom for tracks, education longer with those grandchild the for there be to them enabling by women help would it that is reasoning her Again, television. national the for worker administrative an as job her in possible in for women possibility the suggests respondent Another equality. women’s of context the in mentioned measure a as seen is retirement Early again. role caring their assume andgrandchildren, goo is legislation the carer: and women t it because thing, huge women’sin their motherlyunderstanding: view uni trade the by appreciated is which years”, “work the in included are leave maternity on spend women that - This explanation shows how tightly womanhood is connected to women’s role as a mother mother a as role women’s to connected is womanhood tightly how shows explanation This a is it opinion myWell, in years. 40 after go women let theyachievement, good that a is “This h udrtnig nelig hs dmns hw hw h maig f edr equality gender of meaning the how shows demands these underlying understanding The eortc U oiy f policy EU democratic - friendly measure, onists. Their response, exemplified by the following quote, shows again the importance of importance the again shows quote, following the by exemplified response, Their onists. h edr eeain o ok rm oe o a e yas eoe hy eie Ti is This retire. they before years few a for home from work to generation elder the given socio given akes a very big load off of young mothers, so this is also a family friendly, a friendly, family a also is this so mothers, young of off load big very a akes - cultural context. Instead of demanding care services as a public provision public a as services care demanding of Instead context. cultural ” says one respondent (Pálinkás). ae Wmns qaiy s etoe truh ead that demands through mentioned is equality Women’s rame.

bcue los oe t b a hm i tm fr the for time in home at be to women allows because d

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ibility. Their demands for the for demands Their ibility. ren, and especially help especially and ren, for

women,

CEU eTD Collection at f h MSS. e eprec i uiu i te a ta i r it that way the in unique is experience Her MASZSZ. the of part now is which MSZOSZ, the in them establish helped also has and issues” “women’s address that r laid accommodate to efforts many made and industry this in had have women that specificproblems mentions She industries. light the in workers women many of layoffs Uni Workers’ Food United the the need separate for women’sstructures intheunion. ma employs sector her because However, home. at classes for preparing and obligations, domestic shifts, strenuous combining profession, teachingfeminized the in overwork of problem the mentions She colleagues. t burden “triple” even or “double” the of aware well is she that show demands Her schools. in boys for models role male of lack the to pointing by wages than wage betwee are more inequalities important in differences regional sector, her in that emphasizes and such, as gap not pay gender does to this connect she However, underpaid. strongly are here workers therefore and sector “feminized” that aware is Union Employees’ Retail the of representative The apparent. less seems issues” “women’s of prevalence the sectors these representativesof Forthe women. interviewed the policy of demands that along differ sectoral lines. overview brief a give will I part, next the In occupations. sectoral different women’s estructurings. In contrast to the two previous examples, she very much favors separate structures separate favors much very she examples, previous two the to contrast In estructurings. Retail, food product food Retail, 1.2.3. Sectoral Differences Policy Demands in i the in variations are there However, As a representative of a feminized part of the manufacturing sector, the long the sector, manufacturing the of part feminized a of representative a As feminization of problem the stresses also Union Teachers’ the for working interviewee The inly women, she does not categorize this as a “women’s” issue, nor does she see see she does nor issue, “women’s” a as this categorize not does she women, inly ion, and education are the three most “feminized” sectors represented by represented sectors “feminized” most three the are education and ion, on (ÉDOSZ), has experienced the regime change and the massive massive the and change regime the experienced has (ÉDOSZ), on

nterviewees’ demands which can be credited to the the to credited be can which demands nterviewees’ 28 hat women workers face compared to their male male their to compared face workers women hat

n men and women.n men lts o “eiie” field, “feminized” a to elates - off women workers after big big after workers women off

- term leader of leader term

hers is a a is hers -

CEU eTD Collection influence of gender equality norms on the level o level the on norms equality gender of influence the of analysis An ideas. their implement to structures political the navigate to how and context local the th know interviewees the other, as context, the Hungarian the to on applicable or But feasible as considered awe. with regarded are Western directives hand, EU one and the On policies period. European accession the after even been has norms gender EU these than ina feminized one. sector, masculinized a in women for obstacles more presents which norm, worker ideal the combat to representatives union female of objective the often is it that show demands shift These obligations. through working keep to them allowing children, their of years early the during women for policy better a demands therefore (EMSZ), Union Media United the of representative The responsibilities. family and work combine to women for difficult male the sector, television the in also But needs. specific their to attending union, her in women the for responsible re Their unionized. strongly off, incasestrong pain. menstrual of day” “health a take to possibility the and facilities, hygiene separate demanding workers, women interests special the defend to responsibility her as it sees company bus a of leader section’s awareness and prevention interest women’s to socialism. after industry the of parts “masculinized” mainly other, as changes drastic same the endured which Interviews with representatives of the “masculinized” sectors are characterized by an attention byanare characterized “masculinized”Interviews with representativesofthe sectors The demands of the interviewed trade union women reflect how far how reflect women union trade interviewed the of demands The male also are sector telecommunications the of professions technical The

- worker norm is present. Long work hours and sudden changes in shifts, in changes sudden and hours work Long present. is norm worker i te oiy ead. n h mnn idsr, o eape hat care health example, for industry, mining the In demands. policy the in s

- asn aog oe i te ot motn dmn. h women’s The demand. important most the is women among raising rsnaies iw s hpd y hs niomn. h se herself sees She environment. this by shaped is view presentative’s

f European member states, has to incorporate a incorporate to has states, member European f ta acmoae hi cid care child their accommodate that s - reaching the impact of of impact the reaching - dominated and and dominated y r not are ey

make it it make

CEU eTD Collection shifting away fromwhilestrategically themintheir discourse. equality Europeanized norms, using equ gender of meaning their construct women union The equality. gender of understanding office in women of representation higher a and de and pay equal around discourse their in seen clearly be can Europeanization of effect The accordingly. meaning their in shift but context, local the by unaffected remain not do these However, norms. equality gender policy,genderequality one towards demands policyand their equality gender of process the perceive women the that way the in Both and 30f.). 2007: Verloo Lombardo 20, 2012: Lombardo and (Forest context national the in equality gender reframing affected by these policies. socio the and equality gender of reading local h eprcl aa idns elc te nlec o dfeet oiy cos n f in actors policy different of influence the reflect findings data empirical The mands for equal opportunity plans. But the demands towards care services care towards demands the But plans. opportunity equal for mands

- political knowledge of the female actors who will be will who actors female the of knowledge political 30 - odn pstos r sae b lcly specific locally by shaped are positions holding

can see the influence of Europeanized of theinfluence see can raming and and raming ality by ality

CEU eTD Collection whetheracknowledge they“women’s existence ofspecific issues”. the shared, are role social women’s about assumptions interviewees’ “worker as women of idea socialist the of reminiscent is This motherhood. to women’s about assumptions on rests understanding This woman. a be to means it what of understanding understandings ofwomanhood. “almost this of legacy The household. the in labor of division gendered the address sufficiently not did but market, labor the in insertion full women’s state European Central in practice into previous chapter. state of legacy the and Europeanization wom of understanding interviewees’ policy is which women, to role social specific meaning their influences also policies state of legacy the norms, gender of Europeanization the alongside that womanhood. of understandings certain on based are and experiences union and workplace h dmns ht h itriwe mk twrs edr qaiy oiy eie rm th from derive policy equality gender towards make interviewees the that demands The n scn pr, wl peet h eprcl idns n h itriwe’ specific interviewees’ the on findings empirical the present will I part, second a In pu were emancipation women’s on ideas socialist how shows chapter the of part first The . supin aot fmnn” hrceitc ae eie fo ti role. this from derived are characteristics “feminine” about Assumptions

shared social and professional role, shared characteristics and interests, especially relating especially interests, and characteristics shared role, professional and social shared Chapter 2:State

- Socialist Legacies in the Meaning of Womanhood of LegaciesSocialist theMeaning in nod t h itreto o te w mi influences main two the of intersection the at anhood - aig f womanhood. of making practically expressed in their demands for gender equality gender for demands their in expressed practically - socialism socialism - oils rgms State regimes. socialist 31

- emanci -

contextualizes their policy demands of the the of demands policy their contextualizes pation” is reflected in the interviewees’ the in reflected is pation” The

there are sectoral differences in differences sectoral are there -

oils plce encouraged policies socialist rd uin oe acr a accord women union trade - oils emancipatory socialist - mothers”. While the While mothers”.

Situating the the Situating I argue I eir eir - t

CEU eTD Collection argue that gender relations are shaped by this material difference and are hierarchical. hierarchical. are and material difference by shaped this are relations gender arguethat s of construction patriarchal [the] the and between bodies women’s intersection of the “exploitation At 151). 1999: (Weedon consequences material different with men and women affects it and capitalism of oppression double withinthe women 15 workforce the in participation equal her through capital, from emancipation her to reduced was liberation Women’s 37). 2003: (Popa roles gender about assumptions challenge truly or household addres not did they Engels, Friedrich and Bebel on women inHungary. post the of effects the and equality of policies socialist into ideas these of implementation the to turn I Then these. to responses feminist the on focusing ideas, emancipatory t of demands and understandings the shapes implementation practical their and theories emancipatory socialist of norms. the of intersect influence is an which as socialism, of seen ideology be materialist can This demands. policy their in difference emphasize also different soci equal on focus their on based rights and special women’s for argue feminists, socialist as such strands, other difference treatment, gender of ideas dismiss ideas equality gender liberal Whereas ide certain a on based is politics equality gender (12). way liberating a in difference use to trying it, deconstructing or embracing, rejecting,7), 1999: science (Weedon and civilization Western historyof the fundamentalto women, 2.1.

Marxist and socialist feminism emerged from and in reaction to the socialist workers’ movement and tries to situate situate to tries and movement workers’ socialist the to reaction in and from emerged feminism socialist and Marxist

Influence of StateInfluence of Feminist responses have always existed to the assumed natural hierarchy between me between hierarchy natural assumed the to existed always have responses Feminist lhuh h “oa qeto” ae t no h aed o scait hnes ie August like thinkers socialist of agenda the onto it made question” “woman the Although Theories Socialist Policies Emancipatory Question”: and 2.1.1. The “Woman by influenced necessarily not were women interviewed While I argue that due to their socialization in the workplace during state during workplace the in socialization their to due that argue I alization fromalization men. he interviewed women. In the following, I will outline the bases of socialist socialist of bases the outline will I following, the In women. interviewed he

- Socialism and the PostSocialism the and

patriarchy. Class still is the central category in their analysis, but analysis, their in category central the is still Class patriarchy. - Socialist Transition Transition Socialist 32 te su o a eul iiin f ao i the in labor of division sexual a of issue the s

o eult o dfeec bten h sexes. the between difference or equality of a n wt te uoenzd edr equality gender Europeanized the with ing exuality” (145), Marxist and socialist feminists feminists socialist and Marxist (145), exuality”

socialist femini socialist

- - socialism, the influence the socialism, socialist transformation socialist The struggle for struggle The

t da, they ideas, st n and and n

CEU eTD Collection relations derived from mainstream socialist ideology, disregarding the sexual divis sexual the disregarding ideology, socialist mainstream from derived relations gender of understanding an on based were equality” “women’s for implemented policies provided, chara be canequality 1993). (Goven movement women’s politicized a build to attempt any discrediting change, regime the past until strength in grew It emancipation. anti so to be“natural” mo seen were women while providers, economic responsible the as seen still were Men 2003). earners (Pollert wage secondary as jobs feminized in up end to likely more also also were Women 65). ena grandmothers, the to relegated were tasks these care child public through Often, work”. “women’s as state, seen and feminized remained work household of majority the the facilities, by over taken were duties care some While 2005). Nagy unchalle remained household the in labor of division sexual the while market, maternity leaves. a men endure from patriarchy” to “double had and role reproductive their into pressured were Women 2003). (Popa policies maternalist and roles reproductive women’s towards turned state the 1960s, the in starting phase, throu worker, as role equal women’s emphasized Poland socialism. state under countries European Eastern Central of practice the in survived 36), (2003: ideology socialist in out ideas.seen is emancipation Women’s as capital one from andnotfrom patriarchy. In 2003). (Popa - called emancipatory politics for many Hungarian women (Adamik 1993). Starting in the 1980s, 1980s, the in Starting 1993). (Adamik women Hungarian many for politics emancipatory called - feminist rhetoric emerged in opposition to the st the to opposition in emerged rhetoric feminist The failed recognition of patriarchy as an as patriarchy of recognition failed The Disregarding the added burden for women through domestic work led to disappointment with disappointment to led work domestic through women for burden added the Disregarding laborpaid the in integration their on was socialism under emancipation women’s of focusThe this sense, class equality and not gender equality is the focus of these emancipatory these of focus the is equality gender not and equality class sense, this

thers and carers.thers and cterized as an “almost emancipation.” Although public care services were duly duly were servicescare public Althoughemancipation.” “almost an as cterized In the first phase of state socialism, the regimes of Hungary, Romania, and Romania, Hungary, of regimes the socialism, state of phase first the In

n te tt (oa 03. hs a rfetd n oiis f long of policies in reflected was This 2003). (Popa state the and

The practice of state socialism regarding women’s women’s regarding socialism state of practice The 33 oppressive force against women against force oppressive

bled by early retirement policies (Verdery 1996: 1996: (Verdery policies retirement early by bled t,wih qae scaimwt women’s with socialism equated which ate, gh her full employment. In the second second the In employment. full her gh gd Pp 2003, (Popa nged

that Popa poin Popa that ion of labor in labor of ion ts

CEU eTD Collection 28.4 in 2005, Hungary was above both the EU15 and EU25 average (Koncz 2008). (Koncz average EU25 and EU15 the both above was Hungary 2005, in 28.4 2003). (Pollert sectors of range limited a in concentrated and state to similar the labor forcetheEU (Fodor in among thelowest was 2013). persist trend This age. retirement early an by state after market labor to combinefull after for strove women all something not was work paid before, mentioned As 2005). Nagy 2006, (Fodor force labor active the leaving “voluntarily” women of number high a to led work care w of rate the employmentlowest had Hungary that finds (2008) Koncz Katalin strongly. more women affected which states, era lacked a movement market. labor the on chances less even to leading career, and family combine to women for difficult more it made services social of decline rapid The socialism. under wa labor their and men, of those than faster declined women of employment The 2006). (Fodor net safety social disappearing a and opportunities career worse men, than benefits less with them with women left transition market labor the of consequences ideolo understanding wereresponsible thatwomen childcare for work. and domestic socialist mainstream in theorized not burden expe countries socialist state in women many to led This household. the oe wr ueuly nlecd y h eooi cneune o te transitio the of consequences economic the by influenced unequally were Women 2.1.2. Post mlyet ergto bten e ad oe i te e mre cptls remained capitalism market new the in women and men between segregation Employment post all in unemployment growing to led economies capitalist to transition The

that they had to fulfill next to their household duties (Adamik 1993). As gender roles were roles gender As 1993). (Adamik duties household their to next fulfill to had they that - - socialism, where women were also over also were women where socialism, time work and domestic responsibilities under Many the statewomen socialism. left and work domestictime responsibilities - Socialist Transition and Transition Its Socialist Effect Women on

to address these issues of women’sto address inequality. these issues of - socialism, due to their family responsibilities and the possibilities offered possibilities the and responsibilities family their to due socialism, omen among all former socialist countries. The added responsibility of of responsibility added The countries. socialist former all among omen s: in 2012, Hungary’s participation rate of women in in women of rate participation Hungary’s 2012, in s: 34 y sae oiis erdcd h naturalized the reproduced policies state gy,

- repr esented at the bottom of job hierarchies job of bottom the at esented

s seen as even more secondary than than secondary more even as seen s With a gender segregation index of index segregation gender a With

Additionally, the post the Additionally,

inig ad ao a a as labor paid riencing

Segregation on Segregation - - socialist socialist

n. having The

CEU eTD Collection state heavier, became women for burden double The 2013). (Fodor employers Hungarian among rare are arrangements part Further, 336). (2003: services social declining the to due investment, foreign and economy market growing a to due period, transition the during rose former the While Index. Development Gender the and Index Development Human the of convergence the by exemplified is women of status economic child of combination “worker social women tomake an independent living. low of feminization the by accompanied a was sector 2008). (Koncz outset the from women for designed occupations being careers” “feminized of perception a to leading grew, jobs “male” and areasfor success. women’s masculinized more and prestigious more such as and domains sector private now became banking, as such professions, of share unequal their with provisions welfare in cutback the women many theyas 52), 2006: workplace” (Kispéter remasculinized sector, private the In 2003). (Pollert responsibilities fam their to due discrimination more and pay lower experienced women there even but women, state to comparison occupati and sectoral the - socialism andsocialism thepost As the difference between “male” and “female” jobs grew, the expectations towards women’s towards expectations the grew, jobs “female” and “male” between difference the As W roles became more traditional (Koncz 2008). 2008). (Koncz traditional more became roles - ith the expansion of the private sector and low and sector private the of expansion the ith mother” policies and provision of social services for mothers and families declined, the the declined, families and mothers for services social of provision and policies mother” as the unquestioned division of labor in the household remained present through through present remained household the in labor of division unquestioned the as

(Koncz 2008). Both the private and the public sector became thus more adverse more thus became sector public the and private the Both 2008). (Koncz - socialist times, the public sector remained highly feminized and beneficial to beneficial and feminized highly remained sector public the times, socialist - ae n epomn bcm mr dfiut (Poll difficult more became employment and care

nl ee prit utl oa ad s nraig Fdr 03. In 2013). (Fodor increasing is and today until persists level onal - communist transition communist and noeffective are solutions inplace.

The expansion of a capitalis a of expansion The 35

the latter fell, reaching Western European levels, levels, European Western reaching fell, latter the

However, as the state shifted away from former former from away shifted state the as However, - wage jobs, the distinction between “female” between distinction the jobs, wage - could not coordinate longer work hours and hours longerwork coordinate not could aig os Ti rdcd h cacs for chances the reduced This jobs. paying

domestic work. Formerly feminized feminized Formerly work. domestic - ie r family or time t economy and the low wage wage low the and economy t “self ert 2003). The declining declining The 2003). ert - eetd u o the of out selected - friendly work time time work friendly

ily ily

CEU eTD Collection 17 16 faceted market, instead ofthe state. th put and approach, socialist a from the themselves distance over they that power show demands claim policy their and But differences. emancipation, these of of consequences ideas feminist socialist to related be can which and “women” protects separately “mothers”. which 2003, of document policy equality Hungarian main knowledge. and characteristics shared assumedly of source the m emphasizing roles, professional and social certain women accord respondents The roles. gender traditional of critique a on than rather characteristics, shared these on based justified dis demands their for basis a sets men from characteristics and roles different having women of understanding interviewees’ her.” or dismiss of 2.2. Understandings theTradeWomanhood: Union Interviews with Women interpretation and ofwomanhood “feminine” characteristics. as persists capitalism, to socialism from labor, of market. labor the on women for conditions equal more achieve to difficult it makes still and made offices political in women of representation

However, Joanna Goven (1993) mentions strong mobilizations for abortion rights in the post rightsin abortion for mobilizations mentions strong Goven(1993) Joanna However, Act CXXV. of 2003, 2003, of CXXV. The weakness of women’s organizations, lacking mobilization for feminist causes, feminist for mobilization lacking organizations, women’s of weakness The While the role(s) of women, as the interviewees see it, are fixed and natural, they are multi are they natural, and fixed are it, see interviewees the as women, of role(s) the While Social2.2.1. The Professional Assumed Role and ofWomen detail. more in womanhood of understandings interviewees’ the examine will part This should one and wants, she what decide to opportunity the get should woman “A at the same time and this understanding comes with many paradoxes. comes and understanding this same timeat the 17

I argue that the women acknowledge women’s mate women’s acknowledge women the that argue I

(Jenes 2015) http://www.egyenlobanasmod.hu/data/SZMM094B.pdf

cussed in the previous chapter. Their demands for women’s equality are equality women’s for demands Their chapter. previous the in cussed

e responsibility of care services in the hands of families or the the or families of hands the in services care of responsibility e The continuous lack of addressing the gendered division gendered the addressingof lack continuous The 36

a legacy in the Hungarian trade union women’s union trade Hungarian the in legacy a

This view is also reflected in the the in reflected also is view This , retrieved on May 27th, 2015. Mayon27th, retrieved rial consequences of difference, of consequences rial

However, ifnot many, - transition years. transition

n’t judge her her judge n’t otherhood as otherhood 16

d low d The The -

CEU eTD Collection their understanding of women, which make them different from men. This emphasis on difference on emphasis This men. from different them make which women, of understanding their fundam not do they women, towards has society vis critical are women the While family. the for care to “workerthe of ideal socialist for themselves, according toher. up stand and themselves, being start women can up, grown have children the when age, certain a at role different coordinate to ability assumed women’s that regrets respondent She (László). all” it manage One to ability the have women ignored. that “expected is it that explains is worker a as role her and it to reduced often are they that notes she men. than expectations abou not think “should woman a that family,”the everythingfor do should woman the “that arguethat those again, rise the on are women for models role traditional that out points union teachers’ a of representative wo pressures society how recognizes also she but say, she choice, own her was This family. the for time more have to goals career some up gave marriage” herself in partners equal as regarded are women where cases few very “only at is place women's home,” then and children... the and household the that fact the on built is society and a full mother a being men, than once at roles several fulfill to pressure societal more experience women that agree respondents most Additionally, characteristics. “feminine” shared on assumptions by a they roles professional and social The family. the for responsibility her and role reproductive her to relation in womanhood of definition a on agree respondents all “Of course “Of h wmns icus ad h scea epcain ta te rfr o refl to refer they that expectations societal the and discourse women’s The societal more many face and roles, many have women that recognize women union The

says the head of the women’s section in a bus company notes that in Hun in that notes company bus a in section women’s the of head the says - time worker. time t acareer,or if sheaboutshouldn’thave thinks it, huge dreams” (Jenes). , combining work and family is more difficult for a woman, because the Hungarianbecausethe awoman, for difficultmore is family and work combining ,

According to one interviewee, women’s role in the family is important, is family the in role women’s interviewee, one to According - mother” and a revival of the traditional idea that women’s main role isrole main thatwomen’s idea traditional the of revival a and mother”

entally question these roles. These roles are part of part are roles These roles. these question entally 37

s is not questioned, and not even praised. Only Only praised. even not and questioned, not is s e t pt aiy eoe h career. the before family put to men - à - i te xettos ht Hungarian that expectations the vis ccord to women are justified justified are women to ccord

gary there are, are, there gary (Nemes). c bt the both ect

The She but

CEU eTD Collection 75% of the stewards ( stewards the of 75% but men, are members the of 60% sector, industry the from respondent this of union the In (Tóth). op more are they do, to women for easier somewhat is this Probably people. with touch in keeping better, interviewees’ understanding ofwomanhood: her” (Jenes). dismiss or judgeher shouldn’t one and wants,she what decide to opportunity the get should woman be can role motherly natural fr them exclude and dangerous, women’s on emphasis much too that acknowledgment certain a is there However, experience. motherly “natural” their on based characteristics share women that i role motherly Women’s (Anonymous). sector industry the of representative the says woman,” every to relates this somewhere because issue, an is family r presumed and with, deal” to “have n women’s as presented is the the to predecessor the Board, Women’s (Steer).itfound to motivation her responseto in Sections, Women’s MASZSZ’s MSZOSZ the of founders the of one explains balan family, the with deal to have They consequ materialthe over gain control to is aim Theirtowardsequalitydemands policy. gender their informs esponsibility to care for children or elderly relatives. “In reality, anything that relates to the whole the to relates that anything reality, “In relatives. elderly or children for care to esponsibility “Women, now if we move away from the company, have an interest in child care facilities. facilities. care child in interest an have company, the from away move we if now “Women, asShared2.2.2. Motherhood Sensitivities and Characteristics Common “ another is issues social and family approach to ability and in interest An Women have a greater feeling that there is something to do, they undertake these tasks tasks these undertake they do, to something is there that feeling greater a have Women ences of the roles thatsocietyroles expects fulfill. ences themto ofthe n o icsin [ih pe [with discussions to en hrd xeine f ohrod lo ed t a udrtnig f oe hvn a having women of understanding an to leads also motherhood of experience shared

bizalmisok atural role, the statement shows that it is seen as something that women that something as seen is it that shows statement the role, atural ht oe ae xetd o ae n hs rls y society by roles these on take to expected are women that om certain choices. In one respondent’s opinion, this is wrong, as “aas wrong, is this opinion, respondent’s Inone choices. certain om ), are women. are ), pe, epn go relations. good keeping ople],

ig ie n wr (ukmgsts, n health” and (munkamegosztás), work and life cing

She explains the high numb high the explains She 38

s not questioned, the assumption remains assumption the questioned, not s

T his is what I can think of.” of.” think can I what is his er of women in positions positions in women of er

integral part of the the of part integral While motherhood While . But the the But . ,

CEU eTD Collection (sales and food services). The remaining three interviewees work in sectors that are less divided in divided less are that sectors in work interviewees three remaining The sector services). food and (sales service feminized highly the two and sectors industry masculinized more represent four and sales HR, to occupations medical and technical level, based professional onthedifferent experiences thatinfluence perspectives. theinterviewees’ on vary assumptions these However, interviewees. the for woman” a “being define and shared universally be to seen are that characteristics the in reflected is labor of division sexual the “n as characterized unquestioned, deriveissues thus specificarole from mother and as their carer. characteristi assumed Women’s issues. policy social about knowledge men. to important less seem on as understood toaffect tohave mostlyare assumed women,specialknowledge who onthese issues. the in women more “many having parliament,” the in government, a in advantage of think, I sphere, social the at look we if be, would this and feelings, on based things many decide believe, aroundcare, (child) family, and nursing. to bemoreaffected directly the assumed are they because issues these to solutions better find would they represented, were women issues. social to affinity presumed their by responsibility of

“We know, that we [women] see things from a completely differ completely a from things see [women] we that know, “We experiences their on based knowledge, of type certain a share to assumed are women Lastly, The interviewed women represent many different professions and occupations, ranging from ranging occupations, and professions different many represent women interviewed The often remain and women union trade the by assumed are characteristics and roles These 2.2.3. Sectoral Professional Experiences well as carers, family the as level, social the on both women, for role special a allocates This the professional and political level, where women are assumed to have an eye for issues that that issues for eye an have to assumed are women where level, political and professional the e, n otat ae o se t hv te ae esblt fr or for sensibility same the have to seen not are contrast, in Men, m and they have a greaterm andthey asocial have towards responsibility them. atural”. The legacy of state of legacy The atural”.

alaet (Jenes). parliament”

teaching. Among the private sector employees, sector private the Among teaching.

one respondent justifies her demand of of demand her justifies respondent one

Another respondent hopes that if more if that hopes respondent Another - oil n family and Social socialism in its lacking questioning of questioning lacking its in socialism

ent perspective. Us women, I women, Us perspective. ent cs and knowledge on certain certain on knowledge and cs - eae ise are issues related

the sectoral the

CEU eTD Collection h akolde ta te ulc etr s eiie ad es t s redy oad wmn In women. towards friendly as it sees and feminized is sector public the that acknowledges She and public the in struggles different very have women that emphasizes (ÉDOSZ), industrylong andfood the representativeof publi and private manage caringelderlyrelativeatas for thefull same the time the with women recall cannot associate which mind, her to come represented,cases some still while, a After first. at topics” women’s are “special professions “feminized” as well as “masculinized” both where The are. issues” “women’s what evident not for off day genderor a feminized in unionists manyFor month. every pain menstrual women’s for fighting by example for whole, a as women of constituency the representing more wo are unionist trade the Here issues” sector. transportation the in “women’s as such pronounced, hand, other the on professions, feminized less In activists. union r as such far, inthedebatevisible onthe importance “women’s issues” activism. inunion of howeve experiences, professional Their grandchildren. already or children having as such share, they mostly that experiences is this womanhood, on image certain a share they While on based is characteristics shared women’s about assumptions interviewees’ the that suggest I union. member their of level the on issues” “women’s education, in sector, defense,and non public the represent women Three transportation. public and media, and d terms, gender The different sectoral work experiences lead to diverging opinions on the necessity to address to necessity the on opinions diverging to lead experiences work sectoral different The h dbt o akoldig wmns sus o nt s oe rnucd ewe the between pronounced more is not or issues” “women’s acknowledging on debate The by men outnumber workers women where professions, feminized more the in that seems It etail, education, or food production, special “women’s issues” are less visible to the to visible less are issues” “women’s special production, food or education, etail, ue to their share of both typically female and male professions: telecommunications professions: male and female typically both of share their to ue ir role as carers. For example, she addresses women’s flexible work schedules to schedules work flexible women’s addresses she example, For carers. as role ir - c sector in Hungary, the latter of which is highly feminized (Koncz 2008). The 2008). (Koncz feminized highly is which of latter the Hungary, in sector c profit, while one asforprofit, woman an works independent consultant , ieg acrig o h sco te ae okn i. hs s particularly is This in. working are they sector the to according diverge r, - time union leader of the Food Industry Workers’ UnionIndustry Food Workers’ the leader of union time vice 40 -

president of the United Media Union (EMSZ), Union Media United the of president

hi eprecs eae t ter rvt life. private their to related experiences their - time work.time based based

men see themselves as themselves see men n oil n family and social on

- trade unions. equal sectors it is it sectors equal

private sector. private

CEU eTD Collection but their work and union experience is grounded in very different economic sectors. Therefore, Therefore, sectors. economic different very in grounded is experience union and work their but posi union higher occupy all women MASZSZ interviewed The demands. resulting and activism their for barriers different work different on findings is This other. each from different very contrast, in are, group(mostly anda family 65) betweensimilar and 45 (grand of situation having homog fairly a in women as experience their is them of all to Common life. work and the ofnotion equalityfor differenceideological and over strategic reasons. the emphasizes thus She worker. every for rules same the applying as seen is she representative masculinized a in Working roles.”. “special women’s mention does she instances other in while rights, special women’s of treatment. preferential women’s unionist One divide. sectoral the blur and interests” “women’s women mentioned isnot inneither ofthe twointerviews workers of majority the up make women women” are we because field, educational the within validity] [this feel really don’t I know. really don’t in validity a has it Whether needed. much very is it there because structures], Teachers’concludes similarly: Union high to due conditions adverse more face women and represented not are interests special women’s sector private the in that argues she contrast, social role social I te rvt [opttv] etr t s opeey ai [o ae eaae women’s separate have [to valid completely is it sector [competitive] private the “In Their interviewee The against or for argumentation women’s the influence preferences ideological However,

(Jenes). In her view, women’s issues are automatically represented merely by the fact that that fact the by merely represented automatically are issues women’s view, her In (Jenes). professional

of women, as they have experienced it themselves, at the intersection of motherhood motherhood of intersection the at themselves, it experienced have they as women, of s common ground for meaning for ground common s

experiences and the situations they encounter through their union activism union their through encounter they situations the and experiences tions and they feel a responsibility towards all the workers they represent, they workers the all towards responsibility a feel they and tions -

eae fcos ht nlec wmns rd uin ciim creating activism, union trade women’s influence that factors related private sector environment, she wants to make sure that as a workers’ workers’ a as that sure make to wants she environment, sector private In order to avoid being called a “feminist”, she dismisses the idea idea the dismisses she “feminist”, a called being avoid to order In

n h pbi sco o euain Dfeecs among Differences education. of sector public the in 41

competition. A public A competition.

- making therefore lies in their experience of experience their in lies therefore making

in line with Elizabeth Lawrence’s (1994) Lawrence’s Elizabeth with line in

understands feminists to fight for for fight to feminists understands

- sector representative of the the of representative sector the public sector, I sector, public the - )children. enous age age enous

CEU eTD Collection e once t scait da aon wmns mniain Erpa gne eult norms equality gender European emancipation, women’s around ideas socialist to connected be c these of management the over power demand roles onthedifferencean andand reflectemphasis men. women between not around assumption but The questioned. criticized, necessarily are fulfill, to have women that roles multiple the as well as responsibilities, “worker socialist the of legacy mothers a as role “natural” their on based women, to responsibility care the roles. gender traditional of revival current the and alsothe on take to expect are women market, labor the in insertion full their through emancipation women’s of idea socialist the reflects which role, professional women’s emphasize respondents the While practices. th show roles, men’s from different as characteristics unquestioned. mostly remain and expected socially understancomplex interviewees the in norms equality gender Europeanized with merge Hungary in transition socialist “almost of policies these of legacies The th of analysis an lacked policies emancipation socialist that shows countries European Eastern Central several in practice The ideas. emancipatory socialist of their union’s members, their and personalexperien workplace among women of rates the structures, union different equal others among an are this in for Reasons women manner. and men working treating on themselves priding conception, this dismiss wom of needs distinct the for fighting as activism their understand women some while This chapter analyzed how the interviewees’ understandings of womanhood reflect the legacy the reflect womanhood of understandings interviewees’ the how analyzedchapter This Difference is interpreted in its real, material consequences for women, and the interviewees the and women, for consequences material real, its in interpreted is Difference be to seen are which it, with roles social certain carry to understood is woman a Being ding of womanhood.ding of motherly role, reminiscent of a lacking analysis of the sexual division of labor of division sexual the of analysis lacking a of reminiscent role, motherly - mother” ideal. ideal. mother”

- emancipation”, as well as the gendered effects of the post the of effects gendered the as well as emancipation”, onsequences. While the materiality of difference can difference of materiality the While onsequences. 42 women’s shared characteristics derive from these these from derive characteristics shared women’s h ueul iiin f oshl ad family and household of division unequal The

The policy demands of the interviewees accord accord interviewees the of demands policy The Understandings of these roles and “feminine” and roles these of Understandings lgc o state of legacy e e sexual division of labor (Popa 2003). (Popa labor of division sexual e ces.

- oils emancipatory socialist wih hw the shows which , en, others others en, -

CEU eTD Collection equal oftheiras treatment activism. a basis f women some keep portray sector private masculinized reasons practical moreand ideological But interests. particular women’s of representatives as themselves the from come who those issues”, “women’s and feminized highly the in working women While factors. other among to, belongs she union member which and sector profession, age, respondent’s of the and woman’s inthe as carer interviewees’ role mother un persistence the explain can This roles. social and labor of division gendered i.e. inequalities, gender Th choice. of ideology liberal a reflecting differences, these over control of aspect the in themselves present oee, h itriwe’ nesadns r nt nfr, hy ifr codn t the to according differ they uniform, not are understandings interviewees’ the However, e common point of these two influence is that neither of them address the root causes of causes root the address them of neither that is influence two these of point common e rom masculinized sectors from only focusing on gender difference; they opt for for opt they difference; gender on focusing only from sectors masculinized rom

public sector do not differentiate between “men’s” between differentiate not do sector public 43

derstandings ofwomanhood. derstandings

CEU eTD Collection especially (Szikra 2014). Thus women activists, who experience these changes on a personal and personal a on changes these experience women who activists, affects women Thus 2014). regimes (Szikra especially current Orbán’s under state welfare the of rollback The environment. cur the in unions trade of situation the to complexity add to important is inclusion Their environment. changed this on perspectives women’s of question themselves clearly inthe n positioning of difficulty unions’ to adds marginalization, political their trade and between unions hostility ongoing the landscape, union the of fragmentation The regime. former post the in function of loss the by characterized increased instability. this position. common strong a adopt to unable been have unions structure, economic changing a of context the In 2014). (OECD 2012 in unionized were employees Hungarian of 10.6% only that show numbers 43.6% by declined density union set, data one to According context. legislative adverse growingly a in popularity and membership through different opportunitie furthered setting, institutional certain their a further in transmitted to are use and emerge they These strategies demands. the present and activism this surrounds that environment activi union trade women’s Hungarian of substance state by influenced womanhood, of understandings certain on rely these how and policy, equality gender regarding h peiu to hpes oue o te ead o Hnain trade Hungarian of demands the on focused chapters two previous The h dsuso o m eprcl idns n h scn pr o te hpe big i the in brings chapter the of part second the in findings empirical my of discussion The is which unions, trade of situation current the describes chapter the of part first The state since unions trade Hungarian of reality The otlt bten rd uin ofdrtos n ter oiia mriaiain have marginalization political their and confederations union trade between Hostility ew environment. ew Chapter 3: Finding a New Voice:Strategies aNew ChapterFinding Union Current 3: Trade - socialist legacies and current Europeanized norms. After having presented the presented having After norms. Europeanized current and legacies socialist s and hinderedconstraints. by other

in Hungary between 1995 and 2001 (Visser 2006). Most recent Most 2006). (Visser 2001 and 1995 between Hungary in - 44 soci

alist transition and the negative legacies of the of legacies negative the and transition alist rent Hungarian and Central Eastern European Eastern Central and Hungarian rent m I o wn t dsus h institutional the discuss to want now I sm,

- socialism is characterized by declining declining by characterized is socialism

noit women unionist

CEU eTD Collection sector expanded through the growing involvement of multinational firms (Kubicek 1999: 95). This This 95). 1999: (Kubicek firms multinational of involvement growing the through expanded sector State transition. economic the by presented opportunities the to rose investors foreign as process, this accelerated change regime The 68). 2005: (Neumann change regime official the before process “spontaneous” al began economy Hungarian the of privatization The Hungary. on thecountry state that imprint the However, 2004). (Crowley countries state of role The exte assert economic themselvesand inthenew political environment. con unions on period transition the of effect disrupting the and state of effects lasting the shown, be will As workplaces. in unions trade of power a through destabilized been has process dismantl legislative the in influence Unions’ unions. trade unions. trade of situation th Hungary, in process transitional socialist 3. by pluralist democratic processes. socio changed a in interests diverse representing thus and gender equality of issues to responding by voice, new a find to unions trade helps unions trade socialist deserv level, professional 1. Opportunity Structures Constraintsfor Trade1. Opportunity Unions and Hungarian nsively analyzed (Kubicek 1999, Crowley 2004, Neumann 2005, Croucher and Rizov 2012). Rizov and Croucher 2005, Neumann 2004, Crowley 1999, (Kubicek analyzed nsively To understand the framework of the interviewees’ activism, I present an overview of the post the of overview an Ipresent activism, interviewees’ the of framework the understandTo Several key economic and institutional changes characterize the specific transition process of of process transition specific the characterize changes institutional and economic key Several state from unions trade of situation changing The 3.1.1. Legacies of State d rprie tutr. ute, h Lbr oe f 02 a ct on h representative the down cut has 2012 of Code Labor the Further, structure. tripartite ed - specific changeswent which theythrough(Kubicek 1999). - we frs dis firms owned - oils i se a iprat n ao’ dcie n h dfeet post different the in decline labor’s in important as seen is socialism The political context of the regime in power since 2010 further constrains further 2010 since power in regime the of context political The a pca fcs Icuig ies prpcie i te td o post of study the in perspectives diverse Including focus. special a e - Socialism in in Perceptionthe Socialism ofUnions solved and public employment declined, but the private service service private the but declined, employment public and solved

e changes from state from changes e 45

- socialism to market capitalism has been been has capitalism market to socialism - socialism le socialism

- iu t hne te i tyn to trying in them hinder to tinue socialism and their effect on the the on effect their and socialism - economic context, ch context, economic ready in the late 1980s, as a a as 1980s, late the in ready

ft on trade unions, depends unions, trade on ft

- socialist legacies socialist aracterized aracterized - socialist socialist - -

CEU eTD Collection otat ewe te suel uiid okr’ oeet ne state under movement yearsdisruptive transition was extreme. workers’ unified assumedly the between contrast (C States United the to similar regime”, labor “flexible towards shifted relations labor where restructuring, economic of environment the in themselves assert quickly they t as function, old their maintain not could unions context, economic changing rapidly this In (105). socialism after activities their popularizing in unsuccessful been have which 94), 2009: for Woolfson and (Kallaste need the measures, ha austerity interests and workers’ protecting crisis and economic representing an of context the in socialism, after generationOne10). 2009: Woolfson and (Kallaste economicsystem”new the in “bargaining agents esta to had and function this lost unions system, economic new Inthe 65). 2005: (Neumann place took bargaining collective real no where companies, and government the between lowest the have unions Hungarylegitimacy in institutions among (Neumann political 2005:99). today, Still 2009). Woolfson and (Kallaste environment changed the o perception negative the that shows countries Baltic the of study A 63f.). 2005: Neumann 1999, Kubicek 2009, Woolfson and (Kallaste regime communist unpopular the to connection persistent unions’ through (Kubicekaccelerated rates of declining 1999:86), unions. membership non for opting people many and women, of case the workforce, inactive large A 70). 2005: (Neumann later stabilized and change, regime the after right worst was situation unemployment the union involvement. by characterized was sector private the as unions, trade in decline membership overall an to led Additionally, the unemployment rate drastically rose in all post all in rose drastically rate unemployment the Additionally, The functio The i the in decline membership mass The f unions could stem from uncertainty regarding the benefits of unions membership in membership unions of benefits the regarding uncertainty from stem could unions f hey were so tightly associated with the crumbling socialist state. But neither could neither But state. socialist crumbling the with associated tightly so were hey n of unions under state under unions of n

due to unemployment, early pensions, or maternity leave, in leave, maternity or pensions, early unemployment, to due

- socialism is often characterized as a “transmission belt” “transmission a as characterized often is socialism mdae post mmediate 46

s grown, but not necessarily through unions unions through necessarily not but grown, s - noie wrpae o ifra labor informal or workplaces unionized - oils yas a as b explained be also can years socialist -

socialist states. In Hungary, In states. socialist

rowley 2004: 425). The The 425). 2004: rowley - oils ad the and socialism blish themselves as themselves blish low

CEU eTD Collection independent confederation and be associated to the MASZSZ. the MASZSZ. to associated be and confederation independent 18 partnersh social effective making government, (2002 social next the under again present formally were institutions tripartite While di social of dismantling the and privatization market, labor the of liberalization (1998 u which to extent the affected This conditions. working and social declining the with cope to used were rulinggovernment,marginalization of as unions Dependingthe political actors. different policies on the Hungarian movement. labor of power the diminishes and scatters further This confederations. different to belonging exist, can a by intensified polar hostility, further to lead confederations the between differences Political 80). company and federations industry of both composed blurry, very is the form mergedconfederationshaveto union trade the of three 2013, In (76). emerged confederations Unions independent new Trade two and (SZOT) of Collective National the from developed confederations union trade new four or were they unions, trade of landscape pluralistic emerging the In 68). 2005: (Neumann interests diverging defendingHungary, in formingstarted unions independent mo union the of fragmentation a to led period transformation the of changes political and economic The 2012). (Meszmann trajectories future their influenced that taken were choices strategic which

First merging occurred in 2013, between ASZSZ, MSZOSZ, and SZEF. In February 2015, SZEF decided SZEF decided 2015, February SZEF. and In MSZOSZ, ASZSZ, between in 2013, mergingoccurred First eet n hsiiy ihn t I te otx o rpd rvtzto sne h lt 1980s, late the since privatization rapid of context the In it. within hostility and vement ized political landscape (Neumann 2012: 373f.). Within one company many different unions unions different many company one Within 373f.). 2012: (Neumann landscape political ized - - h tasto pro cn e char be can period transition The 3.1.2. EffectsFragmentation, Hostility, Marginalization ofTransition: n h yas olwn te transitio the following years the In 06, nos psiiiy o nlec dpne o te oiia wl o te ruling the of will political the on depended influence to possibility unions’ 2006), a to due 93), 2007: (Gennard environment” “hostile a faced unions Hungarian 2002), in cud nlec te decision the influence could nions

MASZSZ. acterized as a “critical juncture” for trade unions, during during unions, trade for juncture” “critical a as acterized n process, this fragmentation was accompanied by a a by accompanied was fragmentation this process, n - aig process. making 47 p ey ifcl (uie 19: 7. Political 87). 1999: (Kubicek difficult very ip 18

The internal structure of the six confederationssix the of structureinternalThe

uig h frt rá government Orbán first the During ganized into six confederations: six into ganized - level unions (Neumann 2005: (Neumann unions level

- iea government liberal alogue institutions. institutions. alogue to stay to an

CEU eTD Collection compromise on the government’s side. government’s the on compromise 19 anduse what tofurther despite theobstacles. they strategies their demands women furthered It unionists. ana important to thus is mostly are conditions working women’s to pertaining policies and demands unions Hungarian within before, discussed was As 2014). (Szikra policies welfare wom of especially and movement, labor the and workers of interests las and fragmentation the by explained be can Code Labor new the against protest labor’s of inefficacy lay easier and flexibility more through business strengt market, labor the on practices liberal which unions, selected neo fortified 2012 of includes Code Labor The only 2012). (Tóth movement the NGTT within hostility to the contributes as government, the and unions all among institut tripartite of dismantling The 2013). Krén 2012, (Neumann difficult more much unions Hungarian of conditions working the made have unions for benefits financial of reduction and 2013), (Girndt 2010 in (NGTT) Forum Social and Economic mandatory the of dismantling the opportunities, strike of Curtailing constraints. political and legal high facing are unions Hungarian 2012, of Code Labor new the with especially Unions. a uniform front thedemanding in economictimes. th of situation the worsened inevitably This 2014). (Szikra structure tripartite national the of dismantling re recent the with situation, current the characterizes persistently dependence and marginalization

Although 2011 saw strong labor mobilizations against the new Labor Code, it was finally enacted with only little withlittle only enacted it was finally Code, Labor new the mobilizationsagainst saw labor strong 2011 Although ting thelabor hostility within movement, increasing thedifficulty their tofurther demands. e decentralized and fragmented union structure, faced with more difficulties to merge and form mergeand to difficulties more with faced structure, union fragmented and decentralized e ic 21, h beg the 2010, Since a Legal Image:Perceptions toPolish Current 3.1.3. Trying Rusty and Constraints of The neoliberal, neo neoliberal, The

- conservative and étatist social policies of Orbán’s regime marginalize the marginalize regime Orbán’s of policies social étatist and conservative nig rm Mnse Vko Obns eod oenn mnae and mandate, governing second Orbán’s Viktor Minister Prime inning

lyze how women in the union movement perceive their situation perceive inthe unionmovement their howwomen situation lyze hening the elite and upper middle class and benefiting benefiting and class middle upper and elite the hening - 48 off policies on the labor market (Tóth 2012). The The 2012). (Tóth market labor the on policies off

en, who are largely affected by affected largely are who en, os idr te cooperation the hinders ions OÉT

rpae b the by replaced , ,

gender equality gender 19

non - - -

CEU eTD Collection confederations (ETUC 2014: 2014: 2). (ETUC confederations union trade manyEuropean in decline membership persistent the slowsdown unions oftrade membership 20 togainunionists influence inthe constra of strategy a as used is cooperation how accentuate I Further, developments. legal recent most the on perspectives unionists’ adding studies, previous confirm findings My level. policy and company, constraints intheconsequencesenteringglobal economic of a market. and opportunities both popu see they However, lacking work. their hinder address that factors as women constraints legislative The and today. opportunities Hungary the in perceive activism women their the for constraints how describe will I First, women. by perceived 3.2. neo social strengthen could and women of participation equal an with movement labor united defined, clearly A 2011). (Briskin practices economic globalized against action their of and women empowerment political the fosters which agency, collective women’s for structures support establish they if equality gender furthering in role bigger much a play can Unions through. commitment their strengthen thus and union, trade the with identification their improve women, of in membership their of part growing

According to the European Trade the European to According - Navigating theConstraints: TradeNavigating Union ExperiencesWomen Hungarian of liberal declining stateof social provisions. As trade unions depend on the commitment of their female members, who make up the the up make who members, female their of commitment the on depend unions trade As on demands, their further to strategies their present I part, second a In as situation, union current the on findings empirical of analysis an presents part This - democratic conceptions of gender equality in Hungary against the current the against Hungary in equality gender of conceptions democratic

Union Confederation’s (ETUC) (ETUC) UnionConfederation’s

many cases, many ined political environment.

49 20

it is also their interest to represent the concerns the represent to interest their also is it 8 th

of March March Survey of

representation of their interests their of representation

of 2014, theoffemale growing 2014, h membership, the

aiy and larity the

CEU eTD Collection exist in Hungary since the regime change and have gained influence since enactment of the new the of enactment since influence gained have and change regime the since Hungary in exist representation, employer and employee both of composed are which councils, Works 375). 2012: represent of number the and representatives workers’ to allocated off time the reducing through possibilities unions’ restricted 2012 of Code Labor The findings. disappearingif the perception of movement,does unions change not population. inthe state scared simply members.” are workers young Further, enough (Veres). not still are there but this, for initiatives different been have “There representative. media the says generation,” next the train to important is “It fact. this pity retired, age retirement to close are whom of many women, interviewed the of Most Hungary. society(Veres). u out, points representative union a them”, for doing are unions what know don’t employees that is, problem “The work. hard with now rebuilt be to has which population, the in trust lacking to led has responden unions among cooperation one As today. population Hungarian the in unions of thenegativeperceptionleading aspectsto as youngmovement the of lackin peoplea and b unions, public, the Neumann with 2009, communication lacking Woolfson mention and women interviewed (Kallaste public Hungarian the among unions - we cmais sy aohr nevee. ay nevees er h tra o a of threat the fear interviewees Many interviewee. another says companies, owned My interviews with the trade unionist women reflect findings on a negative perception of of perception negative a on findings reflect women unionist trade the with interviews My Lacking Popularity 3.2.1. Perceptions Landscape ofthe Trade Union Union mobilization is hindered by different legislative constraints according to the interview interview the to according constraints legislative different by hindered is mobilization Union Legislative Constraints in unions towards indifference of sign a as seen is movement the in youngpeople of lack The

nderlining the insufficient publicity of union work in Hungarian in work union of publicity insufficient the nderlining of being associated with a trade union, especially in especially union, trade a with associated being of 50

pt i, h 2 yas f bad of years 20 the it, puts t atives per workplace (Neumann (Neumann workplace per atives d oprto among cooperation ad

05. The 2005).

or already or

CEU eTD Collection constraints and thelacking popularity ofunions. p reduced unions’ between connection perceived a show statements The force. potent a form to anymore sectors enough in present not are unions that and demonstrating even of scared are workers that explains She her. to according impossible, almost opinion” my in Hungary, adds: interviewee The society. in unions of position the since impossible dismantling ofthe OÉT. is option latter The interests. workers’ represent effectively to necessary round a opinion her In (Nemes). employee]” an to come to employer the of interest the in still is it “because level, scale our ideas." c merging the [of expectations own MASZSZ]." the [of merger this and confederations having effectiveimpediment to have both out, she explains, toharmonize. work To (Lupkovics). council,” works the and union trade the between jealousy often is there well, paid is council works the of leader the “As explains: respondent one as other, each oppose council works and union if unionists of work the affects negatively This bargaining. wage of power the has works the While 2012). (Tóth Code Labor h dsatig f h OT s h tiatt brann srcue i as mnind s an as mentioned also is structure, bargaining tripartite the as OÉT the of dismantling The right the Creating small the on works merely rights workers’ of representation the that claims respondent The unions all with down sit cannot government] “[The (Nemes).

legislative environment is seen as crucial to regain trust and strengthen the strengthen and trust regain to crucial as seen is environment legislative interests: ofrepresentation workers’

Nms. h lgsaie hne o 21 hv frhr mad further have 2012 of changes legislative The (Nemes). onfederations], (...) that we strengthen the workers' side with side workers' the strengthen we that (...) onfederations],

councils decides on the general pay structure, the union union the structure, pay general the on decides councils - table discussion with all social partners would be be would partners social all with discussion table

Tee s o ersnain f neet in interests of representation no is “There She demands She siiiis o ato de o legislative to due action for ossibilities

[while] that was exactly the aim of of aim the exactly was that [while]

"that we can represent our represent can we "that

agreement [with the [with agreement e strikes strikes e -

CEU eTD Collection hy r hpy o ae raie lbr Bcue hy o' hv t cmuiae r negotiate or communicate to have don't they Because labor. organized have to happy are they unio one says employer, the on sector dependinterviewee. finds: ofthetransportation Another respondent firms multinational the in rates organization The employers unions. these of value the on opinions diverging to lead changes These employers. new welfare policy onwomen. theneg findings on (2014) This confirms Szikra’s company. her within landscape union fragmented a of burden additional the to difficulty the credits She outsourcing. of case in employees for conditions working good secure to can it all tries union The interests. lay against bargain difficultyto women’s of defense the to comes it when particularly unions, for successes few not exist return" anymore to wants when she doesin she worked activities that of scope the leave.Often maternityemployment afterher woman's reintegrationOne respondent afterwards. from abigcompany telecommunication says: lay liberalized by threatened particularly (Crow relations labor changes lay against fight or outsourcing of case in conditions working good secure to difficult more and more become has it that mention In companies. multinational of presence the through especially n. But this is unimaginable on the international scale. There you have the exact opposite, that that opposite, exact the have you There scale. international the on unimaginable is this But n. The economic changes of the last 25 years influence the interviewed women’s work, work, women’s interviewed the influence years 25 last the of changes economic The Economic Context A o o mliainl epo cran mlye eaty eas te ae o pr o a of part not are they because exactly employees certain employ multinationals of lot “A as firms multinational many brought market economic global a in Hungary of integration The interv the Although lay "Following - offs, unfortunately, even here it is very often impossible for us to guarantee a guarantee to us for impossible often very is it here even unfortunately, offs,

iewee was long term HR employee at the company, she can only count only can she company, the at employee HR term long was iewee

e 20) n h wa,famne no adcp.Wmn are Women landscape. union fragmented weak, the and 2004), ley - offs is confirmed by another representative of the media sect media the of representative anotherby confirmed is offs - offs. This is also connected to the shift towards neoliberal legal legal neoliberal towards shift the to connected also is This offs. -

off policies during a maternity leave and in their their in and leave maternity a during policies off (Siraky). 52 ative effect of the current government’s neoliberalcurrent the ative effectof

hs otx, h interviewees the context, this

or. Her Her or. for for

CEU eTD Collection h qeto i tu, hc srtge uinss s t oecm te ot eety imposed recently most the overcome constraints, especially comes it to when to use unionists strategies which thus, is question The 2012). 2005, (Neumann period transition the since unions of marginalization political the on studies find These policies. neoliberal current the by attack under are which conditions, working women’s of defense the in specifically but general, in Hungary in unions of possibilities w cooperatinginterestedin are as seen are companies multinational some but policies, market labor liberal through constraints represents market globalized the changes, economic Regarding 2004). Crowley 2007, Gennard the earlie of of activism findings the the confirming hinders women, membership interviewed declining and popularity Lacking unions. trade of 1999). union “Western of game the learn and actors capitalist new, with deal to having of position peculiar unions’ on findings reflect statements These (Steer). anymore” not or yet.... respe certain a includes which them, with tradition” “Western a bring companies multinational perspective, her In (Steer). ones” national than employers multinational with better along “got she that states She more. unions Hungarian to multinationals prefers even representative Another workers andthis his/heropinion, isstructured” arealigned with can employer] [the I that person designated one is there but upward, h de nt ims mliainl cmltl, ny h anti the only completely, multinationals dismiss not does She situation current the with disillusionment certain a show interviewees the of perceptions The

ct for unions. But she claims that Hungarian employers are “not at that stage stage that at “not are employers Hungarian that claims she But unions. for ct ith unions. Legislative changes of the last five years greatly constrain the the yearsgreatlyconstrain five last Legislativethe changes unions. of ith furthering equalitygender towards demands policy? 53

suis Klat ad olsn 2009, Woolfson and (Kallaste studies r (Nemes).

employers, as they seem to value value to seem they as employers,

negotiate with, and the other the and with, negotiate - union practices of some. some. of practices union

ings are in line with line in are ings s” (Kubicek ism”

CEU eTD Collection representative totheMASZSZ: base the in community” “good a and their accordingto Union, Telecommunications’ the Távszak, join workersto motivate organizations events union Common fun. with union the associate activit cultural common that out points respondent One or throughcertain provided benefits bymembership, such insurance car as deal. tradeunion a co byorganizing join to members new enticing and trust regain to aim thus activists The change. regime the after membership union overall of decline concurrent and employment 5 around only is rate organization the sector, retail in that laments respondent One them. to alarming are workers disinterested and numbers shrinking current the socialism, under activism their started often Having and national in possibilities their towards international cooperation. turn I union, individual the on rely that A whole. strategies a as union the strengthen to aim others demands”, “women’s specific company the on communicate strate Their full a and responsibilities domestic by also often but framework, legal tight a and funding insufficient by constrained only not is activism Their conditions. adverse the despite demands, their effective for ways find to continue women union interviewed Through strategies aimed at the membership, the company, and the policy level, the the level, policy the and company, the membership, the at aimed strategies Through The Importance for3.2.2. Strategies Activism: ofCooperation Organization of community events is especially important to promote the union work locally. locally. work union the promote to important especially is events community of Organization are rates membership declining addressing Strategies Membership,Strategies onthe Level andPolicy theCompany, of gies focus on the big question of membership and organizing, but also on how to better to how on also but organizing, and membership of question big the on focus gies - 1 % Ti rfet te idns f rvos tde o te ie f rvt sector private of rise the on studies previous of findings the reflects This 0%.

- level and how to successfully lobby national policy. Some promote Some policy. national lobby successfully to how and level

ies and hikes are necessary for members to members for necessary are hikes and ies

important for most interviewed women. women. interviewed most for important

interest

representation and furthering and representation mmunity events events mmunity tr presenting fter - time job. time

CEU eTD Collection and works councils] is”and works councils] it how importancecouncils Butworks for activism. ofthe remarks: unions’ oneinterviewee compa and councils works of women’s unionmembers. issues,for relationswith better a leadership, good of importance the stress also women Many Union. Transportation United the local at the section women’s of regulations specific discuss to or Union, Employees’ Retail the by rights workers’ March on Day Women’s International the mention respondents Two women. union the among activism of forms current most the as demonstrations o absence an and workers’ organization. workers of fluctuation high by characterized economy, market the of sector service growing the in lies organization membership for challenge biggest the how n the defines sectors, expanding andunions the non ofstrong with atradition occupations, regions or in strength union between gap The members. union of cars company on damages pays t members, young new, organize To workers. a of fluctuation to high a with units due service or employees, management upper is and middle of prevalence this view, her In unionized. less much are Budapest as such regions, other remain. hi sectors, and regions some in While leads. she that region the about says, 90%,” it's where organizations basis some have even we and 80%, about of rate unionization "The region of Eastern Hungary was always very strongly unionized. So here we have a a have we here So unionized. strongly very always was Hungary Eastern of region "The “The functioning of works councils is somehow better tolerated by the CEO, at least, that’s least, at CEO, the by tolerated better somehow is councils works of functioning “The the with relations good maintain to is interviewees the for strategy the level, company the At awareness of forms different Further, seems. ew economic environment that the unions have to adapt to. This experience reflects experience This to. adapt to have unions the that environment economic ew

Although most managers have no idea what the difference between the two [unions [unions two the between difference the what idea no have managers most Although direct contact with union leaders and the women’s section and good knowledge good and section women’s the and leaders union with contact direct

(Ladányi). ny leadership. The recent changes in the Labor Code have intensified the the intensified have Code Labor the in changes recent The leadership. ny

hey made a deal with a car insurance company, which company, insurance car a with deal a made hey - asn ae sd o opeet ace and marches complement to used are raising 55

8th as an event to raise awareness about women women about awareness raise to event an as 8th

gh unionization rates unionization gh - union service sector sector union service

collective f

she she

CEU eTD Collection influence the level of local collective agreements. She further points out that “there is no agreement no is “there that out points further She agreements. collective local of level the influence in while projects, only can legislative unions opinion, her in Thus, about common. more were unions with consultations asked governments is one” “no government Orbán the under long A difficult. more much her environment. tonavigate current the for crucial are framework legal changing the on knowledge detailed and ministries to Connections Defense. of Ministry the with negotiations the on influence exert can she Budapest, in negotiations includin oftenofficials,higher with discussions and recommendationsThrough aremale. president vice the as well as president, the both however Committee, Steering the of 60% by represented Stee HODOSZ the thus Defense, of Ministrythe employeris her Incase,her (HODOSZ).ArmyEmployees’Union the at Committee Steering the of member a is respondent One interviewees. two by mentioned only is level policy they onacooperative take more stancevis asstruggle”, “class traditional a to unionists the of distance a show findings the way, a In influence. or on union focus unions’ the the than strengthens further more This workplace confederation. the with identify workers most that explains, respondent Another stores. box big several in working mothers for provisions around agreement collective helped this that explains Union Workers’ Retail the of representative The fruitful. more decision policy national on influence Whil them. to important which leader can ledbyrepresent ainterests be or union ofthe leadership. the company the on depends success their However, this. Several interviewees point out that good connections to the company leadership are very very are leadership company the to connections good that out point interviewees Several through policies company influence can and councils works the to members delegate Unions Taking influenc Taking union trade of marginalization political the Reflecting e on the policy level, when one’s employer is not the government, is however is government, the not is employer one’s when level, policy the on e e the unions’ legislative power has been reduced, and they have little little have they and reduced, been has power legislative unions’ the e - term union activist and now freelance union consultant explains that explains consultant union freelance now and activist union term ring Committee debates with the policy level directly. Women are Women directly. level policy the with debates Committee ring - making, collective agreements with the company seem to be be to seem company the with agreements collective making,

- à - leaning of the works council, one respondent explains, respondent one council, works the of leaning vis theemployer. 56

i Hnay drc cnat ih the with contact direct Hungary, in s

h cmay s h mi lvl of level main the as company the

initiate a initiate former g -

CEU eTD Collection ( 2015 Mayon15th, force entry into sector), retail in the Sundays on 21 The politics. party with cooperation any or activism political to opposition strict cooperat solidaritycivil society trade towardsor unions of other issues. sites as named also are marches and Demonstrations scale. broader a on issues societal on cooperate to forums national more for advocates interviewee Another agenda. groups, youth with cooperation, more a NGOs, for women’s need the voices leader union retired A schedules. bus tight the for awareness raise to organizations society civil with organized flashmob a mentions Anot schooling. and poverty child as such topics on well works and useful very is NGOs with collaboration the that explains Union Teachers’ the of representative The union. member the on depending varies, cooperation of level The topics. salient current environment, asthe institutional followingempirical show. findings their combat To ofte is strategies. cooperation marginalization, activists’ political the in factor important another is organizations society civil with as well as internationally, and nationally unions, between Cooperation process. policy t activists union of possibilities or company the with processes bargaining direct trade unionlea of level highest the to reserved probably is this that showing process, policy the in involvement process. legislative the in interests their voice organiza employee and employer between interests” of http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_do

The respondent is referring to the 2014 legi the 2014 to isreferring respondent The The strategies above refer to activity within the individual union, on the membership level, in level, membership the on union, individual the within activity to refer above strategies The However, while cooperation is important in nearly all sectors, several interviewees state their their state interviewees several sectors, all nearly in important is cooperation while However, o often common, is NGOs women’s or NGOs local with cooperation National inthe NationalCooperation Context andInternational dership, or happens or measures through indirect dership, as and petitions protests. such cademia and female politicians to bring forward women’s issues on the national the on issues women’s forward bring to politicians female and cademia

c.cgi?docid=A1400102.TV

slation of shop closures on Sundays. Act CII of 2014 (prohibition of work of(prohibition of2014 CII Act Sundays. on closures shop slationof te ot fetv oto t eet nlec i the in influence exert to option effective most the n 21 her respondent of the United Transportation Union Transportation United the of respondent her

57 Neither of the other respondents mentions direct mentions respondents other the of Neither

, retrieved on May 25th, 2015). retrievedMayon25th, , in, n ete a uhpsiiiy to possibility much had neither and tions,

y understand their their understand y o influence the the influence o o, showing ion, n socially socially n

CEU eTD Collection meetings. and Uniglobal between exchange The Uniglobal. network, European its union and union telecommunications Her German the Germany. with cooperates in based is company mother whose Telekom, for works respondent One transformation process. socialism” “Because, later. started process this where unions, Bulgarian and Romanian train to skills these used then union her turn, In funds. and trainings European for coun works a up set to how on information practical long one says it,” explain even can’t I that much, so us helped “They partners Western by aided was change regime employers capitalist and multinational, often new, to adaptation The recall. interviewees someas socialism, of end afterthe environment economic new the to adapt them help andstrategies Hungarian with unions foreign of strugglesas a beneficial side solidarity the mention also Some events. these of benefits EU c a participants The Brussels. or meetings, section’s women’s sectoral European issues, youth on regions neighboring with collaborations from range Projects unions. other with collaborations from and politicalactivism try ina veryconnection withpolitics to avoidany society. polarized separate they which society, for engagement and representation interest of form a as work union n h itrainl ee, ee o the of seven level, international the On In the current context, the amount of internatio of amount the context, current the In fo with cooperation The

as you know, in the Western context there was no example for making capitalism from capitalism making for example no was there context Western the in know, you as (Steer 2015). Thus they used the traveling knowledge from West to East to adapt to the the to adapt to East to West from knowledge traveling the used they Thus 2015). (Steer - time union activist of the food industry (Steer 2015). Not only did they receive they did only Not 2015). (Steer industry food the of activist union time

ount new strategies and shared documents for lobbying as some of the the of some as lobbying for documents shared and strategies new ount - effect of having good relationseffect abroad. ofhaving reign unions also allowed Hungarian unions to learn new leadership new learn to unions Hungarian allowed also unions reign ása wrs el truh omte laesi ( leadership committee through well, works Távszak 58

“We already had experience by then,” by experience had already “We cil or how to negotiate, but also on applications on also but negotiate, to how or cil nal cooperation depends on the member union. union. member the on depends cooperation nal epnet hv aray atcptd in participated already have respondents

- wide labor protest in in protest labor wide elnöksegi

she says. she after the after

)

CEU eTD Collection unions (153). However, the opinions presented in the interviews show an overall strong desire for for desire strong overall an show interviews the in presented opinions the However, (153). unions differences cultural and barriers language as such factors, “soft” policy, and legislation, production, in differences structural to Next (2012). Europe in unions trade 14 of cooperation the of study Larsson’s Bengt of findings respondents some as meetings, international to travel to time or resources trade howeverto them. unionconfederations. invitations receive they formal no is meeti women’s international in participate cannotthey union, her in sectionwomen’s there as that regrets respondent Another started. Europe Eastern Central towards issu women’s of number growing the into insights her gave work this difficult, cooperation full a made barriers language that acknowledges she While meetings. (ETUC) Confederation Union Trade European Confederation Union Trade International Pan the at Hungary represented butis member unionor confederations exist, the of level the on Cooperation present. are companies daughter and mother of workers between interests competing if troubled is collaboration this cultures, negotiation experie and practices exchange leadership to useful is it While level. European a on cooperation unions of between ambiguity the show now and era transition the from examples The difficulties. Re lay against fighting position, unequal andknow they how demands what “fight” they have,” us for important very is It Telekom. German the is company mother the as important, very is al okr’ no, oprto o te nentoa lvl s o, lo u t language to due also low, is level international the on cooperation Union, Workers’ tail h ad ta te hv t aat o h dmns f h Gra uin a te ae n an in are they as union, German the of demands the to adapt to have they that adds She this Germans the with Especially level. international an on work thing these how hears “One Problems do arise in the international cooperation, due to language barriers, lacking financial lacking barriers, language to due cooperation, international the in arise do Problems interviewees the of One constituencies. women’s of level the on occurs also Collaboration s rsn a te TCs etn, seily ic te U nagmn process enlargement EU the since especially meeting, ETUC’s the at present es r js a iprat idacs o ucsfl uoen oprto of cooperation European successful to hindrances important as just are - European Regional Committee’s (PERC) Women’s Section of the of Section Women’s (PERC) Committee’s Regional European - offs in both places. Another respondent points out that in the in that out points respondent Another places. both in offs

IU) ni 21, n ws rpeettv t several to representative a was and 2012, until (ITUC) dependent onthe unionleadership. 59

(Siraky).

mention. This reflects the reflects This mention.

nces on company company on nces ngs of sectoral sectoral of ngs to

CEU eTD Collection eea pltcl agnlzto o uin, s el s mriaiain s oe wti trade within women as marginalization a as well as unions, of marginalization political general union movement the where countries with practices exchanging by them strengthen can cooperation international on unions Hungarian of emphasis An unions. European other with practices best exchange and how level demands, national policy for the lobby to on helps cooperation While activism. political not and societal as seen often is which society, policy level. directly intervene to women union trade the of options the out rules political mostly marginalization unions’ However, leadership. company the with relations good keep and membership th movement their strengthen and environment adverse this combat to try women interviewed The members. its of views diverse the representing and including through movement labor Hungarian the strengthen can demands un better a context, institutional Hungarian the in unions of situation the of uncertainty the Given voice”. its “find to movement union Hungarian the declining constraints, legal membership andeconomic popularity,as as a e well changing through women interviewed the impacts unions trade of situation current The popularity. and membership declining of tide the against swim to difficult more even mak rights, their restricted further has 2012 of Code Labor new The actors. political as unions furtherat the international their standpoints level. p to position the in not are women the althoughoften collaboration, international more The specific communist legacy and following transition process has marginalized Hungarian marginalized has process transition following and legacy communist specific The The situation of women in the labor movement is doubly difficult, as they face both the the both face they as difficult, doubly is movement labor the in women of situation The civil of level wider the on cooperation use unionists the marginalization, this overcome To for attempts useful are cooperation European as well as views, diverse of inclusion the Both

is more embedded inthe national rough different strategies. They try to regain trust on the level of the of level the on trust regain to try They strategies. different rough

60 it is used on the international level to gain know gain to level international the on used is it

decision making process. esadn o te oe’ srtge and strategies women’s the of derstanding nvironment.

articipateand on the the on ing it it ing -

CEU eTD Collection an attempt toovercomegendered structures. organizational t of function the to given be will focus particular A context. this in interests women’s further to used be can strategies what discuss and with, deal to have women Int unions. he next chapter, I will present the constraints of gendered inequality that the interviewed the that inequalitygendered of constraints the present I will chapter, next he 61

he MASZSZ Women’s Section in Section Women’s MASZSZ he

CEU eTD Collection Section, which is led by social and political scientists as well as lawyers, coordinating camp coordinating as lawyers, well scientistsas political and social by whichled is Section, 22 Secretariat ETUC the of level the At positions. leadership in women of number low very a finds (ETUC) Confederation Union Trade European the however, Europe, throughout r women’s structure. separate a to different accord they functions and by meanings specific the defines This influenced constraints. institutional are and work union routine their in politics women’s with exclusively Confederation, Union Trade German the of section women’s post the to specific is function this that but inequalities, these overcoming of process the in role important an plays Section Women’s the that find I activities. unions’ trade the in integration full their hinder women s the how out pointing context, Hungarian the in inequalities gender empirical chapter. parts ofthe wom separate of use the around debate The inequalities. structural these overcome to use can women union trade that strategies different examined have scholars Feminist context. Hungarian and union trade the in implementation its and “ a of concept (1999) Acker’s Joan on focusing organizations, of analyses decision with positions from uni trade peetd hr decision where epresented

This information was collected during an internship with the German Trade Union Confederation’s Women’s Women’s Union Confederation’s GermanwithTrade the duringinternship an was collected information This The aim of this chapter is to show how gendered organizational structures affect women in in women affect structures organizational gendered how show to is chapter this of aim The f oe wn t efciey rmt ter neet wti tae nos te ne t be to need they unions, trade within interests their promote effectively to want women If Trade4.1. Gendered Unions of Organization of have women interviewed the that perceptions the presents chapter the of part empirical The ons, specifically in the Hungarian context. To explain To context. Hungarian the in specifically ons, ChapterGendered Women’s through Organization 4:Resisting Sections

- socialis

t Hungarian context. context. Hungarian t - - making happens. happens. making

making power in unions, in power making en’s structures will be the focus of both the theoretical and theoretical the both of focus the be will structures en’s n 21 suy f 7 ainl confederations national 47 of study 2014 a In 62 n oprsn o y esnl xeine n the in experience personal my to comparison In

I will provide an overview of the feminist the of overview an provide will I 22

the women I interviewed do not dealnot do interviewedI women the

what leads to women’s exclusion exclusion women’s to leads what ocial expectations towards towards expectations ocial aigns and lobby strategies. lobbyaigns and gendered organization” organization” gendered

there is full gender full is there

CEU eTD Collection 23 (1990). inequalities the gender the justify also but further then which outcomes, identity, gender obvious individual the and more gender of the images cultural of of reproduction one as women and menti men Acker between men’s. inequalities than reach to harder much become expectations career their consequence in organization; the in women of chances the influences This gatherings. e and are to, comply advantage to have they that responsibilities social of the and women, of bodies The disadvantage. patterns to leads and ways, informal and formal in structure, organizational ideal normofa workerand male the perpetuate structures these that argues she However, worker. universal and neutral assumedly as identifies (1990) Acker concept, this With organization. of nature the on studies use to overcome structuralinequalities. these women union strategies what and context, Hungarian the in itself presents organization gendered part pre in!”. us “Count campaign the through 2018 by leadership union trade in women of quota 30% a reach to pledged re to aiming 2010), (ITUC Equality” Gender (21). women by held are seven only confederations, national the in leadership political of positions 54 of out But 26). 2014: (ETUC 2011 since parity rased from formal requirements, such as job description, work hours, and from informal social social informal from and hours, work description, job as such requirements, formal from rased

http://www.ituc the root of gendered inequaliti gendered of root the The distinction between male between distinction The feminist of tradition a from stems organization” “gendered a of structures the Analyzing 4.1.1. The Conce sents feminists analyses organizations feminists that leadsents the togender structuresin inequality, of how - 23 csi.org/count

This shows that the leadership of trade unions is far from being gender equal. Thisequal.gender being from far is tradeunions of leadership the that shows This pt of“Gendered Organization”

- us - in

reproduce gender inequalities reproduce es in organizations. Organizational structures are built around an around built are structures Organizational organizations. in es

and female, masculine and feminine, remains embedded in the the in embedded remains feminine, and masculine female, and

Formal requi Formal

inforce the participation of women at all levels, and levels, all at women of participation the inforce 63

rements carry over to organizational practices, organizational to over carry rements In 2010, the ITUC passed a “Resolution on “Resolution a passed ITUC the 2010, In

n icm ad status and income ons the structural level level structural the

CEU eTD Collection h mi rao Ng se fr hs ieulte ae h retu the are inequalities these for sees Nagy reason main The women’s of effect low the for example career achievementprogress, (Nagystatistically 2005:353). ontheir for educational higher account can inequalities career explain to factors individual social a uses of womenexclusion throughgen emancipatory socialist the (358).gendered Nagy’saccount thus study for organization effects reducepolicies didnot the of the that showing (350), banking or sector public the in as such spheres, mor is this management, in present are they When 349). (2005: workers sector service of majority the up make additionally and management of line second the in found labo Hungarian the that nevertheless show, findings Her segregation). (horizontal firm the of level the Anglothe to contrast in (verticalsegregation), level g of terms in segregation main the Hungary, In demands. social different this of part is organization gendered of experience localized A 1991). Cockburn 1990, Acker 1987, Ressner Western current the than view complex socio current their in viewed be to have organization gendered a of experiences women’s that means This represent. tha finds dominant the by legitimized women, hegemonic masculinity. of exclusion informal through indirectly and directly mre i sgeae bt hrznal a wl a vrial. rcsl, oe ae mostly are women Precisely, vertically. as well as horizontally both segregated is market r n suy f atr ad etr Gra tae no atvss Koch activists, union trade German Western and Eastern of study a In To explain the uneven representation of women in Hungarian management structures, Nagy Nagy structures, management Hungarian in women of representation uneven the explain To (2005).Beáta Nagy analyzedHungary by is in gendered organization The of specific situation Hungary Gendered in Organization t the socialization in different political regimes matters for the interests that the activists the that interests the for matters regimes political different in socialization the t

- system centered approach, following Powell (1999). Focusing on structural rather than rather structuralon Focusing (1999). Powell following approach, centered system - cultural context, keeping local institutional local keeping context, cultural

ization and needs to be considered in the interpretation of the activists’ activists’ the of interpretation the in considered be to needs and ization dered organizational processesdered sectoralfirm aswell level. onthe as -

eti fmns aaye o ognztos Kne 1977, (Kanter organizations of analyses feminist centric ender on the labor market happens at the sectoral sectoral the at happens market labor the on ender 64

- american context, where it is more prevalentonmore is where it context, american

structures in mind. This gives a more more a gives This mind. in structures nn taiinl aus n role and values traditional rning e likely to be in feminized in be to likely e - Baumgarten (2002) (2002) Baumgarten

CEU eTD Collection eitne, codn t Ccbr, oh s okr, n h srgl bten mlyr and employer between struggle the employed,and against as thedominance the women, of in workers, as both Cockburn, to according resistance”, situation. work and role occupational their to also but roles, onlyrelat are not work union in participation women’s of obstacles the arguesthat union. the within career women’s hinders which unions, of discipline argue Cockburn theory, Acker’s on Drawing (1991). men for opportunities career constitute also women to barriers as women, of advancement the resist organizations in men how specifically analyzed Cockburn a well as union their both influence outcomes gendered a to them organizational 1991). (Cockburn structure linking 2002), Ledwith and Colgan 1994, Lawrence 1993, Cobble 1983, management structures. sh study Nagy’s As genderinequalities inHungarian inexplaining role big gender a unquestioned roles traditional plays race. the in disadvantaged remain women family, career for time crucial the As progress. men and women both which to extent the But (354). recognized not is promotions and path career on gender of impact the and (353) first “wives” and “mothers” as themselves define finds, she women, is progress career women’s of the slowness The (355). company” see the for managers obstacle an as HR but society interviewed for “crucial as the role” female that “traditional finds, study The women. towards expectations

emphasize the importance of social roles for their career shows its impact on women’s career women’s on impact its shows career their for roles social of importance the emphasize inequalities persistent the out pointed have scholars feminist Several Trade UnionsasGendered Organizations , ht oe’ sxaiy s en s ptnil het o h organizational the to threat potential a as seen is sexuality women’s that s,

accounted to individual rather than structural factors. Even Even factors. structural than rather individual to accounted - For trade union women activists, gendered organizational activists, For tradeunionwomen building coincides with the average time of starting a a starting of time average the with coincides building

ter rfsinl ie n expectations. and life professional their s 65

male norm. oe i uin fc a “double a face unions in Women

Elizabeth Lawrence (1994) (1994) Lawrence Elizabeth in trade unions (Briskin unions trade in w, h rvvl of revival the ows, ed to their gender their to ed Cynthia Cynthia

CEU eTD Collection women (Cook 1993) women(Cook an standards, work 24 office union female that shows Evidence positions. leadership higher in women decision in women and making first a step. structuresis crucial men of representation equal the issue, their as gap pay gender the on to unions for However, gap. wage the reduce to necessarily process bargaining the automatically not will woman any of presence the Clearly, (153). strategies organizing different to respond women how e.g. cultures, union in differences gender by styles decisio the in integrated are issues equality how and whether influence which bargaining, of styles the rather but women, and men between differ that priorities bargaining the necessarily the not is it that finds thei committees toinfluencethebargaining process in wage to access have to need also women but helps, leadership union trade by values pay 86f.). (2005: levelcompany or sectoral a on generallydiscussed not are issues equali and unions, trade in underrepresented also are women that finds Neumann László context, (1993). standards work own theirprotect to it used or responsibility” unions’ the v who men by created were States decision in represented equally union’s demands are some ofthe prevalentgend most outcomes of office in women of underrepresentation the gap, cultural or specifically, union the work, their to related threefold: are unions trade of case particular the in participation

While the idea of “equal pay for equal work” came up early on, this was used as a cover for men to protect theirown men protect to for cover as a used was this on, early up work”came equal for pay “equal of the While idea Arguing for equal pay is not a tradition of male of tradition a not is pay equal for Arguing women’s to barriers The unions? in organization gendered of outcomes the are What Effects TradeUnions Gendered Causesin of and Organization h scn otoe f h gnee ognzto o uin i te nerpeetto of underrepresentation the is unions of organization gendered the of outcome second The n - aig rcs o te no (94 19f) Se xlis hs dfeet bargaining different these explains She 149ff.). (1994: union the of process making d only later did the argument of comparable worth come up, which actually protected the situation of of the situation whichprotected actually worth up, come comparable ofthe argument did later only d

- societal

- making councils. According to Alice H. Cook, unions in the United the in unions Cook, H. Alice to According councils. making - personal barriers (Wertheimer and Nelson 1975). The gender pay pay gender The 1975). Nelson and (Wertheimer barriers personal iewed women’s wage women’s iewed

66 -

odn pstos n o ter ocrs n the in concerns their of and positions holding r favor (Colgan and Ledwith 2002). LawrenceLedwith and 2002). r favor (Colgan - centered unions, especially if women are not are women if especially unions, centered - earning as the “government’s, rather than than rather “government’s, the as earning ered organizational practices.ered organizational

change the outcome of outcome the change An adoption of equal of adoption An 24 -

holders are more more are holders In the HungarianIn the effectively - bargaining bargaining take take

ty ty -

CEU eTD Collection is important. decision tradeunion in underrepresentation their and professions and jobs ranking lower in betweenwomen connection The 1993). (Cook responsibilityof moreposition a to commit find of to women burden for difficult is the it responsibilities, with household Combined (152). women by done predominantly are jobs These mobility. upwards reducedor hours work longthe to due activism, union for difficulties present or 19) (1994: of union higher of responsibilities the for necessary telephone, or office an as such resources, part that show findingsLawrence’s 1993). Jackson conce male making exclusion, often are 2005). (Fodor women for jobs precarious and flexible more towards 2002). (Koch norm male a around built structures career and expectations social unequal of union womendraw are on,women more likely tofindthemselves much inpart gender theunion. within and power of relations shapes which culture, male traditional of persistence the to due is This responsibilities. office union the of image male traditional the fit not do role, motherly their fulfill to expected are who Women, (2012). finds Ledwith as ridiculed, and union self to likely less are Women 195). (2012: usurpers” as challenged continually themselves find leaders individual as top the to it make who condition remains often too “inclusion that 22) 1994: (Lawrence participation women’s to barrier a present that factors “personal as act children having or married self and single be to likely

ute, n h Anglo the in Further, members. In this context, the demands of women are more likely to be presented as marginal as presented be to likely more are women of demands the context, this In members. Whereas in Hungary, the percentage of workers in part in workers of percentage the Hungary, in Whereas not

included in the scope of unions, and as many of them are women this reinforces their reinforces this women are them of many as and unions, of scope the in included - - uprig ta ter ae oneprs (L counterparts male their than supporting, ao ad etr Erpa cnet wih ot tde o trade of studies most which context, European Western and Saxon n te oiat ns f h uin Bikn 93 dRvg and duRivage 1983, (Briskin union the of ones dominant the rns

al on men in positions of power since even those women women those even since power of positions in men on al - identify as leaders, and are less seen as such by other by such as seen less are and leaders, as identify - societal 67 - time work often comes with a reduced access to to access reduced a with comes often work time - - odr wh holder, cultural” (Wertheimer and Nelson 1975) 1975) Nelson and (Wertheimer cultural”

the time which would be necessary to necessary be would which time the - t ime jobs is very low, the trend is trend the low, very is jobs ime sol nt ae n external any have not should o Part wec 19: 0. Being 20). 1994: awrence - timers or temp workers temp or timers . Sue Ledwith argues Ledwith Sue . - time jobs,astime a result - making positions making - Baumgarten fices -

CEU eTD Collection effects of a gender bias on women, change has to happen on the structural and cultural level. One level. cultural and structural the on happen to has change women, on bias gender a of effects opportun women’s improve to helpful is organization union the of levels all across women of distribution even an and training skills First, it. achieve to used be can strategies different aim, the on Depending representation. (Briskin 2014). bodies bargaining collective to linked formally or structures firmly opportunity if in leadership embedded women’s of development the for basis fruitful a provide can constituency policy and bargaining collective of levels at emerge well are training and mentoring, leadership, e been women’s of furthering the part, following and the in strategies different compare will I concerns. structure, women’s organizational the within equality women’s of advancement Seve level. global a on demands equality gender forward bring to useful be would structures making ofunions’decisionThus, theimplicationofmore women inthe equal higher positions (1999:386). financialinstitutions international effect unifying a have could women organized of demands the them. effect provide could contexts. local specific in work structures these how deep more the a srtge hv be ietfe i te otx o tae nos s eeiil o the for beneficial as unions trade of context the in identified been have strategies ral Recognizi yti Ccbr (96 smaie te an ai main the summarizes (1996) Cockburn Cynthia have structures union trade in women of participation higher a enable to strategies Different Constituencies4.1.2. Women's of Women Strategies Trade andOther Union In analyzing the gendered effect of a globalized economy, Valentine Moghadam argues that that argues Moghadam Valentine economy, globalized a of effect gendered the analyzing In aie b shlr o tae nos Tee hw ht f h opruiis o women’s for opportunities the if that show These unions. trade of scholars by xamined

- only caucuses for the cause of women’s equality. the caucusesonly cause for ofwomen’s - rooted causes of income and status inequalities on the labor market. Understanding market. labor the on inequalities status and income of causes rooted ng gender as inherent to the organization structure is important in order to realize to order in important is structure organization the to inherent as gender ng ities as individuals. Secondly, if the focus is on reducing the negative the reducing on is focus the if Secondly, individuals. as ities and intand errogate and modify current gender relations to make them make to genderrelations modifycurrentand errogate - developed, women’s interests are more likely to to likely more are interests women’s developed, 68

- aig A tog autono strong, A making.

s f drsig oe’ under women’s addressing of ms n mlyr, oenet and governments employers, on ive strategies to overcome to strategies ive

focusing on the role of of role the on focusing mous women’s women’s mous

- -

CEU eTD Collection constituency inthe union. th but woman, individual an of views the not representing table, bargaining collective the at matters: it empowerment where heard is voice collective individual their Rather, 2011). (Briskin women’s of notion the past go to enables constituency, autonomous an as structures bargaining collective in women equality of inclusion and formal A bargaining 2014). (Briskin collective structures between links formal through happen can This women. of implement to unions women’s issuesincollectivebargaining and policy and delegates lay among women of representation long a ensures It outcomes. organizational and representation women’s for effects positive have to proved quota a of implementation the confederations, union trade German study a In level. union trade or national a on implemented been have already these closer Hungary bring would quotas of representation only committees remedy can women of establishment the and the leadership women’s strengthening how union, show will part the following within activism women’s from emanate that approaches on Focusing demands. thus group, social a as women of representation the ensures argues, Cockburn structures, women’s separate Lastly,funding union. the of bodies making office union male after of expectations the including is this for example u qoa hv ter iis n salsig oe qa srcue. t s lo motn for important also is It structures. equal more establishing in limits their have quotas But better promote to measure a as quotas mention often women union trade interviewed The Women’sStrategies for Activism: Justice, Quotas, Representational Training, andLeadership

women in political, economic, and trade union structures. For them, introducing them, For structures. union trade and economic, political, in women - odr. hrl, uts noc a ipoe peec o wmn n decision in women of presence improved an enforce quotas Thirdly, holders. measures t measures

women’s andstrengthentheir underrepresentation demands. hat strengthen representational justice and the procedural inclusion procedural the and justice representational strengthen hat

o uoen tnad and standards European to 69 -

making giving them more strength to further collective further to strength more them giving otiue t a icesd ersnain of representation increased an to contributes - ok epniiiis o bot for responsibilities work (Kirschand Blaschke 2014).

to its Western neighbors, where where neighbors, Western its to e diverse views of the women’s women’s the of views diverse e - lasting proportional proportional lasting of Austrian and and Austrian of h female and and female h

- -

CEU eTD Collection 01 39. oe vle eaae organizing separate value Women 319). 2011: (Curtin union their of agenda the influencing thus discussed, be can strategies and policies where space a create and actions, their throu through claims these claims politicize others, informing women’s and information further They unions. trade in women for equality greater trade union. mechanisdisablingor tool useful a be can women for structure separate of presence The 87). 2005: (Neumann leadership confederational the from issues gender ( addressing in support Board little received only Women’s however Board MSZOSZ the of establishment the Választmány to led has This 2003). issues Pollert gender further to little doing is itself leadership union of level highest lead thetrade issues ofwithin toabetterrepresentation especially union. difficult in interests” “women’s of presence decision paritary the and structures inclusionary more achieve to order in strengthened be to has committees, bargaining collective in implementation firm women’s structuresenableconfident and theof more participation women inthe tradeunion. K and (Greene union women the from Following with exchange mutual in equality of agenda own their construct finally and women, other with network confidence, build differences, their value constitue self build to help canIt style. leadership transformational Women Scholars have pointed out several ways in which separate women’s structures contribute to contribute structures women’s separate which in ways several out pointed have Scholars th situation their improve to left are women Hungary, In Separate Between Organizing: Consciousness women mentoring, through leadership, competent Women’s - ncies through feminist conscientization (Pochic and Guillaume 2012). It enables women to women It enables 2012). Guillaume and (Pochic conscientization feminist through ncies aig rcse. diinly te coo the Additionally, processes. making

) te rdcso o te AZZ W MASZSZ the of predecessor the , - only education provides the background for politicized empowerment views and a a and views empowerment politicized for background the provides education only m. Much depends on their embedding in the decision the embeddingin their on dependsMuch m. - only education, women’s successful leadership can promote a change in change a promote can leadership successful women’s education, only

rus s “ae lc” o ter ocrs n a and concerns their for place” “safe a as groups 70 peration with other women’s organizations can can organizations women’s other with peration

- mns eto ( Section omen’s Building andIsolation Building - organizational structures for marginalized for structures organizational og self rough - ö Tagozat Nöi ny edu only -

making structures of the the of makingstructures - raiain as organization, ain qoa and quotas cation,

(Neumann 2005, 2005, (Neumann ro 20: 56). 2002: irton )

Te Women’s The . gh collecting collecting gh Nöi Nöi the

CEU eTD Collection nemn te atcl nt o tae no wmn Bikn rpss o ae h “socially the make to proposes Briskin women, union trade of unity tactical the undermine loc within exclusion and hierarchies (re)produce they how and women, union between boundaries of formation the in interact identities collec 2000) Ledwith for agenda an share necessarily not do and group homogenous structures. dif concerns”. “women’s of “nature” the on and securefemale theloyalty oftotheunion. members un female between bonds the strengthen to unions help they Additionally, network. support a and strategizing common through action, common into demands these transform to tool a secti Women’s 222). 1999:(Kirton union the to commitment andintegration improve socialwomen’s to shown alsohave networks women’s informal and Formal 194f.). (2012: participation their encouraging for basis a of importance the stresses also Ledwith whole. a unionas inthetrade women representation and of participation forsections’ the organizing efforts women’s the of importance the notes (2011) Blaschke Sabine unions, trade German and Austrian structures. union the into concerns their of integration the as well as consciousness, feminist a of creation the and concerns women’s of advancement autonomous the both facilitates self a into women (Briski constituency” of constituency present the transforming union, women, and enco the in than for voice” representedand “visibility provide better They 249f.). 2000: were Ledwith and minority (Colgan structures mainstream a as status their to relating issues where place ferent categories in the formation of social identities in the establishment of separate women’s separate of establishment the in identities social of formation the in categories ferent Collective organizing also strengthens women’s group identity of belonging within the trade trade the within belonging of identity group women’s strengthens also organizing Collective Problems with separate women’s structures occur when they lead to essentialist conclusions essentialist to lead they when occur structures women’s separate with Problems iest aog oe nes o e recognized: be to needs women among Diversity . Leela Fernandes (1997: 6) stresses the importance of analyzing how different social different how analyzing of importance the stresses 6) (1997: LeelaFernandes . urage new forms of collective action (Ledwithcollective formsurage new of 2012). action ons thus fulfill both a need for women to express their own demands and act asact and demands own their express to women for needa both fulfill thus ons n 1999: 544). 1999: n

She argues that women’s that argues She l ao movements. labor al It is important to pay attention to the intersection of of intersection the to attention pay to important is It 71 shared cultural understanding among women as a as women among understanding cultural shared

hl ti dvriy s fe fae to feared often is diversity this While - only organizing within a trade union union trade a within organizing only s n suy shows, study one as

ie action tive - osiu, “pro conscious, hy r nt a not are they

o members ion Cla and (Colgan

Analyzing - active

CEU eTD Collection their to power more giving thus union, the within entity strong a as women of positioning the to lead can women this members, and consciousnessamong mentoring building women powerfulin structure is a and structures autonomous the between grass other with cooperate women the if especially 319), (2011: empowerment” of ways emerging and partial, local, “more of source a as it sees rather but powerlessness, with marginalization equating against argues however, Curtin, Jennifer (223). constituencies women’s from stem that demands constitut union by mandated are which committees women’s elect to e.g. bargaining, collective and structures these between links formal establish to importance the stresses Briskin structures, separate in women of isolation avoid (Gr union the of level general the on discussed be should they whereas spaces”, “women’s to issues equality of sidelining the is women of training separate the regarding l decision the in issues women’s of integration lacking gender,level orage. of disability, see generally are categories between boundaries the and neglected are religion, or race as such however, categories Other class. or disability as such categories, some to (1 sections women’s of analysis the to central imbalances” structural and experience of nature constructed acking support by the dominant elite (Colgan and Ledwith 2000: 255). 255). 2000: Ledwith and (Colgan elite dominant the by support acking

- demands. Another disadvantage of separate women’s structure that trade union scholars note, is the the is note, scholars union trade that structure women’s separate of disadvantage Another balance” “strategic a be to needs there that argument Briskin’s with agree I conclusion, In roots women’s movements. roots women’s 999: 547). My findings show that among Hungarian trade union women there is attention thereis women union trade amongHungarian that show findings My 547). 999:

by and ions n integration of women’s demands (1999). demands women’s of integration n - as 21: 1f. hs ln ad aine o the to salience add link These 218f). (2014: laws 72

- making structures of the trade unions and a and unions trade the of structures making n to be fixed, whether on the on whether fixed, be to n eene and Kirton 53ff.). Kirton and eene One major concern concern major One

If the separate separate the If To

CEU eTD Collection opinions, both on the political as on the union level, can real change be achieved. “The fish stinks stinks fish “The achieved. be change real can level, union the on as political the on both opinions, doe she as structures as well” down further valid is [tendency] this obviously then midst, its in leaders female have to important gov this If down. further continues it but there, from starts obviously experienc constituencygenerally, part women’s leadership, of positions in representation lacking their like women, of advancement the to obstacles different mention they world, union trade the in equality women’s of perceptions wome of majority the to compared high are agenda union’s the influencing of capabilities their and standing particular a have They union. member the vice leaders, regional as unions, Women’s Section based ontheexperience the interviewed women. of pres and unions, trade of in perceptions chances interviewees’ the women’s address will I part, next the In opportunities. and constraints local their on depend strategies their of outcome and use the but demands, their further to women structures. It is important to keep in mind the local institutional context in the analysis of these separate separate these of analysis the in context institutional local the mind in keep to important is It theWomen’s4.2. Gendered and Organization Resistance Section of asaTool Similarly to other interviewees, she demands a rise in women’s representation in the union the in representation women’s in rise a demands she interviewees, other to Similarly it although level, highest the on only Not leaders. women few too are there opinion, my “In own their integrate and themselves leadership of position a in all are women interviewed The thei within position high a have all section women’s MASZSZ the of members The in 4.2.1. Gendered Hungarian the Movement Trade Organization Union (Veres). es forfemale political intheirdemands andtrade inboth more leadership unionstructures. ugra tae no wmn orw taeis rm etr E Western from strategies borrow women union trade Hungarian icipation due to family responsibilities and of information on the women’s women’s the on information of and responsibilities family to due icipation

s for politics. Many women agree that only by changing the top the changing by only that agree women Many politics. for s or the ofgender lackequality support or ofmale issues. - presidents of the member union, or even as a long term leader of leader term long a as even or union, member the of presidents ent the meanings and functions of the MASZSZ MASZSZ the of functions and meanings the ent 73

n activists. In response to my questions on their their on questions my to response In activists. n

rmn de nt em it deem not does ernment

uropean trade union union trade uropean

- level officials’ officials’ level

the lack of of lack the r member r

CEU eTD Collection 25 ( character of strong so is Hercegh][Mária Section Women’s the of leader current “The style. leadership her in in inspiration seeThey Section. Women’s MASZSZ the of Hercegh,leader Mária is interviewees the for values these represents who woman One others. influence to ability the lackwomen’s issues become positions, ofwomen marginalized. inleadership to Due these. represent to person or organ no is there where especially background, the in pushed Transportation Union(Nemes). questions,” women's in us, represent you that think [men] you of representation the ensure would women’s interest positions these in women demands: policy general their currentl while one, but all of Committees Steering the in represented are women interviewees, the of unions member the In (Lupkovics). story” career Hungarian “typical the this calls She further. advance representativ workers’ as leadership, middle of positions on take women many While ceiling. glass a at up end often unions trade in women office male retired a of position the all butoneof unionsinthe sample themember are ledby men. decision (László). problem this formulates representative one how is head,” its from

For detailed data on leadership ratios, see Table of Participants, p. 9f. p. ofParticipants, see ratios, Table leadership on data detailed For Slowly, there are more and more women in the leadership of the union as as union the of leadership the in women more and more are there Slowly, Ac f The opinion,our tell to space,the leaveus don't theywoman, a sector….as transportation the “In to similar are structures leadership in women union more for arguments interviewees’ The yas theTeachers’a only President. as woman Unionhas its - cording to the respondents, good leadership entails responsibility, credibility, and the the and credibility, responsibility, entails leadership good respondents, the to cording making level is also connected to the lack of women in top in women of lack the to connected also is level making karakáns ounding member of the MSZOSZ Women’s Board agrees that women’s interests are are interests women’s that agrees Board Women’s MSZOSZ the of member ounding s on the policys onthe agenda: , a oe nevee dsrbs her describes interviewee one as ),”

- holder. However, one representative explains that many other other many that explains representative one However, holder.

es on the company level ( level company the on es 74

(Nemes)

says the representative of the United the of representative the says 25 -

decision making structures, as structures, making decision Aohr nevee also interviewee Another . bizalmisok

her as a person, but also but person, a asher

hs rtqe f the of critique This well, who often got got often who well,

), only a few can few a only ),

CEU eTD Collection movement is too low to make a difference. The representative of the United Transportation Trade Transportation United the of representative The difference. a make to low too is movement gainthrough access could more to which decision women, union for structures international with connect help also could structures These members. struct right the unions, member all In far. so up built was European EMSZ the the of women the between and Union cooperation Broadcasting no and scarce, and slow is process information the union, the says know,” (V level European a on women union even don’t we trade of cooperations which possible exploring (EMSZ), Union Trade Media United the about of representative Union], Broadcasting European [the there member certain in women for work effective hindering some preferablyaddress” type information, anemail ofcontact p of piece a a bring what usually I for. is good is this Day Women's Well, something. information, contact and names their have to (alszervezetek), thi solves problem her in own way: company bus a of representative The union. member each in women of percentage decision par assured as well as union, trade the of levels higher the to contacts good mention also They enough. not is alone leadership good that however, know, women the experience, own the of members the accre this section women’s to due and (MÁV), Railway Hungarian the for employee Resources Human an as worked has Hercegh unions. member other in section women’s of creation the inspire and Hercegh that work the that mentions Further, data Better sub the of members women the on statistic a was there if good be would “It the on data enough having not is equality women’s for activism their in constraint main A - making processes tobringforward the demands. women’s ures have to be set up first to diffuse informations on union activity by and for women women for and by activity union on informations diffuse to first up set be to have ures ay nevees ge ta wmns cie atcpto i te rd union trade the in participation active women’s that agree interviewees many - collection would also ensure better information transfer, which is currently currently is which transfer, information better ensure also would collection dit her a higher sensitivity for dealing with workers’ concerns. Due to their to Due concerns. workers’ with dealing for sensitivity higher a her dit

eres). But because there is no women’s section in her member member her in section women’s no is there because But eres).

the MASZSZ Women’s Section do, is very important to important very is do, Section Women’s MASZSZ the 75 - making power

aper, and then I ask them there to give me give to there them ask I then and aper,

unions. “We get a lot of invitations from invitations of lot a get “We unions.

(Nemes).

ticipation in ticipation - unions unions s

CEU eTD Collection family should stand behind the women [at least] in these” in least] [at women the behind stand should family the of respondent, Another meetings. during children their for caring in unionists other of support the female the representative further a to leads responsibilities, multiple women’s marginalization of their issues. the to due mobilization, Lacking responsibilities. family on take to women towards expectations the of because work, union to time her alwaysputs my family, husband.Sothe woman ofherself” her partner infront Another women. are leaders unions’ the respondent adds: of both although work, other the all with activism union coordinate to is it difficult how and has, sector education feminized the in women of work (kimozdítani)” this of out women the move to difficult very is It clean. and wash, cook, I weekends, the On family. the to belongs weekend the w participation theunionactivities, as in therepresentativeofUnion explains: theTeachers’ as shepointsout. demands, their for up stand to confidence lack women Many (Nemes) partners.” find to easy as not is myself, it this with lot a struggle “I notified: been have all although section, women’s union’s the pa actively union her of members 80 the of out women seven only that explains Union hen we plan it for a weekend, it is very difficult to mobilize them [the women]. Because,know, you [thewomen]. mobilizethem to difficult isvery it aweekend, hen for we planit

Teachers’ totheroleUnion, points ofsupport that the family toplay has situation: in this Ti [ifcly s ey rsn we w pa sm ato fr xml. n, practically, And, example. for action some plan we when present very is [difficulty] “This More importantly,as s W dsus hs fe, ht hr ae o mn mblztos o orevs ad ht the that and ourselves, for mobilizations many not are there that often, this discuss “We different use respondents The t ability reduced their on hinges often members female mobilize to difficulty The “Everyone

is running everywhere, to the family, to pick up the children, now I have to meet meet to have I now children, the up pick to family, the to everywhere, running is

- dominated sales union points out that activists with children can rely on on rely can children with activists that out points union sales dominated ome respondents mention, women just don’t have the time for time intensive womendon’tthe respondents have just ome mention,

taeis o eey h lw atcpto rts A rates. participation low the remedy to strategies

(Jenes). 76

She describes how many “layers” especially the the especially “layers” many how describes

(Jenes). The (Jenes).

support that is missing from missing is that support

(Nemes). rticipate in rticipate

o devote devote o

CEU eTD Collection viaiiy f sae o cmo ato las o h nx apc, hc i te uteig of furthering the is which aspect, next the to leads action common for space a of availability “pro a produce be can it Hungary, in issues can thus section women’s the of activity The labor equality. women’s furthering for tool a as categorized current on opinions their exchange and discuss, debate, which of provides it that sense issues, the in However, one. only of is equality women’s range wide a covers work union daily Their such. as issues” “women’s of prevalence the on views diverse have women interviewed the chapters, previous in shown was As organizingwomen, oftheirframework. structurefor inthe context locally specific institutional pr the to accord women union trade Hungarian functions which part, next the In structure. organizational gendered current the change to opportunities with them presents which more get to involved reduced, are workplace the at and home at responsibilities the when time”, “good the forwait ratherto but women, towards expectations societal fundamentallychange necessarilyto union in women of rates participation advanced be trulyfree agecan and the expectations. women themselves societal of t close also is who interviewee an by shared is view This work. union on needs she that time the devote to retirement her for waiting simply with” deal to issues other these all have you when not progress, long women’s activismtheMSZOSZ within tradeunionconfederation: a in important also is members family and husbands W ae rgesn, ht s motn, i b bt bt o ne a suppor a need you but bit, by bit important, is that progressing, are “We The MASZSZ Women’s Section is not a place that strictly deals with women’s issues only issues women’s with deals strictly that place a not is Section Women’s MASZSZ The ofthe Women’sSection4.2.2. The Function MASZSZ co and members family of Support in union work. However, they are all organized within the MASZSZ Women’s Section, Women’s MASZSZ the within organized all are they However, work. union in - cie constituency” active

of women within the MASZSZ (Briskin 1999: 544). The The 544). 1999: (Briskin MASZSZ the within women of

- oiiain. ute, h itriwe’ i i not is aim interviewees’ the Further, mobilizations. activists are seen as important factors in raising the the raising in factors important as seen are activists o the retirement age. In her opinion, only in an an in only opinion, her In age. retirement the o 77

- term union leader’s experience of of experience leader’s union term

(Steer). Another representative is representative Another (Steer).

a platform for women only to only women for platform a esence of a separate separate a of esence

, hn o can you then t,

CEU eTD Collection among the women. In this sense, the Women’s Section is highly valued as a space to exchange best exchange to space a as valued highly is Section Women’s the sense, this In women. the among the of experience helpful,” very very, is this So other. each help can we And ideas. our exchange really can we and often very talk can we And ours. like often very are still problems developmentsthem: thataffect action. Women’s The explains. f Section respondent one as statements, press and conferences, through raising projects. nationwide or workplace suggest be can These members. the spirit. similar cooperate in professional generate to and leave, maternity was the as example board for workers, women the concerned that measures of in competence function the that explains She (Steer). for” fight union and changed, regime The women. the for decisions the make to state the on depend longer no could They (Steer). bargaining” fights, organ women’s conditions. socialist former the adapting process,” national a in the polit on subjects, other to or concerns equality to related concretely are they whether demands, women’s The coThe Meanings Strategies,Section”: Self of“Women’sSolidarity, Te olaus oe rm mlyr ta work that employers legal from come colleagues discuss “The can and about informed are members where place the is this Often, a in functions thus and board the of follower direct the is Section Women’s MASZSZ The

ical agenda union. ofthe unctions as a space of networking, exchange of ideas, as well as development of collective of development as well as ideas, of exchange networking, of space a as unctions “Everything that we [women] simply received before, was now subject to agreements, to subject now was before, received simply [women] we that “Everything - the social governancethe socialcountry. ofthe founder of the MSZOSZ Women’s Board, explains that its creation “was the next step next the “was creation its that explains Board, Women’s MSZOSZ the of founder The agenda of the monthly Women’s Section meetings is defined by the concerns of of concerns the by defined is meetings Section Women’s monthly the of agenda The

oe’ Scin (Siraky). Section Women’s

o ec is ol, h scin eis n obig awareness lobbying, on relies section the goals, its reach To ions for common petition, discussion of concerns in the own own the in concerns of discussion petition, common for ions

women had to realize that: realize to had women Another one emphasizes the solidarity and unity unity and solidarity the emphasizes one Another 78

n cmltl dfeet il, u their but field, different completely a in -

Confidence one respondent summarizes her summarizes respondent one “You will get as much as you as much as get will “You ztos o h changing the to izations

CEU eTD Collection h ohr etiig o h isfiin ebdig f h Wmns eto i te MASZSZ the in Section Women’s structures. the of embedding insufficient the to pertaining other the wome the that time of lack the to relating one parts: two into categorized broadly be can These limitations. its has it that admit also they space, networking enable inwomen’s a cooperation politics. better to and from out branch to place good a is Section Women’s the sectors, economic all of women cross enables and level, national const the on politics women’s coordinate to easier it makes also organization the of nature the Further, experience. own their in bring and role, leadership a on take organizational lasting build to in long Another structures: women new bring to and generation new a train to opinion climate. political adverse current the in achieved be can much how uncertain established.” be to have them] [to relations the then and mapped, be to has topic, a is women of representation of women’s and separate organizing: outreach training separate toother women’s organizations: Section. the i of most in up come different sectors work. own her in her gave it confidence the for thankful is who respondent, one by beneficial as seen is organization overarching higher, a practices. tec coeain wt te ot ognzto fr example. for organization youth the with cooperation, ituency The co The Although all the women express their happiness with regard to the presence of this this of presence the to regard with happiness their express women the all Although Possibilities of Limited cour “Of

The exchangeand members transfertheir union.The itto member knowledge

- founder of the MSZOSZ Women’s Section mentions two further important functions important further two mentions Section Women’s MSZOSZ the of founder (Steer). se, one has to create relations in all directions. So every organization, where the where organization, every So directions. all in relations create to has one se,

h ad ta ti i te ln f h cret Women current the of plan the is this that adds She - term union activist union term Transformation nterviews as reasons for collaborating within the Women’sthe within collaborating reasonsforas nterviews Solidarity, unity, and the ability to share opinions across opinions share to ability the and unity, Solidarity,

agrees that the women’s section motivates activists to activists motivates section women’s the that agrees

n can invest in separate women’s activities, women’s separate in invest can n As a nexus of meeting for for meeting of nexus a As s eto, u i is it but Section, ’s t s rca i her in crucial is It

fact to have have fact to

CEU eTD Collection union is highly feminized. This is the case for the representatives of the Teachers’ Union or the or Union Teachers’ the of representatives the for case the is This feminized. highly is union the if particularlylow is structure separate a of necessity perceived The such. as organizingseparate she that meaning Section, Women’s MASZSZ the of highly thinks she Still, time. free little very have already they as section, women’s a with stewards shop “her” burden one, have to necessary not it deem women some union, member the in committee women’s formal a of lack decision in influence limited their regret but Section, interviewees. decision higher on as depended seen was and Section insecure, Women’s the particularly of future the period, this in Thus, decisions. higher to due S Women’s the in participate further SZEF to wanted they interviewed that explained members The MASZSZ. the left confederation SZEF the as process, restructuring a i the MASZSZrepresentinga isuseful in broadercould, thantheever base ofwomen unions member of Section Women’s the while that attest, interviewees The functioning. full its for indispensable se between links firm showed, decision the in embedding its the Women’s Section, as a spacewhere issues ofin of presence the appreciates She (Lupkovics). culture” “macho as characterizes she which culture, “anti the are opinion, her in equality, threatening Especially unions. trade within also society as Hungarian feels for she characteristic that intolerance the perceives She unions. trade the in level daily the on discussed th of culture organizational ts position within the MASZSZ is insecure. During my research period the MASZSZ went through went MASZSZ the period research my During insecure. is MASZSZ the within position ts h Wmns eto cn e en s pae f eitne ihn h male the within resistance of place a as seen be can Section Women’s The On the level of the MASZSZ confede MASZSZ the of level the On on depends tendencies these counteract effectively can Section Women’s the much how But or see it as an added burden. The leader of the HVDSZ Union explains that she could not could she that explains Union HVDSZ the of leader The burden. added an as it see or

e confederation. In one respondent’s opinion, issues of equality are not are equality of issues opinion, respondent’s one In confederation. e - making structure of the MASZSZ. As Briskin (1999. 2013, 2014) 2014) 2013, (1999. Briskin As MASZSZ. the of structure making aae oe’ scin ad antem no srcue are structures union mainstream and sections women’s parate - edr tnece wih r satn t ifune union influence to starting are which tendencies gender” ration, the women agree on the benefits of the Women’sthe of benefits the on agreewomen the ration, 80

equalityand tolerance areabout. being talked - making processes. making - aig tutrs n h ee o the of eyes the in structures making

But when asked about the about asked when But does not reject women’s reject not does ection, but could not, could but ection,

to women’s women’s to - dominated dominated

CEU eTD Collection policyagenda. 26 2014). (Briskin justice” “representational gain to women for order in process bargaining collective the formally be decision to the in embedded have structures women’s separate change, structural substantial achieve really political and leadership the strengthen of empowerment and activism, union in women more of involvement the increase can specifically women training and women for structures Separate 2014). Blaschke long have also but unions in women of involvement individual the further effectively Quotas demands. and structures, these of effects l union internal an on unions trade Hungarian in women affects organization but alsosupportofhigher unionstructures. a of feminization of degree the to bound is themselves, self women’s for necessity perceived the represented. fully not is women of constituency the thus women, are half than less women have to necessary structures, it deem not does confederation the that explains and workers separ establish necessary those ofwomen, intheir case,are than which everydayunionactivities. present in cl Both Union. Workers’ Retail

Examples are Examples are In the experience of another respondent the support of the member union is crucial to to crucial is union member the of support the respondent another of experience the In In addition to the constrained political and legal environment of trade unions, gendered gendered unions, trade of environment legal and political constrained the to addition In

- em fet o te implicat the on effects term because it represents 70% women workers women 70% represents it because

the exclusion of women from higher office fromhigher women of exclusion the ate organizing structures. structures. organizing ate union women (Greene and Kirton 2002, Pochic and Guillaume 2012). But to to But 2012). Guillaume and Pochic 2002, Kirton and (Greene women union

- 26 making structure of the union. Equality institutions have to be l be to have institutions Equality union. the of structure making

studies have analyzed different strategies to further women’s leadershipfurtherwomen’s analyzedhaveto different studies strategies

aim that a space to represent men’s interests would be more more be would interests men’s represent to space a that aim o o eult ise o te no’ aed (ish and (Kirsch agenda union’s the on issues equality of ion She is part of the SZEF confederation of the public sector public the of confederation SZEF the of part is She

- raiig y oe atvss s el s unions as well as activists women by organizing 81 - hold

ing structures and lacking equality issues from union from issues equality lacking and ingstructures .

union and the availabilities of its members, its of availabilities the and union However, among the leaders the among However, evel. To combat the combat To evel. This shows that shows This of the SZEF the of inked to inked

- only only

CEU eTD Collection epce, n te rsne f oe a cletv brann ad oiy eae nes o be to needs securedas well. debates policy and bargaining collective at women of presence the and respected, decision to links firm policy, unions’ trade the more in a introduce and organization gendered of e of integration effectssubstantial the For union. trade the into culture tolerant egalitarian, resist to step first a only is section co more feel they perceived,is not especially professions inthe case ofhighlyorsectors. feminized separat of establishment the hinders often leadership union’s the of support lacking where unions, member of case the in arise Problems unions. member their within women interviewed the of positions higher the by defined is section dema women’s the of furthering the this, through and of actions, collective strategies successful for important particularly is solidarity of aspect The sectors. economic sum political agenda. its and union whole the of level the on change structural to contribute not do and sidelined, being case, opposite the In 1999). (Briskin constituency” marized as a space to exchange ideas and best practices among women of many different different many of women among practices best and ideas exchange to space a as marized In the case of the MASZSZ Women’s Section the benefits for the interviewed women can be be can women interviewed the for benefits the Section Women’s MASZSZ the of case the In “pro a to lead can section women’s separate established, are links these If By having a higher collective organization representing them, the interviewees express that that express interviewees the them, representing organization collective higher a having By

nfident and stronger as a constituency. However, the presence of a women’s women’s a of presence the However, constituency. a as stronger and nfident e women’s section. Sometimes, the need for a women’s section section women’s a for need the Sometimes, section. women’s e 82

“women’s” and equality issues run the risk of risk the run issues equality and “women’s” - aig tutrs ed o salse and established to need structures making nds. The function of the of function The nds.

- quality measures quality active women’s women’s active

CEU eTD Collection emancipatory concepts. A locally specific institutional framework influences the women’s women’s the influences framework strategies thefunctions tothewomen’sactivism and forthey accord section. institutional specific locally A concepts. emancipatory of legacy the and norms equality gender of Europeanization the by influenced is which womanhood, of understanding specific a on equality gender for demands their base Hungary on mostly focused which research, current of scope the broaden to aim I in, within organization gendered the landscape(4). the what also but (3), Hungary current the navigate they which (1), voice they what analyzed I Section, Women’s MASZSZ the of members post of context the in unions trade researchon discourse, but take on a shifted meaning, as the policy demands for child care and the more more the women show inleadership positions and care child for demands policy the as meaning, shifted a on take but discourse, their in used strategically are norms equality gender Europeanized pay. equal “Europea and opportunity to refer women interviewed The 2013). Popa and (Krizsan learning” “social through Europeanization this on influence an have actors society Civil measures. law soft EU through Hungary to travel mostly which norms, equality The thesis introduces 1) M B uilding on literature from policy and gender equality studies, research on trade unions, and unions, trade on research studies, equality gender and policy from literature on uilding ain Findings T he

h Anglo the edr qaiy demands equality gender

- understandings of womanhood of understandings ao ad etr Erpa cnet I ru ta tae no wmn in women union trade that argue I context. European Western and Saxon ea ad cnmc osrit ad opportunities and constraints economic and legal the experiences of women from Hungarian trade unions into the existing into Hungarianexperiencesfrom women tradeunions the of ucin f oe’ section women’s of function

ht h itriwe vie re voice interviewees the that - Conclusions socialist states. Based on 13 in 13 Basedon states. socialist 83

provide the basis for these demands (2), how (2), demands these for basis the provide ” om i ter ead fr equal for demands their in norms n”

s ihn h Hnain rd union trade Hungarian the within is demands lc Erpaie gender Europeanized flect

for gender equality gender for

- depth interviews with interviews depth

for trade unions in in unions trade for state - socialist socialist

policy

CEU eTD Collection oe dfeet rm e ad ead oto oe te aeil osqecs f these of consequences material the over control demand and men from different women make that characteristics “feminine” certain by shaped roles, professional and social women’s equality gender for demands Their today. womanhood of understandings interviewees’ the influences labor of division gendered the of analysis lacking This women. for care and household of responsibilities added the addressing without market, State leg with norms equality gender and civil society actors on the national and international level is important to navigate their their navigate constrained environment. andpolitical legal to important is level international and national the on actors society civil and the influence that strategies o their as process, legislative over and leadership workers, company with the with trust contacts securing good members, maintaining union with relations good as such strategies show findings The workers. women for conditions working and social better provide and equality gender of aims further to do (can) actors policy as unions trade what analyze to important is it Thus, services. welfare of rollback the through furth is The system political actors. current political as marginalization their and movement, labor the of fragmentation and constraint legal new, locallywomen’s specific meaning equality. and ofwomanhood substantial choice dominant liberal, the a with in merge belief to European seen be can market, labor the in integration full women’s and socialis the where is differences.This 2) 3) -

oils eacptr plce fcsd n h fl itgain f wom of integration full the on focused policies emancipatory socialist T T heir he context for trade union trade for context roots of gender inequalities. At the intersection of these influences they construct a construct they influences these of intersection the At inequalities. gender of roots understanding s for unions’ activism (especially since the 2011 Labor Code), internal hostility hostility internal Code), Labor 2011 the since (especially activism unions’ for s

f oaho eegs t h itreto o dmnn European dominant of intersection the at emerges womanhood of ptions here have been reduced. Cooperation with other trade unions unions trade other with Cooperation reduced. been have here ptions acies of a state a of acies ering neoliberal social policie social neoliberal ering s that developed since the regime change is characterized by characterized is change regime the since developed that s - t conception of emancipation, based on material differencesmaterial on based emancipation,of conception t ae pltc o eult, ete o wih usin the question which of neither equality, of politics based

84 - socialist past socialist

that the interviewed trade unionists prioritize prioritize unionists trade interviewed the that

oiy et n eti asmtos of assumptions certain on rest policy

that the interviewed women share. share. women interviewed the that s

that impact wom impact that

n n h labor the in en en in particular in en

CEU eTD Collection power differences that shape the research and writing process, as I am embedded in the hegemonic the in embedded am I as process, writing and research the shape that differences power act and social age, in differences to due outsider, an remain I butbackground, cultural and language knowledge shared of basis the on women the connectwith to German a as position hybrid My culture. and language Hungarian th of knowledge my using findings, research the through Europe Eastern Central in feminisms Western dominant activists. In the specific context of Hungarian trade union women, the women’s section takes on on takes section women’s the women, union trade Hungarian of context specific the In activists. o the overcome to many among strategy One agenda. political unions’ the on issues” “women’s of under an to leads which structures, higher in women of presence the lack unions responsi family and work combine to struggling are they as women, mobilize to difficulty the is this of effect One unions. internal the from difficulty second a face activists Female activism. tradepolicy culture unions’ and agenda. the in equality gender of integration substantial a and levels more on diversity of appreciation The unions. in s structures equality better establishing in limits its mention also participants highly is thesection appreciated, the thepresence women.While of of solidaritywith other union a presenceTheactions. of own their supports and strategize, and network to opportunity the women gives It equality. of issues only not work, union trade of aspects all on knowledge of exchanging for space a as acts it equality: without constituency, women’s active an building of function a tructure needs to be embedded better on the decision the on better embedded be to needs tructure bstacles posed by gendered organization, is the establishment of a of establishment the is organization, gendered by posed bstacles 4) M M ethods aayi cen analysis y H wvr nt ny h otie ntttoa fram institutional outside the only not owever,

- eti fmns fae f nlss ad i t poue nweg o current on knowledge produce to aim and analysis, of frame feminist centric es n oe’ eprecs n fmns taiin I oe wy rm a from away move I tradition. feminist a in experiences women’s on ters bilities and have to adapt to the ideal male worker norm. Further, Further, norm. worker male ideal the to adapt to have and bilities higher organization gives them self givesthem organization higher

- making level of the union, to achieve an achieve to union, the of level making wr ifune te rd unionists’ trade the influences ework ivist background. I am aware of the the of aware am I background. ivist - Hungarian researcher allows me me allows researcher Hungarian

separate structure separate eey ouig n gender on focusing merely edrd organization gendered - confidence and a feeling a andconfidence - representation representation

for female for

of e

CEU eTD Collection niomn. y nertn dvre iw i ter oiy gna hy a am o ersn all represent membersgain and thenew trustin economic more context. to aim can they agenda policy their in views diverse integrating By environment. ass can argue, I also, but unions, within leadership women’s and equality gender further to helps only not This visibility. pro a as “women establish can constrain sepa resistance, of tool a legal As themselves. unions of organization of difficulty double the experience women create effectivegenderequality policies for the helps influence, local with merging “Europeanization”, of process the in shifts and is constructed it as Europe, in meanings equality gender of diversity the how Understanding emancipation. state and norms equality gender Europeanized current of intersection the at emerges which womanhood, of understanding unique a on equality gender of demands their m women’s post the characterizes that 2014) Marling and (Koobak zone” “grey the to light shed to aims also research The context. specific locally a in constructed broad and studies relations industrial in ourencounters. exper women’s the preserve to care take I form, academic an into material researched the translating While sphere. academic T C I n the current context for trade unions in Central and Eastern European countries, trade union trade countries, European Eastern and Central in unions trade for context current the n he experiences of women in Hungarian trade unions diversifies the scope of traditional traditional of scope the diversifies unions trade Hungarian in women of experiences he ontributions to Existing to ontributions Scholarship ovements and experiences. I have argued that the trade union women in Hungary base base Hungary in women union trade the that argued have I experiences. and ovements

s tae nos n idn ter ucin n h usal post unstable the in function their finding in unions trade ist iences as source of knowledge and critically reflect on the power lines power the on reflect critically and knowledge of source as iences - active constituency” (Briskin 1999: 544), with a strong voice and voice strong a with 544), 1999: (Briskin constituency” active n te nweg o hw edr qaiy ocps are concepts equality gender how on knowledge the ens

se women. se 86

socialist space in terms of research on on research of terms in space socialist rate structures for women’s sections women’s for structures rate t o uin, n te gendered the and unions, on s - socialist socialist da o women’s of ideas - socialist socialist

CEU eTD Collection unions in Hungary around feminized professions, such as the teachers’ strike and the mobilization the and strike teachers’ the as such professions, feminized around Hungary in unions would deepen unions. women’s theknowledge onsuccessful separate structureswithin section women’s a of strength the for leadership good of implications the of analysis An work. this post and further thehierarchies themareaddressed, to between substantial equalityall members. for social members’ most form to intersect be that categories can different the when constituency pursued effectively separate a within work activist The movement. their strengthening un trade Hungarian foster can locations, different in sections Ithopefullya tradeunions.will in women of cooperationtransnational women’s of function the between differences the H in movement labor the for equality gender of structures of pile same the share them responsibil of most However, today. Hungary in women working of issues working thiswomen thesame what without taints leadership responsibilities, they tobe perceive the a they As experiences. professional or social their and responsibilities, union andworkplace sharetheir not mightwho members, femaleunion of majority the of experiences the reflect necessarily not do thus opinions Their union. member the or selected the of situation constituency, the regional their within leadership of position only a in all are who interviewees, reflect findings my Further, generalizations. broader for - socialist spaces is just one point on the list the on point one just is spaces socialist My research is ho is research My L A D T I mplications for Further Researchmplications for imitations he findings of this research help to understand the functions of women’s sections and other and sections women’s of functions the understand to help research this of findings he iscussing intersectionality in the context of women’s activism in trade unions, specifically intrade of women’scontext iscussing unions, in activism inthe intersectionality

eiit rm o frame feminist ities ofities full

ion women’s sections themselves to analyze their work and opportunities for for opportunities and work their analyze to themselves sections women’s ion - time employmenttime and family, as womeninHungary do. most wever limited by the number of interviews that do not provide enough data data enough provide not do that interviews of number the by limited wever aayi cud lo e ple t suy urn mblztos f trade of mobilizations current study to applied be also could analysis f

re on a higher structural level of the organization than organization the of level structural higher a on re

of many further research projects that could follow could that projects research further many of 87

ungary. On a broader level, understanding understanding level, broader a On ungary. lso stand as an inspiration f inspiration an as stand lso

workplace, workplace, identities identities

CEU eTD Collection and an build internationalpro se women’s between communication effective more foster could movements national their of similarities and differences the of understanding better A unions. trade of agenda the on them strategi the different the to very however light shed is also could It demands. policy analysis women’s union of interaction the transnational understand to important This level. international or European the on sections inHungarianmappinggender thesis. which inthis unions, of was organization presented trade broader the to add also and movements these analyze to useful be would structures organizational in The work. their of valuation and pay better for workers care health of T e coal dbt lcs n xmnto o the of examination an lacks debate scholarly he es that women in different locations use to bring the issues that affect that issues the bring to use locations different in women that es - active constituency of tradeactiveconstituency unionwomen. 88

cooperation and exchange of women’s women’s of exchange and cooperation - depth analy depth sis of gendered gendered of sis ctions,

CEU eTD Collection ------Strategie and Identities “Diversity, 2000. Ledwith. Sue and Fiona Colgan, ------1991. Cynthia. Cockburn, DorothyCobble, Sue. 1993. Central in Transculturation and Difference Thought: Feminist “Traveling 2008. Allaine. Cerwonka, ------Organizing Separate Women’s Union Integration: and Diversity, “Autonomy, 1999. Linda. Briskin, 1983. Yanz. Lynda and Linda, Briskin, Business Strong Compromise: without “Capitalism 2006. Decision Greskovits. Béla the and Dorothee Bohle, in Representation Female of “Determinants 2011. Sabine. Blaschke, “Hungary” 2010. Dorsch. Pamela and Tanja, Berger, I Hungary.” and “Feminism 1993. Maria. Adamik, Organizations.” Gendered of Theory A Bodies: Jobs, “Hierarchies, 1990. Joan. Acker, Activists.” Dialogue.” Social Studies European the in Women Union Trade Organizations. 33(4):809 Feminism.” European Eastern and Democracy Justice.” and Representational NY:New University State York Press. of Albany, Fonow. Margaret Mary and Franzway, Suzanne Moghadam, M. Valentine by edited Meas Empowerment Political the Expanding Women’s Forum StudiesInternational an America North in Ont., Canada:Press. Women's International Dev Industries.” Transnational New Europe’s Eastern in Labor Weak and Structures of Trad Foundation Mueller Routledge. (eds.).York: New Soviet Union Former Europe andthe Reflections Eastern from Society Perspectives ------21. Srtge t Spot qaiy agiig nie nos Repr Unions: inside Bargaining Equality Support to “Strategies 2014. . Equality. Women’s for Struggle the and Agency, Collective Unions, “Trade 2011. .

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