Europe Katalin Halász and Nurçan Kaya Europe Paul Iganski AZERBAIJAN AZER. ARMENIA GEORGIA RUSSIA SEA TURKEY K CYPRUS ICELAND AC BL UKRAINE VA MOLDO BELARUS ATL ANTIC FINLAND BULGARIA TVIA ROMANIA ANEAN SEA LA FINLAND OCEAN ESTONIA NORWAY GREECE LITHUANIA ovo SWEDEN MACEDONIA SERBIA MONTENEGRO AKIA RUSSIA Kos OV POLAND ESTONIA SL ALBANIA Kaliningrad (Rus.) HUNGARY BOSNIA AND HERZE. LATVIA MEDITERR SWEDEN IRELAND DENMARK CROATIA UNITED ITALY CZECH REP. LITHUANIA KINGDOM AUSTRIA AY KaliningradSLOVENIA (Rus.) NORW BELARUS LIECH. NETHERLANDS SAN MARINO GERMANY DENMARK GERMANY POLAND BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG LUXEMBOURG MONACO UKRAINE CZECH REP.SWITZERLAND BELGIUM SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS LIECH. MOLDOVA FRANCE SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA HUNGARY FRANCE SLOVENIA ANDORRA UNITED ROMANIA KINGDOM CROATIA BOSNIA GEORGIA ANDORRA SAN MARINO SERBIA PORTUGAL AND HERZE. BLACK SEA MONACO MONTENEGRO AZERBAIJAN ICELAND IRELAND Kosovo SPAIN BULGARIA ARMENIA MACEDONIASPAIN ANTIC AZER. ITALY ALBANIA L TURKEY OCEAN GREECE AT PORTUGAL CYPRUS MEDITERRANEAN SEA n November 2013, in her opening speech considerable anti-migrant and generalized anti- at the European Union Fundamental ‘foreigner’ sentiment across the region. I Rights Agency (FRA) conference on The internet and social media have provided Combating Hate Crime in the EU, Cecilia new opportunities for venting such sentiment. Malmström, the Commissioner of the European Individuals from minority communities who step Commission in charge of Home Affairs, into the public eye in politics, media and sport, expressed concern about the ‘mounting wave have provided new targets for hate through social of harassment and violence targeting asylum media. Between 2012 and 2014 the Council of seekers, immigrants, ethnic minorities and Europe is engaged in a major initiative against sexual minorities in many European countries’. the problem of online hate. Its youth section Nevertheless, reliable data on the incidence of is running a high-profile campaign, Young racist violence is hard to come by. According People Combating Hate Speech Online, to to an FRA brief on ‘Crime motivated by hatred mobilize young people and youth organizations and prejudice in the EU’ published in March to recognize and act against the problem of hate 2013, few EU member states have comprehensive speech online. arrangements in place to record hate crime. Given the paucity and poor reliability of Among European countries, Finland, the official hate crime data, it is always hazardous to Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom comment on trends in hate crime. Nevertheless, stand out as the exceptions – although still with in many countries certain groups feature gaps in their recording processes. prominently as victims. In particular, as the Given the different histories, migration patterns impact of the financial crisis has been felt across and ethnic and religious composition of European Europe, hostility towards established scapegoats countries, as well as their varying policy responses has been renewed – in particular, Roma to growing diversity, there cannot be a singular communities. While this is frequently expressed pattern of racist hate crime across the region. in the form of street violence or individual Particular conditions in specific countries at any assaults, it is also often reflected in discriminatory given time will provide distinct contexts for racial government policies. Jewish minorities are also hatred. Greece and Hungary, for example, stand the target of hate speech and violence, especially out from many other European countries in in Hungary, where anti-Semitism has been that both have experienced particular economic revived through myths of a Jewish economic deprivations in recent years, and in both countries ‘conspiracy’. far-right parties espousing anti-minority and The financial hardship in many countries, anti-immigrant rhetoric have gained a significant such as Greece, has also translated into rising foothold in national parliaments. levels of violence towards migrants and ethnic Much of the media attention on hate crime minorities within the country. Similar patterns focuses on the activities of far-right, neo-fascist of xenophobia are evident elsewhere, especially perpetrators. However, attacks by extremists in Russia and Ukraine, where violent hate crimes do not occur in a vacuum. The attitudes and against residents of Asian and African origin have the sentiments conveyed in hate crimes against been aided by the limited response of authorities minorities are often shared and underpinned by with regard to prosecuting perpetrators. While widespread denigration of the communities that these incidents often overlap with anti-Muslim are commonly targeted: asylum seekers, migrants, sentiment, the latter is nevertheless a distinct Muslims and long settled minority populations phenomenon and on occasion has been escalated such as Roma. Far more numerous than extremists, by rhetoric surrounding ‘the war on terror’, as in fact, are the ‘everyday’ perpetrators involved well as media reports of violence inspired by in offending in the context of their ordinary lives religious extremism. who, while not engaging in readily identifiable In some parts of Europe, tensions between activities such as far-right marches or pre-planned neighbouring countries can also contribute to violent attacks, share many of the same sentiments. violence and discrimination against minorities. In Opinion surveys and other studies have shown the South Caucasus, for example, long-standing 164 Europe State of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 2014 conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia has and in official political rhetoric, demonstrates fuelled an increasingly exclusionary form of the limitations of legal instruments and their nationalism that has encouraged xenophobia not uneven implementation in practice. However, only towards their neighbours but also minority many NGOs and civil society groups remained groups within their own countries. In October active during the year in addressing underlying 2013, while the Council of Europe’s High-Level social prejudice and seeking a stronger protection Conference Combating Racism, Xenophobia and framework for ethnic and religious minorities. Intolerance in Europe was under way in Yerevan, the NGO Pink Armenia staged a protest outside. France In a communiqué, the organization highlighted France continued to face significant challenges in that ‘the ruling party is sponsoring racist addressing the exclusion and marginalization of ideologies and spreading hate and xenophobia its minorities in 2013. In particular, the French within their own country’, and ‘spreading the state’s promotion of secularist policies, such as Aryan ideology and the importance of Armenia’s the ‘Charter for Secularity in School’ announced supremacy over others’. Similarly, in Azerbaijan by the government in September, has alienated there has been an increasing emphasis on many members of non-Christian groups, such ‘Azerbaijanism’ over a more inclusive discourse as Sikhs and Muslims. The charter effectively of national diversity, with the state actively reiterates the principles of the 2004 legal contributing to the hostility. Anti-Armenian prohibition of ‘ostentatious’ religious symbols hatred has not only been directed at Armenia and which, while not targeting any specific religious Armenian citizens but also towards Armenians group, impacts particularly on wearers of the veil living in Azerbaijan, who have at times been and turban. Similarly, as a result of the 2011 portrayed as disloyal towards the state. There ban on face covering in public places, a fine or are concerns, following Russia’s annexation of mandatory citizenship training can be imposed Crimea in early 2014, that a similar pattern on anyone apprehended for wearing a full face of hate crime could develop in both Ukraine veil, such as a burqa or hijab, in a public place. and Russia against their respective Russian and In July, a riot broke out after police stopped and Ukrainian minorities. charged a veiled woman. The woman accused Hate speech has also featured in the political the police of brutality during the arrest, although discourse in many countries, evidenced in Italy police unions claimed the woman’s husband by the treatment received by Cécile Kyenge, the attacked the arresting officers. country’s first black minister. In July, following France is also home to the second largest highly derogatory comments from a senior Roma community, after Spain, among Western right-wing senator, bananas were thrown at her European countries. France’s Roma community in the town of Cervia while she was on stage. occupy marginal positions in society, living In September, in an incident organized by the on the outskirts of cities, with many in far-right party Forza Nuova, three mannequins abandoned houses and segregated settlements. drenched in fake blood were left in front of a They continued to face ongoing violence and building where she was expected to give a speech. discrimination in 2013, particularly in the area Members of the Forza Nuova and the Northern of housing. In 2012, the then opposition leader League parties name her responsible for the François Hollande committed, in the run-up to ‘destruction of national identity’. the elections, to addressing the rights violations Many countries in Europe have relatively associated with the government’s ongoing well-developed legislation on hate crime and eviction of Roma settlements. However, human hate speech, particularly