Europe Katalin Halász and Nurçan Kaya

Europe Paul Iganski ICELAND

ATL ANTIC FINLAND

OCEAN NORWAY SWEDEN

ESTONIA

LATVIA IRELAND UNITED DENMARK KINGDOM LITHUANIA Kaliningrad (Rus.) BELARUS BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG CZECH REP. UKRAINE

SLOVAKIA

LIECH. MOLDOVA FRANCE AUSTRIA SLOVENIA ROMANIA CROATIA BOSNIA GEORGIA ANDORRA SAN MARINO SERBIA PORTUGAL AND HERZE. BLACK SEA MONACO MONTENEGRO AZERBAIJAN

Kosovo SPAIN BULGARIA ARMENIA MACEDONIA AZER. ITALY ALBANIA GREECE

CYPRUS

MEDITERRANEAN SEA n November 2013, in her opening speech considerable anti-migrant and generalized anti- at the Fundamental ‘foreigner’ sentiment across the region. I Agency (FRA) conference on The internet and social media have provided Combating Hate Crime in the EU, Cecilia new opportunities for venting such sentiment. Malmström, the Commissioner of the European Individuals from minority communities who step Commission in charge of Home Affairs, into the public eye in politics, media and sport, expressed concern about the ‘mounting wave have provided new targets for hate through social of harassment and violence targeting asylum media. Between 2012 and 2014 the Council of seekers, immigrants, ethnic minorities and Europe is engaged in a major initiative against sexual minorities in many European countries’. the problem of online hate. Its youth section Nevertheless, reliable data on the incidence of is running a high-profile campaign, Young racist violence is hard to come by. According People Combating Hate Speech Online, to to an FRA brief on ‘Crime motivated by hatred mobilize young people and youth organizations and prejudice in the EU’ published in March to recognize and act against the problem of hate 2013, few EU member states have comprehensive speech online. arrangements in place to record hate crime. Given the paucity and poor reliability of Among European countries, Finland, the official hate crime data, it is always hazardous to Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom comment on trends in hate crime. Nevertheless, stand out as the exceptions – although still with in many countries certain groups feature gaps in their recording processes. prominently as victims. In particular, as the Given the different histories, migration patterns impact of the financial crisis has been felt across and ethnic and religious composition of European Europe, hostility towards established scapegoats countries, as well as their varying policy responses has been renewed – in particular, Roma to growing diversity, there cannot be a singular communities. While this is frequently expressed pattern of racist hate crime across the region. in the form of street violence or individual Particular conditions in specific countries at any assaults, it is also often reflected in discriminatory given time will provide distinct contexts for racial policies. Jewish minorities are also hatred. Greece and Hungary, for example, stand the target of hate speech and violence, especially out from many other European countries in in Hungary, where anti-Semitism has been that both have experienced particular economic revived through myths of a Jewish economic deprivations in recent years, and in both countries ‘conspiracy’. far-right parties espousing anti-minority and The financial hardship in many countries, anti-immigrant rhetoric have gained a significant such as Greece, has also translated into rising foothold in national parliaments. levels of violence towards migrants and ethnic Much of the media attention on hate crime minorities within the country. Similar patterns focuses on the activities of far-right, neo-fascist of are evident elsewhere, especially perpetrators. However, attacks by extremists in Russia and Ukraine, where violent hate crimes do not occur in a vacuum. The attitudes and against residents of Asian and African origin have the sentiments conveyed in hate crimes against been aided by the limited response of authorities minorities are often shared and underpinned by with regard to prosecuting perpetrators. While widespread denigration of the communities that these incidents often overlap with anti-Muslim are commonly targeted: asylum seekers, migrants, sentiment, the latter is nevertheless a distinct Muslims and long settled minority phenomenon and on occasion has been escalated such as Roma. Far more numerous than extremists, by rhetoric surrounding ‘the war on terror’, as in fact, are the ‘everyday’ perpetrators involved well as media reports of violence inspired by in offending in the context of their ordinary lives religious extremism. who, while not engaging in readily identifiable In some parts of Europe, tensions between activities such as far-right marches or pre-planned neighbouring countries can also contribute to violent attacks, share many of the same sentiments. violence and against minorities. In Opinion surveys and other studies have shown the South Caucasus, for example, long-standing

164 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and 2014 conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia has and in official political rhetoric, demonstrates fuelled an increasingly exclusionary form of the limitations of legal instruments and their nationalism that has encouraged xenophobia not uneven implementation in practice. However, only towards their neighbours but also minority many NGOs and civil society groups remained groups within their own countries. In October active during the year in addressing underlying 2013, while the ’s High-Level social prejudice and seeking a stronger protection Conference Combating , Xenophobia and framework for ethnic and religious minorities. Intolerance in Europe was under way in Yerevan, the NGO Pink Armenia staged a protest outside. France In a communiqué, the organization highlighted France continued to face significant challenges in that ‘the ruling party is sponsoring racist addressing the exclusion and marginalization of ideologies and spreading hate and xenophobia its minorities in 2013. In particular, the French within their own country’, and ‘spreading the state’s promotion of secularist policies, such as Aryan ideology and the importance of Armenia’s the ‘Charter for Secularity in School’ announced supremacy over others’. Similarly, in Azerbaijan by the government in September, has alienated there has been an increasing emphasis on many members of non-Christian groups, such ‘Azerbaijanism’ over a more inclusive discourse as Sikhs and Muslims. The charter effectively of national diversity, with the state actively reiterates the principles of the 2004 legal contributing to the hostility. Anti-Armenian prohibition of ‘ostentatious’ religious symbols hatred has not only been directed at Armenia and which, while not targeting any specific religious Armenian citizens but also towards Armenians group, impacts particularly on wearers of the veil living in Azerbaijan, who have at times been and turban. Similarly, as a result of the 2011 portrayed as disloyal towards the state. There ban on face covering in public places, a fine or are concerns, following Russia’s annexation of mandatory citizenship training can be imposed Crimea in early 2014, that a similar pattern on anyone apprehended for wearing a full face of hate crime could develop in both Ukraine veil, such as a burqa or hijab, in a public place. and Russia against their respective Russian and In July, a riot broke out after police stopped and Ukrainian minorities. charged a veiled . The woman accused Hate speech has also featured in the political the police of brutality during the arrest, although discourse in many countries, evidenced in Italy police unions claimed the woman’s husband by the treatment received by Cécile Kyenge, the attacked the arresting officers. country’s first black minister. In July, following France is also home to the second largest highly derogatory comments from a senior Roma community, after Spain, among Western right-wing senator, bananas were thrown at her European countries. France’s Roma community in the town of Cervia while she was on stage. occupy marginal positions in society, living In September, in an incident organized by the on the outskirts of cities, with many in far-right party Forza Nuova, three mannequins abandoned houses and segregated settlements. drenched in fake blood were left in front of a They continued to face ongoing violence and building where she was expected to give a speech. discrimination in 2013, particularly in the area Members of the Forza Nuova and the Northern of housing. In 2012, the then opposition leader League parties name her responsible for the François Hollande committed, in the run-up to ‘destruction of national identity’. the elections, to addressing the rights violations Many countries in Europe have relatively associated with the government’s ongoing well-developed legislation on hate crime and eviction of Roma settlements. However, human hate speech, particularly within the EU where rights organizations estimated that over 19,000 all member states have been required to translate were evicted during the year – more than double the Race Equality Directive into national law. the number in 2012. Deportations of Roma also Nevertheless, the continued presence of violence continued, with the Interior Minister Manuel and discriminatory language targeting minorities Valls announcing in September that ‘the Roma in different countries, at both a popular level should return to their country and be integrated

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 165 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 over there’, with only a ‘few families’ allowed to foreigners in France, while 74 per cent rated Islam stay on. Among those deported was a 15-year-old as ‘intolerant’ and ‘incompatible’ with French girl, Leonarda Dibrani, who was arrested in front values. Similarly, in April 2014 the government’s of fellow pupils during a school trip. National Consultative Commission on Human The year 2013 also saw the continued rise Rights (CNCDH) released the survey results of of the National Front, with the party winning its annual report for 2013, showing that 35 per a by-election in October. A poll by the French cent of respondents admitted to being ‘quite’ or ‘a Institute of Public Opinion (Ifop) released the little’ racist – up from 29 per cent the year before. same month suggested that a quarter of French In this context, there has been a marked rise voters intended to support the far-right populist in violent acts against minorities. According to party in the May 2014 European elections, the National Observatory for Islamophobia, putting them for the first time in the lead in a attacks on Muslims and Islamic places of worship national vote, ahead of the incumbent Socialist rose by 11.3 per cent during 2013 compared Party at just 19 per cent and the other main to the previous year. In one incident, abusive party, Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). statements were sprayed on the walls of the The party’s success has been credited to its capital’s oldest mosque, the Grande Mosquée strongly anti-migration platform, coupled with de Paris. In another incident swastikas were a hostile attitude towards Islam, reflected in daubed on the walls of a mosque in the town of the December 2010 comments of its leader, Lesparre-Médoc near Bordeaux. Other abusive Marine Le Pen, comparing the sight of Muslims slogans painted on the walls of mosques included praying in the street to the Nazi occupation. In ‘Arabs Out!’ and ‘France for the French’. There July, the European Parliament voted to strip was also a reported increase in physical attacks her of immunity following a request from the against Muslim women wearing a veil. Evidence prosecutor’s office in Lyons, meaning she can suggests that the 2011 ban on the veil may have be charged for incitement to hatred in France. actively contributed to increased hostility towards Nevertheless, there is evidence that these remarks Muslims. A 2013 research report, After the Ban, tap into widely held assumptions about Islam published by the Open Society Foundations, and migrants. According to the results of a survey based on the testimonies of 35 Muslim women, by Ipsos released in January 2013, 70 per cent indicated that for those women who continue of respondents agreed that there were too many to wear the veil, harassment and abuse by

166 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Left: Muslim . William Daniels/Panos. Case study by Yuliana Metodieva members of the public is commonplace. Some of the respondents in the study reported physical Rising hostility assaults, being spat at, and having their veil pulled off, perceiving that some of the attackers against Bulgaria’s – ordinary citizens – believed that they were entitled to take the law into their own hands. France’s Roma have also been subjected to targeted violence, with attacks continuing in 2013. In one incident in June, a Molotov Minority groups in Bulgaria, such as cocktail was thrown at a Roma settlement in Roma and ethnic Turks, have long suffered Hellemes. This was only the latest in a series of discrimination and marginalization – and attacks again the community. A report published this has also translated into hate speech and by the European Roma Rights Centre in 2013 bias motivated violence. However, the arrival lists violent attacks against Roma across 2011–12 of thousands of displaced by the and cases of stigmatizing rhetoric on the part of conflict in has provided right-wing public figures, politicians and the press whereby groups and extremists with a new target. Roma are associated with criminality. In July MRG discussed this troubling new trend 2013, French MP Gilles Bourdouleix was widely with Yuliana Metodieva, a researcher and condemned for derogatory remarks he was writer on minority issues in Bulgaria. alleged to have made in a confrontation with a group of Travellers, in which he allegedly referred Do you think that hate crime and hate approvingly to Adolf Hitler. The local prosecutor speech are currently on the rise in Bulgaria? later confirmed that a case had been opened Compared to some countries in Europe, we against Bourdouleix. appear not to have a very high rate of hate Other minority communities are also crime – yet this may be a bit of an illusion. vulnerable to violence and denigration. According In its report for 2013, the Bulgarian Helsinki to the FRA survey of anti-Semitic discrimination Committee states that there’s a huge issue and hate crime, the Jewish community in France with crimes against ethnic minorities that are was the most likely among EU member states to not adequately investigated, including murder experience hate crime, with 21 per cent of French of Roma. Furthermore, the recent wave of Jewish respondents reporting that they had Syrian refugees has provoked a fresh wave of personally experienced verbal insults, harassment hate speech and violence in Bulgaria. It has or physical attacks on account of being Jewish reactivated old stereotypes and led to acts in the last year. The country’s sub-Saharan such as vandalism against refugees, attacks on African population also face discrimination. mosques and so on. Unfortunately, Western In a notorious incident of hateful invective in European states such as France, Italy, Belgium October 2013, a photograph of the French or the Netherlands have not set a good example Justice Minister Christiane Taubira was paired through their own actions, especially with the with a picture of a chimpanzee on a Facebook recent mass expulsions of Roma. page by a local candidate for the National Front. The party subsequently suspended the candidate. What do you think is driving these The following month far-right newspaper Minute developments? ran a front cover with the headline ‘Cunning as a Both the media and the government have monkey’. The abuse against the Justice Minister been stoking anti-refugee fears and prejudices, sparked a national debate about racism: the demonizing people who have fled for their national newspaper Libération ran a front cover lives from Syria. In a recent interview, with the headline ‘Is France racist?’

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 167 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Case study continued ideology they want, it provides racists with the opportunity to organize into hate groups the director of the Refugee Agency allowed against minorities. himself to insult Syrian asylum seekers in a This tendency is not surprising. As very humiliating manner. Added to that is the a result of the deepening economic problem of impunity – this weakens protections crisis in post-communist countries like for minorities. Bulgaria, many people have lost their A logical consequence of all these jobs, their place in society, their chance developments is the rise of ultra-nationalist of enjoying a decent retirement. What is parties who send out extremely dangerous and now prevailing is fear, uncertainty and a harmful messages about Syrians and other strong desire to find a scapegoat for the groups. More worrying is that the concrete situation. Roma, Turks and now refugees result of all this anti-refugee rhetoric is the have filled this space, helped along by formation of vigilante groups who ‘protect’ internet forums. the streets of Sofia with every possible means they choose. In the country, residents in towns What steps need to be taken to protect and villages have also protested against refugee minorities against hatred and prejudices camps being built nearby. in Bulgaria? The key point, reiterated by many reports, Who do you think is benefiting from this recommendations and assessments by the hostility towards minorities? European Union, is the reform of the It’s very easy to see the relation between the judicial system, legislation and official progressive pauperization of society and the policies. The problem with many cases of rising hostility against minorities: people need a hate speech and hate crime is that they’re scapegoat for their problems, particularly poverty not investigated as such. As for addressing and unemployment. Historically, minorities have the root causes, there have been some always been at hand for this role. Furthermore, very good practices in Bulgaria over the the main political parties in Bulgaria are well last six years, such as media trainings and aware of the benefits they can gain from campaigns to popularize and exploiting this situation. With one significant positive attitudes towards minorities. Added exception, they either share the popular position to this is the increasing access of persons or just use it to propagate what they call ‘a good from minorities to professions from which and moderate nationalism’. they were traditionally excluded. What still needs to be done, though, is a major How has the internet changed the situation? overhaul of the whole educational system Back in 2005, I collaborated on a study of in schools and the production of TV shows online anti-Semitism. Even then, we found a or movies with messages about tolerance very high prevalence of racist hate speech – but and multiculturalism. This will help inform since then, the potential of the internet for this and provide them with a more purpose has expanded alarmingly, especially with responsible outlook on minority issues in the Facebook. Being an open platform for everyone, country. ■ allowing people to unite under whatever cause or

Georgia intolerance towards Georgia’s Muslim minority Following xenophobic and religiously intolerant continued in 2013. Muslims have on a number rhetoric by some members of the Orthodox of occasions been prevented from practising their clergy, academics and some opposition party faith by Orthodox Christian communities. From activists who were subsequently elected, late May, crowds reportedly prevented Muslims

168 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 in the village of Samtatskaro from praying. In in the country. This rapid transition towards a July, the human rights organization Forum 18 more diverse society has been accompanied by reported that tensions were still ongoing and visible hostility and resistance towards Greece’s highlighted the lack of an effective response from minorities in some quarters, particularly extreme officials to the situation and similar incidents that right-wing groups such as Golden Dawn. occurred late in the previous year. An important element in the rise of extremist At times, discrimination against non- organizations with a strong anti-minority focus Christian minorities has occurred with the active is the deteriorating economic context in the involvement of the authorities. In August, a country. Among EU member states, Greece minaret was forcibly removed from a mosque has probably suffered most from the global in Khela in western Georgia by authorities, who financial crisis and the Eurozone debt crisis claimed it lacked an import licence. The minaret of recent years. At the end of 2013, well over was subsequently returned, although authorities half of under-25 year-olds (61 per cent) were did not reinstall it due to objections from unemployed: over twice the level of the already Christian residents. In another incident in April, high overall unemployment rate of almost 28 locals were abused as ‘Tatars’ by a number of per cent. As well as the financial burdens arising drunk military police personnel in Adjara region from job losses, Greeks have been straining under and asked to prove their faith by showing their the burden of pay cuts, tax hikes, public sector crosses. The officers were subsequently stripped financial retrenchment and cutbacks. of their positions and some were arrested. This hardship is widely seen as an important Hostility towards religious minorities in contributing factor in Golden Dawn’s rising Georgia has also translated into incidents of popularity. Following its election in 2012 to hate crime. According to data submitted by the Greek parliament for the first time, with the Georgian Ministry of Justice to the OSCE a platform aiming to rid Greece of ‘illegal Office for Democratic Institutions and Human immigrants’, Golden Dawn has courted publicity Rights (ODIHR) for its 2013 report, 13 cases of through some controversial high-profile actions, hate crime and five prosecutions were recorded such as a ‘Greeks-only’ blood bank drive and by the authorities in 2012. Despite this low food handouts. They continued to be active number of reported cases, the US Department in 2013, holding rallies and ‘awakenings’ at of State noted in its International Religious schools. However, in the beginning of May, Freedom Report for the same year that there had police dispersed a ‘Greeks-only’ food handout been ‘reports of societal abuses or discrimination by Golden Dawn members in Syntagma Square, based on religious affiliation, belief, or practice. Athens. Cases reported included religious persecution, Golden Dawn’s hostility has not been confined interference with the performance of religious to targeting foreign migrants in Greece. In rites, and reports of physical assault, harassment, April 2013, during a sweep by its members of and vandalism.’ Kalamata hospital in search of migrant workers – a recurring pattern of intimidation undertaken Greece by the organization – violence broke out between Until two decades ago, Greece was a relatively the group, including MP Dimitris Koukoutsis, homogeneous society, with an estimated 98 per and a number of Roma, who were accompanying cent of the population Christian Orthodox and a 22-year-old Roma man injured earlier in a of ethnic Greek descent. Since the early 1990s, racially motivated attack. The fight was broken however, Greece has received approximately up by hospital staff, but Koukoutsis subsequently 1 million people from outside the country: told journalists that delinquency was ‘in their co-ethnic returnees from the Soviet Union, Greek DNA’ and stated that Golden Dawn would Albanians from South Albania and economic not regard them as equal citizens until they migrants from Eastern European, Asian and ceased their criminal activities. This derogatory African countries. Together these groups account stereotype has also achieved wider circulation for more than 10 per cent of the population in mainstream platforms, as was evidenced by

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 169 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 media coverage in the country following the Violence Recording Network, 166 cases of racist arrest of a Roma couple for the alleged abduction violence took place during 2013 – up from 154 of Maria, a blonde eight-year-old girl who it reported incidents in 2012 – with a total of more later transpired had been given to the couple by than 320 victims. The total was particularly the biological , a Roma woman who had high as a result of an incident in April at a moved to Bulgaria. The coverage of the incident, strawberry farm in the town of Nea Manolada, as well as the manner in which the child was when supervisors opened fire on at least 135 forcibly removed into social care, was criticized protesting migrant workers, wounding 35 by some commentators for reflecting negative people. However, it is difficult to determine with stereotypes and public hostility towards Roma. certainty the exact trend in racist hate crime in By contrast, the continuing segregation and Greece. Official records provide a very unreliable marginalization that Roma communities face in indicator of the problem. In its submission to Greece often go unnoticed by the wider public, the ODIHR annual hate crimes report for 2012, even though exclusion from basic rights and no information was provided about any hate services is ongoing. In May 2013, for example, crimes recorded by the police. These figures are the European Court of Human Rights in the therefore likely to be a gross underestimate of the case of Lavida and Others v. Greece ruled that real extent of the problem. the segregation of Roma children into a separate Little of the context to the attacks is reported primary school in Sofades, a town in Thessaly, in the Greek Racist Violence Recording Network central Greece, constituted discrimination and a report. However, it is notable that more than breach of the right to education. It was the third two-thirds of the recorded attacks occurred in the European Court ruling on discrimination against municipality of Athens. The majority reportedly Roma pupils in Greece. involved physical attacks: many with the use of Racialized anti-migrant rhetoric has featured weapons such as batons, knuckledusters, broken prominently in Greek politics, such as the bottles, clubs, crowbars, knives, incapacitating denigration of migrants as ‘subhuman’ by spray and even the use of large dogs. Almost Golden Dawn MP Eleni Zaroulia in the Greek all the recorded attacks were against migrants Parliament in October 2012. Anti-migrant and refugees from beyond the EU, particularly rhetoric has not been confined to the extremist Bangladesh and Afghanistan, and the majority political fringe in Greece, however. In August of victims were Muslims. Furthermore, while 2012, for instance, at the time of the launch in general the majority of hate crimes in of Operation Xenios Zeus, a high-profile Europe appear to be perpetrated by individuals police crackdown on irregular migrants (and rather than organized groups, in Greece a large oddly named after the ancient Greek god of proportion of the violence seems to have been hospitality), the Minister of Public Order and undertaken by organized groups such as Golden Citizen Protection Nikos Dendias reportedly Dawn. This was evidenced by the seemingly stated that ‘We will not allow our towns, or coordinated nature of many attacks by groups our country, to be occupied and become a of offenders, sometimes dressed in black and migrant ghetto.’ By February 2013, Human wearing combat trousers. Rights Watch (HRW) noted that 85,000 foreign In one of the attacks in the early hours of nationals had been accompanied to police 16 January, in the Athens suburb of Petralona, stations to verify their status, but only 6 per cent Shehzad Luqman, a Pakistani migrant worker, had been found to be undocumented. was stabbed to death while making his way Given the economic austerity and the to work on his bicycle. While a police officer deprivations affecting many in Greece, which was reported to have told journalists that the have fuelled anti-immigrant sentiment and killing followed an argument, the attack is support for the far right, there is a common widely believed to have been racially motivated. perception that the country has experienced a Thousands of migrants and human rights rise in racist hostility and a consequent increase activists subsequently held a rally protesting the in racist hate crime. According to the Racist murder while highlighted

170 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 that Luqman’s death was not an isolated months in prison for firebombing a Tanzanian incident but the ‘result of the Greek authorities’ man’s store, although they will reportedly be able continuing failure to take decisive action against to pay a fine of around €12,500 each instead of racially motivated violence’. However, despite serving these sentences. The same month, a draft Golden Dawn leaflets and weapons similar to anti-racism law also appeared in parliament that those used by organized militias being found includes among other measures penalties for hate in the homes of the two people who confessed speech and incitement to violence. However, to the crime, possible connections to Golden activists have criticized the limited focus of the Dawn were reportedly not investigated and the law and its failure to mention related issues, authorities did not attribute the murder to racist such as improving victim reporting and police motives. The mayor of Athens, Giorgos Kaminis, procedures. however, stated that the opening of the trial At present, a large portion of hate crimes was ‘the start of the political isolation of racism go unreported because victims, many of them and xenophobia’. A trial for the murder began undocumented or illegal residents, are afraid in December and resumed at the beginning of to present themselves to police. For victims in 2014. Activists have highlighted the organized this group, there is no assurance that reports nature of the attack and called for it to be will be processed. In fact, unregistered migrants recognized as a hate crime. who file a complaint at police stations are Another murder that attracted significant detained automatically and may subsequently media coverage was the stabbing of 34-year-old face deportation. This threat means that the Pavlos Fyssas, an anti-fascist hip-hop artist and majority of victims do not report crimes to the concert promoter known as ‘Killah P’, on 18 police. This contributes to a climate of impunity September outside a bar in Athens. His attacker for perpetrators that has been reinforced by was an active supporter of Golden Dawn. Some the failure of public authorities to develop an witnesses alleged that motorbike policemen who adequate response to the wave of hostility against had also arrived at the scene failed to intervene. migrants. There is even evidence of official The murder of Pavlos Fyssas triggered protests, complicity in some incidents against minorities. some violent, in Athens and other cities. The Police officers were reportedly involved in murder was also met with condemnation from 31 cases during 2013 where victims reported across the political spectrum, including the Greek violence or discrimination due to their religion, President and Prime Minister, who both called ethnicity, or skin colour. for a united front against the threat of right-wing extremism. While Golden Dawn categorically Hungary denied any connection with the murder, it The Roma community in Hungary is by far triggered a crackdown on the party with the the largest minority ethnic community in the Golden Dawn leader and three of its members of country. As is the case for Greece, Roma in parliament arrested. The party is facing charges Hungary suffer profound social and economic of operating as a criminal organization. In early marginalization. Rates of unemployment and 2014, it announced that it would re-emerge poverty are far higher than for the majority under the banner of ‘National Dawn’ if it were to population. Roma in Hungary are also a prime be banned. target of ethnically motivated attacks. Hungary’s Since 2008, Greek legislation includes a Jewish population – the largest in east central provision that recognizes racist motivation as Europe, based primarily in the capital – an aggravating factor and allows for judges to also faces increasing levels of hostility, particularly impose the maximum penalties on offenders. with the rise of the far right. However, in practice this legislation has rarely But while violence and discrimination against been applied. The first known ruling in which it both communities has been a long-standing has been used was in November 2013, when two problem in Hungary, in the context of a alleged members of Golden Dawn were sentenced deepening economic crisis, rising unemployment by an Athens court to three years and five and growing nationalism, Hungary’s Roma have

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 171 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 been scapegoated and demonized in right-wing Rights Centre – reported to ODIHR numerous discourse. Anti-Roma rhetoric has been used by cases in 2012 of threats with weapons against the ultra-nationalist party in campaigning Roma families, physical assaults and one case of for national and European parliamentary arson. Furthermore, as reflected in a number of elections. The Hungarian government shifted recent incidents of bias-motivated violence and to the right in 2010 with the election of the intimidation, cases that are reported to the police centre-right party. For the first time, are often not taken seriously (see case study). Jobbik won a significant share of seats in the Anti-Semitism is also commonplace and Hungarian parliament; its anti-Roma and anti- is a visible element of right-wing ideology in Semitic rhetoric brought the party further success Hungary. This was reflected in a number of in the April 2014 elections, with its share of the violent attacks during the year against Jewish national vote rising to over 20 per cent. , including the head of the Raoul Despite this climate of racist hostility in Wallenberg Association, Ferenc Orosz, who Hungary, it is difficult to ascertain the true was assaulted at a football match after he asked scale of hate crime incidents in the country as nearby supporters to refrain from chanting many are likely to go unreported. In the most fascist slogans in support of Mussolini. In recent ODIHR annual hate crime report for May, shortly after the attack, the World Jewish the OSCE region, for example, published in Congress convened in Budapest. The event, late 2013, the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign which normally takes place in Jerusalem, was Affairs noted only 36 incidents of hate crime staged this year in Hungary as an expression of for 2012, and 16 prosecutions. Nor was any solidarity for the country’s Jewish community. official data on racist attacks specifically against At the meeting, Prime Minister Viktor Orbán Roma or Sinti communities in Hungary reported underlined Hungary’s commitment to tackling to ODIHR. By contrast, between them the anti-Semitism in the country. UN refugee agency UNHCR and NGOs – In addition to acts of violence, extremist the Athena Institute and the European Roma sentiment towards minorities in Hungary

172 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Left: Roma take part in an anti-Jobbik protest, Hungary. Bernadett Szabo/REUTERS. Case study by Eszter Jovánovics appears to be increasingly present in politics and the media. An Early Warning Despatch issued The unequal by the Athena Institute early in 2013 warned that extremist rhetoric provides an ‘enabling application of hate environment’ for violence. Following the New Year’s Eve stabbings of two Hungarian youths, crime legislation in allegedly by Roma perpetrators, Zsolt Bayer, a conservative commentator and founder member Hungary of the ruling Fidesz party, wrote in a column in the Magyar Hirlap daily newspaper that many Roma are ‘unfit for coexistence’. While the While the conviction, almost five years on, of paper initially supported the columnist’s right four people in 2013 for the serial killing of to freedom of speech, the Hungarian Deputy six Roma in 2008 and 2009 is a welcome step Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics publicly in the fight against Hungary’s endemic hate condemned the column – reportedly the only crime, the community is still poorly protected member of the governing alliance to do so at against a rising wave of targeted violence. the time. The Hungarian National Media and This is reflected in the fact that the suspected Infocommunications Authority subsequently perpetrators were only arrested after their fined the newspaper HUF 250,000 for publishing eleventh attack and the subsequent trial lasted hate speech. The Athena Institute noted that 28 months as the court had to gather much of an openly racist, xenophobic, anti-Roma, anti- the evidence again to address the shortcomings Semitic and homophobic website continues in the original investigations. However, many to function apparently because, as the server is other instances of anti-Roma hate crimes are located in the , it cannot be closed overlooked by police and do not even reach the down by the Hungarian authorities. courts. A new Hungarian Criminal Code came into The resistance of the police to considering force on 1 July 2013 extending provisions bias motivation and effectively investigating against hate-motivated assaults on the grounds crimes reported by Roma victims was illustrated of nationality, ethnicity or religion to include by the inadequate official response to the sexual orientation, gender identity and . ethnically motivated ‘patrols’ of extremist Amnesty International, however, had earlier paramilitary organizations in the village of claimed that it was a ‘missed opportunity’ for Gyöngyöspata in 2011, where the local Roma greater action on hate crimes. Amnesty noted that community were subjected to weeks of abuse problems with implementation of the law would and intimidation by armed vigilante gangs. continue due to a lack of appropriate police In one of the reported cases, for example, a expertise and procedures in the investigation woman carrying her two-year-old daughter and prosecution of hate crimes. Furthermore, as in her arms was threatened with an axe by an hate crimes are not explicitly included in murder extremist. Although the perpetrator was a well- cases, judges can themselves decide on whether to known far-right activist who even boasted of his include them in their rulings. anti-Roma activities in Gyöngyöspata on the In August, a court in Budapest issued life internet, the police refused to investigate racist sentences to three men and a 13-year sentence to motivation and terminated the investigation a fourth over a series of targeted killings of Roma shortly afterwards without reasonable grounds. the group had conducted during 2008 and 2009. Importantly, these and other incidents would Amnesty again highlighted that, despite the not have occurred if the authorities had sentencing, Roma are still extremely vulnerable recognized the racist intent of the vigilante to violence and discrimination. Other issues

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 173 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Case study continued 2013, however, the second instance court found the defendants guilty of disorderly group from the outset and taken legal action to conduct instead of hate crime, declaring prevent them from occupying the village. that the existence of specific anti-Hungarian This is in contrast to the speed with which motives could not be proven. This court’s Roma have been accused of anti-Hungarian decision also confirmed the Supreme Court’s racist bias and brought to court. One of the most 2011 ruling that racist organizations such as flagrant cases where the law was misused in this skinhead groups cannot be protected by the way occurred in 2009, when nine Roma men hate crime provision. were charged for allegedly perpetrating an anti- While the final court decision in this Hungarian hate crime after they attacked a car in case complied with international human which they believed skinheads were sitting. The rights standards, in another similar case the incident occurred shortly after one of the serial second instance court, ruling in September killings, in which a four-year-old Roma boy and 2013, upheld the first instance judgment, his father were killed, and amid rumours that which again sentenced a number of Roma another attack was imminent. As a result, when for committing a bias-motivated crime. in the middle of the night a car slowly proceeded Even though all the evidence pointed to the on two separate occasions through the Roma defendants being motivated by anger at the neighbourhood of Miskolc, a number of Roma openly racist group arriving in their town, the residents – determined to defend their families classification of the crime as specifically anti- from the presumed racists – attacked the car Hungarian was again based on unsubstantiated with sticks. The individuals in the car, one of evidence and a perverse legal reasoning. whom had ties with racist groups, suffered minor Institutionalized racism is most likely one of injuries. the main reasons for this apparent double Despite the lack of credible evidence and the standard in Hungary’s law enforcement. The heightened fear of the community as a result of Hungarian Union continues to the recent attacks against Roma, the prosecutor advocate for the appropriate implementation specifically accused the defendants of having of the hate crime provision and to address the committed a bias-motivated crime against structural discrimination within the country’s Hungarians. The first instance court agreed with criminal justice system. ■ the prosecution and imposed disproportionate prison sentences on the defendants. In October

included the lack of effective data collection result of poverty and the patriarchal values of on hate crime incidents against minorities, the their community, but also due to their exclusion inadequate police response to investigating and mistrust of police and the judiciary. reported incidents and little or no supportive care for victims. Roma communities also continue to Russia be targeted by vigilante groups. Russia is relatively ethnically diverse, with a is especially acute number of minorities, migrant communities in Hungary, assisted until recently by the lack and indigenous peoples within its territory. of legislation classifying as However, 2013 saw a number of developments an offence. In July 2013, a law was passed that highlighted the country’s ongoing failure specifically criminalizing domestic violence to achieve inclusion for many of these groups. for the first time. However, HRW and other Political struggles in the North Caucasus have observers have highlighted the ongoing protection stoked hostility and conflict against North gaps for women in Hungary, particularly Roma Caucasians migrating within the Russian women, who are especially at risk not only as a Federation. Migrants from other minority

174 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 communities similarly face hostility, which is slogans such as ‘Russia for ’ and ‘Today reinforced by nationalist rhetoric in political and mosque – tomorrow jihad’. Some demonstrators public discourse drawing a divide between ethnic were arrested by police for shouting Nazi slogans Russians and other ethnic groups. and displaying banned symbols. While the march Widespread xenophobic sentiment in Russia itself was reported to be generally peaceful, some provides the context for racist violence. In surveys of the participants afterwards smashed up car of the Russian population conducted by the windows and started brawls with people who Levada Center in 2013, almost three-quarters appeared to come from the Caucasus. A week (73 per cent) of respondents agreed that migrants after the march, Mais Kurbanov, a leader of from the former Soviet Republics should be ’s migrant community, was reportedly deported – up from 53 per cent in 2006 – while injured in an attack with a stun gun, which was just over half of the respondents (54 per cent) suspected to have been carried out in retaliation thought that immigration from the Caucasus for his organization’s public statement against should be restricted and over two out of five the march. (45 per cent) that restrictions should also apply Moscow and St Petersburg are predominant to immigration from China and Central Asia. sites of racist violence, but attacks also occur Anti-Muslim sentiment associating Muslims with in other cities and regions across the Russian terrorism is also prevalent. Federation. Some of the attacks have involved As a result, as reported by the European collective mob violence. In October 2013, Commission against Racism and Intolerance coinciding with the Muslim festival of Eid (ECRI) in its 2013 ECRI Report on the Russian al-Adha, violent protests occurred in the Federation, there has been a ‘high incidence’ of Biryulyovo district of Moscow, following the violence targeting mainly non-Slavs, including fatal stabbing of a local 25-year-old ethnic migrants from the North Caucasus and Central Russian by a man believed by residents to have Asia, as well as people of African origin. Among been from the Caucasus or Central Asia. The the victims of racist and xenophobic violence in violence, which resulted in the murders of an Russia in 2013, according to the Moscow-based Uzbek and an Azeri who were found stabbed to SOVA Center, 13 victims originating from death, was considered by some commentators to Central Asian countries were murdered by far- mark a turning point, as the participants were right activists, with a further 45 people injured; local residents and not just nationalist activists, three people originating from the Caucasus were indicating how xenophobic sentiment and also murdered, with 26 injured. In one murder support for racist violence are not confined to in November 2013 a woman from Russia’s an extreme fringe. Another episode took place in predominantly Muslim region of Dagestan was December in the Nizhny Novgorod region city found in the stairwell of a Moscow apartment of Arzamas, when anti-immigrant riots erupted building with cross-shaped symbols slashed on following a brawl in a café in which a local her body. The SOVA Center recorded 21 people resident was killed. Locals blamed Armenian killed and 178 people injured in racist attacks migrants for the death. during 2013. These figures compared with 19 Following the Biryulyovo riots, Reuters people killed and 191 wounded in 2012. and other news sources reported that police Attacks usually escalate around the time of rounded up and detained over 1,600 migrants the 4 November National Unity Day, often at two vegetable markets in Moscow. Similarly, associated with the annual Russian marches on earlier in the year following a brawl between the day – mass demonstrations by nationalists Dagestani market traders and police during in a number of major cities in Russia and other Moscow’s summer mayoral elections, police countries of the former Soviet Union. In 2013 reportedly rounded up and detained 3,500 the main march involving 6,000 participants took non-ethnic Russians mostly from Central Asia place in the Lyublino district of Moscow. Some and Vietnam, with some later deported. Sweeps of the banners on display called for migrants of minority communities have also followed to return to their home countries, others had terrorist incidents. Hundreds, including many

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 175 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 from Central Asia and the North Caucasus, percentage (20 per cent) in 2013 of convictions were stopped and detained after the December for violent racist attacks leading to suspended Volgograd bombings. While according to official sentences ‘alarming’. There were also convictions figures there has been a significant decline in against 133 people on charges of xenophobic racist violence in the Russian Federation since propaganda. The police have specifically 2007 and 2008, sources such as the Russian targeted racist groups, and in 2013 new groups Analytical Digest suggest that 2013 was a peak were added to the Federal List of Extremist year for ethnically motivated violence, given the Organizations. Some extremist publications have anti-migrant rhetoric prevalent in the Moscow also been suppressed, with the Federal List of mayoral election campaigns. Extremist Materials expanding from 1,589 to Nevertheless, the Russian authorities have 2,179 entries in 2013. taken some steps to address the ongoing problem Despite these steps, the application of anti- of racist violence; measures have included the extremist legislation remains uneven, and on strengthening of legislative provisions. According occasion has been used against members of to the SOVA Center, prosecutions led to the minority communities as well as human rights convictions of 59 people for racist violent crime activists and political dissidents to secure in 2013, compared with 72 people in 2012. prosecutions and ban publications. Anti- Four were exempted from punishment, and discrimination legislation is also applied only 12 others were given suspended sentences. The infrequently, while no designated bodies have SOVA Center noted that suspended sentences yet been established to specifically target racism add to a climate of impunity and found the high or discrimination. Furthermore, ECRI has

176 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Left: Russian police detain migrant workers during a raid at a vegetable warehouse complex Participatory research by Anastasia Denisova in the Biryulyovo district of Moscow. Stringer Russia/REUTERS. The experience highlighted the ongoing use of xenophobic and inflammatory anti-immigrant language by right- of Central Asian wing politicians, particularly during election campaigns, as well as regular incitement to migrants in hatred in the Russian media. ECRI has called for stronger codes of conduct and criminal Moscow, Russia sanctions to curb hate speech and denigration by public figures and media outlets, as well as the promotion of journalistic training programmes This research is the result of an extended on human rights and anti-racism. participatory research study between As in other European countries, social March and April 2014, undertaken by the media provides a ready platform for racist Civic Assistance Committee and funded by and xenophobic sentiment in Russia. Social MRG with support from CAFOD. media outlets, such as Facebook, Instagram and Vkontakte, a Russian website similar to Trapped in the margins – the challenges of Facebook, are often used to propagate hate in being a migrant in Russia Russia. In October 2013, HRW accused the Russia’s migrant population, comprising radio station Vesti FM of inciting violence by around 11 million people, is the second publishing a map on its website that contained largest in the world. The majority are information about neighbourhoods where many nationals from Central Asian countries undocumented migrants live. Another high- such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, profile episode of hate speech occurred in April and Uzbekistan. The difficult economic 2013 when Elmira Abdrazakova was targeted circumstances in their home states means with ethnic slurs on her social media pages after that many willingly head to the Moscow being crowned ‘Miss Russia’. Abdrazakova was region and other parts of the country in born in Kazakhstan, and her father is Tatar. She the knowledge that they may experience grew up in Russia and holds Russian citizenship, prejudice, ill treatment and even physical but was criticized for not being Russian enough. assaults. This case study, drawing on first- In recent years, some measures have been taken hand interviews with 15 migrants originating to reduce – for example, a from Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan 2010 Supreme Court ruling enabling authorities living in the Moscow region, highlights the to force media outlets to remove extremist or effects of discrimination, hate speech and hateful material from their websites – as well as hate crime on their everyday lives. the creation of a number of centres monitoring One of the main determinants of their hate speech online and in the media. During vulnerability is the fact that many migrants 2013, investigations were also launched against a lack legal status in the country. Of the Vkontakte user for a series of statements posted estimated 1 million migrants in Moscow on the website encouraging targeted attacks itself, only 200,000 are working legally. Every against and migrants. migrant is obliged to have an ‘inviting party’ to support their residence in Russia, but in Turkey reality most migrants do not have a contact Electra Babouri in the country and, as a result, are forced to Discontent directed against the policies of the purchase the services of an intermediary to Turkish government triggered widespread protests support their ‘registration’. during 2013, centring around demonstrations

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 177 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Participatory research continued ‘I try to look like a student, and when it is cold, I always wear hats not to show my dark hair colour. The popular image of a labour migrant in It helps.’ Uzbek student, male Russia is characterized by a stereotype of illegality and, by extension, criminality too. But it is The invisibility of targeted violence against very easy for a migrant to become illegal in migrants Russia, even if they make every effort to abide The reality of living illicitly in Russia frequently by the law. The system of registration and other places migrants in exploitative, dangerous or processes, such as the securing of work permits, even slave-like working conditions. However, often have the effect of placing migrants under their lack of legal status also contributes to the control of their employers or pushing them, another dimension of their lives – their acute as a result of artificial quotas, into undocumented vulnerability to hate crime. In the absence of labour. Others, having worked legally in the official statistics, the true extent of the frequency country, may find themselves deported for minor and severity of targeted attacks against migrants administrative offences and barred from re-entry is unknown. However, according to the SOVA for a number of years – thus obliging them to Center for Information and Analysis, the most cross back into the country illegally. credible source monitoring hate crimes in Russia, Migrants often find themselves regularly the relative decline in incidents between 2009 exposed to discrimination or humiliation due and 2012 was reversed in 2013. During the year, to their status as second-class citizens. Migrants people of Central Asian origin were subjected face many obstacles when looking to rent an to continued stigmatization and harassment apartment, applying for employment and even from both organized and spontaneous attacks: when sending their children to schools. One 13 Central Asians were killed and 45 injured Uzbek man, a vet, described how his daughter in 2013 – a significant rise, compared to seven had not been accepted by a school until he killed and 36 injured the previous year. lodged a complaint: Furthermore, it is worth noting that this is only a fraction of the incidents that have ‘Later the head advised to simplify her Uzbek name actually taken place. While the SOVA Center for a Russian ear and we had to agree. And when documents publicly recorded cases, many more looking for a flat for rent you mention that you go unreported out of fear or lack of faith in the came from Uzbekistan, they hang up. They even authorities. For instance, the Civic Assistance write in the ads “for Slavs only”. It is unpleasant of Committee (CAC) found that out of 91 hate course.’ Uzbek vet, male crime cases it worked on during 2012-13, only 14 were reported by victims themselves and a Frequent police passport checks in the street further five by CAC lawyers on their behalf. Of and at apartments have also become an integral the remainder, only 10 became known to the part of daily life for Central Asian migrants in police as a result of an officer being present at Moscow. One Uzbek journalist said that he lived the scene or another witness reporting it. This in constant fear for his wife, because neighbours suggests that many attacks are never recorded, are complaining about migrants living in the such as the incident described by one respondent, building. a cook originating from Kyrgyzstan, on the Moscow underground in December 2013: ‘My wife and child sit at home all day long. She even asks me to lock the door from the outside.’ ‘I did not notice them at first. They came up Uzbek journalist, male and asked for my mobile. But it was a pretext. They started to beat me, mainly on my head. Another migrant mentioned that he had to make Called names, said that I am not Russian and efforts not to look like a migrant to prevent “ponayekhal”. All the people nearby remained police checks: seated. One of the passengers even put out his foot

178 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 so that I tripped over. It was done on purpose. I than 1,000 alleged migrant workers. One Uzbek was shocked. There were seven of them. The train respondent described the aftermath of the stopped and I ran away. I did not report to the violence and the impact it had on his life: police. No chance.’ Kyrgyz cook, male ‘My friends and I were kicked out of the flat after The problem of impunity Biryulevo. The neighbours were worried that One of the challenges confronting migrants different unknown people were visiting our flat. The is that the police are often more concerned policeman came and made everyone leave the flat, with controlling them than protecting them. including a 10-year-old girl.’ Uzbek student, male At the end of July, for instance, following an attack on a Moscow policeman at an open This has helped provide right-wing and market, authorities in Moscow launched a xenophobic groups with an apparent justification concerted sweep of migrants in markets and for their own activities, including raids on construction sites across the city. One of the migrant camps and housing that often involved crackdowns was described by a journalist from humiliation and intimidation of their inhabitants. Uzbekistan, who filmed a raid as it happened Racist groups such as Shield of Moscow had and was subsequently detained for his non-Slav undertaken these actions with few apparent appearance. He then protested that he had a repercussions until a criminal case was opened Russian passport and urged the policemen to stop against one of the organizers in the fall of 2013. beating other migrants in their custody: Living in the shadow of violence – the impact ‘They replied, they are the same Russian citizens of hate crime on everyday life as you. Later, a higher rank officer came up, The daily threat of verbal or physical abuse apologized for his colleagues and said that they defines the lives of migrants. Travel, in particular, were simply tired of cleaning the city from rubbish.’ can be a high-risk undertaking. One disturbing Uzbek journalist, male trend occurring during 2013 is the practice known as ‘white wagon’ – where groups of Hundreds of migrants were subsequently youths beat up all the non-white passengers detained, in degrading conditions and in in train carriages. In October, similar attacks violation of their rights, in holding centres and occurred on passengers on trains departing from improvised camps. Many of those awaiting Moscow for Tajikistan. One Kyrgyz student deportation were asylum seekers or legally described how it was not safe to travel by regional registered. Staff from the Civic Assistance railways at night: Committee, who represented some of the detained migrants, were present at many hearings ‘My group-mate, who also came from Bishkek, saw and saw repeated procedural flaws in court. The that a group of people started to count non-Slavs mayoral elections in Moscow, scheduled for the in the train car out loud. She left the car with her month after the crackdown, played an important friends immediately.’ Kyrgyz student, female role in encouraging the police response. In the weeks and months before, politicians Hate symbols and slogans are common in the from different parties resorted to anti-migrant Moscow region, especially along the routes of discourse in order to appeal to the Moscow regional railways, against migrants from Central population. For example, both the victor Sergey Asia. Many of these are not readily decipherable Sobyanin, of the United Russia party, and the to migrants, but these symbols also play opposition candidate Alexey Navalnyi, blamed another role – they indicate to other right-wing illegal migrants for crime in the city. sympathizers that they have supporters in these When anti-migrant riots again broke out in very districts, thus providing grounds for further Biryulevo district in October, police launched activities. One Uzbek respondent described how another series of raids and rounded up more he saw a picture of a poster in the underground

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 179 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Participatory research continued in Istanbul’s Gezi Park. The protests, while triggered initially by plans to redevelop the park, which said ‘Stop the death’ beside a picture soon broadened into a larger movement against of a group of Central Asians. Respondents the perceived rise of authoritarianism in the also described the continued abuse they country. In September, Prime Minister Recep experienced from passers-by and fellow Tayyip Erdoğan presented a democratization passengers: package containing a variety of proposed reforms which nevertheless received mixed reviews, ‘We have got used to insults. We just need work. including from , who claimed not to have Some time ago I detested using [the] metro. You been consulted during its preparation. get in and people start stepping aside from you, Nevertheless, the democratization package as if you are ill.’ Kygyz farmer, male contains a number of positive provisions, including a lower election threshold which, if ‘Old ladies and young people tend to abuse implemented, would enable better representation migrants verbally more often than anyone else. of minority groups in parliament. It also allows For example, I was standing on the railway small political parties to secure state funding platform in Dmitrov city [Moscow region] and without requiring local chapters and permits an old woman said, “Just churki [a derogatory political campaigning in other languages and term for Asians] here.”’ Uzbek student, male dialects besides Turkish. However, critics have pointed to a range of gaps and shortcomings, such ‘Many old ladies call names because of my as its failure to recognize Alevi cemevis as places appearance. One old woman shouted at me of worship. The package also did not propose any at the metro “You are guests here for too long, amendments to Turkey’s existing anti-terrorism Chinese. Go home. I am sick of you.”’ Kyrgyz laws. This legislation has increasingly been used journalist, male against minority groups such as the Kurds, long marginalized within Turkey, to penalize activities As a result many migrants, when even a such as demonstrations and meetings. short train ride is a risk, choose to base After some of the heaviest fighting in recent themselves as near their work as possible: years between the government and the Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK), in March 2013 the ‘Many migrants are looking for a flat near their imprisoned PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan called working place simply in order not to walk along for a ceasefire. This was seen as an important the streets.’ Construction worker, male step towards negotiating an end to the conflict, which has spanned three decades and resulted The effects of discrimination and violence in thousands of deaths and widespread torture, for Central Asian migrants therefore go far injury and displacement. Following the ceasefire, beyond the immediate impacts, significant PKK troops began withdrawing in May. As though these are. Discrimination and peace talks continue, however, Turkish security violence permeate every aspect of their lives, forces have installed new checkpoints and from their choice of accommodation to their military fortifications to block smuggling routes livelihood options. Until the government and enhance security. As part of this process, and media take active steps to improve their in November Turkish authorities reportedly status and representation, it is likely they will began erecting a wall between Nusaybin in remain trapped in this situation. ■ Turkey and Qamishli in north-eastern Syria. The predominantly Kurdish local population, who were not consulted, viewed this as an attempt to divide the Kurdish communities on either side of the border, with many fearing that other walls may follow. This has led to protests and hunger strikes. Language is one of the areas where Kurds

180 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 have faced acute discrimination in Turkey. Until History textbooks were also amended in response recently, the use of minority languages in people’s to complaints that they contained discriminatory names was forbidden by law and even though rhetoric against the Syriac community. However, some of these restrictions were lifted in 2003, Alevi groups remain critical of their representation names containing a q, w or h – all common in other school textbooks. The democratization letters in Kurdish – have been prohibited. The package has proposed further measures, including democratization package proposed lifting this the establishment of a Roma language and culture ban and other discriminatory practices, such as institute, although it has also attracted criticism the student oath in which children – regardless of for a number of inconsistencies. In particular, their ethnicity – have to pledge each day in schools it extends education only to to be ‘a Turk, honest, hard-working’. It was also private institutions, meaning that Kurds and proposed that the original place names for Kurdish other groups will continue to be sidelined in villages in the south-east of the country could be public schools. used again, rather than the Turkish names put Minority individuals and institutions, including in place in the 1980s, but larger cities were not Syriacs, Greek nationals and the Roman Catholic included (although the government stated that Church, continued to face obstacles to land access these could be considered). and property rights during the year. Nevertheless, Other positive measures included the there were some positive signs of progress. These announcement, in February, that sermons in included, in September, the first baptism in Turkish, Kurdish or Arabic would be permitted nearly a century at the 1,100-year-old Church in mosques depending on the language spoken by of the Holy Cross on Aghtamar Island in eastern the majority of attendees. On a number of official Turkey, which, after years of vandalism and occasions during the year public representatives disuse, was restored by the Turkish government. also spoke in Kurdish, and the Religous Affairs Malatya’s Armenian cemetery, having been Office (Diyanet) began preparing a Kurdish accidentally demolished in 2012, was rebuilt by version of the Qur’an. Early in the year, Article authorities and opened again in June 2013. The 202 of Turkey’s Code was democratization package also proposed that new amended to allow individuals to carry out their housing would be built for Roma and in October defence in their chosen language during certain Mor Gabriel ’s land was returned to judicial proceedings. In February, a Constitutional the Syriac community. However, there were no Court ruling entered into force, whereby the use plans announced to restore the Greek Orthodox of Kurdish in political party signs, posters and monastery at Halki, near Istanbul, to its statements is no longer a prosecutable offence. church owners. However, discrimination against minority Minorities remain vulnerable to targeted languages remains an ongoing challenge in the violence. In September, a Roma man and his son country’s legislation, including the Constitution. were arrested in Iznik, in the west of the country, The year 2013 also saw a number of accused of shooting a 26-year-old man. Following improvements in education, another area this, 2,000 people reportedly raided Roma shops where Turkey’s minorities have long suffered and vandalized property before police were able marginalization and exclusion. In September, after to restore calm, but small-scale hate incidents nearly 50 years of being closed, a Greek school continued in the weeks that followed. Twenty- on the Gökçeada (Imvros) Island was permitted two men were later arrested in connection with to reopen and classes for a handful of children these attacks, but no criminal charges were began. The same month, the Syriac community brought and they were all released. After the formally applied to open an elementary school violence, the region’s governor visited Iznik but following a court ruling in their favour the month not the affected Roma communities. His office before. This overturned the Ministry of Education subsequently published a highly discriminatory refusal in 2012 to authorize a Syriac kindergarten and sweeping statement about Roma. on the grounds that the community were not In December, 13 Alevi homes were defaced specified as a minority in the Constitution. with red marks in Adiyaman province. Other

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 181 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 cases had been recorded in different locations or some group’s language, race, nationality, across the country since the previous year. These skin colour, gender, disability, political views, events have raised concern within the country’s philosophical beliefs or religion’, excluding those Alevi population, as similar incidents in the based on ethnicity and sexual orientation – both past have escalated to violent attacks, including areas covered by the OSCE. This means that, the killing of more than a hundred Alevis in despite their vulnerability to bias-motivated Kahramanmaras province in 1978. violence, Kurdish victims of violence could not In spite of events such as these, Turkey lacks qualify within this definition. Furthermore the comprehensive legislation on hate speech and code, as agreed in March 2014 by parliament, hate crime, meaning that racist motives are not punishes hate speech or hate crime with a penalty considered as an aggravating circumstance when of up to three years. This means that more serious people are sentenced for severe offences, such crimes, such as bias-motivated murder, fall as killing or injuring people, and destroying outside its remit. property. Thus, hate crimes not only are not prosecuted as such and commonly remain Ukraine unpunished, but are also directed at individuals Ukraine’s location between Russia and the belonging to a plethora of minority groups, European Union has had a profound impact ranging from Christian clergymen to on its internal politics, in particular relations Kurdish students. between the ethnic Ukrainian majority and the Article 216 of the 2004 Turkish Penal Code country’s ethnic Russians, who at around 17 criminalizes inciting people to hatred and enmity per cent of the population comprise its largest on the grounds of ‘different , religion, . However, an additional 15 per race, sect’ but excludes a number of other cent of ethnic Ukrainians consider Russian their areas, including ethnicity. Professor Yasemin first language. Since independence, Ukraine’s İnceoğlu, a member of a coalition of Turkish politics have been strongly divided along these civil society organizations campaigning for hate ethnic and linguistic lines. The implications of crime legislation, said this Article ‘covers hate this divide became especially apparent following speech rather than hate crime and could even be the spread of protests against the government described as falling short of criminalizing hate of President Viktor Yanukovych following his speech, as it is not usually used by prosecutors abandonment of a planned EU trade deal in in support of minority groups’. The Hrant Dink favour of closer ties with Russia. Following mass Foundation’s Media Watch on Hate Speech demonstrations in Kiev, tensions rose between reports in 2013 highlight that hate speech towards the government and protesters, which led to ethnic and religious minorities is still prevalent sustained violence in early 2014, with hundreds in Turkey’s print media. Their May–August 2013 killed or injured. On 21 February 2014, report noted that, while there appeared to have Yanukovych was removed from office. been a slight drop in frequency compared to the While the primary factors behind the uprising previous period, the number of groups denigrated were not ethnic but focused on the corruption had expanded. In addition to Armenians, Jews, of the incumbent government and its close Christians and Greeks, who were regularly vilified, relationship with Russian President Vladimir new categories also gained prominence, such as Putin, the fault lines within the country reflect Syrian refugees. entrenched political divisions that are strongly Still, the 2013 democratization package associated with ethnicity. This aspect was proposed some amendments to the Penal Code sharpened in late February 2014 when that could provide the country with specific hate pro-Russian militia seized buildings in Crimea, crime legislation for the first time. However, even allegedly with Russian support. In March, though Turkey’s Justice Minister had stated that following a controversial referendum in the the laws would be modelled on the principles of region, Crimea was formally annexed as Russian the OSCE, the draft defined hate and prejudice territory. In the run-up to the referendum, crimes as those ‘committed based on someone’s Crimean Tatars became increasingly exposed to

182 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 motives of this crime.… The Court considers Case study by Irene Fedorovych it unacceptable that in such circumstances an investigation, lasting over eleven years, did not give rise to any serious action with a view Ukraine fails to to identifying or prosecuting the perpetrators.’ address hate crime However, even more troubling than the failure of the authorities to punish the against migrants perpetrators of hate crime is the prosecution of minority members who have themselves and other groups been victims of violence. While a number of cases have been documented, one of the most notorious instances is the case brought The Ukrainian state has been slow to recognize against Olaolu Femi, a Nigerian student the reality of hate crime in the country. Even who arrived in the country in 2007 to study now, there continues to be a clear gap between medicine. On 5 November 2011, however, the small number of cases officially reported his life changed completely after he was each year and the much larger number of subjected to an unprovoked assault by a incidents recorded by NGOs and rights groups. local gang. In the ensuing moments, Femi Furthermore, until recently, while Ukraine had defended himself and his friend against legal provisions (Article 161 of the Criminal his attackers with a broken bottle. When Code) criminalizing ethnic or religious hatred police arrived shortly afterwards, however, or hostility, this legislation was very difficult it was not the assailants who were arrested to apply. This was one of the reasons why but Femi himself on charges of attempted many cases were not investigated properly murder. and perpetrators were instead convicted for The subsequent investigation and hooliganism or ‘plain’ crimes, without particular trial have been marked by numerous mention of hate crime or other aggravating procedural flaws that reflect the continued circumstances. However, in 2009 the Criminal imbalances in Ukraine’s judicial response. Code was amended, and in 2012 a new After spending 18 months in custody, Criminal Code came into force. While civil Femi was released on bail in April 2013 society organizations were initially hopeful that only after the for Human this would help create a stronger framework Rights supported a petition from a for investigating and prosecuting hate crimes, number of civil society organizations in in practice both police and the judiciary have his support. A year later, despite these shown little commitment to improving irregularities and insubstantial evidence their work. against him, on 1 April 2014 Olaolu Femi Ukraine’s inadequate response to hate crimes received a suspended sentence of five years against migrants, African students and other with a three-year probation period. The foreigners has attracted international criticism. sentence attracted widespread criticism In September 2012, following the failure of from rights groups, with Femi announcing authorities to prosecute the arson of Roma that he would be challenging the verdict. houses in 2001 as a hate crime, Ukraine lost a However, the prosecution also announced case in the European Court of Human Rights its intention to appeal for a harsher (in Fedorchenko and Lozenko v. Ukraine) and was sentence. Meanwhile, the authorities condemned for its inaction in the ruling: are doing far too little to address the continued vulnerabilities of sub-Saharan ‘There is no evidence that the authorities have migrants in Ukraine. ■ conducted any investigation into the possible racist

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 183 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 threats and physical aggression, including from resulting in serious injury, stabbings and the use paramilitary organizations. This vulnerability is of other weapons. The majority of victims were reinforced by their long-standing marginalization of African descent. A number of physical assaults in the country and the uncertain legal status of against Jewish victims were also reported, one in many Tatars as Formerly Deported People (FDP, which a rabbi was attacked with a pepper spray, referring to the mass deportations in the 1940s along with some arson attacks – one attempted by the Soviet government under Joseph Stalin). against a synagogue – and graffiti, damage Ukraine’s status as a major migration hub and desecration of gravestones and Holocaust has also resulted in rising xenophobia against memorials. While no official data on anti-Muslim migrants. Asians, Africans and Caucasians are crimes was reported to ODIHR, civil society especially vulnerable to bias-motivated attacks. organizations reported a case of grave desecration Roma communities have also been targeted and an arson attack against a mosque. with violence, including an arson attack on a Despite official recognition of hate crime settlement in the Darnitskii area of Kiev on 13 as a serious issue that needs special attention June 2013, resulting in 40 people being at the ministerial level, at the level of policing made homeless. victims still face discrimination, harassment and Just three cases of hate crime were recorded obstruction in opening criminal investigation. by the police in Ukraine, along with two Another problem with hate crime investigations prosecutions in 2012, according to a 2013 in Ukraine has been the prosecution of victims ODIHR report. However, civil society for self-defence. In at least three cases since 2008, organizations recorded many more incidents people who were pushed to use force against involving cases of physical assault, a number perpetrators ended up facing criminal charges

184 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Left: Tatar people wave Ukranian flags at a rally in Simferopol against the 16 March referendum Case study by Peter Grant in Crimea. Jeroen Oerlemans/Panos. when the offenders were set free. Tackling It is also clear that in some cases the authorities have failed to respond adequately to hate crimes. Islamophobia The majority of reported cases are investigated and forwarded to courts as ordinary crimes in the United without specific mention of the bias motivation. Inadequacies in the investigation of racist hate Kingdom crime were illuminated by the European Court of Human Rights 2012 ruling in Fedorchenko and Lozenko v. Ukraine. The case involved an arson In the United Kingdom, extremist attack against a Roma family in 2001 which organizations such as the English Defence claimed the lives of five of the family members, League have launched vocal attacks against and in which it was alleged that a police major the Muslim minority. However, while these participated. The Court rebuked the Ukrainian groups remain at the fringe politically, authorities for their failure to investigate the their activities comprise only a small racist motives of the crime (see case study). fraction of the true extent of Islamophobic The effects of Ukraine’s recent political hate speech and violence. Fiyaz Mughal, instability could have troubling implications director of the charity Faith Matters, for its minorities. In February 2014, one of discusses the challenges with MRG and the first acts of the new parliament was to vote how his organization’s Tell MAMA to annul the 2012 law on minority languages, (Measuring Anti-Muslim Attacks) project which allowed Russian to be treated as an is supporting efforts to address them. official second language in parts of the country with a significant Russian-speaking population. The UK has one of the better developed This also had implications for other linguistic reporting mechanisms in Europe on hate minorities and indigenous peoples in the crime, but Tell MAMA has highlighted country, such as Crimean Tatars, whose language that only a fraction of incidents against has been classified by UNESCO as severely Muslims are actually reported. What is endangered, as well as Krymchak, Karaites, contributing to this lack of visibility? Bulgarian, Hungarian and Romanian minorities There is a lack of trust, a lack of awareness in the country. The recently appointed interim in Muslim communities of what hate President, Aleksandr Turchinov, subsequently incidents and hate crimes are, and also a stated that he would not enact the annulment. desire to let things go and not create ‘trouble’ In the context of rising tensions between Ukraine as it is perceived – these all play a role. and its Russian neighbour, the importance of Many people have a reluctance to report curbing hate speech and hate crime against hate incidents for fear that they may have minorities – already a serious and poorly to confront the accused or end up in court recognized challenge – could become even more giving evidence. Some are intimidated by pressing in 2014. ■ this process and so it is about treating victims with dignity, respect, and giving them all of the relevant information that they need. Also, our experience shows that if victims are supported at the beginning, they are more likely to want to go through the process. We have also found that at a street level,

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 185 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Case study continued How can police enhance their own procedures to improve the rate of reporting? visible Muslim females are the ones that are Well, we have made clear that police training on more likely to suffer anti-Muslim hate and understanding the language of anti-Muslim hate intolerance. Many of them are not aware of the is key and this also goes for practitioners in the processes and many of them also lack confidence Criminal Justice system. In fact, this is urgently or feel that if they do report in, their husbands needed if headway is to be made on tackling of and their sons may feel that they must do the anti-Muslim hate – otherwise, actions will miss duties and functions that she previously did out one vital component. to reduce her risk, further disempowering the In this regard, forces need training for front- mother and the female in the family. So many line officers and evidence from Tell MAMA just bear the abuse and get on with another day. shows that racist and anti-Muslim rhetoric is, on many occasions, mixed together, and we Do you think that sections of the British strongly believe that front-line police officers media are contributing to the problem? who come out and see victims classify the Sadly, some media outlets in the UK produce a cases as racist without much digging and the daily diet of caricatured stories and inflammatory asking of relevant questions. Ensuring that the headlines about Muslims, and this doesn’t help classification of cases takes place is essential improve mainstream thinking around anti-Muslim to get a grip and handle on the scale of the hate. Some press sources have been churning this problem, as well as provide the right kind of out for years, and there is an impact in the way support to the victim. Wrongly classifying a these stories are then circulated by others as fact. case can also affect its outcome since the Crown

186 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Prosecution Service may take a wrong train of enquiry in the end.

Finally, how can members of the general public contribute to supporting victims of hate crime? Members of the public can support hate crime work by promoting and publicizing it, and volunteering for it. Also, ensuring that rhetoric is challenged, whether through the press or through other sources, is key. Furthermore, where there has been proactive community engagement from police forces, we have seen interesting initiatives like training for community activists on understanding hate crime, with police forces actively involved. This partnership can and does reap rewards for the long term and it is something that we would always advocate. ■

Below: Young Muslim women in the UK. Jenny Matthews/Panos.

State of the World’s Minorities Europe 187 and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Minority Rights Group International

Minority Rights Group International (MRG) World Directory of Minorities and is a non-governmental organization (NGO) Indigenous Peoples working to secure the rights of ethnic, religious The internet’s leading information resource on and linguistic minorities and indigenous peoples minorities around the globe: worldwide, and to promote cooperation and www.minorityrights.org/Directory understanding between communities. Our activities are focused on international advocacy, training, publishing and outreach. We are guided by the needs expressed by our worldwide partner network of organizations which represent minority and indigenous peoples. MRG works with over 150 organizations in nearly 50 countries. Our governing Council, which meets twice a year, has members from nine different countries. MRG has consultative status with the United Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), observer status with the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, and is registered with the Organization of American States. MRG is registered as a charity and a company limited by guarantee under English law. Registered charity no. 282305, limited company no. 1544957.

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240 Reference State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 Events of 2013

Across the world, minorities and indigenous peoples are disproportionately exposed to hatred. From intimidation and verbal abuse to targeted violence and mass killing, this hatred often reflects and reinforces existing patterns of exclusion. The impacts also extend beyond the immediate effects on individual victims to affect entire communities – in the process further marginalizing them from basic services, participation and other rights. This year’s edition of State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples highlights how hate speech and hate crime, though frequently unreported or unacknowledged, continue to impact on every aspect of their lives. The volume also documents many of the initiatives being taken to promote positive change and the different ways that , civil society and communities can strengthen protections for minorities and indigenous peoples.

ISBN 978-1-907919-47-3