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Presented CentralFaculties University Partialthe of European in Fulfillment to of “‘WHITE MISRULE’:“‘WHITE POLITICAL DURING TERRORAND VIOLENCE the Requirement HUNGARY’S WARWORLD I,1919 LONG Professor Susan Supervisor of Dissertation of Supervisor s for the DegreePhilosophy Doctor the s for of of By EmilyBy R.Gioielli A DISSERTATION Budapest, HungaryBudapest, History 2015 in in

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I luck been have . It. place atruly is special Acknowledgements generous Francisca Haan for defense onmy de serving I Gabriella amher my indebted to Kiswith help for

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and patient iii The first article IThe article first very read inmy first

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violence as ahistorian.

and there areand there many therepeople which began in 2001 when Iwhich began in2001 when

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library loandepartmentlibrary attheUniversityof Cincinnati and provided me with a listening ear and quiteand mewithliterally a provided and listening ear iv

also Iam thankful for thesustai contributed to this dissertation. tothis contributed The challenging commentarywhich is

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CEU eTD Collection Sphere Chapter NestOut this ThreeofSerpents”:Counter “Burning Chapter Two “WhiteMisrule”:Violen Militia Chapter Crises OnePolitical Hungary’s Introduction ListIllustrations of Acknowledgements Abstract Sovietization in the DomesticSovietization Sphere ConfrontationClass Conclusion Part Two Part One Conclusion The HungarianRepublic Soviet of1919 Defeat andRevolution Hungary’s Great Chapter Outline of TermsExplanation Literature Review Defensive Strategies “White Bolshevism” “The Masses” Tormented “ScoundrelsGentlemen” Masquerading as TheIdea” “Szeged Paramilitarism and theCounter Terrorand Tr Counter Violence Legitimacy

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CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusion andCommittee theWhite Terror “The TragicChapter Most Distribution Six ofJewries”: The Allthe European Joint Chapter Conscience the Five the World Rousing of 1919 ChapterSiberia: Counter Hungarian Four Secondary Sources PrimaryPublished Sources Periodicals LibrArchives and Conclusion A “Haven ofRefuge”? “Brothe Europe“…the people of Jewish a need savior…” Conclusion theConscience“[Rousing] ofthe World” “Potentates, and militarists” diplomaticists Inter Conclusion TheInterpretations Practices, and Experiences, Internment of RegulatingInternment The Romanian Precursor Conclusion “Home nolonger ishome “You have out….” sort tokick his Denunciation andthe Courts Punishment and PhysicalPunishment Violence Food and Clothing Organization AccommodationFacilities and - 1925 national Labor, British LabourLabor, national British andGreat War the rs, saveus”

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CEU eTD Collection Russian and Eastern European Eastern and Russian Anti and Violence Paramilitary Prónay: War,” First World the after in Hungary Lifeofa Groups,” ofParamilitary Worlds Social militial ofseveralthe on and general in paramilitarism on ofarticles number a haspublished also Bodó Béla Historian 2012). Press, War the Great after Europe in Violence Counter 200 Present and Past War,” Great the Hungaryafter Euro Central “The Gerwarth, 2 1919 Magyarországon története augusztus 1919. Magyarországon, és megszilárdításában kialakításában rendszer ellenforradalmi az szerepe Pataki, István 2007); Monographs, European Ormos, Politics Consolidation the of and Bethlen Europ 1 newly independent Hungarianstate. This dis of power,and or perhapstocarve role hoping defendinthe outanew an oldprivilege the dramaticattempting exploit shiftsand tonavigate inthe ideologicalsocial bases and experiences violence inCentral andspecifically. Europe, inHungarymore negotiatons major players accounts and ofpolitical detailed periodthis hasbeen about written Red andTerrora White and upheaval war,end two of left andviolence includingthea world

Historian Robert Gerwarth has published several articles on Central European paramilitarism. See paramilitarism. CentralEuropean on articles several published has Gerwarth Robert Historian Sakmyster, Thomas ean Monographs, 1994); Thomas Lorman, Lorman, Thomas 1994); eanMonographs, Magyarország a két világháború korában (1914 korában világháború két a Magyarország - Revolutionary Violence in the Defeated States of Central Europe,” in Europe,” ofCentral States in the Defeated Violence Revolutionary Buthistorythe relativelyhas written ofthisperiod, little been onthe social on BetweenHungary 1918andextended 1922period experienced an Counter - 1921. Július 1921. .

1 and actions of thoseordinary,andactions and

More - revolution Hungary’s Admiral on Horseback: Mikós Horthy, 1918 Mikós Horthy, Horseback: on Admiral Hungary’s

(Budapest: recently, have scholars toexamine begun eaders specifically. See Bodó, “The White Terror in Hungary, 1919 Terror White “The Bodó, See specifically. eaders ary,” ary,” pean Counter pean

Studies,2011). - 1921 East Central Europe Central East conservative counter Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, 1973); 1973); Kiadó, Katonai Zrínyi

(Budapest: Akadémia Kiadó, 1962). Kiadó, Akadémia (Budapest: , East European Quarterly East European Austrian History Yearbook History Austrian - eds. eds. Semitism in Hungary, 1919 Hungary, in Semitism high the ofmany biographies including politics, of

(Boulder, CO: Eastern European Monographs, 2006); Mária Mária 2006); Monographs, CO:European Eastern (Boulder, - Introduction Revolution: Paramilitary Violence in Germany, Austria and Austria and in Germany, Violence Paramilitary Revolution:

Robert Gerwarth and John Horne (Oxford: Oxford University Oxford (Oxford: Horne John and Gerwarth Robert Az ellenforradalom hadserege, 1919 hadserege, ellenforradalom Az

Counter

(August 2008): 175 (August2008): 1 sertation seeks sertation correct, this to part, in

37, 37, sometimes not sometimes - 1945) - decision revolution in Hungary, 1920 Hungary, in revolution no. no. - revolution. Much 2 , - trans.Brian 3

Dezső Nemes, Dezső

38, no. no. 38,

(2010): 247 (2010):

- 42 - making, 1921

(2011): 133 (2011): - 209; “Fighting the Red Beast: Beast: Red “Fightingthe 209; 2 - postwar

2 so

(Pittsburgh, PA: Center for Center (Pittsburgh,PA: (Summer 2004): 127 (Summer2004):

McLean McLean - - - 1944 ordinary, leaning revolutions, a leaning revolutions, - WarP in in 279; “Paramilitary Violence “ParamilitaryViolence 279; Az ellenforradalom ellenforradalom Az

- of the scholarship on fighting - -

1921 : A hadsereg 1921 : hadsereg A 163; “Iván Hejjas: The The “IvánHejjas: 163; (Boulder, CO: Eastern (Boulder, paramilitary (Boulder, CO: Eastern (Boulder, - 1925, István István 1925, eace: Paramilitary Paramilitary eace: of

persons , and treaty political - 1921: The 1921: - 172 ; Pál Pál CEU eTD Collection Women, Race, and Class and Race, Women, Intersectionality, Complexityof “The McCall, US Violence, and Gender, Race, Color,” of Women Against Violence and Politics, Identity Intersectionality, Margins: the “Mapping Crenshaw, reinf are positions subordinate and hierarchies that these argued also have Crenshaw Kimberlee and Hill Collins Patricia suchas Scholars domination. and oppression of systems multiple within positions subordinate oftheir because oppression of experiences ( wellgender as as race, class, out that pointed ofintersectionality scholars Noted unitarygroup. a womenas of homogenization women formulated by scholarship offeminist critique 4 Gellately Robert and Fitzpatrick in History,” in ofDenunciation Practices the to “Introduction Gellately, Robert and SheilaFitzpatrick Kalyvas, Stathis Gross, T. Jan 1989); Books, Vintage York: Zone,” in Gray “The Levi, Primo 1992); i Final Solution the and 101 Battalion Reserve Men: Ordinary 1930s the in Russia Soviet Times: CambridgeUn Goldman, also See 27. Goldman, in SovietHistory,” the Perpetrator of Question “The LynneViola, See by thoseinjured and it (victim). (perpetrator) an act havewhocommitted those denote explor be inpost theirdeployment and categories content these of and nature fraught historically and politically The societies. violent in identity,especially ofpolitical categories mutuallytheyexclusive “perpe and “victim” politics, status. Incrisis or activities prior oftheir because “victim”hardlyinnocent, is but this “victim,” isregime’s another “perpetrator” regime’s thatmeant one the po Furthermore, them.” absolves victory just as perpetrators “Defeat creates writes, As LynneViola is contested. as justified, persecution and violence mayconsecrate later which legitimacy, political because and committed, is persecution circumstan ofthe extreme extremelybecause are blurry categories ofthese boundaries moments revolutionary in concepts with these problem wellconceptual certain as a violenceas and agency, power, to relationship particular a termEachconnotes explanation. some Hungaryrequires 3 political hierarchies. in by their positions overlapping interpreted and victims observers byperpetrators, its how the violenceand terror thataccompanied political change was experienced and privilegeand intersect Hungary.It uses deficiency by

The term The i Deploying Stanford Law Review Law Stanford ed in the course of dissertation, but as words, they are used here in their most narrow sense to to sense most narrow inusedhere their are they words, as but in ofdissertation, the course ed

“Comment: TwinPyramids “Comment:

ntersectionality ntersectionality

Accusatory practices: Denunciation in Modern European Histor European Modern in Denunciation practices: Accusatory such terms as “perpetrator,” as suchterms iversity Press, 2011); Sheila 2011); Press, iversity The Log The exploring intersectionality, the study of how multiple forms multiple ofoppression thestudy how intersectionality, and of Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin’s Russia Stalin’s Terror in and Denunciation Enemy: the Inventing and 4

ic of Violence in Civil Wars in Violence of ic

(New York: Vintage Books (New Vintage York: produce distinct produce distinct

was coined in the late 1980s, but the approach emerged out of a broader broader outa ofemerged but the approach 1980s, late in the coined was ethnicity, religion, legal legal ethnicity,religion,

the lived experience counter the of

43, 43,

(Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1997). Press, University Chicago (Chicago: Ethnic and Racial Studies Racial and Ethnic

no. no. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); Press, University (New Oxford York:

litical back 6 —

(July 1991): 1241 (July1991): various socio purity and moral and purity Perpetrators and Victims,” Victims,” and Perpetrators

The Drowned and the Saved and Drowned The “victim

Fitzpatrick, Neighbors orced by violence by orced Signs experience - and , ”

and “bystander” and -

and citizenship citizenship and forth evident in revolutionary moments often has often moments inrevolutionary evident forth Sl 30, 30, , 1983). , 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); 2006); Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge:

of color who objected to the who objected color of (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); 2001); Press, University (Princeton: Princeton

avic Review avic

Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Extraordinary Lifein Ordinary Stalinism: Everyday in particular in - economic, ethnic, gender, no. no. - assumption 1299; Patricia Hill Collins, “The Tie that B Tie “The Hill Collins, Patricia 1299;

21, s for and individuals 3

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5 (September 1998): 917 5 1998): (September revolution Terror andWhite in 72, no. 1(Spring 2013): 22; 2013): 1(Spring no. 72,

Slavic Review Slavic in a context such as post as such incontext a is their instability. That is to say, isthe to That instability. istheir status) simultaneously shape women’s shape simultaneously status)

(i.e. an “innocent” victim). The The victim). “innocent” an (i.e. , trans. Raymond Rosenthal (New Rosenthal trans.Raymond ,

(New York: HarperPerennial, (New HarperPerennial, York:

y, 1789 y, trator” are not fixed nor are are nor are not fixed trator”

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72, 1(Spring, 2013): 24 1(Spring, 2013): 72, - scholarship’s scholarship’s 1800; 1800; -

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how the internationalhow community individuals’ experience and interpretation of events, though there are, in fact, different fact, in are, there though of events, interpretation and experience individuals’ les the boundary between state and non les theand between boundary state Revolution and World Order: the Revolutionary State in International Society in International State Revolutionary the World and Order: Revolution ddress the materialddressconsequences thecounter andmoral of counter counter Differences: A Journal A Differences: fected Hungary’s political andfected into Hungary’s internalpolitics, descent hies intersected in order hies intersected - revolution ded tothe politicalHungary. upheaval in State functionaries,ded like - revolution

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interpretations, like thoseof the interpretations, w of International Studies International wof - 3 revolution ungary,and interpretingand publicizing

official reports, articles, and newspaper official —

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international dynamics of revolution. of dynamics international . Peter Calvert, Peter

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no. no. ofvi Revolution and International International and Revolution

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István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Statecraft of a Magyar Nationalist Magyar a of Statecraft Conservative and Vision Liberal The Tisza: István in the countryside ofinvestigatingwere thetask rounding putto up and 7

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of for thevictims,American while the , each interest group, each interestattempted to . F

or their daily lives in significanttheir daily lives in

the Brit and ascribed identities, or not. Furthermore, the elopments within ish Labourish Party,

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- CEU eTD Collection by state authorities. See Chapters Two, Five and Six. and Five Two, Chapters See authorities. stateby Terror White ofcommunism life purgeHungarian to used measures legal theextraordinary militias. of arbitraryviolence 10 McMaster La of Rule Citizen American Modern Capozzola, Nicodemus Joseph Christopher War WorldI of Nieburg, Michael S. see I, War World during instates other 9 2008). Press, University Manchester MatthewStibbe, Rachamimov, Alon its and Legacy Monarchy Hungarian Austria Cambrid (Cambridge: in World I War Occupation German and Identity Culture, National Front: Eastern the on Land 1914 Germany, 8 how Hungary thebroader within contextofthe wa often overlooked effort state legitimacy, rebuild to retribution,an revenge, including andasimportant and dynamics revolutionary whereby of periods, violencefulfills counter materialopponents ofthestate deprivation, to “enemy who (those aliens” were persons ofenemy citizens refugees, and political states), abrogatedofcivil rightspeople thealland Europe(andAmerica) across subjected North through wartimeemergency that,to thepassage of legislation also differedofstate becauseconflicts expansion fromthepower massive priorof groups as such of the warwas no longer

See Galántai, 72 Galántai, See Jones, Heather

What constituted “Terror” to the two primary victim groups, namely Jews and leftists was morethan the was leftists and namely Jews groups, victim to primary thetwo “Terror” constituted What the content violence Europeanexpectations ofregarding norms broader and about - Hungary during the First World War,” in War,” World First the during Hungary - This dissertation will thereforeThis dissertation will analyze theviolence ofthe Terror White and revolution

w: Aspects of the Defence of the Realm Acts and Regulations, 1914 Regulations, and RealmActs the of Defence the of Aspects w: University . For Jews it included internment and expulsion measures also larg also measures expulsion and internment For Jews. it included

- (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press Press Belknap MA: The (Cambridge, 1920 Violence against against Violence British Civilian Internees in Germany: The Ruhleben Camp, 1914 Camp, The Ruhleben Germany: in Internees BritishCivilian - civilians and prisonerscivilians and 80, for a discussion on the use of emergency powers in Hungary. For emergency powers powers emergency For Hungary. in powers ofemergency use the on discussion a for 80, POWs and the Great War:Great C the and POWs

dimension

, 1995). , ge University Press, 2000); 2000); Press, geUniversity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge:

as victims they bywere their understood

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Andrew Grierson Bone, AndrewGrierson 2008); University Press, (New Oxford York:

Socialists, communists and democratics conceptualized democratics and communists Socialists,

primarily

P of transitional justice. risoners of risonersof

, ed. Agatha Schwartz (Ottowa: Universi Agatha (Ottowa: Schwartz ed. ,

contained tothe battlefield, b Uncle Sam Wants You : World War I and the Making of the the of the Making Warand World I : Wants You Sam Uncle - of W - ar in the First World War : Britain, France, and and France, Britain, : War World First the in ar aptivity on the Eastern Front Eastern the on aptivity Gender and Modernity in Central Europe: The Austro The Europe: Central in Modernity and Gender war Matthew Stibbe, “The Internment of Political Suspects in in Suspects Political of Internment “The MatthewStibbe,

6 of Harvard University Press, 2011), 154; 164 154; 2011), University Press, ofHarvard

r and imperialand collapse, toanalyzer inorder

on larger scales than before ever on larger imprisonment, and surveillance. imprisonment, Dance of the Furies: Europe and the Outbreak the Outbreak and Europe theFuries: of Dance 10

But the alsoexamine will it events

Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius, Gabriel Vejas as part ofthe “normal” a impulses inthe number of

a greater lesser or extent, ut was experienced by ut was

- ty of Ottowa Press, 2010); 2010); Press, ofOttowa ty as essential dimensions of dimensions as essential

1918 (Oxford: Berg, 2002); Berg,2002); (Oxford: ely directed and carried out carried and directed ely -

1918 (PhD Dissertation, (PhDDissertation,

internment as wellas as internment

(Manchester: . 9 8

Beyond the the Beyond The war War - 166; 166; -

in CEU eTD Collection 91, 91, 11 the p inflected by regime.In theideologicalpriorities ofthe and state 1990s, socialist the1980s ( by wi militias theWhite Terror,another trend has term long simply been comparing of thenumber person’skilled policy popularity, authoritarian its been focused on Literature Review membersh tomarginalizeunique, noras was reason apoliticallystate Hungary it unfitfor backward international sphere by showingthatHungary’s public at home, bu was simply not aof establishing matter eyes political legitimacyHungarian inthe ofthe Thus gaining the narrative controlabout over counter government through efforts, publicity individuals the experience inone theWar Great of the “proper” ofthe statecitizens relationship toits weathered transformed andby were Lenin

Péter Konok’s “Az erőszak kérdesei 1919 kérdesei “Az Konok’s erőszak Péter is one of the more recent contributions in this debate aboutterrors. thetwo debate in this more contributions recent ofistheone olitical changes changes thehistoriography helped inHungary within spur

during fiúk The historiography Terror ofWhite and early counter ip in theEuropeanip in family ofnations. ), during Red Terror. the

and groups

and to promote and topromote

the postwar and interwar period. the postwar

questions related ofthequestions tothepolitics high t was also part state’sitselfinthet was oftheeffort also Hungarian toposition

interpreted violence and how they especially it, how interpreted violence and instrumentalized th suchas deathsRed militias, theLenin attributed totheBoys

to ism andism thebiographiesofkey

attack ordefend thelegitimacy ofthe established newly particular humanitarian political agendas and

11 -

1920 Up until the1980s, Up until

small stateItsmall inEurope. at alsolook howboth will - ban. Vörösterror ban. 7

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postwar - revolutionary violenceinHungary

— culture of violenceculture was not of fehérterror.” fehérterror.” persons period, - literature often was revolutionary has

who

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helped

and policies and

3 (2010): 72 (2010): 3

formulate . M mostly

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CEU eTD Collection Eastern European Studies, 2011). Studies, European Eastern Anti and Violence Paramilitary War,” World Europe Central East Yearbook History Austrian 703 13 1982). Gondolat, Romsics, Politics Consolidation the of and Bethlen Lorman, Thomas 1994); Monographs, European 12 counterpart, particularlywith regard totracingthe commonality andbetween and HungarianGerman difference paramilitarism its historiography paramilitarism postwar inCentral of Europe, of showingpoints political andsocial Bodó’s power. relationshipunderstanding that the militia movement thecomplex had tothe lociof revolutionary paramilitaries tothe aristocracy, has been which in invaluable PrónayIvánandHej the political biographies oftheimportant most and systematicallymilitias of andmilieu reconstruct composition themilitias, the social These contributions moveb Foremost militias. scholarshipBéla Bodó’sworkWhite among new this hasonthe been and change notonly East thebroader inHungarybutCentral European region. provided the significantsocial into of history insight thepolitical struggle. első éve, tíz 1919 Bethlen IstvánThomasLorman’s Sakmyster’s biographyon Thomas Horthy, ofMiklós work nuancedand critical ofthe interpretations power postwar struggles

Béla Bodó, “Hungarian Aristocracy and the White Terror.” theTerror.” White and “Hungarian Aristocracy Bodó, Béla Sakmyster, Thomas - 724; Bodó, “The White Terror in Hungary, 1919 Terror White “The Bodó, 724; Over the past deca , Ellenforradalom és konszolidáció. A A és konszolidáció. Ellenforradalom

as East European Quarterl East European well as Ignác wellRomsic’s as

–

37, no. no. 2 37, 1929 Hungary’s Admiral on Horseback: Mikós Horthy, 1918 Mikós Horthy, Horseback: on Admiral Hungary’s jas. Bodóexplored therelationship hasjas. ofthe also counter

42 (2011): 133 (2011): 42 . 12

- 3 (2010): 247 (2010): 3

de, there has been increased attention on this period onthis ofcrisis therehasattention increased been de, - All ofthese contributions arehave none important, but Semitism in Hungary, 1919 Hungary, in Semitism eyond theideologically ofthedriven White interpretations

38, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 127 (Summer2004): 2 no. 38,

well (Boulder, CO: Eastern European Monographs, 2006), Ignác 2006), Monographs, CO:European Eastern (Boulder, - Ellenforradalom és konszolidáció.AHorthy 163; Bodó, “Iván Hejjas: The Life of a Counter Life The ofa “Iván Hejjas: Bodó, 163; - 279; Bodó, “Paramilitary Violence in Hungary after the First afterthe Hungary in Violence “Paramilitary Bodó, 279; - Horthy researched articlesresearched tothe contributed have Counter 8 - 1921: The Social Worlds ofParamilit Worlds Social The 1921: -

rendszer első tíz éve, 1919 éve, rendszertíz első — - revolution in Hungary, 1920 Hungary, in revolution and infamous - 1921 life trajectories ofthe ofseveral major Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal

(Pittsburgh, PA: Center for Russian and Russian and for Center (Pittsburgh,PA: - 172 ; — Bodó, Bodó, militia leadersmilitia likePál - 1944 appeared, s appeared, – Pál Prónay: Prónay: Pál 1929

( Boulder, CO: Eastern Boulder, - 1925, István István 1925, (Budapest:

- revolutionary,” revolutionary,” ary Groups,” Groups,” ary uch -

- 45 (2010): (2010): 45 rendszer as 13

CEU eTD Collection Heinemann (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011). Press, ofPennsylvania University (Philadelphia: Heinemann Century Twentieth Late the Worldto Ancient the Zones from Conflict in Violence Sexual and“Sexual Gerwarth, 2010); Gerwarth, Gerwarth, 14 betweenregional the “paramilitary emerged period. subcultures” that inthe interwar Austria, and Hungary inthe post transnational making phenomenon, between important links exp the work hasFirst, contributions. hasexamined madeparamilitarism it twoimportant as a Twentieth CenturyEurope Peace: Violence Paramilitary WarGreat inEuropeafterthe Central Europeedited broadly. more hasseveral He collections also including has a articles published number paramilitariesessays of and onthe inHungaryand perspective, experience leaves butlargely thevictims’ untouched. membersthe militia themselves provides anin war. However,whileBodó’ssch lens of long andtheRevolution armistice betweenand theEntente theCentral Powers through the has sought explore t to I,”emerged which inthe study hasfront ofthe framework ofthe EasternGreat This War. thehistoriographical to makes important contributions paradigm “Long War ofthe World andtothepolitical context war. ofmilitiathe motivations members, therevolutionary toboth connecting participation players.on issuesa ofclass,also He lesser inconnection touches gender, and extent to to

Robert Gerwarth, Robert Other newwork ontheHungarianhasco militias Political Violence in Twentieth Century Europe Century Twentieth in Violence Political War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe after the Great War Great the after Europe in Violence Paramilitary WarPeace: in - term andpractices developments emergedconsequence as which a ofthe Empires at War, 1911 War, at Empires he criseshe facingEastEurope Central following Russian the

Non , and recently most - Sexual Violence against "Politicised Women" after the Great War,” in War,” Great afterthe Women" "Politicised against Violence Sexual

Althoughon theHungariancase, scholarship focused his - olarship is a much neededolarship amuch emphasis is his on intervention, armistice and differences period thecommonalities and - 1922

(Oxford; New Oxf (Oxford; York: 9

Empires at War, at 1911 Empires - depth considerationperpetratordepth of the

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge:

me from Robertwho Gerwarth, ,

ord University Press, 2014); 2014); University Press, ord Political ViolencePolitical in

(Oxford; New York: 2012); 2012); NewYork: (Oxford; eriences ofGermany, - 1923 , . 14 ed. ed.

Gerwarth’s Elizabeth Elizabeth War in CEU eTD Collection and Munich in the Eyes of their Contemporaries,” Contemporaries,” oftheir Eyes the Munichin and Revolutions in Budapest 1919 in the Participation Women’s Head,’: Titus withthe Girl “‘Revolutionary Johnson, Eliza 2005; University, Columbia Dissertation, PhD 1919,” Budapest, Munichand Abl 2006); Press, University Indiana Twentieth in War 16 G (Munich: de eds., vonJoachimPuttkamer, and Borodziej, Wlodzimierz Böhler, Jochen by collection the edited recent to hascontributed He also after1918.” Empire ofthe an issue and Demobilization” issue of 2015 January the most recently including 15 counter published as articulates twoarticles, of the thebetween different links dimensions revolutions thatcame after. Herdissertation,contains the which material also she regional Europeof theparadigm through thelensrevolution. of revolutions Budapest in Germanyeyeon interpreting and Central withan theevents in Ablovatsk thinking aboutI of the experience Western ofWorld War Europe. outside numerousand collections articles edited areimportant for and conceptually theoretically in reports, limitations their explanatory which some have capacity. But ove largely German based onpublished language ontheEasternfront scholarship ofthe war. “LongI” paradigm, War World promotin beenin whichhas instrumental subculture.militia Second, Gerwarth ofthe has one primary been ofthe developers violence toBodó,Similar some he ofthe explored has gendered also dim

Eliza Ablovatski, “Between Red Army and White Guard: Women in Budapest, 1919,” in 1919,” in Women Budapest, Guard: White Army Red and “Between Ablovatski, Eliza Inaddition - While While

revolution — historiog i’s including sexualized violence sexualized including to the titles in the previous note, he has also edited a number of special issues on this theme, theme, this on numberissues a ofspecial edited also he has note, previous the titlesto in ruyter, Oldenbourg, 2014). Oldenbourg, ruyter, scholarship provides ascholarship comparativecommunist ofthe study 1919 not workingI” specifically War World inthe “Long - Century Europe Century ra

and White Terror,White and significance namelyand the courts laws in ofthe phy and points tocontinuity points phy and betweenwar theexperience ofand the

, eds. Nancy M. Wingfield and Maria Bucur, 70 Bucur, Maria and Nancy eds. Wingfield , M.

Journal of Modern European H European Modern of Journal ovatski, “‘Cleansing the Red Nest’: Revolution and White Terror in Terror White and Revolution Nest’: Red the “‘Cleansing ovatski,

- language, sources such as memoirs and officials and suchas language, memoirs sources Legacies of Violence: Eastern Europe’s First World War First World Europe’s Eastern Violence: of Legacies — Contemporary History Contemporary Nationalities Papers Nationalities andEuropean masculinityinthe Central 10

16 His work ontheHungarian case is

istory Her work

28, no. 3 (2000): 541 (2000): 3 no. 28,

entitled “The Limits ofLimits “The entitled

on the theme of “The Crisis of Crisis “The theof on theme ensions of the cultureensions ofthe of

framework, Eliza Eliza framework, contributes contributes - 94 (Bloomington, IN: IN: (Bloomington, 94 gEnglish

rall, his rall, Gender and and Gender - 550. to this

CEU eTD Collection Stephen Conway (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Pres Minneapolis of University (Minneapolis: Conway Stephen 17 research, along withthat practices of thelivedexperience tothe largely exclusion Thus her ofthe revolutions. Hungarian andin Munich Budap reactionary circles. broader politicallybywithin used vocabulary women bothmen and and/or conservative werewith politicalidentities not showsthatthearticulationscaseHungary, ofgenderAblovatski codes oftheyclashed as backgrounds. women ofthe as aconsequence repress producedthe of by members Thewelweit’s the seminal piecescholars of codes” statement. isalsoan important between leftasrightandgender “cultural andhowand the these theJudaism deployed andsmall, seems tothose becharged to limited one under law. specific including women, “revolutionary” thesource sheuses case base Budapest for is successfu an interest telling in sheis history a or“history While social period, from of the below.” bringing with also back order toBudapest approached andMunich.She therevolutions

Klaus Thewelweit, KlausThewelweit, Notwithstanding her researchevents tounderstanding thecontributions the makes Furthermore, of analysis her l in allowing the voices of some caught up inthe upheaval voicescaughtheard, allowing ofsome the l in be to - language archival sources.language research Moreover,her emphasizes discursive 17 Male Fantasies

By atnotable looking inthe sourcesconservativea woman produced by Male Fantasies Male

est asrevolutions,

of BodóGerwarth, madeinterventions and has important recent hip ongenderandTerror White inGermany, Freikorps . In. Thewelweit massive used work, this literary sources

, Vol , unique to Thewelweit’s “soldier males,” but was “soldier a unique toThewelweit’s males,” but s . the dichotomous collective memoryupheavals ofthe 1 - 2 Ablovatski

ive atmosphere of their authoritarian bourgeoisive atmosphereauthoritarian oftheir to argue the “soldier males” were that afraid of Male Bodies: Psychoanalyzing the White Terror Psychoanalyzing Bodies: Male Ablovatski 11

refutes of assumptions the core some of

engages with few unpublished engages unpublished few with s, 1987) s, .

Klaus , trans. trans. , CEU eTD Collection Peace, 1967), 1967), Peace, 1918 of Revolutions the in Party Communist 18 conflict thatthis to the position wasgeneral divorcedfrom not the conflict and European requirepeace, ownseparate its Entente hel military representatives inBudapest bilateralArmy this attempted conflict toconceptualize which asa conflict would separate re Eastern invasionand Army) occupationof nearly action wasstates’ thesuccessor fight against war Hungary for armistice between Austria terminology ina only “ conceptualization of Explanation Terms relations and international humanitarianism. interpretations ofthe in the interna further period inHungarian oftumultuous exploration this historyand reverberations its in the history ofthe Terrorcounter and White postwar

Rudolf Tökés, RudolfTökés, - o ccupation of The challenge o , ” to describe the ” todescribe the 142 the partitioning territory. ofhistorical Hungarian tional context, especiallytional context, interms of Béla Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic Soviet the Hungarian and Kun Béla - 144.

lands stopped and thenreignited stopped in relation to a to numberin relation ofissues

experience

set to be to successor apportionedset tothe states

ery f studying many period in this thatit, is defies ways,

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Hungary andon3November, theEntente Inreality, 1918. the limited sensetheperiod todescribe limited after the ofan signing

and Romania’s (s)

of violence, and therelationshipand ofviolenceof violence, toforeign - 1919 counter

( New York: Hoover Institution ofW Institution New Hoover York: , as a re , as 12

revolution. But leavesrevolution. it ampleground for

armies’ (witharmies’ French the help ofthe - revolutionary usesthis it period,

the whole of historic the social history conflict of . First, thoughuses the study this term - : organizedwas army inorder raised to The Origins and the Role of the Hungarian theHungarian of the Role and Origins The 18

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Hungary, and ar, Revolution, and and Revolution, ar,

the Romanian , d firmly victims’ victims’ the CEU eTD Collection Contemporary History Contemporary ar his in specifically comparison, of point 2001) Press, University Harvard 2007) Post intwell South in the Unionists militiascontinue where States, United 21 Consequences Its History, Its 20 as BNA). to referred (Hereafter England Kew, Archives, theat BritishNational FO/608/14 FO/608/13, FO/608/12, FO/608/11, collections: following especiallythe 71 1919 Hungary, to Mission 19 historical grou terror, justice. The and transitional following pagesprovide bothatheoretical and studyto this as political legitimacy, such revolution andcounter violence, re yetworld affairsdefined, waswhen groups not to and multiple inorder toviolence turned political power It small. ofthea period wastheideological when foundations from counter revolution to country. Bolshevism, meant nogenuineterm that in the was sense “pe there of opponents oftheregimeand from the Great Powers violence a and violent inturn prompted counter Further, outbreaksuccessive the of tried to pressure ofpeace torespect the terms Paris. the Romanians negotiated in

Perhaps the most similar historical instance of such period of conflict in the post in ofconflict the ofinstancesuchperiod historical most similar the Perhaps see wartimeemergency, of theconcept of an discussion eloquent For HarryHill - .

mold Hungary in their ownimage. Hungary intheir mold See also the records of the British Foreign Office regarding the Romanian regardingthe Office ofthe BritishForeign the records also See - Emancipation Violence in Kentucky’s Bluegrass Region Bluegrass in Kentucky’s Violence Emancipation ; Sally E. Hadden, Hadden, ; Sally E. With this context With 20

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were up for grabs,forwere was future up its uncertain, when (new) role its in ltz, ltz,

45, no. 3 (2010), 714 (2010), 3 no. 45, An Undiplomatic Diary by the American Member of the Inter the of Member American the by Diary Undiplomatic An Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in in Virginia Violence and Law Patrols: Slave - 1920

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in mind, isnecessary it certain which are todefine central terms o the 1870s. J. Michael Rhyne, Michael Rhyne, J. the 1870s. o NewYork - , ed. , , 203 , revolution, from empirerevolution, tonation

Fritz - d to terrorize particularly the African American, but also pro American,but also particularlyAfrican the terrorize to d 220. : Oxford University Press, 2012), 3 2012), Press, University : Oxford ticle “The Aristocracy and the White Terror,” Terror,” the and White Aristocracy “The ticle - Konrad Krüger Konrad

leftist leftist B . 21 éla Bodó has also looked to the post to haslooked also Bodó éla

revolutions beginning in191 13

revolutionary response from internalrevolutionaryresponsefrom ( New York: Columbia University Press, 1933 Press, University Columbia NewYork:

(PhD (PhD Rehearsal for Redemption: The Politics of of Politics The Redemption: for Rehearsal ,

who were the fearful spread of of Dissertation, University o University Dissertation,

and the Carolinas Carolinas the and Ma - state, from Greatstate, Power from to Hungar ry Dudziak, Dudziak, ry - 33.

occupation of Hungary, ofHungary, occupation

- Civil War South as a Civil War - Civil War (1860 Civil War ace” in the ace” in ian 8, which included 8, which - Allied Military Allied War Time: An Idea, Idea, An Time: War Journal of of Journal state (Cambridge: - revolution, revolution, fCincinnati ,

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- thus 1865) 1865) ), ), , CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2001), 33, 40, quoted in Gilley, quoted 40, 33, 2001), Press, University Relations Intergroup and Justice, Ideology, 26 Mills 25 194 Press, University (New Oxford York: 24 3. 2009), Press, 23 2014) 29, November 22 “…norms, practices values, beliefs, acceptedgroup.’”and by procedures a aacceptingIt matter of the “right” is‘right’…”to something because itconforms is rules (or dominates) them. necessary“dominated” for inthe validity the inastate ofthe tobelieve regimewhich fromexistence ofa “…theinthe order.” belief ‘legitimate’ salient for legitimacy. thosestudying law orprinciple.” thedomesticin both and internation debates standhowpeopleTerror at these White the over heartinterpreted the questions of or other norms violates organ established about violence,also butviolence may a source be ofde arehow violentacts,overControl violencecommitted, interpreted.reinforce once helps violencewhat andIt forms isjustified, ofviolenceare arole acceptable. in alsoplays Legitimacygets touse determinev who howpeople shapes there relationship between and isanintimate complex violenceand legitimacy. Legitimacy

Morris Zelditch, “Theories of Legitimacy,” in in Legitimacy,” of “Theories Zelditch, Morris in Vocation,” “Politics as MaxWeber, MaxWeber, Gilley, Bruce Press. University Oxford 2014. September Online. OED n.". "legitimacy,

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Essays in Sociology in Essays 7), 1247), al politicalsphere. , eds. John Jost and Brenda Major (New Cambridge Major York: Brenda and John eds. Jost , 23

Interms, politicalleg Weberian The Psychology of Legitimacy: of Psychology The

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how legitimization, particularlylegitimization, when a state , , trans. trans. and ed. ed. trans. and violence properly mayThe be used. , , 78

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David Beetham, “Political Legitimacy,” in in Legitimacy,” “Political Beetham, David Conform,” How Countries as Babbitt: Nation “The Meyer, W. John Beetham’s of conceptualization legitimacy better isperhaps suitedtodiscussing (legitimation). appropriate subord ofauthority3 positions consent are confirmedoraffirmation by express of justifiability); of authority, ofgovernmentproperandand (ii)the ends standards (normative 2 therules are justi isacquired1 it and according exercised established rules (legality); to A corrective weaknes of tosome the

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(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 2006), Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: tial dimension of this contest. ofthis tial dimension . I .

prolonged politica prolonged n other words,n other the - independent 32

Weber

“values, norms, “values, state.

l and ideologicall and postwar

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s all period CEU eTD Collection Donald Bloxham and Robert Gerwarth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 141. 2011), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: Gerwarth Robert and Bloxham Donald 36 Europe 35 out ofthe narratives, existing which but were of important the sites struggle over revolutionhave Terror andWhite asunfolded left been inprecisely it thosespaces which violence. spheresa riskspresenting highly one sphereconflictsconducted are inwhichpolitical separatefromprivate domestic or “mislea especially of duringrevolution periods andcounter between 1918 are legitimation strategies for used deploying violencediscussed inthe sources. when flux. social norms in are political periods where power state political ends.Thislack makes ofdistinction thedefinitionliminal usable inmore the state recognized) (i.e. “official”and and non transformation of that violence andexperience theperpetrator. Second, it victim bothfor the socio physicaldamages “enacted ofdecisiveforce whichis pursuant thathurts, orkills, toaims

Gerwarth, “Revolution and Counter and “Revolution Gerwarth, “Int Gerwarth, Robert Bloxham and Donald obviously important obviously - political control or change.”political control or , eds. Donald Bloxham and Robert Gerwarth Robert and Bloxham Donald eds. Yet, of ofsuch political aviolence the inherent definition isthat, problem doesThis definition First several things. ding.” Indeed,ding.” Gerwarthreification that:“The of out a points public separate ” 36

This observation is relevant is This observation study this examine thecounter to as seeks it - . Third, it does differentiat not . Third,it 1922.

as serving broader functions of control, domination, andpossiblyfunctions domination, broaderofcontrol, as serving

for understanding anddiplomatic inHungaryfor crises thepolitical

Additionally, allows for it theinterrogation of the - revolution,” in in revolution,” 35

and

- sided account oftheoriginssided account revolutionary of roduction,” in in roduction,”

control over legal definitions is up for grabs upfor is legalcontrol over definitions

18 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 2. 2011), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: e between especially perpetrators, between Political Violence in Twentieth Century Europe Century Twentieth in Violence Political

- it defines violence defines it as aphysical state actors who commit violent actorsactscommit state for who Political Violence in Twentieth Century Century Twentieth in Violence Political - revolution, can it and be narrow highlights

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See Kallis, “‘ Kallis, See and opposition to and opposition ” , Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Nationalism, and Ethnicity in Studies frequently have motivated people frequently motivated have people political goals

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CEU eTD Collection 40 however revolutionary political struggle bewarning taken thatviolence seriously inhis toadaptime byrevolution and orcrisis thatprevailed practices thenorms to prior struggle his orher followers depending onhoweffectivelya leader(s) toincorporate isable by violencecommitted the legitimation This processandas nowexists. practicesit very may ofthe state difficult, be immediately)consideredcome tobe believed eventually theviolenceitselfwill tobelegitimate, used it toestablish (if not judged orderauthority.exercise toestablish tobenecessary and in thestate Thus,when is establishgenerally authority t is subsumed into vyingauthority for their success. ultimate That tosay, isoften is theviolence used to However, what thelegitimacy determines ofthegroup force by orperson a exercised of physical police,gendarm army, forceas [such it wrote successfully in 1922thatformust toexist a the“legitimate state monopolize use aboutadditional points violence relationship state power. to and particularlyWeber its

Max

Weber, “Politics as Vocation,” 78. Vocation,” “Politics as Weber, In theseaddition to conceptual challenges, isals it . P

noble they may be. they may noble eople’s (and ofeventseople’s immediate largely states’) interpretations informed are t to the new conditions, methods, andconditions, thenew logicWebert to should Thus, of thestate.

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CEU eTD Collection 917 Counter “Revolution? Weber, 2000); in Russia,” inSoviet Class: “Ascribing Sheila also Fitzpatrick, See 8; (April 1974): 3 no. 9, 43 History and Society 42 Blackwell, Press Free (New York: 41 exi hierarchies inwaysfunctional thatreflect and theneeds ideologyregime. the of states,of however,do hierarchy,not dispense withthe concept reproduce butrather politically, and ethnicallygroups even andMost marginalized individuals. revolutionar ancien regime, Manyrevo each alter and and “the other thestate justifications other (attempts) terms, individuals relate toradically revolution includes reshape how to societies as “ political structures ofaHowever, also polity.ofrevolution itis informed by thedefinition approach, revolution considers study this understand counter on thedynamics ofcounter violence associated Counter

Eugen “ Bjørn Thomassen, Eisenstadt, S.E. st - those far 918. ing

C ahighly is Revolution conceptamongcontested Taking scholars. asynthetic more A discussionof Weber, “Revolution? Counter “Revolution? Weber,

- in asymbiotic ascounter relationship , revolution ounter

1993), 4 1993), which often inclu lutions seek the destruction seeklutions of and the hierarchies privilegesthe thatcharacterized - reaching transformations ofthereaching symbolicand transformations

Revolution and the Transformation of Societies: a Comparative Study of Civilizations Study Comparative of a Societies: Transformation the and Revolution and aim toreconstructbring by the state - revolution stands in opposition to inopposition revolution stands

- 54, no. 3 3 no. (2012), 54, 9. Stalinism: New Directions Stalinism: N

- ,

revolution in its relationship its to in preceding its revolution revolution. event: with revolutionary politicalwith transitions. otes towards an Anthropologyof an towards otes 1978), 1978), counter

216 - de revolutionar - 217. See also Charles also Tilly, See 217.

“ - - 683. upheaval, rapid and change, discontinuity, violence." revolution? What Revolution?,” 8; Collins, “The Tie that Binds,” Tie “The Collins, 8; Revolution?,” What revolution? revolution - revolution? What Revolution?” Revolution?” What revolution?

, ed. Sh ed. , y and Terror, White violence isnecessary it to

s a is vital tothe effectiveis vital contextualization of 21

eila Fitzpatrick eila - rapid transformation and ofthe rapid social

revolution doesnotexist without revolution Political Revolutions Political revolutionaryefforts for political society authority in

European Revolutions, 1492 Revolutions, European ing ,

The Construction of Social Identity Social of Construction The institutional structures”institutional of 20 in socially,economically, Although study this hones in Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal - 46 (New York: Routledge, Routledge, (New York: 46 ,”

Comparative Studies in in Studies Comparative , withthe two - 1992 1992

( 43 Oxford: .”

41 42

the

y In , CEU eTD Collection 47 translation 46 45 Row 44 the three when together, factions alliances theneed tocreate the needs supersedes keep to with politicalopponents. implement change inavery slow romanticized past, whereas anattempt conservatism is tomaintain the status quoorto about“presentpessimism andfuture” seeks tosome which return to society, revolution, which but “conservatism” and “counter further by complicated distinctions led Chrysanthemum andthe Revolution Republic. Hungarian Soviet as acatch or “against revolution” the Magyar that translated word is as“counter English into previous revolution(s) and thelatter but rather establish an to alternate want former The order. wouldbe torestore donotwish does leaveactually people not theoldorder who those space for defined. changes andtore byrevolution wrought revolution. Counter

Mayer, Mayer, in While Hungarian “Revolution, Counter Weber, Arno , 1971), , Mayer, Mayer, The between“counter distinction 44 Dynamics of of Dynamics

of the term in English is “Hungarian Soviet Republic”. “HungarianSoviet is English termin ofthe -

But oppositional this andreactionary ofconceptualization counter all term that refers to the ideologically diverse groupsall termtotheideologicallyKárolyi that refers diverse opposed to 48 - Dynamics of Counter of Dynamics counter 50; Weber, “Revolution? Counter “Revolution? 50; Weber, Tanácsköztársaság Counter - revolution has comegroups undothe revolution efforts ofto tomean certain the -

he arguesHehereaction definesgeneral as are notthea same. . precisesense revolutionary inits ” — 45 47

actuallyboth meaningsencapsulate can deployed been and has

- In the Hungarian case, this distinction is perhapsIn theis Hungarian distinction case, because moot this -

revolution revolution? What Revolution?,” 13. Revolution?,” What revolution? However, Mayer argues thatperiodsdrive political of crisis - revolution,” which are often conflatedrevolution,” are often which with counter

- revolution

and gradualand through manner compromise pragmatic

literally translates as “Republic of Councils”, the common common the Councils”, of “Republic as translates literally , 48, 50. 48, , Arno Mayer articulated, , - - establish the “traditionalestablish order,” however iti 1870 revolution” “anti and -

revolution? What Revolution?,” 32 Revolution?,” What revolution? 22 - 1956: an Analytic Framework Analytic an 1956:

—

a “revolution against the a against “revolution -

revolution” between “reaction - revolution” may be anti 46

—

- ( - 33. New York: Harper& Harper& York: New revo ellenforradalom

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CEU eTD Collection Stalin Germans A. See Eric also 7. 1999), Press, University Extra Lifein Ordinary Stalinism: Everyday Sheila Fitzpatrick, police). or gendarmes (like the apparatus stateto ties with close involves actors and/or law in emergency legitimized retroactively isoften thetime at extralegal havemaybeen what pro additional the and follow, lawsto which flux determining is in ofextreme periods in challenge law.The the in regulated not explicitly iswhich that to referring violence with extralegal violence,” Princeton 48 successand emanates unsure,thus is aofweakness position from perceived and fear instrument repression historical“Terror” concept,and hastodefine of come periods intensive bloodshed TransitionalTerror and Justice reasonscoalitions forged why incrisis eventually apart. fall moments they“ordinary” eschewas wouldotherwise intimes, the well as inpositing is alsohelpfulp in heritage ruling family) butestablishanew radicalconceptualization andHis nationalists. monarchistsincluded (those Habsburgwhowanted Hungary’s toretain royal legitimists, encapsulate comple the Mayer’s ofconceptualization anti revolution portrait doescreatecomplex moreofrevolutionary usingfar but a moments, the goalsgroup of each

Arno Mayer, ArnoMayer,

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013). Press, University Oxford (Oxford: I

(New York: Basic Books, 1999) Books, Basic York: (New ntegral to the study of revolution andcounter thestudyofrevolution ntegral to University Press, 2000), 2000), Press, University

of those perceived to be enemies of the regime tobe enemiesof thoseperceived ofthe of and politics, isoften,thoughwhen used ultimate notexclusively, inperiods The Furies The roposing incrisisandgroups whyactivities howcertain toleratecertain :

xity of Hungary’s “counter ofHungary’sxity Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions Russian and French the Terror in and Violence sep

arate chapter chapter 4

. This conceptual differentiation to . Thisconceptual of opposition

- revolutionary factionsalliances between different helps

and and ordinary Times, Soviet Russia in the 1930s the in Russia Soviet Times, ordinary Johnson, Johnson, . Sheila . Fi James Harris, James Harris,

23 Nazi Terror tzpatrick conceptualizes terror as “extralegal state as “extralegal terror conceptualizes tzpatrick

- Anatomy of Terror: Political Violence un Political Violence Terror: of Anatomy revolutionary” whichfactions - revolution is thatofterror. is Asarevolution : the Gestapo, Jews, and O Jews,and Gestapo, the . 48

Terror an islargely

(New Oxf York:

(Princeton: rdinary rdinary blem that der der ord ord CEU eTD Collection pursued by the previous regime, whate regime, previous the by pursued 51 History of 50 Russia Stalin's in 49 with the “crimes”past theregime. of “transitional justice” isthe(re)construction legal which ofdealing order, the includes society.” theoristsand alikeas Thus,whathistorians tendtodescribe political revolutions hinge of ondueling conceptualizations embedded theconcept and thatof“justice” within givencounter is thatrevolutions itself, justice amnesty,punishment, and revenge, restitution Transitional justice usually balance enforcers requires its four to mainimpulses: publicly future inthe hopesfor groundwork oflaying stability the inthe state. assert “foundationalofsocial its and interpretation principles” its punishment instance groupssocieties or electdeal to thepastestablish with anew asthey intensive effortsas itself legitimate.It establish isgenerally to “the described way as years oftimeline toacouple athe few of when months study Assuch,often it implicitly ofrevolutionary moments. relative suggests a “enemies”moments hasbeen fear andintothe toeliminate hearts strike observers. of Inrather ofgoals, therole its thanstrength. terms of terror typically, inrevolutionar

Here the word crime is only used as a historically relative term, not as a moral valuation of the policies the policies of valuation moral a not as term, relative historically as a used word crimeisthe only Here “Robespi Brown, G. Howard Johnson, ,

Transitional to prevent oftheseexpressions popular Of impulses. orhinder course theproblem

of revolution of revolution (Winter 2010): 504. 2010): (Winter Nazi Terror Nazi , ” whichgovernment ideally and allows a toconsolidateposition its new

(Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011) Press, University Cambridge New York: (Cambridge; , 11; See also also See 11; , j ustice, like thatof isan terror, important concept the broader within requires the new government to “[balance]requiresgovernment to thenew clemency with selective

erre’s Tail: The Possibilities for Justice after the Terror,” afterthe JusticeTerror,” for Possibilities The Tail: erre’s

Wendy Z. Goldman, Z. Wendy Goldman, ver its ideological bent. ideological its ver 51

24 , all

Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror and Denunciation Enemy: the Inventing

within institution within what preciselyaconstitutes “just

new regime its ismaking

and political norms

alized apparatuses of

system.” Eachsystem.” Canadian Journal Journal Canadian 50 ly brief

most most y 49

- CEU eTD Collection 53 Yugoslavia. II,most War promi World since war crimes tribunals development of especially and the to peace, to war from moments transitional 52 and necessarily regimes not inthepast consciously did special organs build to judicial origins in is implicitlyapriorities whichare setof and packedassumptions specific toits with to usethe tohistoricalis term moments relation in anachronistic (1) because: themeaning from authoritarianism that given the terminologyand near its evenhistorians, study those who revolutionary moments. ordered, be state.and will theprimarybeneficiaries the defining values, its who of ideological especially position, interms of indicatingissupposedtobe howsociety amnestyand resti encompasses vengeance thedesirefor deal the with encompassesa progressive march ofpoliticallytoward illiberal democratization. societies conceptualized almost exclusively democratic inliberal as part adefining of terms the Southeast A Latintransformations like inplaces Africa, and America, South EasternEurope, fromIt was the early developedlargely examining nineties. bysocial scientists political

Brown’s article is a notable exception, though it also deals with the transition to a more liberal regime. moreliberal a to transition with deals the it also though exception, notable isa Brown’sarticle half somewhat been has also concept The 504. Tail,” “Robespierre’s Brown, As a concept, trans Transition

the early 1990s, (2) use the historicalthe early didnot 1990s, precise actors (3) actors and term sia. As a result of this moment ofsia. Asofthismoment genesis, aresult transitional justice has been crimes andcrimes

variety methodsand have which institutions governments of new used to tution al justice isaconceptual relatively paradigmdating with recent origins nently the Nuremberg trials and the war crimes tribunals following the wars in the following war tribunals crimes the and trials the Nuremberg nently to democracy less so (andto somewhat ,

and it provides a means for a new regime to present its and provides aits regime it afor new means topresent

wrong itional justice to this point has been justicepoint itional tothis largely by ignored

- doings of past regimes. Assuch, transitional justice ofpastdoings regimes.

- and exclusive usetodescribeexclusive political only transitions punishment 25

as well as 53

Some scholarsSome argued have postwar - the heartedly been applied to to applied heartedlybeen

judicial procedures),judicial potential for potential 52

CEU eTD Collection European History, May3 History, European 1919 Hungary (In)Justice: “Transitional 55 Justice.” 54 literatureuntreatedjustice specifically inthescholarly ontransitional the because aninto important facet o transforming from “extra it inconvenient approach justice may,morefact,allow itto effectively totransitional in violence, manage transitional “overcom justice isto itself. stabilize claims oflegitimacy of transitional justice areideally shap transitional justice inpost ideological practice. goals into translated are seekinga means particular at justice itself varies Understanding historical different contexts. andideological what across or havehas inademocracy promotedthe manner of notalwayscause which resolved been narrative which change defineregime the dilemmas however, moments inrevolutionary havegrapple.social and politicalhad transition to remembering vs.forgetting,” justice” hasmediate to sought obj specifically theactions with deal oftheir predecessor(s).

I would like to thank my colleague Jan Bröker, for sharing his unpublished paper with me. Bröker, Bröker, with me. paper unpublished his sharing for Bröker, myJan would thank colleague to I like Rights Human Reshaped “How‘Transitions’ Arthur, Paige

progress ections deal of thecontent terminology, with theconflicts This dissertation seeks understand to Human Rights Quarterly Rights Human ,

however these conceptsareMoreover,of “justice” veryhowever these defined. the idea Howard Brown, aFrench of scholar argued the Revolution, — - 5, 2012) 5, domestically and internationally f state policy.transitional of f justice isoften Thisdimension

- World War I War World and post

. 31 (2009), 329 (2009), 31

are issues with which all regimes significantarewith which inperiods of issues :

“…truth vs.justice, vengeance and vs.forgiveness - e a legacyfear,”e regime’s ofviolence and buta 1922,” 1922,” historical ed specifically regime’sa inways new that buoy (paper presented (paper - - legal” excesses or popular expressions of anger of legal” excessesexpressions or popular 332. 26

the

moment makes it possible toidentify moment makes possible it - relationship revolutionaryHungary. instruments The 55 : A Conceptual History of Transitional Transitional of History A Conceptual :

Unlike the at the annual Graduate Conferences in in Conferences Graduate theat annual — 54 and allow it to surviveallow itto andand

However,the though

between terror and dominant

which “transitional which “transitional

neo

that a goal of - liberal

how CEU eTD Collection rather than as a historical concept. historical as a than rather primarilypost the in developed has concept as a justice post as (such “reconciliation” at efforts to as itrelates justice Rwanda Germany, (e.g. genocide to not limited but conflict,including ethnic momentsof ofextreme periods after justice transitional post (e.g. transformations attemptingdemocratic soci in justice transitional of issue the discusses which ofone lines, along two Justice Transitional (Washi Regimes” withFormer 2009 1997): (May Transformation,” Political Law in of Role The Jurisprudence: “Transitional and Memory, 56 special attention tothe reassertion ofaccess propertyrelations, the threatand housing to broader inthe participation population’s violence.explores thedomestic spherea Chapterunderstanding the way Three as of ethnic, gender,hierarchiesand religious for interpretation shapedof and the justifications payingattention tohowbothperpetrators’(percei and victims’ in Monarchy. The as well as therevolutionary following transformations thedisso Chapter Outline occupation state. and poli by Terror, helped theWhite institutionalize which theradically economic, altered social, justice, including complemented prolonged internment, fear and theviolenceand instilled democracy. underlying (always) thatastate’stransitionis inmuch ofitis assumption toward

Jane L. Curry, “When an Authoritarian State Victimizes the Nation: Transitional Nation: Transitional the Victimizes State Authoritarian an L.“When Curry, Jane

the arena Chapter internal Two analyzes of politics. theviolencemilitias, ofWhite The provides first a ofHungary’s chapter War dissertation summary Great this of tical ofthe conditions newly truncated 56 Political Divides,” Divides,” Political

In theca - 2080; Neil J. Kritz, editor, “Transitional Justice: How Emerging Democracies Reckon Reckon Democracies HowEmerging “TransitionalJustice: editor, Kritz, Neil J. 2080; subsequent two two subsequent

(New York: Oxford Oxford (NewYork:

se of Hungary,se of thepracticesofcounter

ngton DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995); Ruti G. Teitel, Teitel, G. Ruti 1995); Press, ofPeace StatesInstitute United ngtonDC: International Journal ofSociology Journal International ). Still another thread of scholarship grapples with the idea of transitional oftransitional withidea the grapples ofscholarship thread Still another ).

chapters address the University Press, 2000). 2000). Press, University - counter socialist transition in Eastern Europe after 1989) or 1989) after Europe Eastern in transition socialist 27 -

World War War World postwar - revo - Apartheid South Africa). Thus, transitional transitional Thus, Africa). ApartheidSouth counter lution M , post

II period, as a as a policy period, II uch of the scholarship has developed developed has uchofthe scholarship 37, 1(Spring 37, 20

and Terror, White paying - - - revolution revolution, and post revolution, and revolutionary transitional ved) insocial, position The Yale Law Journal Law Yale The lution ofthelution Dual eties undergoing or or undergoing eties Justice, Collective Collective Justice, 07): 58 07):

and White Terror White and - oriented idea idea oriented – 73; Ruti Teitel, Ruti Teitel, 73; -

106, 106, 7 CEU eTD Collection period in tumultuous this Central European history. of domest thecountertogether,chapters theseexamine played aform role inthe community’s genderclass and hierarchies as well statusonly as not citizenship the shaped response Terror. totheWhite Jewish how the Entente shouldintervene inHungary. over the existence, the specifically andBritain the Great Terror.features five thegovernments Chapter thestruggle between Great ofthe Powers, status andgendercitizenship shape It factors,violence explores howmultiple and especially deprivation. class, also the history of servesthe domestic and between asbridge spaces intimate ofthe most violence ofpeople’s asinvaded chapterfourth it lives.The

Joint DistributionJoint Co The last twochapters ic and angles, international

unde counter rstanding ofthe - revolution

nature and ofthe and scope whether Terror thedebate over nature and/or ulation ofdiplomacy, mmittee’s explore These chapters both pay chaptersThese both aryand internment incarcerationcite asan of important

United States, and theinternationalUnited States, and movement labor complex natureofthe complex d the carceral experience carceralof people.d the ofthousands showing the the role internationalcommunity of in the , a Jewish reliefa Jewish and organizati reconstruction international politicial sphere.It politicial international 28 - revolution andTerror White revolution avariety from

The final chapterThe analyzes American the relief

complex wayscomplex ,

and

special attention to how ethnic, attentionspecial to

reconstructive policies.reconstructive crises inHungary that violence defined ,

homes inon but how it but howit international

the White White the

Taken

on,

CEU eTD Collection 184, 186. The reasons for beatings are not elaborated on by the correspondent, M byon correspondent, the not elaborated are beatings for reasons 186. The 184, Vienna and Budapest of History Cultural the on Essays 2 1944). 1919 24, (November Huszár Károlyi 1919 21, of(March state head Béla 1919), 1 Italianto theSerbian, Russian, and fronts where where fightinghadand fierce, been the troops Hungary totheHabsburg supplied war had increased rations andarbitrary received beatings thrown prison into yearsbecome increasingly violent overwar, of thefour government encirclement by Enten political right andleft. Hungarian The economy largely failed five governments,which differed of all intheirorientation, ideological as well and as military defeat independent hindered statewas economic by aofimportant problems, and number social state period isthereforeandrevolut political acrisis not only story of Hungariana Empire to swift pol

Péter Hanák, “Vox Populi: Interc Populi: Hanák, “Vox Péter (1913 by Tisza István wereheaded governments The re

building in the wake oftremendous processbuilding This constructing inthe upheaval. an of The immediate The Terror White and counter itical that transformations saw Hungarygo from theAustro anintegral of part Kun who was formally only the Commissar of Foreign Affairs but actually fu Affairsbut actually Foreign of Commissar the formallyonly was whoKun ’s efforts to extract asmuch’s effortslaborresources extract had and to ofitspopulation out — to

solve.

to prevent disturbances te troops byautumn of1918te combined the with

postwar much 1 -

August 1, 1919), István Friedrich (August 7, 1919 7, István (August Friedrich 1919), 1, August Hungary’s epted Letters in the First World War World Letters First in the epted

small ensuing

March 1, 1920), Admiral Miklós Horthy (March 1, 1919 1, Admiral(March MiklósHorthy 1920), 1, March period wasperiod by marked a struggle power between the er Chapter One Chapter

- independent state in just five years.state five injust independent story The this of territorial revolution in Hungary came on the heels of veryrevolution Hungary came ontheheels in of

, while some peasants, while favors sexual traded for Political Crises Political 29 - 1918), Mihály Károlyi (October, 1918 (October, Mihály 1918), Károlyi

(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 1998), Press, University (Princeton, Princeton NJ: truncation. Thesetruncation. chal were was deci by local leaders. bylocal effort hadlargely dispatched been

with so mated by the war. The war. mated country’s by the , ” in” me The Garden and the Workshop: Workshop: the and Garden The

ion, but alsoion, but ast 2

On the military front, labor leaders beinglabor leaders - aria Sedláckova. aria November 23, 1919), 1919), 23, November the

attempted war nctioned as the as the nctioned lenges - - March, March, October 15, 15, October ory of —

that and -

CEU eTD Collection footnote on pg. 2 pg. on footnote ofIntersectionality, Complexity “The McCall, Leslie US Viole and Gender, Race, Binds: of Women 3 the and judiciaries, andinstitutions in regard as tothesethey businesswent of questions aboutthe postwar struggle,as well as ininternational advocacy diplomacy and effortstheearly in period, andof whichviolence typesparticular sphere were concern of intheinternal how violence w legitimacy inpost guiding study:was this violence physical therole what of inthe strugglepolitical for only to social the ideological ofthe government rapidly orientation moved the hand of the symbolicthepre destruction Budapest.houseassassination many onHermina in in utca His as ways asymbol served formerIstván Ti Prime Minister angerfrustration and at manygovernment in the thefigure felt monarchist torest came of mismanagement ofresources Siberia. The Entente blockade hundreds of thousands wereas taken prisoners

Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Violence and Politics, Identity Intersectionality, Margins: the “Mapping Crenshaw, Kimberlé se particular questionsin ways one The assassinatio /interwa

s of

democracy to communism to democracy tocommunism and a half years.and a half Color,” Color,” traditional elites, and initialized a and prolon initialized traditional elites, - 3. as experienced, instrumentalized, and interpreted during this Stanford Law Review Law Stanford r period?

- World War I War class,World and gender, Hungary?; ethnicity howdid affect n of Tisza offers a point of introduction forn ofTiszaoffers athe ofintroduction primary point questions

Eachgovernment itself inradically positioned divergent ways

nce, created near famine conditions in Hungary famine near created conditions in 1918,and the by

combined with the Hungarcombined withthe

in the long term, sza, whowassza, on assassinated ” , 43, 6(July 1991): 1241 6(July 1991): 43, ,

which Ethnic and Racial Racial Studies and Ethnic -

war assumption thatpoliticalwarassumption power rested solely in conservative authoritarianism

reflect not onlyreflect theevents andinterpretations of not 30 Signs

- of

each regimecame to associated tobe , 30, 3(Spring 2005): 1771 3(Spring 2005): 30, , - war remote and to in camps sent gedcrisis political of legitimacy as - 1299; Patricia Hill Collins, “The Tie that Tie “The Hill Collins, 1299; Patricia , 21, 5 (September 1998): 917 1998): (September 5 21, , ian government’sian from liberalism conservative Oc ( re tober ) building newbuilding political over theover course of

31, - 1800.

1918 in his inhis 1918

postwar See also also See - 938; 938;

CEU eTD Collection limits ofacceptablelimits thestate violenceand tointerpretwhen civilian advisors andmeant was missions thatsolely it not todefine uptoHungarians experience, ofHungarywiththe presencecoupled weakness and of military the and international violence normsabout were being re the revolutions andcounter that wereinstitutions Inother toprevent onEuropean intended words, wars soil. future internationally minded and continued more even todoso vigorousl ideologicaleconomic interests values since and the questioningEuropeans thecompatibility been whohad ofviolence withEuropean Europe. andRussia Western European fearedgovernments revolution ofviolentcommunist theseepage from moment ofextreme economic, po counter orientationdiplomatic inradicallyBut and the differentHungarian revolutions ways. that conceptualizedvisions civil rights, rights property andHun Terror. they phase relate tothe final of later was contemporaries, also but later historical

- The revolutions andcounter revolution also came onthe alsocame and ofan heels atrevolution extraordinarily a violent war It once once took place were willing to intervenewere willing thetideof expansion to Bolshevist militarily tostem again ontheagain losingstudywar.ques sideof This focuses onthese

during of a intense period soul reformers - revolution in Hungary exploded during Hungary exploded in w revolution a time political upheaval

litical, andmilitary weakness, exp gained from enoughnew statestobuild support - revolution proposed and sought to institute political soughtand revolution institute to proposed developments in developments in 31 y inthe wake the Gr of

- : the counter definedawartime result as ofthe second of the half - searchin Hungary, which only 27 yearsHungary, which only27 — g on the part of manyg of onthepart - and its representatives likeand representatives its revolution and the White theWhite revolution and gary’s militaryand eat War wheneat War loding

nineteenth centurynineteenth

when many hen tions astions

the in CEU eTD Collection (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1985), 99 1985), Monographs, CO: European East (Boulder, 4 Károlyi, ofa ofthe aristocratic member one wealthiest and families an ofHungary circles themselves Mihály positioned thepersongradually around that of had Count marginalize theopposition, whichrange encompassed aparties an ofleftist Representatives,championedand legislation had controversial designed specifically to wounded. a which gathering33 people in1904, ended killed a ofsocialists with breakinga railroad ofworkersstrike also in1903andhad called tobreakup onthepolice been 1903 thePrimefrom Minister GreatHungary’s War politics. It1914. interplay theof alsodiscuss Hungarian will internationalanddomestic of sphere ownpopulationands its This chapter pay will attentionuseof special tothe state’s coercion andviolence against insight the shifting ofHungarian into in politics sands byBélaKun to democraticregime ofMihálythe“dictatorshipestablished ofthe to Károlyi, proletariat” crisis in of revolutionary the army, police,gendarmerie and

Gábor Vermes, Gábor On the eve of World War I,On the eve byIstvángovernment ofWorld War Tisza. led the was The purpose of give this chapter isto t

postwar 4

Between he Ministerial hishad posts, theSpeaker been of of theHouse István Tisza: The Liberal Vision and Conservative Sta Conservative and Vision Liberal The Tisza: István

establishment ofthe

remnants Hungary. tothe governmentTisza wartime István from Moving the of

ubject after populations, declaration the ofinthe war summer of

-- - had gone thenation intheir effortshad toofar cleanse to

1905, during whichcalled he the1905, during had ruthless for reg ency of Miklós Horthy,ency provide will ofMiklós chapter this 32 - 100. he historical background historical political he ofthe

during aftermath and thewar its tecraft of a Magyar Nationalist Magyar a of tecraft nd many more d intellectual Tisza hadTisza

. CEU eTD Collection Press of Harvard University, 2011), 152 2011), University, ofHarvard Press 7 25 1989), AkademiaKiádo, (Budapest: Pokoly Judit trans.ÉvaGrusz and 1918], 6 5 the government via andpower emergency was more seized usedto legislationthat military defeats, and in nearly all ofthe belligerent states governing party and the the onceEmperor, ofhad thedeclaration war madeaakin been politicalto byceasefire the byinitiated of theassassination heir apparentFrancis Archduke Ferdinand. ViennaEmperor toencourage touse di the in Hungaryto declare wantwar didnot peasantryHungary, of collapseempire. of the policies by Seton violence aimed themonarchy.cited at Tisza, as destroying architect ofthese thechief Magyarization policies which had alienated nationaland minorities ledton argued thatthenewly of the war, critic ofRobert historian influential one Hungary, Seton British to mitigateof thenational onHungarian influence minorities politics. defended substantive franchisereform orexpansion advocate pacifism, democracy theand by of endwar. of Tiszawas the

Michael Neiberg, Michael Neiberg, Galántai, József Seton Robert See Burgfrieden Notwithstanding thatalienated policies the n traditional traditional Magyarország az elsőháborúban 1914 elsőháborúban az Magyarország -

Dance of the Furies: Europe and the Outbreak of World War WorldI of Outbreak the and Europe Furies: the of Dance Watson, Watson, in Germanyand - Watson,

social hierarchysocial franchise through a part inthe narrow in kingdom, domes - independent state was responsible forindependent responsible statewas becauseof thewar 5 generally

Racial Problems in Hungary in Problems Racial opposition parties opposition

and Hungary broadly, more tic economic crisis.

historians agree that Tisza and agreehistorians Tisza many the that political elite of L'un - 153; Haupt, Haupt, 153;

had collapsed undercollapsed thehad weight casualties, ofhuge ion sacrée

against Serbia

before plomatic solve channels thepolitical to crisis in Parliament 33 Socialism and Socialism

7 -

1918 (New York: N. Fertig, 1972). (NewFertig, N. York: Political consensusPolitical alsodeteriorated as in and

France between instituted was the working minorities, ational and class, [Hungary in the First World the First [Hungaryin during and thewar, continuously , and personally Tisza to went

therefore bore much blame for much therefore bore the

. By the Great WarGreat the 1916, these - 44.

, 234 , (Cambridge: Belknap Belknap (Cambridge:

oppose

- political truce political 235. In the aftermath - 6 ationalist Watson Watson

However War 1914 War

d to - s

CEU eTD Collection MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 14 1997), Littlefield, & Rowman MD: 12 war. ofthe 1918 12 war. theduring famousof most oftheone 11 regime. byon counter the elaborated and/or ultimately expanded were which measures emergency Revolutions 85; Galántai 1999), 10 war. was I total first War the World that makes argument the 1984) Press, University MA: Harvard 9 8 war. opposition, Thesegave laws theHungarian states, many whom were arrest at of bestsubjectat home to worst internment. and deemedan the enemy tobe state,were controls and of from new enemy placed onaliens suspended. their freezes of restriction their and abilityseized and the peasants toagitate, their crops had drove starvation thousands near to adequatelyaddressedrisingand commodity food shortages legislation balancingpopulation without coercion tocontrol action government the with Monarchy. warandof total economic thestatewas first during this uniquetothe resources not population because mass conscription. of recompensec the crops of marginalize outlaw worker political opposition, seizewithlittle agitation, orno

Jürgen Kocka, JürgenKocka, Galántai,

ArnoldKrammer, AndrewBone, G. probably was woman Hungarianmarrieda had who dancer ballet Russian famous the RudolfNijinsky Romsics, Ignács

(PhD Dissertation, McMaster University, 1994), 2. These we 2. These 1994), University, McMaster Dissertation, (PhD sons conscripted,came newspapers ever more under and jury scrutiny,trials were

Magyarország az elsőháborúban az Magyarország , 9 trans. 10

and they echoed However, war as the

Anti Facing Total War: Germany Society, 1914 Society, Germany War: Total Facing

by Hungar ,

Beyond the Rule of Law: Aspects of the Defense of Realm Acts and Regulations, 1914 Regulations, and Acts Realm Defenseof the of Aspects Law: of the Rule Beyond Magyarország az elsőháborúban az Magyarország Undue Process: The Untold Story of America's German Alien Internees Alien America's German of Story Untold The Process: Undue - E. Csicseri E. sedition law the “enemy aliens” in Hungary and was placed under house arrest in Budapest inBudapest house wasarrest under placed and Hungary in “enemyaliens” the y in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in y

ountryside which was becoming ever more depleted of ountrysideever its which becoming was depleted more - Rónay (Budapest: Akadémia Kiadó, 1980) Kiadó, Akadémia (Budapest: Rónay similar developments in all belligerent developments inall similar statesduring the

s provided the state with broads provided those thestate powers with toimprison state broad power to punish andto punish silence state political power broad ; Christopher Cappazola, Cappazola, ; Christopher dragged on, the stateever passeddragged on,the and poverty. Urban industrial workers saw wageand workersUrban industrial poverty. saw , , 95.

Using the human emergency marshal powers 34 , trans. Tim Wilkinson (Budapest: Corvina; Osiris, Osiris, Corvina; (Budapest: Wilkinson trans.Tim , , 72

- 85 - 1918 . See also Ferenc Pölöskei, Pölöskei, Ferenc also See Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and War and World I Wants You: Sam Uncle , trans. Barbara (Cambridge, Weinberger ,trans.Barbara re expanded upon throughout the course course the uponthroughout expanded re

and dramatic inflation that and inflation dramatic

fo r discussion of wartimeof r discussion - more coercive Hungary after Two after Hungary - revolutionary revolutionary

(Lanham, 11

- CEU eTD Collection 14 13 2009). Press, University Gage, of Making the continued emergency topasscoercive legislationtocontrol the increasingly discontent preserving, intact, the pre for thepeasantry. leveraged long into governmentthat supportfor the party ofinternational time inthis be crisis could such collective support as well asmobilization, the government’s ofemergencyReasons for use in1914. powers but nearly groupsthedeclarationagreed all opposition ofand tosupportwar PartyTisza’s ofNat domestic political andeconomic crisesgrowing and militaryexhaustion authorities. stymyprotest, personalreticenc his duringwar, Tisza the István peasants.Minister Prime Though argues biographer Tisza’s GáborVermes that abrogationand theforcible of req civil rights legislation and more toexercise came power unchecked the over country includingthe reverse that exercised extraordinary warti

Galánt Vermes, The Day Wall Day The . ai, ai, The political trucea inHungaryremainedforgiven surprisingly long the time Unlike Germany whereand Austria military was civil it authorities rather than

T István Tisza, Tisza, István Magyarország az elsőháborúban az Magyarország he civil government benefittedcivil government implementationhe ofemergency from the 13

the Modern American CitizenAmerican theModern

14 S treet Exploded: A Story of America in Its First Age of Terror of in of FirstIts America Age Story A Exploded: treet

- Yet, as thewarYet, Tisza as continued, ional Work claimed Work a majorityional in the Hungarian Parliament advocatedextension reforms theof like franchise landreform and

334, 466. 334, was generallywas not eager of the government butmanyhoped of were varied, inthe opposition

- war social and political hierarchywar indeed, and social inHungary,and political

me powers,was inHungary the thearrangement e necessarily didnot oflocal tothe translate level

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 173 2008), University Press, Oxford York: (New , 119; 240 119; 35 uisitioning from ofmaterials andfoodstuffs

- to use violence goalsto use toachieve political or

264 .

did not backdid not

away from his goalsawayfrom of

(New York: Oxford Oxford York: (New

of thecountry

- 205; 205;

in 1914 Beverly . ,

CEU eTD Collection 17 Front Eastern the on Captivity soviétique 16 t and Austria 2007) University, Columbia diss., (PhD. Statebuilding” Czechoslovak 15 the rural between increasingly conscription broader intheir efforts, Hungarian party communist sol behind the front theend lines. By of Austro nearly thewar, 1.5 million thousandsthat time, ofsoldiers by had been and captive forces sent theRussian taken Habsburg Empire. drove perhaps 400,000refugees Galicia, from very The intheoffensive earlyRussian in Galicia thin was days. initially successful and fro military Hungary expenses anotherwould fund. But two problemthatthe opening was of had authorities beenoverAustrian Hungarianthe thedebateand between share of war WWIby into end devolved of the1914 battlefront. The Monarchy Dual oftota hadthe adequately notbeen type preparedfor pressure the state. off populace r

Galántai Russia,1916 in ofWar Prisoners “Hungarian IvánVölgyes, RebekahKlein nts diers wouldbe and heldwas inRussia it captive thatthe intheprisoncampsRussia of

in Russia andin Russia Serbia Deathcaptivity theAustro and required The domestic political were tensions by events exacerbated only the on

, the agesthe of18 14, 1 14, population ofHungaryas very many working of in themen hard, Magyarország az elsőháborúban, az Magyarország ather than pass constructiveather legislationthatmight thanpass he First World War First Worldhe - 2 (January 2 - Pejšová, “Among the Nationalities: Jewish Refugees, Jewish Nationalities, and and Nationalities, Jewish Refugees, Jewish Nationalities: the “Among Pejšová, 15

Eventuallywas Army1914,butby theRussian pushedback by late

- - June, 1973), 54. See also also See 54. 1973), June, 5 0

(Oxford: Berg, 2002) Berg, (Oxford:

to becalled themilitary. into

at the beginning ofwar (London; Portland, OR: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2001), 71. 2001), Civilization, Jewish LittmanLibrary of OR: (London; Portland, was organizedwas

119.

16 36 . and beginning of1915

Alon Rachamimov, Alon

many - Hungarian authorities tobecomeHungarian eventually callingable for

stretched -

1919,” 1919,” of themJewish, 17

Military , 28; David Rechter, David , 28; Cahiers du Monde russeet Monde du Cahiers

have

the Monarchy’s militarythe Monarchy’s POWs and the Great War: Great the POWsand

take . Part of theproblem of . Part conscription effortsconscription hit

deeper n -

Hungarian some of the some urban areas

The Jews of Jewsof The - into the into bodied men

CEU eTD Collection 21 20 19 18 areenough tomake notclever peace; tob have that will the ruination ofthe nation,thatthose entire and at withthe result home starve; they but letter “The toherenough intowar’ masters‘clever husband tostumble in1917: were to part base of parties. thetraditional ofsuch support leftist socialism orsocialalso democracy, but profiteers, to beregarded discontent, traditional elite were increasingly divert resources Powers tomore which coercive inturnled rationingas to not legislationat home so labor sourceswas by by bad exacerbated and harvests blockade ofthe theEntente Central languished 1914.The in food experienced shortages infields because loss of the harvesting the necessary season. forces, Without rural labor much ofthe harvest the government cropsthe ruralto requisition from population military servicewiththe increasingly coupled measures authorities coercive usedby the wereessentially conscripted

Ibid., 183. Ibid., Hanák, Péter Ibid Romsics, .

Theoccurred outbreak warhad andend atof at of summer the the beginning of Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary

a characterizationwhich was as well as the “Vox Populi,” 209. Populi,” “Vox by many in thepopulation by many in

in away rural ar

from the military. from

failure eas in as

labor

Hungary. of the targets

to achieve peace with or without victory withorwithout to achieve peace er s , 85. ,

among 19 in particularly as as equally exploitive

As supplies dwindled, war 37 of helped generatehelped increasing

industries. many peasants who anger and economicand social strong among e left thesocialists.” to 20 18

As o

This unevenof distribution ne womanina wrote

the govethe newlyen those sympathetic to those sympathetic had had not not

disaffection for disaffection rnment and rnment riched traditionally . They. 21

of rural

wartime wartime came CEU eTD Collection military, mid already which had begun in todisintegrate ItalianBattle against the of VittorioVeneto and easternborders of Hungary and Romanian and Serbian forces launchedan offensive Balkanfront allowed Italianthe the front. UnitedStates However, Austro in May,a treaty 1918signedadded withRomaniawhich territory toHungary.The main Hungarian armies Litovsk Treaty revolution provide a international, as eachThe played one arena attemptto pages off another. thatfollowwill internationalized. war, topolicies particularlyregarding in regard nationalwere minorities, the territorialof Hungary, disintegration hadbeen issues ofdomestic what policy tothe prior Hungary. thecollapgiven However, 1918 is Defeat Revolution and

the defeatBulgaria, of - T The military history Hungary’s October, revolution defeatin of into anddescent Hungarian front whichHungarian remained frontin1918was as summer approached undecided

multifaceted the EntenteItalian toaugmentand themilitarywithtroops On supplies. the he tides ofwar n overview

in 1917

now able to freenow able to upsome troops

in early 1918,

It is continued

and . The events internal. The in affected ofthewar politicaldevelopments of historical developmentsof historical August 1918 betweenOctober and 1919.

extraor formally

on theE developments

occup

dinarily difficult toextricatethe thedinarily domestic difficult from effectively clos by extricated itself from the warfrom extricated by itself Brest signing the astern changed Front when

ying October, 1918. The Austro 1918. October, se of the Habsburgse of the Empire

Serbia wi Serbia which positioned Entente troopsatwhich the southern positioned s was the finals wasblowtothe Austro the 38 ’ en ing , the French, the

trance the into

the Russian Front Russian the th theBulgarian help ally, oftheirand which of ledtotheliberation Serbia - October. OnNovember Armeé de Orient

Russia Russia - Hungarian defeatatHungarian the war inspring, 1917, war , militaryand defeat, . The Austro . The plunged

along with

into into - Hungarian -

3 - , 1918, the

CEU eTD Collection 23 22 whichCompromise had created theDualist The structure. Hungarian Parliament same day,a restructuring thatsuchofthe Monarchy Dual the1867 effectivelyvoided declaration of Monarchyfederalist ona principlewas holdthe empire intended to now incontrol ownnational ofits destiny. Austria longerappropriate regarded as be peacefoundation anandBritain for France by Great new state state wasconsidered formally Austria a belligerent against Czechoslovaks mid in away ADeclarationIndependence theMonarchy. of from been had issued bythe October his acceptance the FourteenSucha of federation Points. was officially on declared seriousfederation nations,thereby about of thathe autonomous showingtheEntente was liberal successor, Fourteen Points. desire for according Wilson’s peace American Woodrow tothe principles President of andinearlyimminent October, bothmemberofthe Dual states Mon effectively Attheend ceased 1918, of theCentral September toexist. defeat Powers’ was armistice was signed between Austria the Austro

Ibid. Galántai, , 315. - By thetime the armisticewas signed, the

Hungary would haveaHungary treaty tonegotiate wouldpeace 16, Magyarország az elsőháborúban az Magyarország definitively demonstrated

- Hungarian leadership sued for peace with the Italians,Hungarian the leadership sued forand with peace theformal

1918 October 22 . tried

B In thefollowing twoweeks, Emperor more Josef’s Franz Charles, ut by that point, thenational thatpoint, minoriti ut by -

October, byrecognized was theEntente to holdtogether by empire to the calling for 16,

1918 prompted theHungarian Parli

that Charles’offer national of autonomycould no , -

Hungar 312.

23 39

Moreover, while Dual restructuring the y theEntente. and

“Indivisible and Inseparable” and “Indivisible Monarchy with Czechoslovakia, which was es had already tobreak started - Hu ament onthat toproclaim, ngary. The creation ofngary. The this ,

the

its transformation into a transformationinto its

new Czechoslovakian new Czechoslovakian together, thetogether, archy indicated theirarchy indicated .

CEU eTD Collection Federalism during the the during Federalism 27 1967), 72. Peace, and Revolution, Hungarian 26 25 24 their brethren own intheir Hungary tochoosewithin minorities union toremain theywhen could seek rather encirclement by there ofHungary wasnational Entente noincentive troops, the for establishment ofnew suchas andand states Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia themilitary of thewarPowers, ofthe the CentralDual bydissolution Monar the autonomy thehistorical within the territory Hungarian state. of Hungary leaders envisioned such as opposition Jászi ofOszkar a the federal 1918, thehistorical ofHungary Kingdom for Evenaexisted over millennium. leftist had the independenceHungarian ofthe theAfter stateHabsburg outside of all, by Empire. the right the concept interpreted of“national self andleft oftheimplications Fourteenfor Hungary. Points program,Wilsonian fundamentally the leaders however, inParliament misunderstood in regard and todemocratization a nationalities’ policy. declared Fourteen itselfready tomakeWilson’s especially peacebasis of Points, onthe Octoberbetweenand theHabsburg Empire dis on31 1918, formally thestates government Sanction ofthe 1713,until newly organized pro continued torecognizeHungary inaccordance asthe Charles of king

Galántai, L.Rudolf Galántai, Ibid.,

314 Likecounterpart, inmid Austrian its

as opposed todissolution as opposed Communist Party in the Revolutions of 1918 of Revolutions in the Party Communist Magyar elsőháb az Magyarország - Tökés, 316. headed by

ország az elsőháborúban az ország Béla Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic; The Origins and the Role of the the the Role of and Origins The Republic; Soviet Hungarian the and Kun Béla First Prime MihályPrime Minister endedpersonal Károlyiformally the union World War World

multi

orúban national states.

(Budapest: Akadémia Kiadó, 1974) Kiadó, Akadémia (Budapest: , which wouldgiveHungary’s minorities national , ,

214; See also Galántai, also See 214; 319.

40 - October thewartimegovernment had 1918,

- 1919

- independence and democratic 26

ManyHungarian onboth politicians

(New York: Hoover Institution of War, ofWar, Institution (New Hoover York: 25 -

determination” Despite accep this Oszkár Jászi's conceptions on on conceptions Jászi's Oszkár 27 .

However, givenHowever, the loss ist solution for solution ist chy, the chy, the

with the Pragmatic with the as supportforas tance ofthe solved. with 24

CEU eTD Collection 29 Hungary' 28 only problems f state. This migration pressure puttremendous already theresources strained defeated onthe of oftheir most propertylost an estimated 426,000 years, three Hungary.into ofthousands Overmore next refugees Magyar the hundreds 1918 ethnic Magyars. Czechoslovak stateterritory more as as well setting theprovisional bord boundaries, plan was this but scrapped advocated 1918 by December afterCzech leaders states. The boundariesinitially setoutcorresponded Albert Bartha began negotiat Károlyi of JásziandMinistergovernment’s ofDefense Nationalities Oszkar Minister occupydespite these thelacka the territories, peace formal of treaty. north, Tothe Followingsouth. arm new this Hungarian of Transylvania, military evacuation Banat, territories tothe andother the separate militaryarmistice withFrench General After inde declaring Hungary’s helped cementtheterritorial plansfor amongHungary. Entente leadership partitionof

Mocsy, Mocsy, Mocsy, István

and 1919 into The national andterritorial crisesoftheloss war triggered by the were notthe The s Domestic Politics, 1918 Politics, sDomestic The Uprooted The rejection of a federal state solution by state byrejection solution of minorities a1918 thenational federal June, The The acing Hungary. 28

Effects of World War I: the U Warthe I: World of Effects After signingandarmistice of throughout ofthe the lastmonths , thousan , 12 , , e - migrated toHungary. 14.

and wealthand ers further south, thereby giving the newly established givingers furtherestablished south,thereby thenewly ds ofMagyar refugees from theflooded occupied territories ing regarding withthe Slovaks thebordersbetween thetwo - 1921

istice, Romanian, Serbian, French moved into istice, and Romanian, troops pendence, Károlyi Prime Minister a punitive signed The

(NewS York:

political truce between brokepoliticalparties truce parliamentary up on prooted: Hungarian Refugees and their Impact on on Impact their and Refugees Hungarian prooted: 41 their a population of a population 29 ocial Science Monographs, 1983), 12. 1983), ScienceMonographs, ocial

Many havingwere impoverished, ofthem Franchet d’Esperey, departure from the “lost territories”. fromdeparture the ,

more orless, approximately one million approximatelyone million to linguistic to linguistic

which calledwhich for the

, CEU eTD Collection 33 Kun, Wars1914 32 Tökés, 31 30 French break ortheHungary. outin should Russian, held Theytheidea to still that Hunga society.” the‘noblemen’s to in opposition stratum of onlya represented Parliament’ narrow that “…the Council ofthefront National was fell The apart. Council revolutionary establishment because they asgained Hungarian both inpopularity and steadily throughout 1918 home warfront All ofthese parties pro betweengroups: theso threemain on Council reaching ofthe reformsHungarian ledtotheestablishment National political andsocial the wartime refusalgenuine, budge far Hungarianto ontheir Parliament implement to significant socio by even anditbecameand imminent clear that EmperorCharles, when became defeat franchise theworkers, makeconcessionsto though or even such reforms were supported wartime Prime Minister democratictheir efforts toinstitute and economicreforms Hungary. in down inwinter, 1915

Galántai, Romsics, Galántai Romsics, -

independence party, the Radicalindependence Party party, 86 Béla Kun, Béla - rian Parliament 87. 33 , - 1945

Magyarország elsőháborúban, az Magyarország Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary Century Twentieth the in Hungary

However, October , trans.( , McLean Brian

84.

regardeditself as therepresentative placing ofthe Hungarian nation, itself - political

had been marginalized from official political power marginalized been fromhad official

23, - al

1916, when inParliament politicians somerenewed opposition 1916, as it existed it as az elsőháborúban az thoughfundamentally themove challenged ofthe thelegitimacy

1918. The ledby Council, Mihály1918. wascoalition Károlyi, a Tisza and conservativethe Tisza his successorsrefused toexpand

restructuring totake would have place.

Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2007 ScienceMonographs, CO: Social Boulder, - , its leadership, its desire didnot thata revolution called Party Károlyist ,

320. Romsics, 319, , 89; Mária Ormos, Ormos, Mária 89; , 87. , ,

and a numbera ofsocialist and 42

Hungary in the Twentieth Century the Twentieth in Hungary Hungary in the Age of the Two World the theTwo Age of in Hungary ,

an anti an - 31 war, pro

The unwillingness of - oriented parties.oriented 30

under Tisza under

However, ), ), - democracy, 23; 23; Tökés, Tökés, , 88 , a lá - 89; , but Béla Béla the 32 -

CEU eTD Collection 36 35 34 republic ( the Hungarianon Nov and state, necessarily inthe early materialize the daysrevolution. of violencegripped across classregional many people anddidnot ifit lines, even throughoutThus, whiletransition occurred relatively the country. the peacefully, coupled with political disaffectionand and ledagitation tolooting economicdeprivation Fur the symbol oftheintractable and war conservatism violence transfer of agitation inBudapestthedaystoKárolyi’s in immediately prior of like politicians Tisza Hungarian state Károlyi’s appointment marked a Emperor onOctober th take toascendfor long members its to violence) political rather channels and established through thaninthestreets. genuine and democratization socialwithout reform place peacefully couldtake (i.e. al

Romsics, Romsics, Tökés, Ibid. e establishment, Council’s Károlyiappointed of Prime Minister was Hungary by the though technicallyabdicate) didnot the he Hungary Hungarian was throne.a declared thermore, the combination of incompletethermore, soldiers thecombination ofdemobilized disarmament

Thegovernment’s political Károlyiprogram for called thefull independenceof Even was Council thoughNational formeda asrival the not toParliament, did it Béla Kun Béla , with the exception ofthe assassination, withtheoff exception ( Magyar Népköztársaság Magyar Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary

power tothepower

, 84; Romsics, 84; , which had beenwhich had politically byconservative dominated liberal the vision

, 1918 and waswith forming, chargedgovernment. a new democratic since

Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary Ausgleich

ember

definitive ) three The government’s days also later. program opposition tookplaceopposition a without

, 90. , actual positions of actual positions 13, . While While

1918 Charles IVformally relinquished 1918 Charles shift in thepoliticalshift in orientation ofthe 43

there and had demonstrations been , in his home onNovemberin his ormerIstván Tisza, Prime Minister , 90; Gábor 90; , power. Only seven dayspower.after Only seven

appointment, the appointment,

Vermes,

massive István Tisza, István

explosion of explosion 34

, 1918 fear actual

453.

of . 35

CEU eTD Collection 39 222. 1929), Press, Chicago 38 37 that political powerdivided: wasthe government therecognized of representative execu enlarged Democratic Hungarian Party Social congress Workers’ was effect, ofthefour” which and“…in Council, “…the powerful an most was re wasfour one ofadministrativeexercised bodieswhichBudapest, power thecenter in of Chrysanthemum [ Revolution as throughentire structuretherevolutionary Károlyigovernment. the administrative new of andindustrial agrarian sectors. supportedsocialists a more radic aristocratic“latifundia” private for plots peasantry. theimpoverished into of nationalization which industry wouldentail some coupled with thebreak initiallyKárolyiand Jászi sup biggest reform differences ontheissuesof emerging land policy. andindustrial labor revolutionarygovernment hadvery for Hungary,of withsome different the visions crises control ofthecomparedgoverning stateeasy was toactually ofcivilexpansion liberties and comprehensive agrarianreform. land called for fullrig suffrage, universal

Tökés, Tökés, Tökés, OskarJászi, volution. Thevolution. other theNational threewere and theSoldiers’ Council, the

Prime wasPrime Minister governmentHungary.But ofthe head theearly days ofin the of . tive andUnionCouncil.” theTrade Moreover, t This ideological Béla Kun Béla Kun Béla Revolution and and Counter Revolution , 86. , Oscar Jászi, 88; , he political co he political

and policy

őszirózsás forradalom porting amoderate“bourgeois more

The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy Habsburg the of Dissolution The 38

- al programoflarge alition betweenalition parties which thenew comprised leftist revolution

breach between groups was betweenbreach deep hts to thenational thehts to restoration minorities, and 39

(

London: P.S. King &King So London: P.S. Theorgans existence different ofthese meant 44

- ], aswas it ], called,government the scale nationalization in both the inboth scale nationalization — fully controlled by thepartyfullycontrolled by

a state wrought bya statesomany wrought n, LTD., 1924), 1924), LTD., n, - democratic” program

(Chicago: University of University (Chicago: - 37 rooted and it ranrooted and it

But gainingBut However, - up the 36.

CEU eTD Collection 42 1988), States,1918 Neighbor Its and Hungary 41 40 issues adequately. preventeddemocrats opposition the leftist new addressing leadership andtheir from these Hungary wereBut 1918 the political thatwinterconflict dire. of between bourgeois the now occupiedarmie by the shortage approached, as ofcoal winter largelyloss due tothe the fields. industrialactivity Most halt andgrounda there had coal asevere was to while inthecountryside al there was In end well intodid not until 1920. cities acute country, food shortageinthe onto the mounting economicand social p radicalHungarian society. restructuringof more extreme leftist elements elementsKárolyi represented bywho retained a agen fundamentallyreformist domestic policy, though law. notin extreme leftist perspective, which really function theapproval the without Councilwhich a Workers’ represented more of reta Hungary abroad, bothathomeand Counciland theWorkers’ butthe Soldiers’ Council

Jászi, Jászi, György Ibid ined .

123; 126 123; Revolution and Counter and Revolution The politicalgovernment gridlock Workers’ between the onlypiled and Council

control Litván - 127. , “The Homefront During the Károlyi Regime,” in Regime,” Károlyi Duringthe Homefront “The ,

the coercive powerthe coercive state. of Furthermore,government the couldnot the led to

In “dual this reality, political paralysis betweenpolitical the“rightist” bourgeois

- s ofthe neighboring states. revolution —

the socialists andwhocalled communists for a more - 1919 created owing , 42; Romsics, 42; , ack of labor to bring oflaborack and to inthe crops they , ed. Peter Pastor (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, Monographs, Science CO: Social (Boulder, Pastor ed.Peter , - , roblems Hungaryanroblems facing. was There power” structure, especially on questions of power” structure,especially onquestions

riots overbroke of theallocation food out, a “dual in part 41 45

Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary to to - power”country in structureinthe the Entente naval blockade,which 42

The facing material shortages Revolutions an Revolutions - rich territories whichwererich territories d Interventions in in dInterventions - democratic , 95. , da and the da rotted

fact in CEU eTD Collection 44 Three Big 43 Democrats,were government. charged who themore withforming a However, new Entente and ultimatum disintegrationpro through a Kár theterritorial to blow notjust integrity The kingdom. Vyxsignaled ofthe Note also to for theEntente Central Europe. inEast thus maki neutral envelop which zone thoroughly would Magyar troops from by thefrontier laidout andarmistice an thecreation extended zones theof Fernan proved when moot sentanthroughLieutenant theEntente French ultimatum todemocraticcommitment values couldformal beremedied peace by inthe negotiations Hungary’s showingtheEntente armies,advocated as whileviewing othersatemporary theoccupation developmentthat respond.should called for Some militaryengagement pushback to against invading revolutionaryand public, and leadershipdebated revolutionary politicians howthe state occupationdemarcated of inthe territories Hungary inthe international sphere. the f reformgovernment.public from important,inalienating especially the the was failureK ofthe

Romsics, Romsics, Pastor, Peter See olyi andHungarian thattheirolyi politicians other attempt to stave off territorial ailure of d VyxonMarch toKárolyi Th

(Boulder, CO: East European Quarterly,1976). CO: European East (Boulder, ng muchofHungarian territory historical militaryastaging political and area Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary e internal politicalstrife were and economicproblems andthe significant Károlyi árolyi government farárolyi institute reaching to economicand democratic

Hungary between Wilson and Lenin: the Hungarian Revolution of 1918 of Revolution the Hungarian Lenin: and betweenWilson Hungary ’s

on democratic governmentdemocratic was

March - Entente

21,

and 20, 43

foreign policyfailed.had utterly Károlyirejected the 1919 his governmentfavor ofthe resigned1919 his So in

The Czech, Serbian, 1919 calling for the1919 calling withdrawal for ofHungarian , 98. , franchise and nationalities reform. and debatefranchise This 44

The ultimatum

November 46

ultimately due to

13th - populated regions of theregions state, populated of — the so

French and Romanian troops’ andFrench Romanian armisticeshocking was tothe - called Note Vyx the crises facingcrises the - - 1919 and the the and 1919 Colonel Colonel

However, — was a cial

CEU eTD Collection 46 45 though they religious ethnicity, eschewed Jewish practice. withthe Their combined ForeignHe, as Affairs.as several well commissars ofthe were other ethnically Jewish, thoughcommunists, officia his order tospread world revolution by politically Revolution. active inthe Russian became November monthsparty earlier. six partyexisted notevenThewas had es itself with Bolshevik The Russia. Hungarian Party’s Communist topower rise wasswift,as the the orientationforeign of Hungary’s west east, policy from align to order thestate in to leftward policiesgovernment, of shiftthedomestic Hungarian in 1919 Hungarian The Soviet of Republic Hunga Tanácsköztársaság socialist parties andcommunist mergedand a declared Republic Soviet [ theresignationWith Károlyi of the Hungarian Party been which had Communist leadership, leftist contingent had Democrats alreadythe talkswith oftheSocial andsocialists in been

Ibid. Tökés, October, 1918, , ry. The 142 Béla from a Transylvania, journalist was former group Kun, of theleader of this The establishment inlate ofHungary March asa aSoviet Republic 1919marked

Béla Kun Béla communists communists -

144. 4,

1918 in Russia 1918 inRussia

“ baccili” , 79 Hungarian communists communists Hungarian - — 80. during andcaptivity their inRussia literally the Hungarian Republic of Councils] onMarchliterally ofCouncils] Hungarian Republic the

of Bolshevismof

out ofa core

l title duringl title 133 the in

Europe. government thethreat and

had spread to Hungary.had spread

group Hungarian of prisoners hadHungary preparing been toin toreturn 46 47 45

But before forma even its

- day regimewas of Commissar

who imprisoned inFebruary 1919.

had alreadyhad very been

of invasion looming, the of invasion

tablished formally on tablished as well as as well l establishment - of Magyar - war who

21,

a s

1919 in hift in hift in

CEU eTD Collection 48 47 while inpolice retaliation custodyas for incitingmurders p of the the other well were soldiers among by killed anarchist demonstrators. the the Social Democratic Party’s newspaper fruit onFebruary proletarianclasses thegovernment. uparms against totake agitation This finally bore continued theirgovernment theKárolyiandrenewed attackscall tot on their rule ofthearms, proletariat!” exploited…To republiccouncils ofthe ofthe assure village workers,soldiers, and which the will poor forrepublic ofthe impossible themasses whichproletariatact…Long it to makes liv waswith the bourgeois “To published: helldemocracy!To withaparliamentary Partythe Communist daily followersIngovernment. forcefully thefledgling attacked published such attack one November part because 1918stalled,ofand in the his internationalpressures, Kun reformsKárolyi.revolution begun themoderateKárolyi promoted by When under in radical revolutionary political socialist program moved“bou far the that beyond together theradical moreleftist Hungary. in (Thisbediscussed will menaceresponsible for destructive andterritorial the revolutions of dismemberment hadcommunism been a “foreign import” were toHungaryanda thatJews foreign location of theirBol baptism into

Tökés, Tökés, Ujság Vörös Kun and his cadre of supporters in the Hungarian Communist Kun and cadreCommunist Party his intheHungarian ofsupporters bring helped Béla Kun Béla - known communists werecommunists andknown arrested jailed,with Kun being severely beaten , February , 3, , 122.

20 , 1919, when aftera at, 1919, the editorial violent demonstration offices of

1919, as quoted in as quoted 1919,

Vörös Ujság

coalition shevism c hapter Tökés, Tökés,

on February 3,1919,thefollowing declaration by Népszava fueled

48 t 47 dividing wo). Béla Kun Béla

As the month wore on, the communists As thewore month on,thecommunists

many

[The people’s[The voice],fou

, 121. , the socialists. Kunarticulatedthe socialists. a people Hungarian’s Hungarian’s people

TheKun and following day, olice officers.olice The belief that he r policemen rgeois”

e the in CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 more radicalKun andcommunists, socialdemocrats the other andthe jailed denied tousby theWest…” Garbai allow Hungary againstas theEntente defend itself than with opportunity alsoend offeredtothe internationalcrises a byallowing (possible) political Hungary the embracingrevolutionary aleftistpolitical platform. more incarcerated com internal andexternal comingleaders crises toahead, socialist began negotiating withthe government failure provedofthe pro the Károlyi’s territorial integrity Hunga of I and theother agitated, urban areas threatened tostrike and tookover even factories. agrarian reforms conspiringagainst theKárolyigovernment. starving Peasants, angry the andlack about of weeksMarchFebruaryand of 1919. comrades were inprison, workingclassesBudapest. of arrests and increased the strengthened especially only communists, supportfor among the nternal crisis was mirroredinthe international againstnternal crisis withcontinuedthreats sphere the

Ibid Ibid Ibid. . .,

, , 123

133. made clear made The continued communists their political work, though even their many of - the Western European Great Powers

136. to realign its foreignto realign rather policyRussia by buildingalliance its with Soviet an

, munists inorder to“…restoreunitymunists by the ofclass…” working

beganand estates looting : “We must takewhatmust toobtain from a thehasbeen new East: “We direction

and 51 ry. The of severity

conditions in t conditions in

On March 21,1919, 49

News came thataNews were group came ofold notables

food stocks. Workers in factories inBudapest Workers infactories food stocks. 49 he country inthe last deteriorated further

. This reorientation. This the Entente’sthe - a followingbetweenagreement an some Entente diplomatic strategy.the With

speech Sándor by socialist made 50

Empowering communists the ultimatum tothe Károlyiultimatum , it was, it argued

communists communists

would

CEU eTD Collection Essays 55 wellas as in case Hungary was the This regime. ofthe critiques political moreradical make than rather trade ofstatethe the emphasize preferringto conservative, quite wereoften unions trade forces, progressive moreleftist, presentsthemas 54 53 52 now the artsthespecialenjoyment notbefor due will thejust oftheidlerich. Culture is culturalthe proletarian improvementas of theannouncement indicated: population “from were werand theaters issued, of proletarianfamilies. every was consumption Alcohol aspect oflife. including unions. priests, formed thedilute revolutionaryorgans natureofsuch participation became dependent ontrade unionmembership took overfunctionsadministrative ofthe many ofthegover charged political dissent. mainlywithstifling property. foreign Hungarian tradeandc divestment industry, ofthe and the and of nationalization property, of of nationalization banks, the the state monopolization social revolutionary political program. This instead sought to alliance withthe socialists. werer

Frank Eckelt, “Internal Policies of the Hungarian Soviet Republic,” in Republic,” Soviet ofthe Hungarian “InternalPolicies FrankEckelt, Tökés, Romsics, Ibid. , Iván Völgyes, ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971) Press, Nebraska of University (Lincoln: ed. Völgyes, Iván , , eleased from jail 130. Throughout the The new thereformist agenda regime the abandoned Károlyi of and regime Béla Kun Béla 52 Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary

New revolutionaryestablished, courts werestaffedworkers by , 168 , establish a “dictatorshipestablish and ofthe proletariat” - 169. Despite a more contemporary characterizations of characterizations more contemporary Despite a 169. Great Britain. Great 55

and chargedand with formingagovernment new revolutionary in life of the ofthe life

Regulations concerningaccessworkers’ bathingfacilities to

e nationalized inanefforte for nationalized an provideavenue the to

54 regim

, 101 , e, hundreds of hundreds

50 program 53 as all manneras of all

prohibited Councils ofworkersCouncils and tradeunions

entailed large expropriation scale

laws werelaws nearly issued, touching

in aneffort improve to thelives nment and political nment and political , , , 61. Hungary in Revolution: Nine Revolution: in Hungary which served actually to occupational

implemen hurches’ authorityhurches’ and

unions whi unions as t autopian ch often choften groups,

judges, and CEU eTD Collection 58 57 56 significanteffortsshortage alleviatethesevere made to been which housing had all the asHealthgovernment were care firms.The made nationalized, was new pharmaceutical frequently reviled feared, wouldlead tothe liberalized, and gender equality was Th declared. Lloyd Volksstimme allowed tocontinuewere hundred unpopular. reformsabolished the beforeeven were regime werethecollapse of they because so police s days the of lay churchallowed whoin the early taught schools persons in tostay, werebutatleast who taught sc in that nearly education,eliminating and classroom, effortgiven religious animportant influenceinthe These reforms The illegitimacyandchildren forchildrenalso medical givenaccess were improved to care. of the working peo

Cecile Tormay, Tormay, Cecile Ibid., Ibid., Kun , all paper

64 63. Freedom essentiallygovernmentabolished new ofthe was press as down shut the chools for “reactionary teaching elements”among the staff. s of newspapers ands ofnewspapers magazines forreasons. which only were political The papers -

regime 70.

seventy percent “revolution,” special order wereestablished committeesto “revolution,” ofstudents in

[people’s voice

included An Outlaw’s Diary Outlaw’s An s which could berelied the government.could were ontosupport s which Divorcelaws hools could remain could ashools they teachersabandoned if religious orders; their made made dimensions ofthe Republic Soviet bycounterdimensions the ple.” a full a 56 the restructuring historicalthe introducing curriculum, the sexual

“communization of“communization women

Vörös Ujság The toeliminate the new stigma regime made of laws

of the schools inHungary were churches. run byNuns the - — scale effort reform to

German], German], : The Commune The

[red paper], Világszabadság 51

(New York: McBride, 1924), 73; 177 1924), McBride, (NewYork:

ese measures, many conservatives

education Népszava , ”

and they wereand some they

[ world liberation

and improve accessand improve [people’s voice], [people’s voice], 57 - revolutionaries.

Some ofSome these ], and of themost - 179.

Pester to it. 58

CEU eTD Collection 59 detriment ofthe beleaguered peasantry that the(small) urban proletariatstate wouldbethebeneficiaries principal of the population production. Thus,theregime’s agrarian policy masters address cities. possibility regimeSoviet policyofferadopted this becauseefficient, itappearedtobemore collective nationalize large estatestothe plots small rather out thanparcel and ideologicallygovernmentSoviet insupportable. Toend, to this the decided efficiency outcomes inthe agricultural wereBoth dee sector. ofthese property capitalism was andwould topeasantsassmallholdings anod decrease to believed which wouldbreak thatland reform advocated far todeliver butfailed successfully Unlike withtheKárolyi issue ofagrarian dealt reform. regime which had more This entailed nationalizing residentialproperty thecountry,into whom many of more acuteas a

Eckelt, “Internal Policies of the Hungarian Soviet Republic,” Soviet Hungarian ofthe “InternalPolicies Eckelt, detail chapter three). in However, The socialcould be not revolution,really however, reachingfar unlessit the land hunger of peasantry of the land hunger were experienced in were experienced farms farms . of

Rather

higher higher result of the war ofrefugees ofwhich andarmistice broughtresult thousands the were to this policythis it aggravatedit inHungary fact by reinforcing the divide urban/rural the crop crop formally and belong be tothe state worke

yields,could ontothe bepassed which wasfailure aspectatular

managingestate thelarge

were living - reaching land reform,reaching the re land , and , .

forced 52

in - up large estates and reapportion the andup largeestates reapportion

. did did empty in boxcars 59

many

(The housing crisis will becrisis housing(The discussed will in not

not only 73.

s. Its.

satisfy the thehopes agrarian of peasants to work fortheir former work peasants to

also failed toincrease because neglected because volutionary authorities volutionary landless

working classes Budapest’s Budapest’s d by thepeasantry. The med unacceptable med

peasantry. These train yards.train ing

to to the in the

the CEU eTD Collection 60 ofCommissar inthe Government. War Soviet goal were The which organs, ofthese private the leadershipOtto Korvin of organization of coercive thestate’s a organs, political police policeg and to suppress internal Thehad regime politicalopposition. taken and over transformed the their support, theregimewas openly tothe hostile agrarian classes. workingclass landless peasants industrial thea whowere larger far segmentpopulationthan the of failur perhaps even aristocratsfrom bourgeoisie orurban government the Soviet address workingpopulation other thanclasses the because difficult generating time legitimacy policies among their domestic from ofthe segments had collaps introduction of education sexual inschoolshad toberolledeven back theregime before been vastlyexpanded. these revolu reforms and unpopular heavy were deeply workingclassgenerate the children, regime, Soviet for helped ofthe most support

Tökés, Tökés, e to Another dimension ofthe regime’s policyforce Soviet domestic theiruse was of some reforms,While as better medical such to access education for care and armies were also formedcoordinatedby andarmiesDeputy also were the TiborSzamuely, Béla Kun Béla the needs

build supportamong particularlybuild theagrarianclasses, and the thesmallholders ed, due to tionary laws owed much to the war yearsowed muchtothewar when thetionary state laws of thepower had endarmerie into units ofthe units “Redendarmerie into Guard.”But, the re addition to in desirable given theideological ofthe desirable regime foundations

was awas fatalmistake , 142. ,

of the

their extreme their 60

urban In the several ascases alcoholand prohibition reforms such

was formed,

working class . In. fact, regimecultiv onlydidthe Soviet not not unpopularity. In general, aunpopularity. very the Soviet’shad -

handed, thoughimplement ability Kun’shanded, to and armed militias that functioned militias and armed almost like 53 es

. T he as alienationthe groups of such they

were specificallyto designed , a was

Hungarian Cheka Hungarian

predictable

. However, , and indeed - ,

under the ate CEU eTD Collection Vörösterror 1979). AkademiaKiadó, (Budapest: post 62 Republic, 61 impending partitionof Hungary by re territorial the future of borders government independent Hungaryand the this ofKun inherited led by from Mihályresignedultimatum Károlyi receivingan after crises facingtheregimeAs discussedgovernmentrule. earlier, entire throughoutthe its a result ofitsdomestic policies, thesepaled international incomparison challenges the to groups.disband these excesses directly of themilitias government, attempted whichiswhy tothe Soviet Kun contributed toth nobilityand as thebourgeoisie population. well as theagrarian persons andexpropriatedgreat aand had material offood the deal from resources red militias accused counter of wouldentermilitias villages, foodstuffsforcibly people and requisition execute even around the countrysid mainly Cserny, offormer by sailorsa wore József traveled led who coats, leather and The notoriousoftheseBoys” most “Lenin [ was the through violence controlled bygovernment, extremeleft inthe the wasconformity ideological toimpose

There is still debate over the amount of victims claimed by both the Red and White Terrors in post Terrors White and the Red both by victimsclaimed the amount ofover isstill debate There Romsics, - revolutions Hungary. I take this estimate from estimate this take I Hungary. revolutions While theSoviet regimeWhile became among increasingly thepopula unpopular ”

85 - crisis. A shift of power wascommunists intended thecrisis.A shiftof tothe tomitigate Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary Fehérterror,” Fehérterror,”

- were for thedeaths ofan estimated responsible 86; 86; Tökés, Tökés, e erosion ofpopulare erosion regimetheviolent supportfor the linked as people

an - revolutionaryactivities. d they were actived theyinthe countrysidewere Budapest particularly around

BélaKun e in a special train which came tobe a called special“death train.”e whichcame in train Red the Multunk

, 197 , 3

See

(2010): 72 (2010): -

also 199; 259; Ormos, 259; 199; -

Péter Konok, “A erőszak kérdesei 1919 kérdesei “A Konok, erőszak Péter orienting , 101; 101; , - 91. 91. Tibor 61 54

Eckelt, “Internal Policies of the Hungarian Soviet Hungarian ofthe “Internal Eckelt, Policies

In betweenand 1919,these all, July March

its Hajdu, Hajdu, Hungary in the Age of the Two World WarsTwo the World the Age of in Hungary

diplomacy toward Lenin The Hungarian Soviet Republic Soviet Hungarian The - fiúk five hundred to six hundred fivesix hundred to ], a group], comprised 62

This violence the Entente regarding

Bolshevik Russia, - 1920 - ban: ban:

tion astion - WWI, WWI, , 54. , .

CEU eTD Collection Romanian minority. Romanian 63 actually the northern Hungary territoriesof all theterritory inHungaryeast river oftheTisza off a militarycrisis,whi Hungaryto accept Kun,butKun’s Vyx tonegotiaterefusal of the with the terms noteset raised to the neglect ofthe military new Soviet Union. territoria world parts other of revolution He to Europe. theimportance underscored Armywas off topush necessary imperialist expand by aggression and theEntente to the interna espoused. Kun by didthis goalswith awkwardly ofHungarian the marrying nationalism destroyingcredibility ofthe the revolutionary which theregime internationalism fighting forc the demarcation linesinthe outlined Czech) soldiers encroached whichhad Hungarianfurther historic onto territorybeyond could move westward,meetingand pushing (particularly outEntente Hungarianarmy beorganized army eastward, could while and Red move theRussian whichItas could Power ally. aGreat act was byleadership believed thecommunist a that

Tökés, Tökés,

which was a difficult enterprise governmentwhich adifficult fornew was the In mid InEntente, thehad government theSoviet toraise topushback order a new Béla Kun Béla helpe l integrity by suggesting thatHungary aakintothe become unionofnationalities tionalist goals of arguing goalstionalist communism, militaryHungarian by that a action Red e

d the Soviet governmentd theSoviet - which would have tocapitalizewould onnationalist fervorwhich inthe country without April, 1919, the Entente dispatched a mission ledby to dispatched 1919,theSmuts Entente a Jan April, mission ,

144. Minorities would be given equal rights and autonom and rights givenwould equal be Minorities 144. 63

However, the orientation pacifist had ofthegovernment Károlyiled ch

eventually ledtotheRomanian military’s occupation , which

by April 1919

meant that essentiallymeant armywouldhave a new to

November in their militaryrecruitmentand efforts the 55

13, . These Entente actions hostile . bythe while

1918 armistice.

Czechoslovak troopsoccupied .

y —

with the exception ofthe exception with the Romanian and

national

of nearly

be CEU eTD Collection Century 65 64 power government Gyula toagovernment socialist” “moderate led by Peidl.Peidl’s Hungary,government resigned TheKun Budapest. on August including unsuccessful, Romanian military and the movedswiftly occupyingall of“rump” nearly eastattack Kunlaunched oftheTisza. an was attempt inlate July 1919,butthis action military against theRomanian made which had nomovetoevacuat themilitary,within Kun tried toholdthe force together by anotheroffensive calling for easterncity former Horthy. ofSzeged Miklós thedisorder by HabsburgAdmiral Seeing counter up the withdrawal Czechoslovak territory,Hungarian from thebegan RedArmy breaking monetary inflation policy and high very which seriouswere problems exacerbatedregime’s economic by the disastrous military action the becausewas internal of country facingHungary. The crises 1919.Kunjustifiedlate June action this byno arguing could thattheRed Army territories inthe Trans evacuate from north these response themembers from of Kassa (present pushing theCzec back Throughout theHungarian andgains RedArmyinterritory, June, May made significant government

Eckelt, “Internal Policies of the Hungarian Soviet Republic,” Soviet Hungarian ofthe “InternalPolicies Eckelt, Romsics, .

T here themilitary, amutiny RedArmy was tothe in defected and several officers , 106 , - Kun complied with theEntente and evacuating began Czechoslovak territoriesin revolutionary Hungarian National Army Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary - 108.

ultimately -

day day Košice in Slovakia). However,these inSlovakia). Košice successes initial a provoked - hoslovak troops, and establishing a Slovak Soviet Republic around troops,and a establishing Soviet Republic Slovak hoslovak Tisza region.Tisza successfully raised successfully raised

ern territories inexchange offor evacuation a Romanian

the Paris Peace Conference, which called for Kunthe Paris to calledfor Peace Conference, which

and alienation its from international trade 64

, 106. , an army ofapproximately men. an army 200,000

which was

84 - 86; Romsics, 86;

being organized in being organized Hungary in the Twentieth Twentieth the in Hungary

1, e the territoriese

1 919, ceding . 65

t continue Following the south - CEU eTD Collection 1925: István Bethlen and the Politics of Consolidation the of Politics and Bethlen István 1925: 66 international community’sengagement of Hungary. inthepolitics internal the collapseKun regime of the FinallyHungarian international examining Republic. the Soviet dynamics government’s following ofthe population’s and reaction thebroader thecollapse the groundwork under for examining thewartime thepoliciesrevolutionarygovernments, of and chapter this government, inregard especially emergency to legislationand carceral policies. provides a for reference point understanding the Conclusion emergence Friedrich government, government 1918. in legacy conservative unwillingness acceptHabsburg to a state as inHungary. theheadof Archduke’s The by was alsoquicklybecause who replaced of Archduke the Joseph, Entente’s quickly theSoviet regime’s rolling began policies back

Pölöskei, Pölöskei,

and went further,and rollingby even theKároly reforms instituted democratic back The important for Great historyis Hungary’s andrevolutions postwar of War

signaled ofHungary’s the end withrevolution andthe secondflirtation Hungary after Two Revolu Two after Hungary

of counter of

and counter the

challenges inherited challengesby the inherited 66 - establishment of establishment revolutionary successors -

revolution The Romanian invasion,theThe collapse radical of Kun’s communist

standing the

understanding f thepolicies sets thestageunderstanding thena sets for tions .

, 11; ,

agovernment new under reactionaryIstván complex Thomas Lorman, Thomas 57

counter (Boulder: East European Monographs, 2006), 2006), Monographs, European East (Boulder:

continued thedismantlingcontinued ofthe Soviet

nature ofthe count - revolution , but Counter ormulatednew by the

Peidl wasPeidl quickly replaced - revolutionary Hungary, 1920 Hungary, revolutionary ary er

regime - revolutionary ture of the of ture

contributing . I

t also By lays 5 .

to - CEU eTD Collection (London: P.S. King & Son, Ltd., 1924), xxi 1924), Ltd., &Son, King (London: P.S. 1 people’s ofviolentacts, interpretations perpetrators aswell as their and victims. condition revolution alsoprovidesof an militias entry for point thecomplexity unravelling of counter relationship and was topoliticalviolence tothemilitias early more inthe broadly central the heart at which issues lay of as well as the role of violenceinthe early troubles facingThe is history militias Hungary. a good of for starting point These targeted militias wid a social andeconomicchanges government byuseof theKun force. proposed through the asaHungaryofmilitias life all walks toorganize from armed armistice. The democrat of sameusedthe which by Bolshevism, White a replaced was Bolshevism Red formality.The is only a government wholeof system maintain I this that theirterror. I thecountry. “‘

Robert Seton Watson, “Introduction,” in Oskár Jászi, Jászi, Oskár in “Introduction,” Watson, Seton Robert Not the Premier or Government, or thePremier Not militia violencemilitia - The emergence ofthe Terror White and re s and understanding shaped religion, gender, howclass, and ethnicity politics volution ary combinednew older political ideology which and prejudices adapted with the ideologies theyembracedthe ideologiesan of opportunity providesthe some toraise

dare

to maintain that one per cent thatper onemaintain to ary and period howpeople Adiscussion interpreted relationship. this in Hungarygenerally more and inCentral following the1918 Europe “White “White Misrule” ic and revolutions communist provokedacrossic many men

e for variety asthe identified being ofpersons responsible nor the majority party either,’ he declared, ‘ he declared, majorityeither,’ party the nor

postwar Chapter Chapter Two - xxii. this

of the authorities, as a tiny minority, rule the wholeby land minority,rulethe tiny as a authorities, ofthe period. Exploringand their activitiesperiod. formation

dissertation, dissertation, 58 1 : Militia Violence Militia :

means, but for far more deeds. dreadful far but for means, Revolution and Counter and Revolution

counter

- including revolution reaction to

represent the real powerinreal the represent what the state’s -

Revolution H in Revolution overlaps therise with

Robert Seton Robert

counter the dramatic an analysis of ’”

ungary 1 -

- Watson

CEU eTD Collection 3 1 Groups, ofParamilitary Worlds theSocial 1921: War,” First World ofPittsburg University Bodó, 156; Hungary,1919 in Power State and Violence Counter Terror,” White thepostwar re their and organizations paramilitary ofthe origins the examining studies systematic multiple 2 aboutArmy, 1922.The until regularwhich included famous andunits both most irregular and Szegedand became underumbrella looselyHungarian the organized National ofthe organized inthe hot estimated 10,000to12,000men under arms. varietygroups activityand of ideologies. Militia peak reached its inmid andthe Paramilitarism Counter Part One to defendattacksagainst themselvesby militias. interpretations violence. examinesthestrategiespeople ofmilitia final used The section were and targeted an by thenshiftsto militias analysis ofhowvictims’ experienc theactivitiesPart twoshiftsto It of militias. a with of discussion thegroups begins who counter life. Part one themselves, focuses onthe by militias the analyzing to their relationship contemporaries activities interpretedand bothmilitias’ their role inHungarian political of milit

Bodó, “The White Terror in Hungary,”141. Terror White “The Bodó, whowritten has Bodó ofBéla scholarship from the comes narrative this in bulk ofthe information The - revolutionary,” revolutionary,” ia violence between special 1919 and 1922paying attention tohow - Paramilitarism inHungary alargewas and div end,chapterTo this this usesan intersectional perspective thehistory toexplore r evolution

Pál Prónay: Paramilitary Violence and Anti and Paramilitary Violence Prónay: Pál government and elites in a number of articles. See Bodó, “Hungarian Aristocracy and the and Aristocracy “Hungarian Bodó, See ofarticles. number a elites in and government Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal East European Quarterly European East ary state, the ideas which motivated them and their social composition. composition. ary the them ideas andtheir state, whichmotivated social h -

East Central Euro Central East Press/Car beds ofcounterbeds

Beck Papers, 2011); Bodó, “Paramilitary Violence in Hungary after the the after Hungary in “Paramilitary Violence Bodó, 2011); Papers, Beck

- revolutionary State pe/L' Europe du Cenre Europe pe/L' - -

revolutionary acti 1922,” 1922,” 38, 38,

no. no.

45 919

Hungarian Studies Review Studies Hungarian 2 59 (2010): 703 (2010): 3

- (June 2004); “The White Terror in Hungary 1919 Terror White “The 2004); (June

1921,” Some paramilitarySome were detachments

- Semitism in Hungary, 1919 SemitismHungary, in

Austrian History Yearbook History Austrian 2

- erse movement. It movement. wideerse a included 724; Bodó, “Iván Hejjas: the Lifea theof “Iván Bodó, Hejjas: 724; vityas Graz, suchArad, Vienna, - Est

37 (2010): 247 (2010): 37

33, 33, nos. - 1921 - 279; - 1920 withan 1920 1

- 42 2

(Pittsburg Bodó, “Militia Bodó,

(2006): 121 (2006):

(2011). lationship to to lationship es and

h : - - CEU eTD Collection 19, 1920, 19, ( I Folder 7 6 5 4 harass Jews. andintimidate militarygangs whichoften academy worked in students inthe7 politics. bring “order”by punishing involvementor peasantsinrevolutionary forreformist their ortheir “rentedown militias out” come theofficerto ontotheirestates detachments and theyalso participated performed functions local more werealso formed. These organizations sometimes Defense Association ( Awakening Magyars( arms andofficer so leadership had andtheir ties to detachments Horthyin scope, toNovember,arrived especially inBudapest. 1919when prior Budapestautumn of1919. Operationally, the in officermore detachments national were crisscrossedHungarian countryside the upshop and set Lehár, GyulaIvánCount Baron and Kozma, Anton Miklós Ostenburg, and Hejjas, they in Germany. wereas suchBaroncommanders PálPrónay detachments These ledbyand and were infamous militias theofficer detachments

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CEU eTD Collection (London: P.S. King & Son, Ltd., 1924), 160. 1924), Ltd., &Son, King (London: P.S. 11 10 perspective. ofthis examples 1919 Magyarországon, története ellenforradalom Az 9 1994), Monographs, European 8 armies units arguedthe officer regular convincinglydetachmentsfrom thatdiffered significantly as “states withinthe state.” government ofthe andopponent Horthy regime, revolution andcounter great ofindependence and deal power regime between andand themilitias 1922. 1919 conceptualizaed address TerrorculpabilityWhite Horthy’s the the issue of for personal loyalty the prof commandersmilitia and militias the agenda the militias, of have argued that andexistence tothe militias thatHorthywas for responsible Terror. theWhite socialist era historiography that whichthe counter held Horthy Miklós

Erzsébet Andics, Erzsébet Thomas

Oszkár Jászi, OszkárJászi, 138 “Paramilitary Violence,” Bodó, Theespeciallyhad officer a detachments, and thoseof Prónay, Hejjas Ostenburg, The relations essionalization and discipline of discipline regular and highessionalization armya commanded degree units, of Sak m ;

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CEU eTD Collection feljegyzéseiből 15 14 Terror,” “White of Existence in 1920, 21, February Curzon, George Earl to Hohler 12;from Letter Thomas 1920), Repo in1920, 28, Curzon,March George Earl to Hohler Letterfrom Thomas difficult.” is extremely position but its crimes, these check to it can all isdoing Government “The that, and seriousexcesses” committed that the whichacknowledged report Parliamentary 1920) Party, Labour the Congressand 13 12 prosecute members militia actually colluded in use implicatedtheviolence theof state regardlesswhether in leftists Nándor detachmentsBudapestmilitary stationed instate occupied Parliamentarywas proceedingsHorthy elected Regent. during which “maintainelections, order” during consolidation ofthe postwar police perform state functionsassist in or militias are matters toput right.” strong enough report that “We do not LabourbyBritish whoconcluded as observersMay such the delegation intheir paramilitary the exposed activities often they c a vital role play in the

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but not exclusively but not s”, 140, 156; Bodó, “Militia Violence and State Power,” 122. Power,” State and “Militia Bodó, Violence 140, s”, 156; it . Betweenand 1921,state authoritiesgenerally 1919 were loathto think that either the Governor or that either the theGovernor Government bythemselvesthink 2.

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CEU eTD Collection 19 PIL. 3, Dossier AllagFond 10, 658, 265, pg. 1920, 18, February SDP, to Springer Ilona by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag 658, Fond 10, 261, pg. 1920, 13, February Róden, by StatementKároly as PIL); Mrs. to referred Levélt Intézet 3, Politikatörténeti AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 254, 18 440 2010): (December 4 Chin the during Uniforms in Guards Military Red Historyof Social Aof Study Identity: Fabricated Rebellion, “Uniformed Li Li,35; 1986), Press, 17 like papers leftist and liberal especiallyin censor, to right exercisingtheir in verywas proactive regime militias but the were about stories censored these of not all gone.Certainly i spaces findlarge to not uncommon also was wereIt unknown. perpetrators that the would foundindicate ofbodies or atrocities about stories news 16 relatedshe was when an singing incident the evenalready leftthey beaten him. the house, had away, waspolice it before officertoarrest a came and soldier who although they him, Assistance Bureau. DemocraticLegalLegal AidBureau Community’s Party Budapest and Jewish the relationship between and state militias authorities intheir statements theSocial to counter and carceral Inthe Treaty1920. Trianon often in of assisted militias sum, members militia marginalized close official capacity uniformstheir which addedimposing presenceand to and committing those them. responsible for newspapers

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functions on behalfofthe eighteenfunctions ofduring on thefirst thestate months

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CEU eTD Collection (Document collection hereafter referred to as LHA). to referred hereafter collection (Document England Manchester, Archives, and HistoryMuseum People’s Centre, Study Archiveand History 22 21 20 especiallydistinguished honour;byspecial are distinguishedand Horthyenjoy his ofthesecommittents murders arefor takenenjoya responsibility,moreoverthey directly following committedby a ofmurders guardists” list of that,“…none “White com. chief, in legitimatingcertificate….”with apolice themselves Hungary “…referringwrote massacre ofHorthy heabout inOrgovány: toanorder the InLabourEurope.British tothe a thenature Wh letter Party detailing of intheiras correspondence one cooperation ofclose to“brotherWestern parties” in image the betweencounter relationship of the but later be inhistorywill standing they as heroes.” the orders of Minister of theMilitary.” the murder She declared that“nowcommit they can soldiers] “[the doanything because they s throwingthe Danube.corpses thattheyrecalled because, their in noproblems She had andothers theprisoners, tookout went the prison eventually into and killing them forest unnamed a woman massacre describingtheevents leadingin ofprisoners to as though her for by telling[her] in thatshoot should her “he officerescorther and daughter home, her to her threatened totake namedownand then her daughter, and officer over stopped and was an awho then threatened called police by

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CEU eTD Collection 27 26 pg, January 1920, SDP, 1, to SPD, to Imre Fritz Dr. Statement by 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 37, pg. 1919, 25, November SDP, to Kállai Géza Statement by Nov SDP, to Reiszmann Andor Statement by 25 24 23 case themilitia against regard shouldbedead.that a“an Jew itas offense” shot thattheymilitia t “shot into was sononthe street,to his incharge hadhappened ofinvestigating wasby what told the shooting ofhissonbya haddespite seizedtheprisoners the“protest than thirtyLabour He letter inhis leftists tothe recalled thattheHejjasdetachmentParty. authorities and themilitias when the outlining of thedetails Orgovány more massacre of tortured by militias. People werethe militias. arrested setfree, authorities, re civil by local then aswelland militias as theinability andactivities of officials the oflocalpolice curb to manymilitias, coordination witnessed often ofbetweenau thelack local people the question,gentlemen “Why accomplices] are his these [Hejjas and notarrested?” Mrs. Sándor and Hejjas’Ivan endinHamburger, theactivities of militia, incidents such as theOrgovány massacre impending journey their toHungary outlined desiretocollect relating materials tothe confidence” (

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when questioned about how the two young about howthetwo questioned when menwere ember 28, 1919, pg. 39, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 39, pg. 1919, 28, ember ,

the brutal rapeand anamedthe brutal torture woman of 65 of the attorney.”of the

cooperation between and the police 27

86, BZsL. 86,

Müllerin opening was successful a Statement by Miksa Blitz and Juliska and Blitz Miksa Statement by

as conflict between localconflict as between

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Blitz Blitz

CEU eTD Collection 29 as JDC). cited Archives Committee Distribution AmericanJoint Collection, years1919 ofthe Committee Distribution Joint AmericanJewish ofthe Records 1921, June5, in Hungary,” Terror White “IsThere Report Marcus, Joseph See Committee. the for Distribution AmericanJoint report 1921 in June, his findings similar made Marcus 28 that withthecollusion whitemilitias, international believed observers thatthe autumn detachments’ inthe second and in Royalistrevolt Coup participation inBurgenland theOstenburg,police in was This and evident perhapsLehár militias. most and Prónay authorities’ seeming powerlessnessviolenc tostop contradictedand theauthority undermined ofthe worked themilitias times inconcertauthorities. But withthe they state atother times, byGovernor there Government themselves right….” or strong enough matters toput their came in conclusion tothesame they them. stop to were powerless some members regarding ofParliament activities of thewhite the that detachments, but 1920 detailinggrowing Terror, among the White there author that wrote was dissent the utterly topreventtheirsentthe violence.In unable a report incidents count intensity their of youngkilling oftwo Jewish mentality menisrevealing ofthe militias ofthe

Joint Labour Delegat Labour Joint Pa Labour Böhmto er - andThe thestate themilitias relationship isth between The impression thatmany came awaypeople with of revolution

was thegovernment thatevenin cahoots if withthe militias,was was it not

1921. What is clear, is 1921. What ist however,

anti rty Information Bureau, received March 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/13.xvi, LHA; Joseph Joseph LHA; LP/HUN/1/13.xvi, 1920, 5, March received Bureau, rtyInformation ary Hungary. ion, - Semitism andtheir Semitism

The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The

The British Joint LabouThe British Joint

report it provided counter understanding

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CEU eTD Collection 31 Hungary 30 a republic. members alternative restored looked neither toapolitical monarchy which created the nor new, this native dynasty, but strong strain of tothe Habsburgcommitment familywas There shared by not all themilitias. also wasa the second Lehár members, notablymilitia inthe participatedand Ostenburg in detachments, which set ofgoalsthem.There which united alsoa was strong strain of diversity whichemmilitias inthe types of Germangreat But were asthere highly counterparts, just organizations. ideological was by many tributaries.” The directlycourts for and redress. tothe police legal ally relatives and suffered friends at t meant that generally speaking, responsible for acts they theviolent committed. sustenance

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monarchism

Thomas Sakmyster, “the ”

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Bodo, “Social Worlds,” 146; 146; “Social Worlds,” Bodo, Bodó, Béla Romsics, Ignács the Soviet government the Soviet

- Treaty r extraordinarily revolution - . The anti.

204. was part of their attemptwas ofto their part ”

Pál Prónay Budapestespecially in myth which myth

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. István Mocsy, Mocsy, István as did 34 e e being held prisoner withhim, prisoner held being e

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many Jewish men many Jewish - return Statement by by Statement Semitism Semitism The Effects of World War I, The Uprooted: Hungarian Hungarian Uprooted: War The I, World of Effects The . counter 33

E mbracing anti 68 to the conservativeto the ofthepre liberalism , trans. Tim trans.Tim ,

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(NewYork: 32 April 25, 1920, 1920, April 25,

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Brooklyn College College Brooklyn

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militias, - - war

and , CEU eTD Collection 36 2006). Religion, Hungary: 2005), Books, Europe Central East in Nationalities 35 beyond satisfaction ideological against components in more lofty revolutionary a ideology provided basis of counter grislyMoreover, the by natureofatrocitiescommitted critics provoked of themilitias stereotypes, many persecutionoftenbelow, of referenced militias’ Jews aanti number of moralsChristian andnational feeling…”. so provided the core ofthe so influenceminorities’ presence and through inthe country, violencewhen necessary, economic instab wereregarded and conservative by militias as politicians important roleinmotivating Ethnic and specifically militias. religious minorities, Jews, nationalism which

Joint Labour Delegation, Delegation, Labour Joint Hanebrink, Paul - called “Ch

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192 to militias is bornto militias outin

claims ofrepresentingChristian ideological andmoralistic ideological ristian ( Course” - "'Christian Europe' and National Identity in Inter in Identity National and Europe' "'Christian 93. Hanebrink’s monograph expands on this issue. Hanebrink, Hanebrink, issue. this on monographexpands Hanebrink’s 93.

ility, defeat,of thenation. andmoral degeneration Nationalism of which developedof emp . But militia membership. But militia offered a of variety The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The hasized

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a Kereszténykurzus ,

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terms - 36 - la Bodó argues,Bodó andla “Joiningthemilitias communism, andcommunism, anti communism, a communism,

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(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, Press, CornellUniversity NY: (Ithaca, .

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militias perpetratedmilitias 35 (New York: Berghahn (New Berghahn York: of these three these of

In Defense of Christian Christian of Defense In Combatting the - - Semitic Semitic establish “pureestablish

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CEU eTD Collection November 24, 1919, pg. 116 pg. 1919, 24, November PIH, to Silber Izsó by example,Statement for See Christians. of theat expense wealthcoming Jewish about that ofproperty the seizure to addition in that, Otherscomplain searches. house or attacks during Aid Legal 39 38 37 Likewise,case andHungarian status. refugees,theirsocial of connections thedesire for ofwealth loss underwent losing andproperty, status, and avery sudden inthe businesses, on among inEurope.classes crises The themiddle multiple exacerbated produced and/or by frommilitias the rest ofHungarianwerewere society. which They motivations striving which forwere defin and wealth status notunique impulses opportunity and reassert However, torebuild power. ties i networkswake crumblewarand an intheterritorialcollapse of provided and miltias kingdom advancementby wasdisintegration stalled territorial and thewar of the especiallymilitias, those bribery, thecoffers fill of and kidnapping themilitia. to “lived offfor andblackmail, theland” their militias used service. extortion, Other unemployment enrichment outside scrutiny. bred, ofatcommission inpart, the by remain and ina armed close mobilized participating wasatrocities apersonal inthedecision.”

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comments comments CEU eTD Collection 45 44 no. of Stages 43 917 1998), (September, 5 no. 42 41 Existence 40 with Horthy tobringterror asbastions ofconservativemilitias reactionary and inglove”worked“hand elites who Contemporary especially commentators, left the tended thoseonthe tocharacterize “Scoundrels Masquerading asGentlemen” were above andlaw. privileged operated the 1921. license tocommit state’s toleration, ifnotfacilitation undermining legitimacy its eyes populace. inthe of the states, there is reinforcegenderwhich ethnicand thesocial, order modern hierarchies butin society, gainof to privilege and rewards. material their quest extreme members frommilitia their civilian counter many of violent

Letter from Camille Huysmans to ArthurHend to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom Jászi, E Local East: in the Genocide and “‘Licence’ Kallis, Aristotle US Violence,” and Gender Race, that Binds: Tie “The Hill Collins, Patricia “Social Worlds,” Bodó, in 1920, Curzon,21, February George Earl to Hohler Letterfrom Thomas 3(2007): 3(2007): 43 Revolution and Counter and Revolution

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Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism and Ethnicity in Studies

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ch - 44 71 parts was their parts

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- Butdivided what armistice Hungary. - revolutionary

reaction to 45

21, 21, 7, CEU eTD Collection 46 of dimensions communist be itshould taken seriouslybecause attracte as militias well ofcounterdimensions hasrevolution andonmilitias fromthirties theupper lower and middle classes. on thecoun touching Scholarship consolidation andlegitimization dissipated Burgenland to suchgroups upheaval by caused disgusted and anddisorder were militias by t support for because there militias by aristocrats were whowere the many offended But the Hungarian aristocracywasandgroup. diverse alarge well as thepunishment ofmore elements, political through radical orreformist violence shared tothecommitment a restoration social relations of traditional andas hierarchy close soci violencecommit political enemies. against of disciplining financial support tot some elements thearistocracy,especially in didoffer political and inTransdanubia, althoughclasses these were inthe overrepresented Prónay being detachment. That said, number of membersthe off of aristocracy comprise not and moreprobably nobility than did There supportforHowever, some aristocratic was themilitias.

Bod ó, “Hungarian A “Hungarian ó, The majority of militia members were youngerThe members majorityintheir militia twenties were men orearly of al relations with members with al ofaristocratic relations they thetraditional elite, and often and paramilitarism

(present

. By the end of 1921, after two royalist coups of1921, aftertwoandByend royalist thefailed the . in rebellion rebellious peasants, while others colluded with or encouraged militias to peasants,withorencouragedrebellious militias colluded others while ristocracy - he militias in 1919. in1919. militias invitedSome he totheirestates militias to day Austria)day - revolutionary ideology, but theanti revolutionary ideology, but

and the White Terror the and White

icers’ detachments and even icers’ detachments and lessinthe more militias, local came tobe tended to highlight the nationalisttended andanti tohighlight in , for the most part, part, most , for the both

the

regarded asgovern ahindranceregarded tothe Some m Some

72 domestic and internation , ”

709; 709; ilitia leadersilitia likePrónay 716 most tracesmost of .

- revolutionary and antirevolutionaryand There was totalThere never fifteen percent as Bodó has shown, as Bodó has he nature of actshe nature linked

aristocratic support aristocratic al politicalsphere - Semitic Semitic

enjoyed enjoyed of the total ment’s as away - ter the - d . 46 .

CEU eTD Collection 47 exclusively played aristocracy, nobles idea that targets ofterror and violence landless peasants, whowere were theurbanized,class” sense bourgeois they ofthe not“middlein were term, and intheprovinces. somefarmers these independentmilitias didserve incivil While of theinstitutionalization ofanti hasbecome ideologySemitism theemphasized ofmilitia dimension most revolutionarynot exclusively was cause despite aambition Gentile welcome their into ranks, and Jews serving donating but counter inmilitias tothe ran thehighest. join inBudapest. alsostudent militias bourgeois to) Germans (attempted Ethnic and Jews announcement lines.especially border Refugees of were the prominenttheuniversity in networksproperty,fled when Hungary homes, and into they social following the Transylvaniawerealso refugeeswhosetheir had and lost families from Slovakia, their seized, theirproperty disrupted educations and lo fortunes and businesses thesefamilies their people had and/or suffered regime, during theHungarian had Soviet people across ethnicreligious Manywere and that of boundaries tocommunism. hostile

Bodo, “Social Worlds of Paramilitary Groups” 143 Groups” ofParamilitary “Social Worlds Bodo, ed

militias especially militias a Despite thereality ofmilitias

role in militias weremilitias of composed those involved inlabor and politics) involved socialist those

To be sure, contemporary ,

and

gentry or

in the early when months

even thebeginning, from generally

as militias passedas through militias Transdanubia

commentators’ and observers’ (especially commentators’ and - Semitism in the in Semitism

the newly minted counterthe newly minted social elites, ’ dominationby thosewithbourgeois origins

hostile to militias, inpart because tomilitias, hostile theywere 73 - 146; Mocsy, Mocsy, 146;

including both Numerus Clauses focused

many militia commandersdidnot many militia The Uprooted The interpretations of - anti revolutionary political elite revolutionary political - the traditional the traditional communist sentiments communist . 47 the factthat anti , 10 ,

. Wealthier peasants

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not - , the the - ,

CEU eTD Collection 53 52 51 BZsL. 125, pg. 1920, January28, 50 49 the state. of orientation withthe ideological which aligned sources, ofthe original conclusions the reproduced uncritically in the era socialist Terror theWhite wroteabout who historians Hungarian 48 elite social oftheir origins aspart defensecounter of the Liberator government in the American published andthecalled English magazine socialist who werewith violence closely associated given rather was it theworking thatpoint, bourgeo this by classes thanthe the disconnect statusofthe brutality menand the between the they the acts committed of called “ men includedJewish a portrait ofPrónay the“Hungarianmagazine from aristocracy organization representative who and afterdescribing torture mutilation ofseveral the prol openly bestialitycommend thevindictive ofagentry towardbeaten victorious the Terrorand that their inBudapest representatives if “secretly over chuckle they dare not Huy InternationalJanuary Bureau secretary 1920letter,oftheSocialist the SecretaryCamille very well dressed. 1920 Bureau, Dr. alawyer Horváth, Miklós bycommitted the militias.

Georges Sorel, Sorel, Georges Marcus, LHA.LP/HUN/1/1.ii, 1920, 8, January Henderson, to Huysmans PIH, to Tauber Emil by 120, pg. BZsL;1920, Statement June24, PIH, to Steiner Gyula Statement by Mik Statement by the Whit of the historiography in role centralplayed a also It etariat (sic.).” smans arguedgovernments the Entente smans theWhite that werefor partially toblame , reca In counter relationshipan articledetailingbetween the the A Társasag “Is There White Terror in Hungary,” Terror White There “Is , journalist Fredrick Kuhrepo lled that the lled that Reflections on Violence on Reflections sa Horváth to PIH, January 15, 1920, pg. 60, BZsL. pg. 60, 1920, January15, PIH, to Horváth sa 51 49 ” (sic.) meaning society.”” (sic.)

Similar sentiments werereflected ina1921reportby reliefa Jewish Others referred as“gentlemenattackers totheir officers”.

group of younggroup of men

In Communitya complaint tothe Pest Jewish Legal Aid

, trans. T.E. Hulme (London: Allen & Unwin, 1915) &Unwin, HulmeAllen trans.T.E. (London: ,

describing rted that British representativesBritish rted Horthy’s that used 29, 29, .

53 JDC. 7 responsible includedresponsible 52

This was veryto lay likelyintended bare

an attack inJanuary onsome Jews e Terror up until the 1990s, as manyas untilup the1990s, Terror e

- revolutionary regime andrevolutionary regime White

some - revolutionary who isie or elites isie

were in 50 .

Ina The were

, CEU eTD Collection Columbia University Press, 1933). Press, University Columbia Bandholtz, politicians. revolutionary o support Entente’s 54 democratization and economicreforms before Eastern even theoutbreakin ofrevolution destruction of therev view,wereoppression conservativeresponsible of elites theworking for the class, the only unspeakable acts tocommit toconceal but them Hungaryboth in anda inBritain TerrorWhite I inHungary. gu ‘vanis “Thousandshelp appealed have they ofpeople toHohlerthem; storiescame of to with the BritishBudapest’s plenipotentiary inregardin Kuhwrote, inaction Terror, toWhite imprison b alternateslaughter“I byquerying, meanings or one how has wonder many to socialists article, Kuhsarcasticallyplayed withthe idea“gentleman”, of wereas supporting communicate the respectability oftheregime whichgovernment new heBritish and the not engage By a“gentlemen,” insuch saying behavior. Horthyto Clerk was intended (and militi theWhite used “gentleman” toindicate as that shorthand was there Terror because noWhite Horthy left governmentBritish that Clerkfor and theresponsible Terror. theWhite were called“gentleman” Horthy a a Guards. KuhGeorge reporteda toHungary that of British Clerk,mission leader in1919

In his memoirs, General Harry Hill Bandholtz also relied on these class designations to defend the the defend to designations class these on relied also Hill Bandholtz Harry General memoirs, Inhis hed’fathers anddaughters.there husbands, says murderedviolated Holher isno Kuh attempted tocritique social hierarchy elites by laying of bare theoppression efore referring When passcangentleman?” muster as one Hohler, a toThomas f the regime by emphasizing the socio the by femphasizing the regime gentlemenIn acts didnotcommit ofterror. thefirst the page of as) belonged toaelite men,who class by did of persons, definition olution, andtheyolution, were for responsible pushing against back

essgentleman Hohler too.” isa s a way from thes a ofdefendingaccusations himselfagainst An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An nd their useof socio 75

- economic origins of Horthy and other counter other Horthy and of origins economic , ed. by ed. , -

economic (and gender)economic privilege (and not from view public Fritz -

Konrad Krüger Konrad attempting to . From his point of point From his .

(New York: fill it up with upwith fill it 54

Clerk - CEU eTD Collection 57 56 Psychology Culture, pract thein for elite exclusively reserved was ofthe 20 first decade intothe ofduelingcontinued practice as the Empire Habsburg 2005), 1800 Britain Societies: Industrializing in “Masculinities http://search.proquest.com/docview/887257307?accountid=2909 2014, July 18, accessed 55 R their weresocial supposedtorefrain position such types against of have from violence exempt been (and approval) that Horthyand the“White guards”gentlemen acting likebecause were not patrons, turnHungary whosoughtof to suburb “a into opponents andthey inpart didso because theirassured British success was by their thethese weaknesses menpreyedexploited oftheir onand demonstrably weaker couldus describe.tells But George Sir [Clerk] Guards;winked he slyly obscenities has butapen thatat able none atrocities with todeal right theheart of in Hecondoned Europe. raping by has socialist the women hisWhite of thrown paleexile, liberals little a cells,feudal and into erected synonymous‘Communism’ Death; with hetepidmensheviks themost has into hounded criticize the Horthy regimeand militias. theWhite weak,generalfair courage,and theofphysical play “restraint a gentleman thatClerk of referenced,of women, the asthedefense theprotection such meaningsreflected t that the categoryEurope. tofill set He“gentleman”of thereforeof tried upwithanew

egulating howviolence and who,when tookplacewasway one theboundaries ofelite Norbert, Finzsch. "Historical Masculin Finzsch."Historical Norbert, Ibid., 44. Ibid., theTerror,” White and “England Kuh, Frederick

331; 331; T Yet, later on in the piece, Kuh mobilized thevaluesYet, Kuhmobilized embedded later of oninthe piece, inthe concept

he issue of restraining physical aggression is somewhat complicated in the case ofthe the case in complicated somewhat is aggression physical heofrestraining issue of

(Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, Press, University State Wayne MI: (Detroit, unrestrained violenceagainst those unrestrained his ideological position.

(i.e. children, women, ities as Intersectional Problem," Problem," asIntersectional ities ice. See Raphael Patai, Patai, Raphael See ice. TheLiberator 76

- he isagentleman.” 1914,” 1914,”

Journal of British Studies British of Journal personsgroups and 55 , July, 1920, 43. July, 1920, , 1996), 1996), London.”

the elderly) He“Horthy wrote, made has The Jews of Hungary: History, History, Hungary: Jewsof The 379 Gender Forum Gender edition of Czarist Siberia edition ofCzarist ggression” inorder to - 380. 57

The problem thenwas aggression.

and because menand of because

According toKuh, th

century, but dueling but century,

who should

32(2011), 32(2011), ;

44, 2(April 44, John Tosh, Tosh, John of their acts

CEU eTD Collection 58 were ac to differentof held standard precludedfrom them being by elitemen,committed persons, violence the innocentthose groups persons and disruptiv was the violenceForthe militias of Jászi white militias expectations associatedwith Hungary studyechoed 1923 inhis similarsentiments status andgenderinterpretations shaped ofviolence inthe postwar period. British and Hungarian regimes. arguments his Yet other, thevalues hegentleman embedded mobilized concept of boththe inthe todiscredit he masculinity were Kuh’s policed. argumentscontradict were

Jászi, Jászi, attempted Revolution the deliberateelegantactions of officers. th masqueradinggentlemen. the Theatrocities as Red Terror of worst were usually of vengeancewhichtheythecrueltyand applied reprisal, ofscoundrels with cruelty worked men; the Whites ofcoarse outacold ignorant andrefined system moral actions quality.ofthe Terrorist Reds usually The revea compensated brutalityan by andentirely increased and bypsychological different question. Duringcounter the But the tremendous differencetheRe between Sociologist and f .

e, e wildacts and ofdepraved semi that the These issuesThese were was allsotoo important, but thefact that

illegal to reject the positive and positive honorableto reject ofeliteness the connotations while onthe . He wrote:

and Count and

White TerrorWhite was and conducti

“bestial” ormer Minister ofMinister Nationalities underormer Károlyi

- revolution eliteregarded menmembership whomhe of as theprimary

ng a themselvesmanner. insuch . Nor was it . Nor it was

fundamentally worse thanthefundamentallyworse because Red Terror - , 160 , onduct just as elite women were onduct as just revolution the decreased spread of the Terror was revolution spread ofthe the decreased Terror which were generallywhich wereto immune supposedtobe who because of theirwho because have statusshould - 161. more - bestial proletarians: those those of were theWhites bestial proletarians: problematic 77 Revolution andCounter Revolution

offensive nots 58

demonstrate tied social how closely d and White Terror White all d and isbeyond

simply ory because on theone handory on because imply was it because

Elite and men bourgeois because militias attacked militias because - led the primitive theprimitive led

revolution in and their and their atrocities wereatrocities , Oszkár Jászi, Oszkár Jászi,

of CEU eTD Collection 61 60 59 argued mil theBritish against who tried hanging tomoderate this mania.” gallows,and usedwithawind it furyend whichdisgusted inthe missions, theEntente “Themade ‘ChristianCourse’ the between Christsoldiers with “Jesus bepraised,”an which observation highlightedconflict the withclubsandthemenstood beat as they beingto asugararrested along some men other mill thatsoldiers and Jewish taken with meanings horrificwhich precluded violence. a political, identity, cultural orethnic butwhic so, they a an meaning of mobilize just expression which ofChristianity not soughtto was representing they todecryIn theviolence and interests faced. Christian persecution doing violence social hierarchies. alsoplayed Religion ofthe roleinconceptualizations an important which “beastly revenge” was militiasof White elevated supposed to conformity undergirdedgendclass and norms tothese

Jászi, Jászi, LHA. LP/HUN/5/45.i, 1920, April 25, Darvas , Sándor Statement by Problem.” Intersectional as an “Masculinities Finzsch, no mitigating factor made their violence worse andmade worse more their imm violence Revolution and and Revolution The interpreted wasgender violence militias just not and lensof through of the

the Christian rhetoric the Christian status of the know

in White Terror, as people used the militias’ an Terror,militias’ usedWhite as the people

were of comprised elites, they . these hierachies

better andbetter act working differently classes thanthe The Counter

militias’ militias’

that made theviolence other than they something perpetrated

- revolution itary reportonHungarianconditions by mission’s arguing,

and the violence of thewhiteand theviolencedetachments. of intentionally violated . Therefore, cross, that shining symbol oftheman, into a cross, symbol loveof thatshining , 159. ,

entered the room because they did notgreet roomentered because they the the did 61 78

One man One Similarly,LabourBritish Delegation the for Jászi,

h was imbuedwithspiritualandmoralh was

ha oral than theRedoral Terror. d no excuse ford noexcuse their behavior

er hierarchies , social and gendersocial and

Sándor Darvas because that he believed

d theregime’s claim of . 59 because

, Theywere

recalled thatafterrecalled expectations

Jászi wrote,Jászi

of their

. m

T embers here CEU eTD Collection 64 News B’rith B’Nai Reactionary” ofthe Psychology Perverse “The Schwimmer, war. Rosika violenceand was a believed what she out pointing for Schwimmer 63 62 wasRevolution considered by tobe the“original conservatives of revolution many sin” revolutionary capacity, insome politics either Károl under ethnically group who hadwas first involved been in The diverse. targetedthose targeted by militias. as whowas attracted tothem, Tormented“The Masses” Part Two violence. bycommitted who people by because just not militias of Christianity.instrumentalization claimed torepresent they who asmilitias definedChristianity aset principles moral by ofimmutable sullied These criticisms simultaneously movedintwodifferent one as onehand, directions the understood thatinHungary t Government country.” a a in isfully Christian Thisconveys falseit impression unless “Admiral writing ofthe Troubridge Hungarian Government says:

Jászi, Jászi, book Tormay’s Cecile versionof English the review Ina of Hungary, to Delegation Labour BritishJoint Revolution Understanding goals thediversity,and theprinciples the ofparamilitaries

B’Nai B’rith News B’rith B’Nai ,

and Counter and 75.

The rangeThe targeted militias ofpersons socially, was politically and it, while ontheother they while it,

64 se social, and statusin gender religious hierarchies -

revolution, theyregarded it he word Christian has aword definite has he Christian political significance.” , Schwimmer criticized Tormay’s attack on Károlyi’s pacifist stanceby pacifist Károlyi’s on attack Tormay’s criticized Schwimmer ,

is important is important conflict between claims of Christianity and the promotion of political ofpolitical the promotion ofChristianity and claims between conflict 63

156. Incondemned peoplecommitted sum, the violence

The White Ter White The

as it 79 as illegal or excessive but also becauseexcessiveas butalso illegal itwas or

emphasized understandin ror in Hungary in ror An Outlaw’s D Outlaw’s An yiKun. The Károlyist or

the ggroups why certain were

political , 24. , iary -- ‘It aChristian is

written by Rosika writtenRosika by

November, 1923, 1923, November,

foreclosed , as well as , 62

CEU eTD Collection pg, 224, PIL; Statement by György Kraft and Sándor Huber to SDP, January 19, 1920, pg. 221, pg. PIL. 221, 1920, JanuarySDP, 19, to Huber Sándor Kraft and György by Statement PIL; 224, pg, 1920, January20, SDP, to Szőke Lajos by PIL; Statement 231, pg. 1920, January21, Nagy SDP, to Berze the to regard in persecution examples of For PIL; 48, 66 704. Terror,” White 65 members as asandauthori thepolice other well reforms reformsas suffrage, universal such men involvedinleftist politics movement conservatives membersand militia those that maintained voter and were candidate vulnerableattacks. lists to involved inorganizing assisting inearlyand targeted withelections 1920were also and In regime.Soviet made thecomplaints the were prosecutors,roundedwereas thosewho and up,as hadpolice judges served men therepeople plentyleft were topersec still of 100,000 people fled Hungary political and into butdespite went this exile, large number, the potential number of included group was persons inthis veryestimated large. An party trade of unionmembers.expansion or Given the and lower suchas rankingindividuals vulnerablearrest toattack andauthoritiesincluded andThis bothstatemilitias. by higher two revolutions made parti which clearedIn Bolshevism. thewayfor association terms, this practical between the

Károlyi government see for example Statement by Mrs. Sándor Iványi to SDP, November 30, 1919, pg. pg. 1919, 30, November SDP, Iványi to Sándor Mrs. by examplefor Statement see government Károlyi “Th Bodó, Béla

Soviet Amongas political thosetargetedopponent including

regime,carrying Hungarian investigating andoutsentences of onbehalf the or in e Social Worlds of Paramilitary Groups,” 133; Bodó, “Hungarian Aristocracy and the and “Hungarian Aristocracy Bodó, 133; WorldsGroups,” ofParamilitary Social e

democratic and or politics democratic socialist

liberalized marriageliberalized and divorcelaws

cipants orsupportersdemocr of

. In. thecase regardedas being while the Kun regimewhile the Kun embraced people’s people’s to the Social Democratic those whowere Party,

of the Károlyigovernment, of the it 80

February, 1920 elections, see Statement by János János by Statement see elections, 1920 February, ute.

commissars, bureaucrats,commissars, ties aswell ascommentators conservative 65

s ofthe regime werewho were women Members andsoviets of councils local those

actively involvedactively inthe feminist

the government’srole under Kun,

and education sexual who had atization and socialism andatization socialism

close far radical more

relationships to to relationships espoused espoused in addition to in addition 66

. Militia . Militia

in CEU eTD Collection Urban Gender Codes in Budapest and Vienna, 1860 Vienna, and inBudapest Codes Gender Urban 69 conserv many informed that etc. pacifism feminism, againstJews, the prejudices insight into provides Terror wakeof White the in immediately published novel,been havingand memoir of the genres straddles heavilymorewas version the English ofthe book, versions thetwo Between1924. and in 1923 after innot long English appeared It 1922. and 1920 between Commune 68 Essays 67 bourgeois counterparts andelitefrequently and female targeted as were prostitutes. werealready regardedmany as having by different “abno their bodies, and weresubjectwhich regulations often attempted to topolice and punish speaking,class many andwomen workingenjoy impoverisheddidnot autonomy over estab discourse, between women thesupposedand “proletarian” link sexuality already was spiritual commitment the loosenedof communis mores sexual were available and unviolable sex thus for violence women“political” toward Inmarriage. conceptualization practical this terms, translated ofsexualized practices into ideal was encouraging or of “communization women” gender ideology,“free love focusing on such as mantras held

Susan Tormay, Cecile Frank

rudimentary views of feminism and vulgarized conceptualizations of communist rudimentary feminismconceptualizations and views ofcommunist vulgarized of lished lished long orcounter theoutbreak revolution before of also infused were aswith religious connotationsascommunists well “atheists”and , Iván Völgyes, ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971) Press, Nebraska of University (Lincoln: ed. Völgyes, Iván , rmal” atives. atives.

Eckelt, “Internal Policies of the Hungarian Soviet Republic,” in Republic,” Soviet ofthe Hungarian “InternalPolicies Eckelt, Zimmermann, “ Zimmermann, But whilerevolutionand thecommunist context provided theimmediate

(New York: McBride, 1924), 41 1924), (New McBride, York:

or “deviant” or

An An Outlaw’s Outlaw’s ‘ Making a Living from Disgrace Living a Making to the sacrament of marriage woman woman

sexual behaviors.sexual Moreover, working women class Diary

to bewilling 67 : The Revolution The :

which they int

beca - 42; 53 42; . Th use they wereuse they and believedtobewilling e

- editing than the Hungarian version. While the book the book While version. thethan Hungarian editing emphasis 54. The book was originally published in Hungary waspublished book originally The 54. -

ts were attributed, lack inpart, this of to 81 1920,” in1920,” and available forand sex , 198, 281; 281; , Tormay, 198,

erpreted as that meaning ’: the Politics of Prostitution, Female Poverty and Poverty and Female ofProstitution, Politics ’: the . , looser 68

The City in Central Europe: Culture and and Culture Europe: Central Cityin The on issuessexuality ofgenderand

, ” the “nationalization of” women” the

sexual behaviors than their behaviors sexual , , 72. - Hungary in Revolution: Nine Revolution: in Hungary revolution. An An

Outlaw’s Outlaw’s outside theboundsof the communist communist the Historically Dia

ry in Budapest : The :

CEU eTD Collection Big Three Big Pastor, democratic”. “ultra and as “perfidious” regarded they which appointmentambassador as her wereat unhappy diplomats Europea in Western hisnoted that study Pastor Peter ofSchwimmer. negativeopinion 72 Contemporaries,” Eye in the Munich and Budapest Revolutions in 1919 in the Participation Women’s Head’”: Tormay, pict examplefor the See 71 Pre Pennsylvania Twe Late the to World War,” the Great after Women’ ‘Politicised against 2006), Press, University Europe Eastern Century Twentieth in War 70 Ashgate, CT: Brookfield, the Present to 1800 from Society woman internationalactive whowas movementsas reform in and theKárolyi whoserved internationally BedyRosa Schwimmer, violence. standards of femininity bourgeois consequently anfrom and exemption could claim not demonstrate th women as masculinized h attitudes inthebroader whichwere population gender, by class, shaped (bourgeois)enjoyed. women acted duringearlycounter the with anti These ierarchies

Tormay, volume. women inTormay’s is present “masculinized” attracted thatcommunism attempt show to The in 1919,” in Women Budapest, Guard: White Army Red and “Between Ablovatski, Eliza in ways which provide didnot themin waysthesame“respectable” with other protections

ideas of R The Commune The

(Boulder, CO: European East (Boulder, - 71 elated was tothis conservatives’ The The communist rhetoriccommunist and by otherwhite militias conservative commentators

Further,“feminist” oftheheavily theimage was person of by the informed and which existed long before the establishment ofthe longgovernment Soviet existed andestablishment before which the Revolution ss, 2011); Tormay, ss,2011);

. at, even in their appearance, communist womenat, conform intheir appearance, didnot even to communist dangerous 72 Nationalities Papers Nationalities

Hungary between Wilson and Lenin and Wilson between Hungary Schwimmer, a educated bourgeois, and assimilated ntieth Century ntieth , photo opp. 140. See also also See 140. opp. photo , ure and portrayals of communist women included in an womenincluded portrayalsof communist and ure 82 1999), 187. 1999), , 137. To be clear, it was not just Hungarian conservatives who harbored this harbored who conservatives was Hungarian clear,notit just be 137. To , - 86 , i.e.not“real” women -

revolution argue to women whowereattacked that the had being a pacifist prominent and feminist

; workingclass femalesexuality and were combined mobilized See also also See , ed. ed. by , Malco 70

, ed. by ed. , The Revolution The But existing rhetoricinto nevertheless, such tap soughtto

28, no. 3(2000), 548. 3(2000), no. 28,

Monographs, 1976), 70. 1976), Monographs, Robert Gerwarth Robert , ed. by Maria Bucur and Nan and ed.by Bucur , Maria

Elisabeth Heinemann Heinemann Elisabeth m Gee, Tim Kirk and Jill Steward (Aldershot, England and and England (Aldershot, Steward Jill Kirk and Timm Gee, Eliza sexualized sexualized Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones from the Ancient Ancient the from Zones Conflict in Violence Sexual , 142, 192. 142, , 82

. This Johnson, “‘Revolutionary Girl with the Titus the Titus with Girl “‘Revolutionary Johnson, : the Hungarian Revolution of 1918of Revolution :the Hungarian ’s article ’s

strategy portrayal and ofcommunist leftist

, “Sexual and Non and “Sexual , (Philadelphia: University of University (Philadelphia: active cy Wingfield (Bloomington: Indian Indian (Bloomington: Wingfield cy

was in Hungary deployed An Outlaw’s Diary Outlaw’s An , and - Sexual Violence Violence Sexual n and American nand and secular Jewish secular Jewish

to religious Gender and and Gender softheir and - 1919 and the the 1919 and . .

CEU eTD Collection Press, 1998), 184. 1998), Press, and Vienna Budapest of History Cultural the on Essays Workshop: 73 governments, bringafter people them,and the to against to incited Commune order “their” for politicalthe revolutionary involvement in peasants aspunishment estate werewilling owners to often topay militias roughcome ontotheirestatesand up “requisition” andfor plunder their onthecountryside livelihood aristocrats anda militia where ledby wereactive, militias and theinfamous Prónay Hejjas victims werepersecution. militias’ the peasants, Many of particularly inTransdanub mythology mi both the revolutions andfor manyHungarians thelossofwhich conservative war, and worsened took expanded economicsocial androles were while their husbands in societyalso were present priortot gender,one even thatwere imbued withclass,and ethnic, religious expectations political regard“feminists”a straightforwardgender even as political or category,rather but as “ byambassador toSwitzerland Károlyi) of internationalism, pacifism, government’s to ambassador feminism

Péter Hanak, “Vox Populi: Intercepted Letters in the First World War,” in War,” World Letters First in the Intercepted Populi: Hanak, “Vox Péter litia memberslitia regarded as interrelated drastic measure s were very active Targeting the . 73 ” . But .

carried enti this

for many, he counter he likelyexacerbated war by the s to ensure their and their families’ survival s toensureand their their families’ politicallydefined . Asdiscussed .

political connections - retherefore to setof connotations, impossible making it revolution and White Terror andWhite revolution Switzerland, wasSwitzerland, theembodiment

the

failed revolutionary regime , and Jewishness. Forconservatives, many, and Jewishness. earlier

groups above was drivengroupsabove largely was for by revenge in aHungarianof inthe back” the“stab version 83 , the militias weremilitias , theheavily dependent on

were notsufficient to ,

during

. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University PrincetonUniversity NJ: (Princeton,

Concerns about women’s rolesConcerns which many women many women which

(she appointed the had been

fighting and whoalsofightingand not only of The Garden and the the and Garden The

as theeconomic troubles and where and

explain

feminism, but feminism,

local their took on nd/or ia CEU eTD Collection Horseback Sakmyster, Thomas faith. ofthe the Jewish rituals observe or they practice did nor as Jews 77 Columbia diss, (PhD. Statebuilding” Czechoslovak and Nationalities, Jewish Refugees, Jewish theNationalities: ofAustria citizens/subjects were the refugees that and state t of the auspices under that arguing Austria, into Hungaryand refugees out of move manyto Jewish tried as had statewar, the Hungarian the During momentcollapse. of o becamecitizens Jews many ofthese collapsed, Empire Whenthe decades. for there residing been had therefore and century nineteenth ofthe lastdecades the Hungary migratedin to had and 1918 in November, collapse imperial Austria of citizens been had in Hungary authorities revolutionary 76 75 74 delegation allegedly inParis, toHu Mission preceded inHungary Jászi). it (Oszkar Lenin)Luxemburg,Europe asgovernmentasKun, RosaintheKárolyi (Béla well which visibility ofethnic “foreign i which be will exploredmore fullybelow. certain to act, were classes supposed authority atrocitiesundermine andviolence thecapacity militia their had to Hungary. andto reassert affirm social“traditional” authority and of the theirpolitical hierarchies violence inthe early counter regard of peasants tothepersecution the relief important into puts p n Budapest set their sights militias and leftists on revent reform them agrarian from movements. joining

This “ethnic” designation is used because many of communists who were Jews did not primarily identify not primarily wereJewsdid who manycommunists because of is used “ethnic” designation This “Foreign 150. “Social Worlds,” Bodó, Prónay, See While violenceWhile

- University, 2007), 18, 53. 18, 2007), University,

born.” - 75 17 because such because born” is presented in quotation marks, because many Jews placed in this category by counter by in category this placed manyJews because marks, in quotation ispresented born”

. However, aristocracy’sand the instigation nobility’s or in participation

A határban a kaszál halál határban ngary f the new successor states where they had come from, not where they were residing at the residingthe at were wherethey not from,come had they where states successor newf the 76

Many

Jews in the leadership of the communist theleadership communist in of the Jews sent to Hungary to report on conditions thereto Hungary onconditions forsent toreport theAmerican

against peasantsTerrorWhite characterizedthe inthe provinces, actions

ontemporary observers attributed the persecutionontemporary this observers to

- revolution which allowedrevolutionest whichthearistocracyand relayed information regarding to Jews relayed thetreatment information of

violated many expectationsabout howpeople of people’s ,

124 and who was awas legitimate targetand who ofviolence, - 77 125, 127, for example.for 127, 125,

Colonel Horowitz, a member of the Inter a Horowitz, Colonel member of the

not especially heDual

Hungary. Rebekah Klein Rebekah Hungary. - Hunga 74

The at social play dynamics in - Monarchy, Hungary was a separate wasseparate a Hungary Monarchy, parties

ry (Austria Galicia) before the before Galicia) ry(Austria Jews, bothHungarianJews, and traditional claims of traditional

disciplinary of Central andEastern - Pejšová Admiral on on Admiral ate owners

function of , “Among , - a point Allied - CEU eTD Collection 80 79 Hungary in Terror White Commissi High to Gorton Reginald General l the See bywere BritishMission. the recorded report ofHorowitz’s characterizations Similar Bandholtz, future…” whole ba form of same intothe werelapsing Hungarians got that out reports if Jew; that a is Representatives of AmericanHouse the in committee military ofthe bar such any understand could England nor America neither nevertheless Jews, been had leaders Bolshevist most the of the factover that sore feel would naturally Hungarians the how understand could I although so wasthat “ISoós hetold wrote that boys.Bandholtz young Jewish ofuptwo thebeating about hereceived report followinga Soós Károlyi ofDefense Minister 78 Terrorthe White between the wouldalwaysstatus ortheir level ofassimilation, outsiders. remain The association foreigners,which was association and butalsospecifically between communism, Jews conceptualized commissaries, and more Jews thenagain Jews.” Commi headeda deceptive clown....The byChristian areall foreigners. others All thePeople’s of theSoviet government: deal more t andhour eight Jews badofgreatest Hungarians.” her peril?...Eleven entryfor the format account havingBolshevists.” ofsomany been Jews religion thatagreat crimes, herereallycommitted ofanti hadwas deal 1919: “[Horowitz] BandholtzAmerican Hill whowrote diary inhis Henry General

Tormay, Tormay, Bandh baric conduct; that one of England’s greatest Prime Ministers had been a Jew and the present chairman chairman the present Jewand a been had Ministers Prime greatest England’s ofconduct; one that baric oltz, oltz, ssaries are among thereassistant Jews, a and isnow Christian the then October 31, 1919: “…Who proclaims “…Who himselfthe saviourOctober 31,1919: ofHungary inthe The Commune The Revolution The ion of the National Council byion ofthe Council National theKárolyi circleinher o say about communism theo saylinkage and between Jews An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An Judaism and communism communism and Judaism well into 1921, when American Joint Distribution Committee Distribution 1921,whenJoint into Americanwell

stated thata great cloakrascally of manyunder their he[sic] Jews , 3. , , 11. , , 7. , false but false An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An

“Just asinKárolyi’s“Just government] is Government the [Soviet

, 101. Bandholtz also wrote that he had had a confrontation withthe confrontation a had had wrotethat he also Bandholtz 101. ,

reinforced thatJews theidea oner Thomas Hohler, 18 February, 1920, February, 1920, 18 Hohler, Thomas oner remained important explanatory of dimension an rbarism as the Russians, it would seriously affect their affect their seriously would it theRussians, as rbarism , , 263. 85 damned sick and tired of any such conduct; that that suchconduct; of any sick tired and damned

Here notonly Tormay the made 78

Cécileangrilywrote Tormay about ,

no matter their citizenship entry onSeptember memoir

afterestablishment the 79

She had a great - Semitic feelingSemitic on Alleged Existence of of Existence Alleged - novel i etter from etter Jews Jews n her

29 as , CEU eTD Collection 84 (1993) 1 no. Archives 45, Jewish American in Hungary,” Terror the White and Marshall “Louis inKatzburg, Nathaniel reprinted 1920, 27, May Colby, Bainbridge State in involved association This as BNA). to referred (Hereafter England Kew, Archives, BritishNational Office, ofthe BritishForeign Records 31, March 14, 1919, pg. FO/608/12, do government circulatingin withJewishness communism Hungary in Whiteof Terror Existence 83 History Modern the and Judeo Nation, Christianity, CulturalWar: 82 220562, 81 on theconceptualization evenof Jews, military before the defeat andoutbreak of political identity ethn persecution exp of Jews, communists…” when TerrorWhite he about wrote and the“Jews andon effects other its Hoh Military inBudapesttheBritish to inBudapest Mission HighCommissioner Thomas ideology.correspondence representative EvenBritish from inthe Inter the tothe gener The undergirding Judeo of logic flowered i and “were interestsJews ofcommunists same” one inthe day with issynonymous representative Marcus report Joseph May, notedthat inhis 1921

J February Hohler, Thomas Commissioner High to Gorton Reginald General Letterfrom Eliza p. 6, 1921, 5, June Hungarian Jews,” to whatit Means and Background “Political Marcus, Joseph oint Labour Delegation, oint Labour ically religiouslymotivated or ler betrayed, at theleast, very the asympathy of toward logic Judeo ally, was that Jews were ofinternationalist thatJews ally, was revolutionary embodiment thephysical Ablovatski, “The 1919 Central European Revolutions,” 474 Revolutions,” CentralEuropean 1919 “The Ablovatski, Folder Although n T he between link andB Jewishness

tran n the immediate n theimmediate

satlantic relief and philanthropic efforts. See Letter from Louis Marshall to US Secretary of US Secretary to LouisfromMarshall Letter See efforts. philanthropic and relief satlantic 151.4

80, 1(March 2008): 55 2008): 1(March 80, 83

and relationship tothe Hungarianand state. relationship

, JDC. , LikewiseLabour theBritish report, Party’s while the discussing ot discounting theimmediateot discounting politic

The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The

licitly defined asbeing atrocities politicallyratherthan the ‘Communist…”

postwar

, 3. , - - Bolshevism in1919Hungary, more and Europe 8 0. . More examples of the strength of the association between between association ofthe strength examples the More of

84 period, although its origins although its earlier.period, can be traced

Thus, the 81 - Bolshevik Myth in Hungary, 1890 inMyth Hungary, Bolshevik

olshevism 86

category of

, did not go unnoticed among AmericanJews among unnoticed not go did 23 cuments, Report by Townley Fullam, Fullam, byTownley Report cuments, - 24.

, , 1 and thebeliefand that the intere

al significance the revolutions of - 12.

- 476; Paul Hanebrink, “Transnational “Transnational Hanebrink, Paul 476; —

“ the Judeo Jew ” “any Jew inHungary“any Jew to

denoted adenoted - Bolshevik mythBolshevik - 1920,” - Bolshevism Bolshevism

18 specific , 1920, 1920, , The Journal of Journal The - Allied sts of sts Alleged Alleged 82

— - CEU eTD Collection Random House, 2010), 11 2010), RandomHouse, 86 85 recently arrived scant resources thinner price broadly) Hungary of conditions in movement. Asthe economic andRussia Galicia, had which been catastrophicconsequences ofthe warfor many Jew byEurope inCentral experience andEastern thewartime economically andglobal whichof exploitive directedthe wealth. flow werebankingthat Jews a a part into belief fed “goldwas of international”which their andreligious difference America,labeled and had as“cosmopolitan”because been Jews “internationalist,” of Central European nation the managementa multi of aboutanxieties industrialization, theinstability reform,well asinnovation. technical as andartistic butalsoto statement abouttoJews, democ one’s attitude revolutionaryanti and have of revolution, the category

Robert S. Wistrich, Wistrich, S. Robert Ablovatski,

socio - shown gouging,marketeering and black The ofanti economic dimensions political meaning

declined,

“The 1919 Central European Revolutions,” Revolutions,” Central European 1919 “The that political anti that political

refugees forrefugees these wanting from problems, their todistance themselves A Lethal Obsession: Anti Obsession: Lethal A Jewish 9. - . Even Hungarian Jews . modernand worldview, encompassed it political a notonly

- of “Jew”

building. s

refugees from Galicia . In. thepre - ethnic state inthe lat - their

Semitism was ashorthandSemitism

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whenwereresented they notbeing -

Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad Global the to Antiquity from Semitism of the primaryof - Jewish politics and politics rhetoricJewish wer 87 - war period across Europe and Northperiod acrossEuropeand war , especially

and exploitive nature exploitive and tory. prominence Jews’ inindustry and -

e nineteenthe age”“golden century ofEast 480. standing religious were profiteering, accused often of

Paul Hanebrink Ablovatski andEliza ” ish communities 85

Ita was way also toexpress (and in the Dual(and Monarchy inthe theaters theaters racy, social reform, suffrageracy, social reform, for

. This developed in spite of inspite . Thisdeveloped those

“ …

in Budapest, in t expressingan anti - he Front’s Eastern war ethnic category , especially thosein

of and capitalism, 86

e strengthened for stretchingfor

blamed the

(New York: - void

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CEU eTD Collection NY AR191921/4/23/2/151.4, AR191921/4/23/2/151.4, NY PIL; 364, pg. 1920, May18, ofLipót Blau, 89 i These 88 newarrivals. ofbacks the on pressures and resentments economic termsofplacing broa from the Jewsrefugee to reaction that the Austria,” Jewsof The and in Vienna, “Galicia 87 economic resentments played persecuti aninthe victims’ important role characterization of thepersecutionand of “propertiedrespectable” Jews the only together identities,but individuals their linking thing Jewish the was the victims hadfled the Red Army, city toavoidservice inthe therefore indi none ofthe duringatleast hadpartand of theCommune victims taken inpolitics two that e severalJews, ofwhom werefor merchants eventually hadbeentargetedpersecution and Bureau 1919,which 10, onDecember made by KecskemétImre lawyer Fritztothe Social DemocraticLegal Party’s Aid before national” economic such asspeculation smuggling,forged behaviors andhoarding commercial the lifecountry. of The whoeconomic Jews resentments against economic Hungary collapse inthe of wake ofdefeatandrevolution only intensified cause claims inamoment when by political thenation pressing was their The vulnerable. exploitationfeminists’, democrats’ communists’ and and abandonment of the conservatives Hungarianpost of the version more impoverishedreligiouslyEastern and brethren. demonstrative xecution byxecution “groupuniformed a individuals.” of

See also Statement to Military Prosecutor by Lipót Schwartz, March 5, 1920, pg. 114, BZsL; Statement BZsL;Statement 114, pg. 1920, 5, March Lipót Schwartz, by Prosecutor Military Statement to also See pgs. 79 1919, December 10, SDP, to Fritz Imré StatementDr. of RebekahKlein ndividuals were executed wereexecuted ndividuals ,

during , emphasized -

Pejšová and immediately afterandwar for immediately the thecom isuseful understanding , “ Among the Nationalities Amongthe Folder Folder

the national (including minorities’ exclusively butnot Jews), inforest a -

World War I War World theback” “stab among in emerged myth Hungary, numerous Gyula Andrássy, Address to Parliament, May 8, 1921, 8, May Parliament, Addressto Andrássy, Gyula outside ofKecskemét. outside

stated that wealthystated and thatKecskemét distinguished

der population was similar to that ofthe to waspopulation similar der Austrian History Yearbook History Austrian Marcus were drivers prominent of 88 ,” especially pages 27 pages especially ,”

Report

negative associations with“anti ofJews 88

The say to complaint was careful that on

“

- WhiteTerror 80, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 80, , 122 , - 28, 32; See also David Rechter, also Rechter, See David 32; 28, - , 123, 127 which indicates which 127 indicates 123, ”

the 1921

Moreover indust

on. ,JDC. Jews of Budapest in in Budapest Jewsof indicates that 89 cating that

rial and Economic national the plaint

220563, 220563, - CEU eTD Collection 92 1848 Officer Corps, Habsburg the of History 91 Sakmyster, occupation. Romanian 1919 in least at regent future the that ofHorthy indicates biography BZsL. 114, Sakmyster’s pg. 1920, 5, March MilitaryProsecutor, to Lipót Schwartz Statement of 1920 May 30, PIH, to Neumann Simon BZsL; by 94, Statement pg. 1920, May 27, PIH, to Pfeffer Béla BZsL; by 96, Statement pg. 1920, May22, PIH, to Rabinek Zsigmond BZsL; by 91, pg. Statement 1920, May 30, PIH, to Neumann PIH Laxto byMátyás BZsL;Statement 53. pg. 1920, 90 “foreigners.” resources, a thecauseof sourcetotheir disease,statusas inflation, inaddition of assimilated and weal remained after more andarmistice, many, the inHungaryeven including 1918 the neighbor’s territory number However,compel duringa or thewar repatriation. substantial government attempt disloyalty given Jews statusas non surrounding their the idea outside thenationalwar. help did placeJews Yetit community by lead, ashad participation it inGermany,assess toamilitary to during census Jewish the f membersBudapest,streets frequentlymilitia were of themthatJews that told toblame and defeatism. alsonotedthat Manywere whenattacked stopped theyonthe and Jews associati against inBudapest bourgeoisand other Jews cities. provincial resentments or for the Trianonand prolonging theRomanian invasion. Treaty

Klein Klein May31, Hahn, Mór Mrs. by BZsL;Statement 68, pg. 1920, May 29, PIH, to Kuefler Imre Statement by - - Pejšová Pejšová The refugees arrival ofJewish Galicianprovinces from the In feeding resentments,addition to wartimefed experience economic the also

that Jews had no sense had ofloyalty no tothethat Jews Hungarian nation. on of Jews to“shirking”on of Jews (i.e. non in many cases provide aexplanationfor thancommunism better 92 , “Among the Nationalities,” 18, 36. 18, Nationalities,” the“Among , Deák, István 28; Nationalities,” the“Among ,

The largepresenceofnon , pg. 91, BZsL, Statement by Samu Stein to PIH, May 27, 1920, pg. 118, BZsL 118, pg. 1920, May 27, PIH, to Stein Samu by , Statement BZsL, 91, pg. ed to transfer refugeesall theGalicianedJewish to Austrian totheir thy Budapest community thy regarded Jewish asa onlocal drain them

Admiral on Horseback on Admiral

- 1918 - - citizen Jewscitizen fuelled anti nationalist and

participation inthe military disloyalty effort) participation (New York: Oxf (NewYork: 89

, May 20, 19 May20, ,

- 1920 held Jewsheld 1920 , 32. ,

Beyond Beyond - citizens. Thecitizens. Hungarian 20, pg. 80, BZsL; Statement by Simon by BZsL;Statement 80, pg. 20, ord University, 1990), ord Nationalism: a Social and Political Political a and Social Nationalism: responsible for prolongingfor the responsible

90 91

essentially fed the narrative of fed narrative the

These didnot beliefs

195

the violence

promoting - 196. - Semitic Semitic

; CEU eTD Collection 96 95 64, pg. BZsL. 1920, February, PIH, 94 93 Moreover pre the Monarchy, theimpor especially ofunassimilated from Orthodox withthe theeastern arrival Jews provinces of promoted anJews entirelydifferent heavily inpre about differentorshownthat rituals.religious doctrineshas Hanebrink different featured ofEuroperevolution most in Further, withpolitica religion was imbued throughinter and assimilation Hungary.outsiders inChristian had abandonedJews religion Tobe many sure, their Hungary.But take alsoimportant to is s it surrounding of and conceptualization “Jew” inwartime counter the n be including Hungarian,”members, many Hungarian militia for not andcould were Jews asreferredall Galicians. Jews to member duringto several ofattacks attacksaccordingvictims statements whorecalled by militia Hungary conceptualizat ever fully beinto integrated

Hanebrink, Hanebrink, BZsL. 112, pg. 1920, May PIH, to 19, Schwartz József Statement by Lemburgerto Oszkar BZsL; by 81, Statement pg. 1919, September30, PIH, to Lowy Jakob Statement by 73. Ibid.,

Statement by Lipót Friedmann to PIH, February1920 5, PIH, to Lipót Friedmann Statement by It political themultiple andeconomic understand associations important to is s telling them that thes tellingviolence themthat toemigrate, was toforce all Jews intended or —

as foreign. inherently In Defense of Christian Hungary Christian of Defense In - - ions of Jews ions of war stereotypes about Jewish ritualsincludingwarabout stereotypesJewish theblood war Christian war tance of Jews’ religious differenceswastance ofJews’ insignificant. not

—

nationalist discourse, which arguednationalist discourse,among other that things . I . regardless of state citizenship orlengthregardlesscitizenship spent oftime ofstatein the Hungarian nation. -

marriage the over coursecentury. ofthe late nineteenth n other words, religious difference religious n other words, 94 93

No matter“had if they to always themselves professed This was reflected at inthecomments times This was ofmilitias reflected moral , 27 , eriously the position of Jews as religious aseriously ofJews the position

l meaning ofwar before theoutbreak well or - point 28. 90

- of - , pg. 35, BZsL; Unsigned Statement to PIH, PIH, to Statement BZsL; 35, pg. , Unsigned 95 view inHungarian society.

in Hungary - revolutionary - libel werelibel

was just not 96

But CEU eTD Collection terminology links the violent tactics of revolutionary bolshevism with “White” politics. “White” with bolshevism ofrevolutionary tactics violent the terminologylinks 99 Levéltár. Intézet the and Politikatörténelmi 98 97 violence, violence butmilitia uniformly these experienced not within was between or “White Bolshevism” and their attack families against and persecution. families themselves of andwhoa othertodefend deployed strategies number observers as ofsuch well as violence intheinterpretations by Jewis provided multifaceted identity often encounters militias naturewasinJews’ with ofthis manifested personsyour inthe streetasking and“what is religion themsimply,( ofaccounts dozens Hungarianevident is inthe ofmilitia nation. Thisshorthand type which identifiedasand shorthand someone anoutsider enemy ofpolitical ofthe existreligious independently didnot meanings which from“Jew” each other. served as a in Hungary was ethnic Hungarian losses. population anti (especially had higher Jews rates unassimilated) offertilityalso growth likely the fed declared,who want blood.” are “Here drinkChristian to Jews example, during a a militia referenced members shaped sometimes by during militia violence.and For attacks acts of 191 20, August name, unreadable and Krausz Dezső Statement by Robert Seton Watson, “Introduction,” in Jászi, Jászi, in “Introduction,” Watson, Seton Robert Levéltár and Zsidö collections the Budapesti of Terror White in found the maybe ofthis Manyexamples - Semitism, especiallySemitism, int The abovedescriptionmiliti provides ofthegroups discussion victim primary of By 1919,thecategory“Jew” andnationalists forChristian of many conservatives a complex category a complex 99

ttack, two menrecalledthatduringsoldier a hisattack, he wake territorial ofmajor

imbued with myriadimbued with Revolution and and Revolution 91

Counter 9, pg. 88, BZsL. 88, pg. 9, changes ( negative - 97 revolution

The concern that and consequentlyand ) h victims, their

political, ethnic,a vállas

, xxi ,

- x )?” xii. This This xii. 98

s stopping The nd a CEU eTD Collection SDP, January 1, 1920, pg, 134, S pg, PIL; 1920, January1, SDP, 101 War WorldFirst Europe’s Eastern Joachim and v Borodziej Włodzimierz Böhler, in Jochen War,” 100 nature.Semitic wereresponsible Militias cutting for downsynagogues and off burning have?” or“whereyouyour oreven,religion?” aregoing,mon how “Jew, much Jew?” city) Particularly and inthe seventh eighthofBudapest districts attacks that Budapesta in religion questioning person’s indicate viole street preceded and during incarceration by initiated militias also more violence “wild”and includedmassacres inpublic pogroms committed boththe laws, and ofnorms violations notrender do irrelevant.” norms retained argues, Gumz asJonathan their “norms salience,are f but of the atrocities by committed give mayimpression thatsuch an norms militias longer no basis ofestablishedabout violence norms survived whichhorrific The thewar. had nature violence inmultipletheir hierarchiesposition were by which shaped also Likewise, relatives’and and victims’ experiences their neighbors’ and interpretationsof peoplehumiliate which inways werethese in specific totheirhierarchies. position gendertheir violent acts and natureof des frequentlyreflectedan the explicit groups. often targeted Militias peopleoftheir class, onthe ethnicity, basis religion,

Report about László Okolicsányi to LászlóOkolicsányi about Report World duringFirst the Europe Eastern in ofOccupation the Norm Control: “Losing JonathanGumz, , militias and groups of younggroups of and streets, militias patrolled the passersby, asking “What men is 101 Attacks on Jews frequentlyAttacks onJews theiracts featured particular anti which demonstrated Because relationship complex ofbetween the and thestate, militias militia

systematic oftorture, forms beatingsassaultsfollowing committed and arrests

(Munich: de Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2014), 70. 2014), GruyterOldenbourg, de (Munich:

tatement by Mór by tatement

PIH, July 25, 1920, pg. 92, BZs pg. 92, 1920, July 25, PIH, 92

or theauthorities

Zsolnai to SDP, pg. 17, PIL. 17, pg. SDP, to Zsolnai

on Puttkamer eds., eds., Puttkamer on

(the Jewish Quarter(the Jewish of the L; Statement by György Csillag to Csillagto György by Statement . Manyreports ofthe of 100

ar more robust than morear

Legacies of Violence: Violence: of Legacies

formed the formed ire to ey do youey do

view

but nce. - CEU eTD Collection 107 106 105 term 104 103 6 pg. the War,” to Prior Hungary Jewsin 102 awas whorecalled sentimentbyLipót impossible, echoed Weisz inthe statement being fearintended toinstil inJews, buti when andwill, Horthy Miklós Fekete andareis Emperor Schwartz dead.” recalledvictims anti participate behind stood and butjust a people,notedthat dozen not thoughthreeanddid he oneofficers ofthe detectives and front protested, ordered topray ofthem.he him beatenby When in was more than afteransweringaffirmatively, pul theofficer atyou where the station “do him, commandingasked officerto pray?” the knowhowand Keleti and station sitting inthe waiting an taken area,into was office by a he detachment Intheir religion. aman onenamed report, things did militias wereexplicitly which the on humiliate victim intended thebasis to of that thehats questionwere in religious significanceFollowing of tothe victims. arrest, absence such claims of ofcapsloss Community oftheBudapest thedocuments in Jewish and legal office wantedgivingtaking their tothem, andthen hatit again. it back, recounted takingtheir askinghat around militias andthen withJews, playing t circumcised. were downtheir couldsee topull pants thatthepatrols told so ifthey were beards.

Un Kó Hugó Statement by BZsL. 60, pg. 1920, January 15, PIH, to Horváth Miksa Dr. Statement by the use Both Hungarian. “hats”just in and ofJews wordcoverings the for head isseparate no There C Rudolf Statement by Prónay, 146, “Paramilitary Violence,” Bodó, kaláp signed 102 .

Some young Some whowere acceptable unable men toprovide identifi

statement to SDP, June 12, 1920, pg. 370, PIL. 370, pg. 1920, June 12, SDP, statement to 103

Militias forciblyMilitias the removed - Semitic songs as have being“IISemitic sung,such don’t money, butsoon sernyegi to PIH, July, 12, 1920, pg. 19, BZsL. pg. 19, 1920, July, 12, PIH, to sernyegi hn to PIH, March 26, 1920, pg. 69, BZsL. 69, pg. 1920, 26, March hnPIH, to

in the Social Democratic Party’s legal aidoff

- 7, March 28, 1921, doc. 220051, 220051, doc. 1921, 28, March 7, t also clearly articulated the view that full assimilation t alsoclearly assimilation theview that articulated full watched, or supervised what was goingwatched, or whaton. supervised was A határban a halál kaszál a halál határban A Hugó Kóhn Hugó 93 led out led out hats

( kalap talith recalled thatafterarriving to

) of Jews

and

, 146; Joseph Marcus, “Galician Marcus, Joseph 146; , tefillin 148.1

105 . 104

, JDC. , The prevalence the of

ice

from acupboard Dr. Horváth Miksa strongly suggest

107 cation paperscation

This hem they if 106 song the

Some Some

CEU eTD Collection 111 110 109 the Primeto Polatsek Nándor and from Jénő inthe letter 108 bodies butalsohurttheir pridefront bybeating oftheir wives. themin destroyed or They ownership For Christians. to of theirmany not business did militias Jews, inthe town,looted Jews businesses andJewish triedtoforce totransfer the Jews Soroksar (now the 23 complaint byLipótIván Blau,he of recounted theactivity and Hejjas his which into soldiersanact humiliation.mouth spit, designed maximum for man who hadopen andpublisher formerlyahis been whose forced journalist was to Sándor Darvas,was while heby imprisoned detachment a militia wa he because how challenged it of ofinclusion only attacka was violation the itself case of unaccustomed to butaspeopleinterpreted asJews, with status just w the violence not afield they and and wereand friends prosperous, and their relatives experienced ethnicityreligion. Many and attacked who by were Jews inBudapest andfurther militias theyforcibly were expelled ormurdered. thatthe onlyvictims could protectthemselves doto was they thing toemigrate before can’t themse Magyarize bytold soldiers executing remain search a Jews they that“stinking stinking house Jews,

Statement by Alex Darvas, May 16, 1920, LP/HUN/5/45.i, LP/HUN/5/45.i, 1920, 16, May AlexDarvas, Statement by BZsL. 33, pg. 1920, 25, March PIH, attackfor Fried Ferencz Statement about n.d., PIH, to Lemberger Oszkar Statement by were echoed sentiments Similar BZsL. 137, pg. 1919, December 11, PIH, to Lipót Weisz Statement by In toidentify isalsopossible complaints, intersect it many the Ferenczwife his Fried and Mrs. Fried theattack in signaled that

whatregardedas they rd

district of broke Budapest), militia the windows whose district ofthe lves.”

social and gender and social 108

Some militiasSome articulated very this telling thought,

who were attacked Budapest. onthestreet in , butthe

degrading andinsulting behavior.Such was the

document 80, BZsL; add two moreexpulsion twore BZsL; add document 80, 109

couple’s

Minister, n.d., pg. 86, BZsL. 86, pg. n.d., Minister, hierachies

the beating LHA.

elevated

. According to the testimony. According tothe of was particularly notable social statu

ho were ion of class and class and ion of

s with another s with

detachment in 111 s and the s just their hurt

In another 110

Not CEU eTD Collection 18, 1920, pg. 364, 364, pg. PIL. 1920, 18, 112 Mrs. Hegedű econ were for days entire bruisedShe bodyalso asher was and complained swollen. that the injuries a pillow washer. Sheand ona screamed and couch consequentlywas beat with nearlysuffocated the soldiersher “went skirt”forcibly downher and while head held she and under legs along wi she wasviolence tosexualized subjected and alsobrutally was “without mercy” beaten Hegedüs discuss and to with thewhen into militia went case hershe was husband’s there, Mihály Hege Suchwa those whomilitias. could legal against helptake the action neighbors attackswho witnessed with communicatingcharged orwere ofviolence acts to especially wo themselves inthe clutchesofarmed detachments. an which option was and tomanypeasants unavailable also workers found who also prolonged providea avoid to means imprisonment totargetmotivated militias togain could certain butit inorder rewards, material people families. broke their promises,failing torelease aft their prisoners stole valuable money extorted personal possessions, exchange andoftenfreedom, for in

Statement by Jenő Berger to PIH, March 11, 1920, pg, 12, BZsL; Statement by Lipót Blau to SDP, May SDP, to Lipót Blau by BZsL;12, Statement pg, 1920, 11, March PIH, to Berger Jenő Statement by omic losses incurred by “breadwinner”omic losses incurred her as losing ( husband exacerbated Militias’ broadMilitias’

th another woman whose woman also husbandstatedth another wasinterned.that Mrs.Hegedüs 112 byattacking thesoldierup from was her. couldbed Shebadlyget hurtand not

Financial resourcescurseas oftenand tobea wealthy proved a blessing s, the experience of violence was not just aexperiencejust s, the not ofviolence was dű men was particularlymen was noteworthy troubling and families tovictims, and s, a mother of six and Mrs. Ircsike and Mrs. of whoses, amother six husbands were Mrs. interned.

because she because

- based violence against groups such asandbasedelderly groupschildren, such against violence the

( and her childrenand her 95

)

were ofthe because malnourished

or torture at the hands of militias, or ofmilitias, torture at the hands brief physical event er bounty wasbyer paid their kenyérkereső s thecase ofMrs. , butwas ). For). CEU eTD Collection 114 357, pg. 1920, May SDP, 11, 113 unsuccessfully brother toforce her basementHamburger from cell and upher membersNeumann’s hadmilitia thedrinking been brother, and heavily brought Mrs. a number sizable of According persons. of including toanumber reports one taken theKelenföldmilitary into Buda, barrackswhere in thedetachment of two.She, former functionarygovernment had during theKunfled who toVienna and unofficialactivities of statusmilitias and of rea of Mrs.Sándor Hamburger by theHejjas detachment. thr Hungary, inorder afterunsuccessfully tryingtointern tolocate him,the militia him Intargets. SzerenyiDr. thecase of at ateacher ahigh schoolMiskolcinnorthern in as well a subjectingaddition to families whole topersecution,th families and well as roles as the women completely werestrip forced to naked observer named husband’ heavilyeconomic deprivations experiencing shewas tied tothe as ofher aresult

Statement by Jénő Csillag to SDP, May 7, 1920, pg. 355, 355, pg. PIL. May 1920, SDP, 7, to Csillag Jénő Statement by to Hegedűs Mihály Mrs. by 345, pg. PIL; Statement May 1920, SDP, 4, to Végh István Statement by eatened his wife and youngeatened henotmaterialize. and should wife with hisinternment daughters sons, The infamous incidentviolence, most ofmilitia the“interrogation” was rape and

mothers, which highlight s state authorities s political internment not least of which ofwhich not least along withherBéla and neighborwereNeumann, by themilitia tricked IstvánVégh nature the stating highlighted sexualized ofthe attack, that invoked PIL.

used women and astheir children “real” pawns smoke to out

such norms as a woman’s exemption from violence. exemption such woman’s norms as a is

. However inareport corroborating event, of the

its its ed - exemplification in

the women’s commitment totheir husbandscommitment the women’s and - law and then and then law forced her frontforced tostripin ofthem 96 . Mrs. Hamburgerwas t . Yet he . of theblurred theofficial line between Neumann The case

ere is als o emphasized other

to have sexual interc to have sexual is important for a varietyis important evidence thatmilitias evidence he sister

and wasand had

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CEU eTD Collection 118 117 Hungary Terrorin 116 115 interpreted. castrationof The according Bélawas, Neumann brother tohis brother asreveals isimportant violence differences important sexualized inhow was However, theincident of by report the chargedwas groups withinvestigating usedby various and publicizing the received by theSocial Democratic Party during was hisincarceration and Labour Delegation.interviewed British Joint Neumann by the to and “Whore ofthe Romanians.” claimed whore”, that the menabusedherwhore”, by“Jewish “Bolshevik a calling her also forced for several todance naked ofthe soldiers. givenburner, reprieve butshe aftershe was themthatshe told able tohave relations. sexual Hamburger,genitalalready organs crushed had buthisphysically was been and he not her.also Anotherwas order prisoner brought upin to male her the same sexual violation, refused menultimatelycastrated Neumann when torape he bywhich lackaccess was her compounded clean clothingand of to visitors This act the handle ofwhipby soldiers a the Laterwith her infront ofthem. during her

Unsigned statements collected by SDP, n.d., pg. 349, PIL. 349, pg. n.d., by SDP, collected statements Unsigned State in Hungary,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, in Hungary,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, Vienna afterapproximately weeks shewas where ofincarceration, reportedly six ment by Mrs. Sándor Hamburger and Dr. Elizabeth Kunfi, n.d. LP/HUN/5/46/18.i. n.d. Kunfi, Elizabeth Dr. and Hamburger mentSándor Mrs. by The storyof Mrs.Hamburger

caused tohemorrhage her , 8 - 10.

115

Mrs. Hamburger alsoorderedwas ona naked stove tosit 117

thrown theDanube into accordi

and Mrs.

as onaand legs they laidher spread tableher apart. ’s torture

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Hamburger from brotheranother his and observer pp. 33 pp. JDC. 32, pg.

imprisonment shewas forciblywith penetrated 97

will reappear infurtherchapterswill 34, JDC; 34,

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Joint Labour Delegation, Labour Joint entually wa

All the while,Mrs. Hamb have sex with Mrs. withMrs. sex have

died of injuries sustained died of injuries

was menstruating. She was severe ng to information ng toinformation s released and escap and s released

Béla Neumann’s

vaginal infectionvaginal , inherentlya,

. In. addition to White Terror.White

The White The . bec 118

a r u ger s e ed

it CEU eTD Collection 120 119 the violencewas her unacceptable.) against emp was her despicable because of morallyaccording whereasImre wrong, Hamburger against theact Neumann, to Mrs. using univ and utterly However,Béla them. Dündek hisattack humiliate Neumann, like interpreted violencesexual notonly wasemasculate used againstbutalsomen inorder women, to ultimately sen were“sexual withhim. immorality” and mutilated committed was formilitia twodays, ofhisfeet was during which he soles downand time strapped the another women’s from violence exemption through onher an emphasis maternal role. own concerns. and interpreting treatment by her themilitias highlighted Mrs.Hamburger’s akey as status asa component mother incontextualizing demasculinization, whereasMrs. Hamburger’s brief his discussion of experience “barbaric”and by unnaturalact themilitias by very its natureofphysical

Statement by József Dündek to SDP, December 19, 1919, December 19, SDP, to Dündek József Statement by 348, pg. PIL. May 1920, SDP, 6, to Neumann Imre Statement by hasized different ofMrs. dimensions Hamburger’s statusshowwhy characterto or case, a man named József Dündek reported József thathe held named case, was bya aand man arrested ersal t on for internment after his arrest and torture, hisarreststoryt onforafter buthis and internment Imregendered affirm set to Neumann her which attackin sought terms

moral language. Itmoralwho he language. act notmatter was, did was thatthe itself only

role as(interpretationsrole amotherby internationalobservers

98 , an emphasis whichmirrored, anHamburger’s emphasis

pg, 115, pg,PIL. 115,

120

Dündek wasDündek not shows 119

that In CEU eTD Collection drinking and bya themilitias with the whiphandle. Many thestoriesof gruesome heavy torture most of involved the violenceandsome time to the penetration escalated onfor Hamburger went of Mrs. attacks and Hambur against Neumann violence.some of thecommonofmilitia dynamics First, the soldiers committing the The storyof well Mrs.HamburgerBéla as andas NeumannD

Illustration in Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy Fig. n Fig. 2.1 “Rape” Mihály Biró, 1920 Biró, “Rape” Mihály Fig.2.1

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ü ndek also reveal CEU eTD Collection Equality,’” ofPrison Reading Feminist Transnational Queer Evil 1987) Press, Minneapolis Terror the White Psychoanalyzing Bodies: 123 was activ group militia the same but likelydays, different on occurred incidents These BZsL. 94, pg. 1920, May 27, PIH, to Pfeffer by Béla 122 kaszál, halál a határban 1921,” 121 gruesometheir more oftorture acts well as illustrate displays outsideofpublic view were perpetrated “othering” tosuch violence. thosesubjected those incertain types of gamesformsgrouprituals and ofhazingwhichoftentocement especially serve bonds of theblows. Because Neumannhad lun theminabiggerthe soldiers stoodaround circleforced each and hit other. to them went themselves aheadand and thenforced them beat tostand inacircle theJews while wereand toaroom taken recalledyoung by being after seized and some that men soldiers, four he Jewish other wereIn complaintanother (notheabove), by Dezsőto Neumann inebriated. relation he took place at a to danceand hiscaptors, a for In rape,amusement tohis inaddition for he thecase the militias. was ofDündek, forced Hamburger story.

Bodó, “The Perpetrators oftheTerror White Perpetrators “The Bodó, in statement recounted was A 90. story pg. similar 1920, May 26, PIH, to Neumann Dezső Statement by 1919 in Violence Hungary, Paramilitary oftheTerror: White Perpetrators “The Bodó,

(New York: Random House, 2008) and Melanie Richter Melanie and 2008) House, Random (New York: (paper

International Feminist Journal of Politics of Journal Feminist International

presented at The Violence of War conference ofWar Violence The presentedat 122

restaurant/pub ( restaurant/pub

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institutions such as themilitaryinstitutions while simultaneously orprisons his chapters on Transdanubia on hischapters

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vendéglő . , trans. Stephen Conway (Minneapolis: Un (Minneapolis: Conway trans.Stephen ,

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See also Klaus also See Thewelweit, of violence 100 123

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CEU eTD Collection 15, 1920, pg. 300, 300, pg. PIL 1920, 15, 124 aoccupation butin lowlevel which duringjob happened theCommune been tohave that theyhad nottaken relative way, part ortheir ina i.e.inan substantive “exposed” Pest Jewi government. duringevidence as involvement theCommune in theycommunist had that no ill whatoutlined and inpolitics, theygettingmany instead of done involved had sighted not taken part orinthe“proletarian in“the people Commune” dictatorship.” Sometimes wassome it some common strategiesdeployed. families andfaced relativesof inmounting themselves defenses or there lovedones, were necessary But against tojustify Jews. despite the attacks revolutionaries, meant that religiouseconomicmeanings and imbuedinthe persecution ascommunists. of individuals Evidenceactual of surefire oneself and from todefend violence strategy persecution by themilitias. ideologywith the state’s combined expanded emer Defensive Strategies

ness Statement of Janka Steininger to PIH, May 18, 1920, pg. 121, BZsL; Mrs. Gábor Kovács to SDP, March March SDP, to Kovács BZsL; Gábor 121, pg. Mrs. 1920, May PIH, to 18, Steininger StatementJanka of

(often The types firstwas ofthesecertain thedenial strategies ofpolitical activity. For The power relatively of their unchecked militias, sh Communityand Party. theSocial Democratic

a general anda morein politics of havingspecifically denial part taken having 124 the Spanishfluepidemic

This denial ofwrong ; Statement by Mrs. Jozsef Igert to SDP, March 16, 1920, pg. 304, 304, pg. PIL. 1920, 16, March SDP, to Igert Jozsef Mrs. by Statement ; “ revolutionary

determiningan individual’s

”

political activity necessary not was the tojustify

- doing ran through the documents collected throughby ran thedocuments doing the ), wartime imprisonment, or wartime Moreove 101

category “Jew” of gency that meant there powers was no r , the inseparable political, social,, theinseparable political, Jewishness wasJewishness allthat was difficulties andtheir victims multifaceted and Sometimes people pointed out people Sometimes

political by counter

flexible flexible imprisonment -

CEU eTD Collection 127 four. and three in chapters detail 126 PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 296, pg. 1920, 14, March SDP, to Nagy 125 prohibited according terms tothe specific Social Democraticalso indicategrudging thatatleast was recognition there a Party that although had effects it specific the for misdirected revolutionariesthe victims ofrevenge, would be that anti but collapse of the in Commune ofmilitia victims Jewish violence from politics communist after todisconnect Jews the nevertheless tied themto work, and Party Social Democratic membership Red Army), but least willingly,although weresome confessed they that community’s inthatfrequentlydeny people government havingpart taken inthe Kun (at the documents collectedby Party the Jewish theSocialthoseof from Democratic differ tha union membershipfound cards inhomearguing searches, were these legal, activities that and statemilitias authorities, ofa such asnewspaper social thepossession or democratic nationaliz

Ablovatski, “The 1919 Central European Revolutions,” 484. Revolutions,” Central European 1919 “The Ablovatski, issu The Bercze János by 311, Statement pg. PIL; 1920, 22, March SDP, to Boromissza Jénő Mrs. Statement by t is theyt is andnotpunishable were offenses. therefore were not“crimes” Abolovatski argues Community efforts by and Pest Jewish thatthe leaders the anti e of the counter ofthe e ed under Kun. .” - communist 127

they But tacittothe acknowledgement this not limited Jewish communit was did outline politicaldid outline activities such election as membership, union - revolutionary regime’s conceptualization of “crime” will be discussed in morein discussed will be “crime”of conceptualization regime’s revolutionary

125 violenceexpected, couldeven be tobe was ifit supposed

the

People often“evidence” decried the of

August, “ a were 1919 ideals of

negotiated the between

Károlyist diverse and divided group anddiverse 102

government which which tacit acknowledgment that

wereall technicallylegal bu conscripted Peidl .

- Jewish violenceJewish was

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. Complaints made tothe . Complaints B into the the into olshevism usedbyolshevism 126 Hungarian

However, t y

CEU eTD Collection Alleged Existence of White Terror in Hungary in Whiteof Terror Existence Alleged 129 and Revolution Jászi, revenge. simple by fuelled response reasonable a beyond moved quickly impulses violent that the 128 wasintersection andJew andinvigorate usedtoconfirm between leftist Thisfactsuch categorization. a simplistic made thesecond each case since of improbable were significant bySemitism attempting todisconnect from the Jewishness otherwere markerswhich broader solidarity b differentiate other persecutedgroups whichstymied themself from construction of the the door open political persecution toviolent required forevery toclearly some person andborn thoseJews engaged andthoserole whodidnot,namely revolution, inthe communist Hungarian apolitical of and groups communists including leftists, twocategories:into who those them. conceptualization of much narrowerby approach c legitimacyas alegitimate ofviolence political instrument, leaders Jewish instead tooka persecution, Jews. especially of violence which asignificant was a predictableclear, reaction, advocate although tobedidnot they or for encourage Entente.

Letter from General Reginald Gorton to High Commissioner Ho Thomas Commissioner High to Gorton Reginald General Letterfrom anti that acknowledged also Jászi many

This approach divided thevictims ofcounter ultimately 128

for for However the recognitionthat violence and leftists revolutionaries against was Je Counter w militia members. waspropositions Themilitia impossible as first there ofthese s

who supported moreandwho supported goals democraticsocialist etween ofmilitia victims violence.It delegitimizing anti alsoentailed - revolution Hungarian

, 156 , in anyactivity. legalin political However, implicitly leaving hallenging

Bolshevik violence was “inevi was violence Bolshevik deserved persecution, adeserved group any which persecution, included number 129

Jews as communistJews destabilizing factor, exacerbated relieved rather than the -

159. This wasrather becausechallenging than the

, pgs.3

specifically 103 - non 4.

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18 , 1920, 1920, , - - CEU eTD Collection 130 author(s) wrote: Committee’sMarcus, Distribution the American Joint r written inMay 1920 failed aidor include toprovide themintheir advocacy themwith In a efforts.letter feltmany thattheyJews “foreign” ofthese had been vulnerability butasnon Jews by highlighting theironlyas statusnot This strategy andblame differentiation heightened foreign of descent consequently poor revolution and into thestate’s trea which members of community the Jewish soughtto tactic demonstrated the inter and sojourningforeign unsuccessful, attempts todeflect refugee as their did of revolution the incitement onto not carryall theother meanings attached toit community asseparate, topromote Jewishness politically category insignificant mythology

Ablovatski, “The 1919 Central European Revolutions,” 485. Revolutions,” Central European 1919 “The Ablovatski, they common with us, ascommon withus, we arethieves, impostors, swindlers, rogues brought country; tothis the misfortune have that the Hungarian Jews nothing we be should as persecuted they was admit thatwho it thePolish openly Jew enemies, andselfishness made whothrough order egotism [that] ofusvictims in you,and intrigants Hungarian from whosurround you theriskabout from sincerun oursorrow, the openly flatterers sowe doing cannotyouAs we Roumanians, come Russians, Galicians toand Poles, [Jews] tell byAttempts leaders Jewish apart topull

of of definedas Judeo

- Bolshevism, which madeBolshevism, more it difficult Hungarian Jewish for the by patriots - primarily Jews, (formerly)born from Austrian Galicia. interned “Poles, Russians, Roumanians, Galicians” to Joseph Roumanians, Galicians”to Joseph “Poles, Russians, interned

- community divisions b community divisions ,

and foreign who Jews, 104 . differentiate Jews between Hungarian

the Judeo etweenprominent as many Jews

abandoned by Hungarian Jews, who Jews, abandoned by Hungarian could be blamed for Hungary’scould beblamed for epresentative inHungary, the - Jews who areJews ourmortal Bolshevik myth proved - tment at treatytment negotiations. born

Jews’ Jews’ - citizens. Incitizens. 1921, (these (these political political 130

that did

This ,

CEU eTD Collection May 19, 1920, pg. 112, 112, pg. BZsL. 1920, May19, 134 under ( census military a undertook thestate where Germany, Monarchyand 133 132 different states. fromthose ethnicallyall Jewish are the authors isthat whole as a letter ofthe implication letter Thoughthe 131 as shirkersJews or and reinforce traitors Jewish emphasizingJews, wartime serviceawaycouldwartime alsochip at stereotypes the of Hungariana counterto nation as persecution. pointed outtheirinjuriesandtopreventattacks wartime disabilities triedtouse or their medals orhonors whilecompleting they earned military service. used during war the of legal bothorganizations’ and was it offices emphasize loyaltyHungariancommon inthe tothedocuments was nation. Thisstrategy would er Jews wereresponsible andtherefore for revolution marginalizing the that underscoredresponsible forrevolution thatultimatelyfact who was the it theidea Jews in undermine functi its Jew ingeneralJews as Ablovatskiobserves, because The strategy ofdifferentiating

Stat Klein Revolutions, Central European 1919 “The Ablovatski, 220567, doc. 1920, May16, Marcus,” Joseph Mr. Jewto “Letterfrom Budapest = - representation in the military. in the representation ement of Lipót Klein to PIH, January 15, 1920, pg. 65, BZsL; Statement of József Schwartz to PIH, PIH, to Schwartz József of 65, pg. BZsL; Statement 1920, January15, PIH, to Lipót Klein ofement Bolshevik of simplicity, ‘exceptions’ inits lies totheruleadmission would and the - The second strategycommonlyusedusingrecords was to militaryservice and theyeventually will letusbe persecuted and interned.( comeexpressions from thestaff ofthe Pejšová 134 adicate revolutionary the andall. threatonce for , “Among the Nationalities,” 67 Nationalities,” the“Among ,

states that the writers of the letters are Poles, Russians, Roumanians, and Galicians, the Galicians, and Roumanians, Russians, Poles, are writersthe letters of the that states This strategy patriotismand intendedwas loyalty todemonstrate the 133

Many their outlined service wartime including men records the , especially by Hungarian Jews onality.”

132

between Jews alsobetween likely Jews of all intensified persecution

An admission that some Jews but not other butnot JewsAn admissionthatsome Jews were the narrative For disloyalty and ofthe Jews. ofleftists - 69. This was also used by Jews in the Austrian half of the halfofthe Austrian the in wasJews usedby also This 69. 105

likelya strategy continuation of a similar [Hungarian Joint Distribution Committee] Joint [Hungarian

” 485. ” their serviceMany atalsotheir the battlefront. masculinity, “the strength of an association such strength as“the ofan association

to counter shirking accusations of

Judenzählung

loyalty

sic.

, or all eliminating

and byextension ) folder 151.4, JDC. folder 151.4, ) to ) confirm Jewish 131

)

CEU eTD Collection PIH, November 17, 1919, pg. 54, BZsL; Statement by Lázár Hecht to PIH, April 7, 1920, pg. 56, BZsL; 56, pg. 1920, April 7, PIH, Hecht to Lázár BZsL; by pg. 54, Statement 1919, November 17, PIH, 1920, February 24, SDP, to Szücs Sándor Mrs. Statement by 139 138 1918 Tschechoslowakei, der in Opferdiskurs Stegmann, Natali 2014); Waran Great The under was disability generally that shown has Europe Researchthroughout 137 136 135 attacks. Similarly interpreted his “every isdisabled.” Jew Endre hisple Katz, ineffective that he was beaten because with various He was instruments he themby triedarguing Jewish. tostop recalledKatz stopped by inthestreet was thathe around andwas some officers midnight gallantry his during anotherLipótgiven thathethe bronze Klein had and stated been silverfor medal Ino role. during oftheI that commune, also thewhole proved period ill…. was soldier forand four youwith theseI words,To are “where going this I Jew?”. that confirmed served as such: “…two officers departmentinvestigations ofstopped meand the me insulted of national belonging.In o

Statement by Mór Zsolnai to SDP, November 6, 1919, pg. 17, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 17, 1919, 6, November SDP, Zsolnaito Mór by Statement BZsL.63, pg. 1920, 10, March PIH, to Katz StatementEndre of wouldbe. pension muchtheir how determine to percentages assigned were withdisabilities Veterans’ P to Lipót Klein Statement of 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 17, 1919, 6, November SDP, Zsolnaito Mór by Statement disability ofan loyalty indication as This strategywas accessible only tomen,butinany was,case it 139

An exception was

in regard toavoiding orhaltingviolence street it as a confirmation of confirmation asit a sixty percent (60%) sixty percent other d the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918 Origins Humanitarianism, of the d

cases as

a half years,II a half wassoldier, and thata not inthe Red Commune had 21 months in front in 21 months Kriegsdeutungen Kriegsdeutungen

to stop onthebasis ofhisdisabilit to stop , ne such request,ne theplaintiff recountedhis arrests the story of as 138 military

IH, January 15, 1920, pg. 65, 65, pg. BZsL. 1920, January15, IH, Here, thestrategy backfired

the case of

disabled. service the stereotype asof shirkers Jews -

Staatsgründungen Staatsgründungen - 1948

line service duringwar. the

and service István which Végh and/or military disability 137

(MünchenOldenbourg 106

- 1924

pg. pg. , Katz claimed, Katz that -

Sozialpolitik. Der Helden Sozialpolitik. 281 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University (Cambridge: Cambridge

because

, led . PIL; Statement by Adolf Adolf by Statement PIL;

For example,For inthe case of implied

one soldiers ofthe - - Verlag, 2010 Verlag, assessed. See Bruno Cabanes, Cabanes, Bruno See assessed.

rather thaninterpreting did nothing toquell 136

and cowards that

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militias instead militias -

und und Halper to to Halper 135

to retort .

, CEU eTD Collection 140 BZsL. 112, pg. 1920, May 19, PIH, to Schwartz József of BZsL; 107, pg. 1920, Statement 22, February PIH, to Schlesinger Oszkar of 105, pg. BZsL; Statement February 1920, PIH, 5, to Saphir Frigyes Neumann Simon of BZsL;Statement 70, pg. 1920, January4, PIH, Kohn to Jakob by BZsL;Statement 59, pg. date,no PIH, to Hoffman Otto Statement by attacks becauseactivities, andostensibly or their torture their sometimes veryexistence large In HungarianChristian justification men. their groups while simultaneouslyaffirming supremacy ofeconomically the prosperous used terror, and topunish marginalize bribery extortion certain violence,torture, territorial revolution, dismemberment, someone the orsomething problemsfor which Hungary defeat, beset inthe wake of ofHungary’scontext and wartime of Hungary reflectedbothlonge which Conclusion regarded to the H people’s themselves centeredproving attempts todefend perpetually on themselves loyal there betweenarelationship wasclose the would notwithstanding,Exceptions his military potential that

Statemen cache prove to Militias wereMilitias ofset composedmenwho ofideasa embraced about future the ideal ungarian nation

militias were ofthestate.agents militias t by István Végh to Végh István t by of stereotypes, prejudices stereotypes, theirasdeserving whichidentified victims of of

service

this strategythis be ef ,

he parol was fective. Yet deployed people the strategies reinforced theidea that - state and in conformity with its laws,thusimplying its and inconformitystate with that

would wo SDP, May 4, 1920 pg, 345, 345, pg, PIL. May 1920 SDP, 4, there was ed in order to take care daughtered totake inorder ofhissickand wife postwar rk . In. statement hisafter he recounted that recounting

r term prejudices aswell asterm theshorter militar simply

counter

to PIH, May 30, 1920, pg. 91, BZsL; Statement of BZsL;Statement of 91, pg. 1920, May30, PIH, to 107 experience. Searching to blame andexperience. Searchingpunish toblame y

s of violence, invoked members as of militia no way topredictno if

occupation and impoverishment, militias occupation

- revolution

ary state and the militias as militias aryand the state and

when when

this this

people strategy . 140

CEU eTD Collection the projectcounter of extending intimate themost into spaces oflife chapter for the beyond bothmoved show,thefar ranks militias will desire the of atstood the heart of Furthermore, role inotherTerror dimensions ofWhite counter and the diversity and functions activities political in life, oftheir theya very play important violence during andearly persecution the interpretedcontemporaries thebroader one history by is of dimension political of Inmilitias. underminedeither ratherthan re case, militias not bereined which noreliminate neither was inby thestate strong enough stable to weretheir themilitias excesses. others, For wild,uncontrollable could elements which as they vital state statefunctions protection performed and received the twowasambiguous.For deeply were some, essentially themilitias agents ofthestate multiple in their positions relatives’ interpretations experiences and ofviolencewere were shaped and diverse by targetedmilitias varietyawidereasons, and for a ofpersons wide variety their of victims’ threatened andHungary’s inte domestic Theactivities formationand of their militias andrelationship state as power to wereMilitias and abettedviolence therelationship intheir between by thestate, militias areamilitias goodentry for point understanding counter - revolution. hierarchies. - revolution

ary politics: revenge politics: ary the next and justice. As rnational security.rnationalmembers But of asthe just counter 108

and bringingand t

- revolution - revolutionary violence. inforced state authority.inforced state ary he broader population into he into broader population

the period. set of

from for prosecution Yet because of Yet issues which issues

CEU eTD Collection 1 forward and the fullyoccupied kitchen the room andmade and servant’s useof forward,time tobeconsidered wanted she simpl denied heroutbreak Mrs.Csizmás servicescommunism, of declared from this and that counter thattheycommunists, make her would stand emergedagainst if her, there or any whosaw the against conduct werewitnesses one her Soldiers’ ofthetold Council that even members the slightest if proof harassment“in of spite be shesuffered andasking satisfaction”courtbecause“retaliation for theand humiliation of council her dismissed after failing toproduce“sufficient evidence,” nowwas butshe bayonets” and view inpublic addresslocal Workers’ take totheeighth district to “between her and Soldiers’ Council, of constantly with threats;at and least insultingof her onceto sending Red soldiers well sister as Mrs.Csizmás’ and brother named Csizmás, Ernyey. as Mrs.cleaning János her József She accused woman, Mrs. InAugust, theBudapest 1919, received a prosecutor’s office awidow from denunciation another.” overthrows class one which by violence act of an insurrection, is an revolution A magnanimous. and restrained courteous, kind, temperate, so gentle, and leisurely so refined, so be cannot embroidery or doing picture, a or essay, painting an writing or party, a dinner is not revolution “A

Mao Mao Tse “Burning Out this Nest of Serpents” Nestof Out this “Burning - revolutionary. Mrs. Ernyeyrevolutionary. Mrs. - tung, “Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan,” March 1927. March Hunan,” in Movement Peasant ofthe Investigation an on “Report tung,

during t

the Domestic Sphere the Domestic Chapter Chapter Three also he ofthe months Commune ing a gentlewoman.” aing - complained while that alittle after just the in - 109 law, of law, of in front ofa as a revolutionarycourt in front

e a tenantapartment.Shee went ofthe taking inher upresidence apartment; : Counter

Furthermore, saidthat she . According toher, the - revolution in revolution

Mao Tse Mao

; it ; - tung 1

CEU eTD Collection 3 Prosecutor, 2 policy priorities of regimes different their daily into lives, and demonstrates common people of confirmed she paid for her lodgings. while in prison, and they include a small receipt provi confirming that Mrs. Csizmás made threatening statements against the bourgeoisie, even violation of personal liberty. The records of the court provide witness statements year loss of rights for incitement and an additional month and Budapest. The court eventually sentenced Mrs. Csizmás to ten months in prison and a five February 1920, the two women were arrested and taken to the Szerb utca prison in against them be sped up in order to ensure that the court could pr was planning on moving to Transylvania permanently, and she asked that the proceedings and told the state police that according to information she had acquired, the Csizmás family which theotherhouse tenantsin could verify. proclaimed s extreme class fordistrict, whichshe herself had requisitioned movedshe stated1919, Mrs.Csizmás thatan May outto thefirst in apartment of in in on thedecision house oftrustee themain ( kitchenware for oftwenty and which bedding, anamount a she rent paid crowns, based

Ibid. Criminal Case against Mrs. József Csizmás, 1919, HU BFL HU 1919, Csizmás, József Mrs. Caseagainst Criminal -

political upheaval law, whohad notbeen intheupresidence. apartment, previously took living Finally,

Thecomplaint natureMrs. Ernyey’s of In another letter later that year, Mrs. Ernyey once again recounted her e Budapest Fővárosi Levéltár (hereafter abbreviated BFL). abbreviated (hereafter Levéltár Fővárosi Budapest

on b oth sidesofthe political divide in Hungary

truggleagainst thebourgeoisie

. The complaint . The 3

házbizalmi 110

. Together Mrs. Csizmás and her Mrs.. Together relatives Csizmás offers a glimpseoffersa at demonstrates 2

- VII.18.d

interpreted theideologicalgoals and ded by Mrs. Csizmás as evidence that ).

Mrs. Csizmás’ sister andMrs. Csizmás’ brother

andchoicest used the threats - 1919 ten days for the charge of the

the extent towhich the extent osecute the family.In - 13/0084, Records of the Royal Recordsofthe Royal 13/0084,

the

personal the extent to the extent xperience ized

nature - - CEU eTD Collection multiple articles on paramilitary violence by Béla Bodó enumerated in the previous chapter. previous enumerated in the Bodó Béla by violence paramilitary on articles multiple 1918 Politics, Hungary’sDomestic on Impact Their and Refugees Hungarian Uprooted: War The World I of Effects The 1919 kérdesei “Az erőszak Politics Consolidation the of and Bethlen Lorman, Thomas 2007); ScienceMonographs, Social Ormos, Mária 1919 Miklós Horthy, Horseback, on Admiral 1919 Magyarországon, története ( konsolidáció Bethleni és a Ellenforradalom 5 1870 1999), 4 I War World fundamentally re were seeking period to Hungarians,vyingall ofthe especiallybecause regimesfor inthe early supremacy post demonstrates, specifically suchas militias, Jews targetedbyand the leftists. political struggle orwere or asgroups politicians, whoof soldiers those notmembers from the everyday exp and military affairs. negotiat groupshow differentand includingtheworking women parti classes only system ontherole judicial counter played the inthe retribution intense period most and of terror,especially 1919and 1921,the between spaces had ordered and Hungarian political social life which

On the historiography of the counter of historiography Onthe Romsics, Ignács - 1940 39

, although often overlooked, Soviet regimeSoviet Studies of Studies - ed thepolitical transformations 53; 53;

(Bu

under the counter - Gábor Gábor Hungary in the Age of the Two World WarsWorldTwo 191 the of the Age in Hungary 1921 dapest: Central Eu Central dapest: the White Terrorthe White fromordinarycannot the daily lives of bedetached Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary

( Gyáni, New York: Social Science Monographs, Brooklyn College Press, 1983); and the and 1983); Press, College Brooklyn Monographs, Science New Social York: the 5

This has made the crises following World War IThis hasmade separate War thecrisesWorld following appear disrupted White TerrorWhite - eriences of 1920 The Parlor and the Kitchen the and Parlor The

- - ban. Vörösterror ban. r 1921 ( 1921 - o revolutionary system. pean Press, 2002), 2002), Press, pean

property and relations established social - revolution and White Terror see for example, Erzsébet Andics, Andics, example,for see Erzsébet Terror White and revolution Budapest: Akadémia Kiádó, 1962); Thomas Sakmyster, Thomas1962); Sakmyster, Kiádó, Akadémia Budapest: those those . (Boulder, CO: East European . (Boulder,

were important sitesofcounterwere important and - Budapest: Szikra,1946); Dezső Nemes, Dezső Szikra,1946); Budapest: 1944 ( 1944

counter of Hungary. people — 111 Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1994); 1994); Monographs, CO: European East Boulder, fehérterror,” fehérterror,” , trans. Tim Wilkinson (Budapest: Corvina; Osiris, Osiris, Corvina; (Budapest: Wilkinson trans.Tim , Counter 54.

for centuriesfor who werewho involved inthe notactively - Housing and Domestic Culture in Buda in Culture Domestic and Housing revolution have focused on high politics haverevolution focusedpolitics onhigh

Finallycomplaint sheds light the not

- 4 Revolutionary Hungary, 1920 Hungary, Revolutionary - - 1945 shape or reconstruct, not just the just orreconstruct, not shape Múltunk - revolution but also illuminates illuminates revolution also but , trans. Brian McLean (Boulder, CO: (Boulder, McLean trans.Brian , .

4 Monographs, 2006); Péter Konok, Konok, Péter 2006); Monographs,

It also Yet, astheabove example 3 (2010): 72(2010): 3 - revolutionary struggle shows cipated inand cipated Az ellenforr Az

hierarchies - 91; István I. Mócsy, Mócsy, I. István 91; p olitical that d that

- 1925: István István 1925: Hungary’s Hungary’s adalom adalom pest, pest, omestic

which - CEU eTD Collection New York, 1789 New York, Parlo The communities building classes, working Budapest’s among especially that as heshows Budapest, 6 retroactively against her depe authorities housing, and she illumina and militias regardingaccess housing; to instrum relations throughof domestic“political” laborersfor activities purges retroactive d yearsthe early counter of the how the classthese state elitesand reconquered andintimate middle familiar spaces in communi but alsothe apartment chapter, sphere thedomestic notonly isconceptualized apartmentfamily as the or home, duri instead refocuses onthe socio sphere. political or

This broader definition is supportable according to historian Gábor Gyáni’s of history Gábor historian according to definitionsupportable is broader This imensions oftheimensions counter ng the early yearsngearlythe counter the of

This chapter entalization ofentalization violencecounter and te these actions Csizmás’s three were dimensions. by theneed for driven r and the Kitchen rand ties where lived,worked, ontheir people carried daily and lives. , although Ernyey aggressive Mrs. regarded themas self

der, butalso domestic the social the andeconomic spheres, whichincluded stretched beyond stretched and transitional

in the broader domestic space

as crimes - 1860 nded on Mrs. Ernyended on claimed tohave claimed

(New1986). Knopf, York:

therefore , and her abilityand to courts , touse the ház , 137 ,

- the walls of the apartment for cultural and environmental reasons. Gyá reasons. environmental culturalfor and wallsthe apartment theof , courtyards,even smallerand and neighborhoods the revolution in domestic sphere: revolution domestic in the useof

- justice as away ofrestoring pre 139. See 139. and of thethreat anduse - - revolution

pivots awayactivities of from militiaspivots theWhite and political struggle which unfoldedpolitical struggleinthedomesticwhich sphere

been authorizedbeen tooccupy thespace by Soviet also Christine also Stansell, y - revolutionary period.of For this purposes the ’s conceptualization of Mrs. Csizmás’s actionsconceptualization ’s .

To this end, end, To this .

112 The case against Mrs. Csizmás helps against The Mrs.Csizmás case - revolutionary politics

this chapterthis violence state by the City of Women: Gender and Class in and Gender Women: Cityof seekher losses revenge for - Soviet social and property socialSoviet and

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CEU eTD Collection under the under ReformHungary in Social and Policy, Social Policy, Poverty of History An Integrative Rule: and Provide o conflicts political socio life,”the public in ofupsecurity built withillusions the fully and accorded protection, intimacyand provided life that domestic of private island “secure as a sphere domestic their construct intentionto 39 1989), Columbia University, CentralEurope, East on (New Institute York: 8 justice. History of 7 whereconfronted the social they ofstate andmaterial implications ideologyand policy. home wasHungarian microcosm For of society. itwas many theprimary people, place sphere the concentrationand transformationof ofclass wealth, relations. Republic an revolutionary of criminalization politicized authorities’s acts theSoviet delegitimized wayregime elects inwhichone deal to the with 1922. these acts offenses acts under l committed the they during suffered means forseek to individuals r the throughcourt system, the demonstratesrevolution thedomestic in that sphere,Mrs.Csizmás case against the everyday live Thethe threat case experiencepeople’s also that shows of(or of) violencepermeated

Gábor Gyáni, Gábor Howard

Transitional just was an important part legacy because of assault animportantonthe this was policies ofKun’s the Althoughan violence ofthe wasimportant theusedimension counter of

G. Brown, “Robespierre’s Tail: The Possibilities for Justice after the Terror,” afterthe JusticeTerror,” for Possibilities The Tail: “Robespierre’s Brown, G. Habsburg Monarchy Habsburg (Winter 2010): 504. See also pages also 504.See 2010): (Winter or as ofdecrees theresults or by a passed now in this wayin this d its ideologicald its as foundations, as well Women as Domestic Servants: the Case of Budapest 1890 Budapest of Case the Servants: Domestic as Women s

as domestic spacesofas ideological arenas domestic became struggle. andclass f the day crept into the domestic sphere and exploded. See Susan Zimmermann, SusanZimmermann, See exploded. and sphere the into domestic crept day f the the communist government.communist the ofThis involved conceptualization the was a central element of transitional justice acentralbetweenwas 1919 and element of transitional ice

(Budapest: CEU University Press, 2011) Press, University CEU (Budapest: aws asgovernment of theKun which the torevolutionaryis iscommon political transitions,

etribution and revengeetribution andfor the unter - revolutionary

18 - 21 of this dissertation for more discussion of transitional oftransitional morediscussion for dissertation ofthis 21 113

legacy

its regime provided anotherregime provided effective - defunct government

decrees of predecessor. its criminal .

loss of status and property ofstatusloss - 1940

regarding private property,regarding private - 41; Despit 41;

, trans. András Vitányi Vitányi trans.András , rather than political The domestic The . Canadian Journal Journal Canadian 7 e the bourgeoisie’s e thebourgeoisie’s

Adjudicating The counter -

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CEU eTD Collection 11 10 War.” World the Second to Century Nineteenth Labo of the Emancipation in “A Bódy, Delay Zsombor also See 12. 1998), Press, University Princeton NJ: Hanák, workedas ho who servants domestic female includes just but this 900,000 populationofapproximately a had which1910 by in theworkforce capital, female 9 andHungarian thecounter Republic, Soviet life. the“tradithe autumn of1918 upset and ona reinforced daily divisions in social outbreakrevolution basisbefore long the of affirminggender hierarchy. relations were clas for bourgeois defining divided fromwas politics afiction essential thatlabor ignored these how domestic managers ( housekeepersservants, ( cooks,nannies, and publicwas spheres. because they employed This do were as domestic laborers: home and and theworkplace, nodistinction, thus howeverartificial, theprivate between developments. ofthousands For ofpeople, tens noseparation therebetween was the ever it of the household.disconnected broader Norfrom was andpoliti social sphere women’s, different was inthedaily asthey than involved management were less never domainofexclusive women, the although relationship thedomestic men’s to high particularly women politics, ofall social However, the strata. domestic and those groups relationshipswho have historically between, easily in notbeen visible sphe

According to Gyáni, the number of domestic servants in 1920 was about 51,000 and composed 2/5 2/5 ofthe composed and was 51,000 about 1920 in servants ofdomestic number the Gyáni, to According

Gyáni, Gyáni, Gyáni, 11 ur: Bourgeois Paternalism, Workers’ Insurance and Labour Law in Hungary from the End ofthe End the from Law in Hungary Labour and Insurance Workers’ Paternalism, ur: Bourgeois re participationinthe counter reveals popular

Moreover, though all regimesMoreover, thoughall sphereways, thedomestic shape inparticular the The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Budapest and Vienna and Budapest Cultural of Historythe on Essays Workshop: the and Garden The Analyzing political andideological strugglesas inthe theydomestic unfolded The Parlor and the K the and Parlor The Women as Domestic Servants Domestic as Women házfelügyelő , házmester

itchen 10

The domestic sphere wasThe domesticaspace sphere where

, 54 , , 39 , - 56; 115 56; , házbizalmi tions” undergirding Hungarian social and political and Hungariantions” undergirding social - 41.

Social History Social házvezetőnő - s identity, 117. 114 - usemaids. Gyáni, usemaids. revolutionaryregime after thatcame it,

). 9

That domestic life was somehow - revolution, aswellactivities of, as the

social hierarchies,

), porters ( 34, no. 2 (May 2009): 204 (May 2 no. 2009): 34, Female Domestic Servants Domestic Female portas ), and caretakersand ), or

many many as well as for as well - 230.

sphere was confronted cal

(Princeton, , 5; Péter Péter 5; , mestic CEU eTD Collection of cases flooding the justice system against civilian populations. populations. civilian against system justice flooding the ofcases 12 participation in justice, competing picture, perspectives eachmultiple theythe meaning complement by of showing on other difference perspectiveme of documents primarilyreflect the perspective of state and militiasagents theWhite (which targeted. actedas often ofthestate) These the opposite perspective,revealing t their interpretation ofthe August of1921. end and 1919 the procedures todeal the instituted with they onthe defendant, insight offer very little inpart owing counter to weaknesses. The for case records many ofthe Community.Democratic Pest Jewish and Eachgroup the sources Party hasits of officeas well as statements primarilycases throughadjudicated thecriminal uses in 1918,andespecially during theshort sphereeconom ofpolitical and an arenacounter of reasons Therefore, ofpressing andbecause spherewas problems. practical thedomestic explicitly attempted totransforma

This was in spite of the regime's extension of military jurisdiction in order to keep pace with the number number with the pace keep to in order militaryjurisdiction of wastheextension regime's of spite This in political worldview. Thepolitical worldview. statements the in In order to explore the complexities ofIn domestic countercomplexities toexplore the order

and interpretations - experiences of revolution of the revolutionaryof regimes

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revolution. revolution.

records ofthe wever, shed light on the plaintiff’s wever, shed onthe plaintiff’s light , their proc democrats, leftists and Jews. This democrats, Jews. and leftists

courts

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Ibid., Ibid., Gyá Haná Ibid., Gyáni, ni, ni, - k, 162; 162; 37. - mingling ofdifferentsocial strata in The involving politicalissue single important most thedomestic sphere spa yearsIn thewar, leadingBudapest the the up to domestic an sphere in was war, wartime, and revolutionary wartime,and waswar, periods thesevere ofhousing coupled lack The Parlor of the Kitchen the of Parlor The Parlo The The Garden and the the Workshop and Garden The

See also also See ces of class contact classBudapest’sces specificities tosome of owing of r and the Kitchen the rand Susan Zimmermann, SusanZimmermann, - 13 c

lass households lass

As such engaged it as a ofwomen domestic large number help, 17

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54 , 6 housing - - 56 7. , 17; Gyáni, 17; ,

. the social hierarchiesthe social structuring Hungar

Divide Provide and Rule and Provide Divide where and by the lagging construction of laggingandconstruction by the of shortage was caused ofshortagewas rapid by the migration 116 individual The Parlor and the Kitchen the and Parlor The the feminization of domestic laborfeminization helpedthe

residences .

14 relationships , residential buildingsresidential ,

Second, to inaddition ,145. 16

residential urbanization. ian society.

with each de facto nning

CEU eTD Collection 20 1919). Kiadása, Könyvkereskedés 19 18 ofHungariandimension society. was toaddress these onMarchcommunists government’s 21,1919.Oneof business ofthe first new orders stepped a of more downinfavor radically leftist government le the defeated, and partitioned, economicallygovernment state.Károlyi The devastated to deal theintensifying with crisis, housing yardstrain Budapest. of thousands setupmakeshift dwellings receive as population. aminority to the newlycreated surrounding states Hungary, fearful treatment ofthe discrimination, approximately Hungarian and Kingdom.toimpending Responding exile almost certain involuntary refugee crisis andthe crisis. included housing Defeat the territorial parti inflation ease housing establishportion out rentto rising and moratoriums theeffects to of government, were regulations familie place topreventevictions ofsoldiers’ putin address housing thefor need discontent and inthe capital totamp downsocial Budapestand theprovinces particularly from poured Galicia Jews thecountry into and settle temporarily abate,did not butintensified asMonarchy’s refugees the occupied provinces, from housing therising toaccommodate population.

Mocsy, Mocsy, ed., Pongrácz, Jenő Hanák, The Garden and the the Workshop and Garden The

The Uprooted The on thebeleaguered population A z 1919 November 1 z1919 November , 10; 10; ,

material 20 Marcus, “Galician Jews in Hung Jews Marcus,“Galician

The short

while housing construction ground haltwhile housingconstruction complete toa

crises as everycrises part torestructure broader plan ofits

4 25

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12 - - lived Károlyi governmentlived Károlyi hadlittle tól érvényben lévő lakásrendeleket érvényben tól .

in . 19 warehouses, movie houses movie warehouses, and

Theof thewar endfurther boththe intensified 117 which waswhich

Duringwar, the the shortage housing ary Prior to the War,” pg. 6 pg. the War,” to aryPrior just onejust ofmany fled

those regions set to beregions to cededthose set d by theHungarian

(Budapest: Népszavá (Budapest:

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d in ,

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s, to facing - CEU eTD Collection 24 23 Essays 22 21 establ personalwithout like peasants, wealth, ascribed. Hungarian society, property private includingtherespect manyeven for towhich ofthose social andculturalwhichfundamentallyupset the established of norms program bureaucratic leadership attempted communist a toimplement ineptitude,dramatic the Hungary a feudal from monarchy ofthe toadictatorship proletariat. (from a working the Soviet regime very time toeffectalso had little thefar implemented becauseproblems Further, stemming incompetence of from and corruption. houses.” led toasand muchdissatisfaction corruption,of socialization apart as the Frankhistorian “No wrote, government policy Eckelt ofthe causedas manyproblems, It also was issued byregime wouldgo a which hundredsof ontoissue of the published the order of thecommunization privatefront proclaiming pages property onthe with established Hungarian Republic, housing residential socialized inBudapest Soviet was theSovietization Domestic in Sphere

Romsics, Romsics, Ibid., in Republic,” Soviet ofthe Hungarian “InternalPolicies FrankEckelt, ed., Pongrácz,

Soviet governmentSoviet , Iván Völgyes, ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971) Press, Nebraska of University (Lincoln: ed. Völgyes, Iván , ished a pressing whichsoughtresolve setof to socio policies

Vörös Ujság 61. The government’s social Soviet programs were swiftlyand imperfectly Inan effort alleviatecrisis, housing to inoneof thefirst the 22

Hungary in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Hungary

one of Az 1919 November 1 1919November Az - class perspective) changes byclass perspective) promised officials eager totransform the most controversial most the

[Red newspaper] on March 26, 1919. It newspaper] onMarch 1919. [Red tobe 26, thetenthorder was becoming

- tól érvényben lévő lakásre érvényben tól the owner. the , 103. ,

decrees 118

As was governmen thepractice,As thenew 24

issued by asgovernment, the

The leadership also communist ndeleket - reachingconstru and orders , , 73. Hungary in Revolution: Nine Revolution: in Hungary .

- during its brief during its economic problems decrees 23

Yet, beyond ments and ments

of the newlyof the ctive tenure. late t CEU eTD Collection 27 26 44. 25 persons ina single apartment orhouse. flats redistribute andhomesinorder orsubdividethem order to in more toaccommodate ( housingits policy.In toapportion order housing,communi the brocade it…Cooking ranges the into are put other places. the finer people mansion,thein dirtier who The the are installed vermin clean andinto infection homes.” want the bourgeoisie perhaps toperish, of working classshe sovietization: wrote deviance, of restricted themthebourgeoisie have assigned area isto to no furnitureput his of intr at the disposal bourgeoisie. property Theis common the middle kitchenand of and philanthropy proletarianGalicianJews are hated among rabble the planted her 1920 among acted outside ofofficial regulatory channels. conditionsthat thestate whobelieved implicitly ift even their sanctioned actions, swiftly and theirupby theurgency rhetoric was of infairly many taken people desperate lakásügyiroda

Eckelt, “Internal Policies,” 74. “InternalPolicies,” Eckelt, Tormay, Céc

ile

many, especially many, The bureaucratic new of and regime terms facedprocedural in serious problems The housing the new a policies of regime stirred reaction which quite resonated Tormay, Tormay, - covered walls. Librariescovered sculleries.” walls. are transformed into - The The 21 memoir Commune ) An Outlaw’s Diary: Diary: Outlaw’s An

was responsible forresponsible processingwas applicationsrequisitioning housing and - novel pubished pubished inE novel , 61. ,

conservative

The Commune The

drawing the rooms, their chimneys rest against s uders. Home is home nolonger.uders. ishome inthe Home Even . Cecile Tormay. Cecile of ofsovietization homesin wrote 27

they revel in theidea revel in thus introducethey thatthey may 25

The nglish as

She also said, 119

(

New York: Robert M. McBride &1924 Company, McBride M. Robert NewYork: agencyfrom th

An Outlaw’sDiary “[The government] communist “ Palaces are treated worsePalaces are treated than e beginning very was - peace.” class occupier isobligedclass occupier to st Housing Commission st Housing Commission 26

Evoking stereotypes : “Under the guise the: “Under hey ), ), CEU eTD Collection for the records of the revolutionary courts. ofthe revolutionary thefor records in fondthe 2 BFL XVI, group Fond See records. court’s ofthe theremnants whichjust are (BFL) Levéltár 30 1919 29 28 often which recruited fromsegments someof caretakers theroughest ofthe population h maintainingappearance thephysicalrents, ofthe collecting andenforcing buildings, Trustees had employed been and long bywere building owners rent space, house trustees channels, iftheyworkingempowered even belongedclasses tothe class antagonism, governmentthe new indicate regime thatwas concernedabout empowerment,the however, bourgeoisie withthe threatofimprisonment orworse. class ofthe sympathiesunits Redupholdtheir claims oflocalGuardthe against to quarter inresidences felt empoweredlike Mrs.Csizmás Housing tobypass the political andsocial many power, working class people the complaint byatthe chapter the beginning Mrs.Ernyey armed ofwithnew shows, groups,affairs toreform of theorgan house” by assigningTiborSzamuely,Red forTerror aof hisleadership mannotorious defined by and avarice briberywas rampant ousing regulations. Inousing regulations. toensure of order thecollection rents,main tenants landlordsor

Eckelt 74; “InternalPolicies,” Eckelt, Ibid. s on behalf of theregimes onbehalfformal new was of ownerof which the all residentialproperty. - 13/0084, 13/0084,

, “Internal Policies,” 74. See also records of the Revolutionary Courts in the Budapest Fővárosi Fővárosi Budapest in the Courts ofthe Revolutionary records also See 74. “InternalPolicies,” , While thehousingWhile was commission communizing responsible for thehousing BFL .

and they . Many , caretakers

prosecuted many individuals for prosecuted many individuals

Criminal Case against Mrs. József Csizmás, 1919, 1919, Csizmás, József Mrs. Caseagainst Criminal “requisitioned” homes oftheir“requisitioned” own homes records of the

and housing collecting for were inspectors responsible

. 28 120

revolutionarycourts In th to addition , although the regime made attempts to“clean, althoughattempts theregime made

29 in Budapestand near its environs

Despite feelings of Commission altogether Commission e official housing office, c ircumventing officialircumventing

these

, relying on generally established byestablished . 30

unsanctioned

HU BFL HU

charged with the working - V the Soviet II.18.d

and self and self

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as - CEU eTD Collection 33 as JDC) cited America Collection, 151.4 32 31 laborers theSoviet regime’s who tookseriously regime,Soviet a butit inThis prominent position thehouse made an thetrustee ofthe important component charitablecharacterization ofwrote: thetrustee, Tormay andIn by posting issued a aboutregulations thelatestlessthan information thestate. promoting theideals ofthe and other necessities. regime. particular wouldprove tobeextraordinarily intermediary position us all the lodgers. Eventhe war beforerevolutions, andcaretakers helped createa layer coercion rente between of andintimidation owners house or

Tormay, 1921, June5, in Hungary,” Terror White “IsThere Report Marcus, Joseph Gyáni, - hearingconcierges”who often “enjoyed and being withthe tenants,” highhanded this , Records of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee of the years1919 ofthe Committee Distribution Joint Jewish ofthe American Records govern. the delight sufferings, uponwhichrulers thatare theprinciples thenew oftheir that inspires these privileges; privileges for isnot loveof butit been before never theProletarian have known, are tickets. Everythingfood tobedeprivedof theProletarian. isfor Such door. But the is it man’ notice ineverynot thewolf tosee at thattheProletarian house should the and Proletarians receive alone the permits… sanction is thehouse,within and those whomtheydeprived suspect of are bread. Their blackmail, their good andreport.On secretpoweragents inevery are tobefound ofthenew able house; they watch, hatredClass all spiesthehouses has and established watchersofBudapest in Under role Kun, trustee’s in thehouse 31 The Parlour and the Kitchen and Parlour The

The Commune The .

n Joint Distribution Committee Archives Committee Distribution nJoint required permits ifone requires wood,soap, toobtain or boot 32 , 43 , lso spelledtheir downfallemboldened domesticlso along withother

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44. intellectual workersintellectual are onrations: themiddle whoclasses short regimecompliance with and

, 158. ,

it is the hatred for the Hungarian Christian citizens, Hungarian isthehatredforcitizens, it the Christian 121 - will depends the distribution of food thedistribution depends ticketswill cluded p cluded

ideological goals. ideological , New York (Document collection hereafter hereafter collection (Document New , York

It business ofthe‘confidential the is arceling outrationfood tickets for

the decrees

functioned as pg. 97, doc. 220562, 220562, doc. 97, pg.

of the government of the eful tothe Soviet - 1921, New York 1921, the “allthe - laces, rs and - folder folder seeing, seeing, : the CEU eTD Collection Akadémia Kiadó, 1980), 47. 47. 1980), AkadémiaKiadó, 36 218. page on Quote 18. 35 1991). Directions, (New New York: novel the1925 34 collapse, thousands they,ofothers became along with Inyears delegitimzationthis effort. and afollowing thetwoCommune’s half occupations”, been employed withauthorityfrom by orimbued the Soviet employedcivil service prior tothe Commune in acts andcivil bureaucrats servants,former by those whohad even continuously been official as which acts were under legal theSoviet regime generallygovernment approach this adopted revolutionary tothe regime,reinterpreting againstcommitted thecommunityas awhole….” system ofcriminal from oflaw, thestandpoint law “Revolution,at asaofthemasses the violentof overthrow movement aimingtheexisting essayof ofthe entitled theProletariat” “The Dictatorship wrote: Criminals he deputy Justice, comments of inthe Ministry are d delegitimizing and criminalizing immediately collapse. after they taken had transformations minefielda createddiffi were upside turned them August had 1919 consequences th practical for

Ferenc Pölöske Ferenc in Tormay, ofthe Proletariat,” Dictatorship ofthe Criminals “The Szollosy, Oscar of firstin the chapters captured best perhaps is dynamic political and reversal role this fictional, Although

on thesubjective asclassgender level, and as hierarchies as propertyrelations well The radical political Éd (teachers, judges) (teachers,

i, advantage ofnewadvantage thenew Soviet laws which regime about set es Anna Hungary after Two Revolutionsm (1919 after Revolutionsm Two Hungary -

down, and thenrestoreddown, in

by Dezső Koszolányi. Dezső Kosztolányi, Kosztolányi, Dezső Koszolányi. Dezső by

and military and

were particularly vulnerablewere particularly cult forespecially tonavigate, many persons if reversal 122 e broader population whoexperiencede broader population

a matter ofa matter

in the same position s which took place s whichtook emonstrative of this position. Inemonstrative ofthisposition. an - 35 1922)

is asingle act;criminal cumulative The counter the de , trans. E. Csiceri trans.E. , crimes. This Anna Édes Anna a days hundred

34 fendants in hastilyfendants in organized authorities in“exposed

legally speaking because of legally because speaking of

Oszkar Szöllosy’s,a - revolutionary , trans. George Szirtes Szirtes trans.George ,

between March and between March . 36 -

Rónay (Budapest: (Budapest: Rónay included officialincluded The Commune The

Those whohad . These rapid. , 217 , -

CEU eTD Collection tribunals. d the filled ofcases number large very a estimates, conservative thatwas filedagainst being without charges interned the thousands wouldhaveincluded notThis LP/HUN/1/13.iii. 1920, 16, March Party,Labour Böhmto Vilmos Letter1920. from 16, by March introduced been proceedings had 10,000 Hungary trial. wereinawaiting prison persons 220051, proceedings. was 10,000 number that the they estimated April 1920, in Committee Distrbution Joint the by visit brief Horthy See trial. awaiting prisons or camps inup internment wound many and communists for to 40 from10,000 range numbers Other the regime. Károlyi but also Soviet, primarily the of ties to accused against people opened order. underthe internment incarcerated 37 a offilthy, fanatical lot and ignorant whose andforcedconfined familiesincontactrooms tolive had tooneor been with two means, homescharge whosehad been comfortable by and a taken ofanarchists, lot of remarked diary, inhis “ Bandholtz, theU.S. representativeInter tothe the Soviet regime’s housingAmerican andHill propertypolicies. Harry General Terrorand counter Denunciation gendarmes, neighborsdomestic laborers. byand their but landlords, harassment, by eviction just re not and violence state denunciations. trials inBudapest’scriminal courts andcounter

It is difficult to distinguish those persons actually tried for in proceedings as opposed to those to as opposed proceedings in for tried actually persons those distinguish isdifficultIt to - rendszer

folder folder the charges were dismissed against many of those arrested. However, even if we use the most weuse the if However,even arrested. those manyof against weredismissed charges the

For some observers

(London: Trade Union Congressan (London: Trade Joseph Marcus, “Galician Jews in Hu in “GalicianJews Marcus, Joseph 148.1

[The Horthy [The

37 and the Courtsand them. them.

Many others who necessarilyMany didnot criminal others face proceedings faced , , JDC. - revolution would revolution - 50,000, but in any case, thousands of people weretheby regime’ affected ofpeople thousands but in any 50,000, case, Estimates are not much clearer in the historiographical record. Part of the of problem Part record. thehistoriographical in muchclearer not are Estimates

The British Labour Delegation’s report reported allegations that 13,000 allegations reported that report Delegation’s BritishLabour The although Ialthough sympa -

System] (Budapest: Pannonica Kiadó, 2006), Kiadó, Pannonica System](Budapest:

of the political upheavalof

British Joint Labour Delegation to Hungary, Hungary, to Delegation Labour BritishJoint Acco

Bolshevists, was this noreason why they not should reach thedomestic into sphere d the Labour Party, 19 Party, Labour the d rding to Levente Pücske, more than 70,000 cases werecases more70,000 than Pücske, Levente rdingto thized withmen ofeducation,thized refinement and ngary Prior to the War,” the War,” to ngaryPrior 123 - Allied Military inBudapest Mission

- revolutionary tribunals as a result of a revolutionary tribunals as , it was quite natural quite White was , it that the presentatives such as militias, police, militias, presentatives such as ockets of courts, judicial and military and judicial ofockets courts, 20), 21. Vilmos Böhm estimated that estimated Vilmos 21. Böhm 20),

March 28, 1921, 28, March 200 .

In the data collected in a collected Inthe data ,

The White Terror in Terror in White The given the naturegiven of Levente Püski, LeventePüski, pg. 2 pg.

- 4 s hunt shunt - , , 25,000 25,000 doc. doc. A CEU eTD Collection Commune 41 conceptualization. and useterminology similar correspondence LHA. LP/HUN/2/6.ii, inHungary,” 40 39 86. 1933), Press, University 38 suggests thattheyof were perceived their because targets ofpurges elevated statusand occupationalvisible defendants categoriesthetrial of records.evidence in The strongly of traditional social relations. and against ofthe “inciting”thembecameimportant dimension reassertion resentment an outside evenwhich thedomestic was refuge space, as perceived a for elitestheattacks toescapetheir economic power, from state not on ofthe and social regime who effort.It an ofthe important dimension coun hierarchies spheres by purging life all remnants ofHungarian ofitscommunist social reconquer, ( reestablish and regarded it, revolutionary criminal courts redressforcommitted wrongs the Entente, decorum” “decencycouldsystem and by using beachieved court seek to the handle the withdecency situation and decorum.”

Tormay described home as Tormaydescribed AdvisoryCommitte PartyLabour The Bandholtz, Hill Bandholtz, Harry General

had . . Domestic workers,and especially trustees, house The drive toreestablish 41 No space had been No space had been , 8. , was embracedwas bymany inthe population been touched by whatbeen theyas perceived by touched

Taking reveng

An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An was an important dimension ofboth dimension was theefforts state’s and animportant individuals’ to

e on those responsiblee“stealing” property for and their homes “…ever

exempt from sovietization, and there from thus sovietization, exempt had noway been re)affirm legal Hungary’s inherited and order social An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An

to perpetrate “legal terror”

While the precise term “legal terror” is used in this memo, other this isusedin “legalterror” term the precise While bygovernment. theKun , 86. , ything that was good, everything that protected me….” protected everythingthat was good, ythingthat pre e on International International on e

- ter Soviet Soviet - revolution property and social relationspropertyand inHungarywas social 124

, ed. ed. Fritz , 38 Questions, “Memorandum on the White Terror Terror White the on “Memorandum Questions,

, humiliation and during loss humiliation theSoviet

, especially andelites, themiddle class

and For Bandholtz leaders and of theother

it wasit j not 39 - Konrad Krueger (New York: Columbia Columbia York: (New Krueger Konrad

as movement many inthe labor And indeed, comprised one ofthe

or havenproblemsfrom the or ust astate using counterusing - directed

Tormay,

h ighly ighly - . The The 40

CEU eTD Collection 44 43 42 relationship bet lengthconflict ofthe service as for he intheentire militarywhen aPOW had thenearly imprisoned been the circumstances” [ which flat asked movethem to for frombasement adank permission therooms apartment to ofher Jókai twocivilianaddition to thathepermission; us didso Budapest. without he,alongherclaimed her daughter, into that withhis home moved She personalwidow Mrs. Haffner freedom the by házbizalmi domestic employees. authority animportant ofretroactive dimension inthe home was actions. But complaints the way denouncedand other their domesticfor motivations servants laborershad their noother they toberemoved had likely alteration of Inrevolutionary theCommune. thedomestic in space actions during othe

Ibid. Ibid. 191 Jókai, Gyúla Caseagainst ,

which empty. stood

defended himself,claiming wife thathis daughter andthathe were and quite ill the most immediate reminderthe most and thereversalfortunes, consequently, elites’ of of that had been It toidentify possible thecase is influence classin the resentments of against

Gyúla Jókai domestic employees ween the political andcriminalween asitplayed the of system outthe legal enyhitő körülményekenyhitő

accelerateda asresult of , affectedhissentencing

, who once once dressed persons 43

Heconvicte was 9, ing “terrorism and violence”;

VII.18.d 13/4334 13/4334 VII.18.d the Commune collapsed the Commune was criminaltrespassing denouncedand for theviolationof

’ statuspower to andaccess during theCommune and denunciations ] , including his lackincluding ofprior record criminal and ,

bar d of these crimesd ofthese through process a judicial 125 – red her from her enteringred .

, the ownerFerenca Körut, of, thehouse on 1919, Budapest Royal Prosecutor’s Office, BFL. Office, RoyalProsecutor’s Budapest 1919, 44 the number “M ofpoliticalthe cases.

This case

wereframed thatreasserting suggests . This is not tosay not . Thisis

highlights the complex complex highlights the and

that Red guards, in that Red

justice the the flat

which affectedwhich that those those who that

r words, r she ownedshe itigating the

was

. 42

CEU eTD Collection 45 were had Burgermeister. bullied The ofhisand for oldenemies case several dragged on leverageget dismissed, totry and chargeshim claiming against the thatRoser and Prets November, 1919. the constant harassment. was constantly being searchedget knowhow didnot they and would she bybecause of ellenség Party revolutionary” outofspite communis reaso made byasked thewomen baseless freea vicious.He were forto beset number and of I that several others agitation activities. communist EszterRoser,andIgerth wife him whoaccused his wasby of denounced and terror. exploitation aprior crimeprinciples regime byofthe thepolitical induced which onthe relied and counter

Statement gerth’s wife wore had in fact been hers. Igerthgerth’s infact worehad hers. wife been , stated that the case was because theinitiated case , stated “personal that enemies” ( ns, includinghisclaim, - Inanothercase, ei revolutionary Hungarytheact as simultaneously Mrs.Haffner contextualized as ) had den) had

t period by Mrs. József Igert to SDP, March 16, 1920, pg. pg. 3 1920, 16, March SDP, to Igert József Mrs. by

government

of who supported Roser’swho supported the mechanisms ofpower inthegovernment Soviet

Burgermeister eventuallyIgerth retractedher and claim used as this

Roser and Pret ounced her family,ounced andconstantly thattheywere their house harassed, S imilarBurg claimsAdél made by , the former former the

45 and

. Igerth was uponcharges incitement brought ( of Igerth’swife Democratic statement inaseparate theSocial to

bragging that he had receivebragging that he had whichbe he confirmed saidcould

házmester had as infactdenounced him a“counter accusations 126

of 92Dohányof utca

, one fur ofwhom the fox claimed that ,

however 04, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 04, ermeister, d 10.000 korona blue money10.000 koronafor blue ,

claimed that the chargesclaimed that , t

in Budapest, hat duringthe hat Mrs. Vilmos Prets and Mrs. Vilmos ,

including violence személyes személyes glorifying - izgatas

József József ) in

the

CEU eTD Collection Office 47 BFL. 46 yearstwo prison. inMarianosztra ultimately charged with Józsa or regarded“counter as said they that if joi didnot day 8 (until calling better ( working“girls” for conditions for the employment there,she made a aservant housekörut onAttila Dr.Ligeti. as thehomeArmin in of monthof During her organizational activities.Accor her as“persuaded” comm a attend thelectures theunion.Thehowever ortojoin court,found and otherwise, regarded of domestic unionization employees, were to theemployees violentlycompelled never state’s interrogation, cla Józsa servantslecturesup class violence. andstirring among thedomestic According tothe theauthoritieshouse was for onFőShe Budapest. political denounced utca, to holding mutable political identity was intheimmediate showingconflict thedomestic thecase how in spacehow unfolded, also demonstrates bu months,

Case against Mrs. Mihály Józsa, Józsa, Mihály Mrs. Caseagainst 1919, Igérth, József Caseagainst

haddomestic threatened employees inthehouse was the withaknife. She BFL. Another case wa of incitement

t eventually appears it altogether. charges dismissed the were

pm) ,

and more free time - revolutionaries.” Another employerrevolutionaries.” claimed at house that Another another incitement tomaintaingovernment the Soviet incitement and sentenced to

n theorganization, thattheyofthehouse out be should thrown unist whohadunist used violence hercompulsion in and speeches there 1919 HU BFL HU

imed that while she did hold lecturesdid hold imed thatwhileshe insupportofthe ding to one report, duringreport, toone ding theC 47 , HU BFL HU

on - s raised against Mrs. Mária Józsa, a Máriaresidentagainsts raised Józsa, ofa Mrs.

VII.5.c VII.5.c

the weekend -

127 VII.5.c VII.5.c three times three times -

1919 1919

postwar - 1919 –

leányok s 9681, Hungarian Royal Prosecutor’s Office, Office, Prosecutor’s Hungarian Royal 9681, . One that servant claimed

–

to the domestic employees period. 11770, 11770, ) including work a shorter Budapest Royal Prosecutor’s Royal Prosecutor’s Budapest ommune, she had livedommune, in she

In addition to Józsa Józsa CEU eTD Collection Prosecutor’s Office, Office, Prosecutor’s 51 50 Office Prosecutor’s 49 BFL. Office, Prosecutor’s BFL HU 1919, Nyári, József Caseagainst BFL; Office, BFL HU 1919, Bokor, Mór Caseagainst BFL; Office, BFL HU 1919, Kucsera, György against BFL; Case 48 guaranteedwas a not when came it method to the courts’ Prior behavior. sentencing military servi cited m ofHungary’scontext experience. war Mrs. Józsa. violated established andclass social hierarchies residents ofhouses. the Soviet stateor ofviolence threats terro property,freedom, their tothreaten and hang.” su transformations denouncers ofthe complaints the context political within andideological their positioned andcommitted statements made during theSoviet Republic.and The witnesses personalization inindividuals’ interpretation employees theblurred illuminate politicization, line between criminalization, and clothing,apartments food werealso and common. common charges against domestic employees brought

Case against József Jakert and wife, 1919, wife,BFL 1919, and Jakert József Caseagainst Caseagainst BFL Kuzner,1920, Adorján Mrs. and Mrs. Caseagainst 1919, Csintó, Kálmán Caseagainst ch as, nowcome Béla “The has intheform Kun” messiah of 50 ilitary service In theradical t addition to political context, Incitement and the

Plaintiffs frequently emphasized use thedefendants’

HU BFL HU , , BFL. ,

often citingoften particularbitsofspeeches allegedly by defendants made BFL. 51 , -

Denunciations Denunciations and sometimes, as sometimes, priorservice inthecaseand ofJokái, did influence VII.5.c VII.5.c

“ violation of personalviolation freedom - 1920

HU BFL HU –

4523, 4523, also often D - efendants eagerefendants their toprove loyalty toHungary

VII.5.c VII.5.c Budapest Royal Prosecutor’s Office RoyalProsecutor’s Budapest HU BFL HU 128 -

, VII.5.c VII.5.c

- and thecourt’s adjudication avoid

- VII.5.c VII.5.c - indicated the thatdefendants sense ,

1920 1920 VII.5.c VII.5.c

as inthe case oras Mrs.Czizmás against HU BFL HU - 48

he cases often VII.5.c VII.5.c - cedemonstrated,chapter was,two as

ing 1919 The cases household brought against – - 543, Budapest Royal Prosecutor’s Office, RoyalOffice, Budapest Prosecutor’s 543, , 1919 -

1919 1919 although illegalo requisitioning violence or – - - ”

613, Budapest Royal Prosecutor’s Royal Prosecutor’s Budapest 613, 1920 1920 VII.5.c VII.5.c

– were 9438, Budapest Royal Prosecutor’s RoyalProsecutor’s Budapest 9438, – 11523, Budapest Royal 11523, Budapest

of 49 –

616, 616,

the coercive powercoercive of the generally -

or “the bourgeoisie will 1920 reflect the immediate mitigating BudapestRoyal – , BFL. ,

616, 616, ,

the most the most of acts Buda

legal legal pest Royalpest rize the f CEU eTD Collection Politikatörténeti I Politikatörténeti 54 53 52 lived, complainedwho owned thatMrs.Károlyuwhich the woman, he thehouse Eivök, in reason”byandeven when washe beaten soldiers. present was lived always harassed landlords, whose employers, andwere by neighbors, motivations their not brought charges neverthe uponformal but (discussed politically ofthe thecoercive with statecarceral active and organs the incontact system denunciations putmanypeople who otherwis reassert social alsoshowtheir hierarchies,but loyalty to tothe Hungarian nation Denunciations a could way w provide for theycriminal activities during regime. charges for upon were theSoviet their brought Hungarianwhereas society, veryloyalty womentouse their had as little “proof” when of the courts wastheoretically still possibl frequentlyHowever usingtreatmentgain unsuccessful. militaryservice in to privileged some period toacknowledge compensate and for veterans troubles

Statement by Robert Szuhi to SDP, January 5, 1920, pg. 150, pg. 1920, January5, SDP, to Szuhi Robert Statement by this issue. on morediscussion for strategies” “Defensive 2 chapter See See

Jenő Jenő in Soroksar (incorporatedBudapest 1950), intothe citydenounced “for ofin him no success their invoking veteran in status,many, but men particularly Jewish denounced him In the woman complaint bywhoowned Robert one Szuhi, thehouse The state’s willingnesstake to to individuals’ legal inresponse action clear to the victims of such denunciations. ofsuch denunciations. clear tothe victims ,

but it hadthebut it potentialto,asvarious laws Pongrácz, ed., Pongrácz,

in the following chapter ntézet (Document Collection hereafter referred to as to PIL). referred hereafter Collection (Document ntézet . Az 1919 November 1 November 1919 Az According to his statement, Eivök According statement, tohis

) . But there were many other people who wereBut many otherwho were there people not e marginalized tothe even most menin - tól érvényben lévő lakásrendeleket lévő érvényben tól omen not only property,omen not toretrieve to their lost less were threatened and less were withdenunciation 129 e may as regarded themselves nothave

were

their service.

Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond

passed intheearly passed accused and again time him

József ZaklukálJózsef 52

Some .

postwar where he where Jókai, - , likewise state.

were

had of 53

, CEU eTD Collection 56 55 Gellatelyarguedas havecommunications “spontaneous denunciation, from defined that women also played an that helped sendprison.But people asthecases to many employees trialsof domestic ofthe counter Hungarian politics in participation women’s she would tothe author denounce him comeapartment home woman for whowanted The days. threatened the remained However,had about not inthe apartment. waswho her she worried husband yetnot pai had ready and she last ofpregnancy.do becauseIn month any apartment wascase, thenew she was inher she wouldaninto unheated have want apartment” tomovenot “barrack to she which did employees whomshe with did her ina three eviction fromroom apartment aone the “constantof and hislandlady. “revenge persecution” motives” found DemocraticZaklukál tobebaseless, fighting askedfor in but theSocial Party help insultingpassing thecivil guards hiswindow.Her accusations under were repeatedly agitationfactory atLaterwhere the bread he worked. sheaccused an ofspitting him infractions

Statement by Mrs. István Borcsi to SDP, December 2, 1919, pg. 61, Fond 658, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 61, pg. 1919, 2, December SDP, to Borcsi István Mrs. Statement by PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 34, pg. 1919, November 24, SDP, to Zaklukál József Statement by - The Inearly De revolutionary , and way - room apartment wanted her apartment in order in apartment wanted tohouse herapartment herroom domestic point at one transitional justicetransitional cember 1919 Mrs. IstvánMrs. cember Borcsi 1919 describedtheconditions her of

legal pro legal active

told told

d the housing fees until the 15 d thehousing fees until part as denouncers.

not want “share to thesamewoman roof.” Thewas told ceedings the local militiathat inpolitical hehad involved been

played out

in Budapest ities forities killing theSoviet aduring republic. priest . Women often dominated the witness lists in lists dominated the often witness . Women

or domestic incidentsor domestic 130 , specifically

in the domestic sphere in the domestic helps . She claimed a lived above. widowwho Historians Sheila Fitzpatrick and Robert

and statements as witnesses and denouncers in th

of themonth, so she , providing

55 above demonstrate, above demonstrate,

Mrs. Borcsi Mrs.

vital illuminate

testimony

3, PIL. 3, d that

CEU eTD Collection Cambridge University Press, 2006), 21 2006), Press, CambridgeUniversity See also Russia Stalin's Terrorin Z.WendyGoldman, 420. (July 3 2002), 37, History Contemporary 59 History European Modern 58 1999). Books, Basic York: 748 pages History,” European 57 Gol members and socialas norms, deal aswell personalamong affronts with even and family neighbors policing fellow citizens access thecoercive to organsthe state of particularly those the encouragementcertaingroups hasprovided individuals, of of denunciation and socio in periods such wayDenunciationa their for prove loyaltya to especially provided individuals regime, to inbetweenposition thestate officialsordinary “above” and citizen/subjects “below.” system”and theofficial denunciationsan have between importantcitizens/subjects, the“formal link been terror people“everyday werehave involved in terror.”that argued, as They others, have officials and implicitly o thestate…containing to individuals accusations ofwrongdoing or citizens by other

Vandana Joshi, “The 'Private' Became 'Public': Wives as Denouncers in the Third Reich,” Journal of Journal Reich,” the Third in Denouncers as 'Public': Wives Became 'Private' “The Joshi, Vandana Gellately, and Fitzpatrick also See 749; Gellately, and Fitzpatrick Modern in ofDenunciation Practices the to “Introduction Gellately, Robert and SheilaFitzpatrick dman have shown. Johnson,

- by providing citizens with aby with providing citizens means address to legal enforce violations, political 750. See also Eric Eric A.also See Johnson, 750. , -

political conformity and isprized disloyalty punished. including and wives husbands . Denunciationhas

Nazi Terror as (total) warsasrevolutions (total)and The Journal of Modern History Modern of Journal The

whose interests are withthose of theregime compatible whose most

(Cambridge; New York: Cambrid New York: (Cambridge;

59 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). Press, Chicago of (Chicago: University

legal system. r explicitlyr calling wasordinary for away punishment,” that

; Stathis N. Kalyvas, Kalyvas, N. Stathis

- 22. also Nazi T Nazi

57 served and method ofsocialself adiscipline vital

As suchimportant hasoccupied denunciation an , error: the Gestapo, Jews and Ordinary Germans Ordinary Jews and Gestapo, the error:

and thus withincreasedand thus vis power as the work of Vandana Joshi and ofVandanaWendyZ. work as Joshi the

The Logic of Violence in Civil Warsin Violence of Logic The 131 68, 68, , no. no.

when Manichean world ge University Press, 2011), Press, University ge 4

(December 1996), def. 747; 751; see also also see 751; 747; def. 1996), (December Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and and Denunciation Enemy: the Inventing Accusatory Practices: Denunciation in in Denunciation Practices: Accusatory

In modern period, the - views flourish, views

esp. esp. 140

(Cambridge: (Cambridge: - à - vis their , -

251. with

(New

See - CEU eTD Collection responsiblenor were for those they charges denunciations, against exclusively their made for women to participate of thesetheregime. intheenforcement normsunder new articulateaboutconcerns the normsunder their odds were social andethno also providedmanywithand a people means regain to definitively failed aberration; threat hadpassed counter of property violation a flagrant butwas immediately anact “proved” more that a thansimply was against crime or person of anrevolutionary act theserved in political context as of aform sho amongwho had manybelonged orthe class commission totheelite. middle Placing the regimeSoviet placedacts such people’s recalled accusations often the notsimply that therea was criminalmany lawacts toinclude legal which hadunder been thepreviou followingthe Sovietof government. new the collapse of regime’s The conceptualization - Denunciation provided many people The counter revolutionary

stacked in their favorstacked intheir

that it hadgovernmentthat it notbeengenuine a a but , prove their loyalty their prove regime tothe new

which

- between the blurry line within religious hierarchreligious , to serve as, toserve r the apublicSoviet that reminder . Denunciation - revolutionary withjustice denunciations systemwas inundated

entailed aentailed regime.

the

context of context Such acts , sudden s

and , and thelegal emerg processeswhich ies

which was

by seeking redress a in topsy established loss of status aswell wealth as ofstatus propertyand loss “criminal” and the“political.”

had to be punished, evenhad tobe t though 132 - , turvy social relationsturvy estab

including Hungarianincluding women

- girdingand Hungarian society,to

eager tomete out “

. ideals and facts Ofwere coursenotsolely women /or ”

claim their elevated status in claim status in their elevated of the crime committed

violent disruption that had violent disruption

legal norms set out by norms set thenew out egimebeen had an

punishment system Italso opened a pa rt Furthermore, - lished by lished the ed fromed them hand which hand

s reg with away he immediate in

which . ime meant

but

the ,

to th CEU eTD Collection 62 61 60 those them incamps Hajmaskér like Orkény,and ethnic andexpand Hungarians’ efforts internmentBudapest, state families rhe law touse evict by from intern Jewish relief in behalfJews work of on American lodgings be waseased.” supposed to handedarbitrarily theprotégésof over to [sic.] sending families whole tointernment camps.“The flatway inthis ‘evacuated’ were cards”), and couldbe by such not produced, when documents clearing outapartments entering apartment buildings, demanding non aroundRumbach utcaand Király, Dob 22, 1919,theunnamed of that,particularly author theletterneighborhoods claimed inthe Accordingaddressed tocorrespondenceBritish tothe secureby families apartments better evictingfrom and individuals their homes. was sort tohis “You have kick out….” and enforce helping thehome. and in new regulations norms,values regime its the played a encountered sphere.archives wome inthe domestic However,that demonstrate the

Marcus, “Galician Jews Prior to the War,” 6 the War,” to Prior Jews “Galician Marcus, LP/ Party,n.d., Labour to letter N.a. Kosztolányi, entangledwith

refugees from the “lost terrrefugees“lost from the Thefor desire revenge vital

Jewish Anna Édes Anna

role when it came toreconstructingrole it thepre when

Joint Distribution Committee,Joint a philanthropic organization engaged in

informal effortsthe housing “alleviate” to inBudapest, shortages or , , 8

as part ofas thecounter HUN/1/2, LHA. HUN/1/2, war itories” - 60 61 t orn Europe

- This letter,gathered along withinformation by the in the J 7. —

access to living space.access to 133 -

ex ewish Quarter

the Government.Inthe dearth way this of istent official(“legitimation paperwork , suggests, thattherewere systematic - revolutionary political atmosphere

Labour onDecemberwritten Party - revolutionary sphere domestic

Budapest, soldiers wereBudapest, 62

— specifically

n CEU eTD Collection 66 65 pg Andorka, abbreviated (Hereafter revolution] 64 6 the War,” to Prior Jews “Galician Marcus, wayfreeing of as a Jews expel to government the pressured had provinces from the Hungarians 63 room apartment over handed toadetachment byArmy. was militia National the he When Budakeszi,reported in a incident similar asmall remainI at home all day becauseamfor looking bread by sewing.” stated thatan apartment was definitely necessaryforalthough her,admittedly, not “I do lockedand outofthe herchildren herapartment, l beenwife kickedapartmentBudagendarme in ofawho lieutenant, outoftheir by the Aid Bureau, Mrs.Mór Gruberexplainedfamily,children, thather her including two had reasons.apartment for undisclosed of thedenunciationa landlord of statement internment regulations and their apartments were handed tothereallocation bureau housing for over freed deported spacesadditional living families were withtheir aspeople whole up often evict to peoplerevolutionary from t political context, their political connections difficult ascertain to sources. the in wartime the long efforts prevent to systematic

Statement by Mrs. Mór Gruber to SDP, November 20, 1919, pg. 24, Fond 65 Fond 24, pg. 1919, November 20, SDP, to Gruber Mór Mrs. Statement by PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 155, pg. 1920, January5, SDP, to Kovács Ignácz Mrs. Statement by Nemes, Dezső ethnic newlythat arrived convinced was the JDC issue although motivated politically a isalso It The

to the Social Democratic hadconsequence been hera Party son as that interned s

eviction , veracity of 431 Iratok az ellenforradalom történetéhez ellenforradalom az Iratok - 434 , 1925, 1925, , of

. Jews 64 above claim above

VII.5.c VII.5.c For example,a widowMrs. , or used threats inthe ofviolence ordenunciationsrooted

in Budapest IET

- ), 2 ),

— 1925 1925 65 - nd 63 a university professor s term settlement ofGali settlement term

- edition (Budapest: Szikra, 1956), 239; 239; 1956), edition Szikra, (Budapest: In concerning the However, theredeployed isevidence people that 7. –

8038 another

as fundamentally differentgovernment’s than the 134 , Bírósági

[Documents on the history of the counter ofthe history the on[Documents complain town close to Budapest, wheretown close toBudapest, histhree eaving them“without shelter.” She -

ügyészségi, counter heir homes. Internmentheir homes. Ignácz Kovács — t to theSocialt to DemocraticLegal cian inHungary, Jews who wanted him out ofhis out him who wanted - revolutionary

BFL. 8, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, 8,AllagDossier 10,

claimed inher claimed Caseagainst Dezső Dr. Pál Oriás

state’s

also often

per up housing. housing. up

- is

CEU eTD Collection Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, Dossier Allag10, 69 68 67 their houseconsequence as a husband’s in ofher messyfin involvement like theone of beingfr evicted because theirformer prisonguards,employment husbands’ ontheverge of wereas now families, inapartments whohadpublic prosecutor’s headquarters housed been atthe “exposed tothe gre they employment children,wereand tofindtheir had own unable thereforewere they husbands were inprisonandthe ImrePapp and Mrs. secureanotherapartment andhomeless. therefore be would wasand ofwork had out asformoney already rent, he threemonths’ paid no hehad to aswould have hewouldday. inthe bemoving next tomove out wor He ember theater.allocated was He apartment then an a“stranger” onKirály until ( utca 1919 he apartment was his from evicted tomove andmade temporari Democratic Party residenceBudakeszi, henolonger permit had for complained, that he told was

Statement by Mrs. Lajos Papp an Papp Lajos Mrs. Statement by PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 23, pg. 1919, 19, November SDP, to Csillag Ferencz Statement by PIL. 3, AllagDossier Fond 10, 658, 169, pg. 1920, 8, January Óriás, Pál Dr. Statement by ) came to the flat and told him thathe him and told family,came his ) and totheflat children, four including The Community’s BudapestBureauLegal Jewish contained Aid worriedSimilar inthe were echoed Housing were woes pepperedcomplaints collected throughout the by the

by Mrs. Sándor Hirschlby Mrs.Sándor .

om their om their Ferencz CsillagFerencz atest misery.”atest problemsfact Compounding that wasthe two their the Kecskes sought help

new because d Mrs. Imre Kecskés to SDP, January 1, 1920, pg. 132, 132, pg. January 1920, 1, SDP, Imre to Mrs. Kecskés d

homes. women describedexperience, his recalling in that . She stated the municipal governmentthe his hadnotrenewed 69 were no longer ablesalary.were nolonger tocollecttheir As

from the Social Democraticfrom the Party

135 January 1,1920

that her family beingthat thrown was outof a need the apartment. for

68 complaint by

ly into a into ly movie ried becauseried he similar

Mrs. Lajos Mrs. ancial triangleancial 67 because their

Fond 658, 658, Fond

October idegen

claim Social s,

CEU eTD Collection 71 70 families tochoose between atmosphere their socialtenants s exploited resourcesLandlords, totryand challenge and eviction neighbors, potential proceedings. denunciation, alleged political activities andindividuals families who state, used thepoliticalto mood classesreestablished whowere complaints demonstrate that especially individuals, and upperthose among themiddle housingoriginated crisis thecounter which had before long early counter leader.worryingthe notorious militia about angering s froma which beingdispute embroiledcapacity had toescalate in the detachment’s basement apartment) currentlyacquaintance inhabitedbyOstenburg the ofthe ofone could exchange forutca their flat anapartmentonRózsa (probabl “unhealthy” givencommodity shortages the food between of ofsugar twolargewagons himself,the(a muchsought owner tandpoint

Statement by Adorján János to SDP, December 3, 1919, pg. 1919, December 3, SDP, to János Adorján Statement by foodcrisis1918. inbya Hungary to led had the blockade and policies provisioning harvests, bad Poor All oft , the in order toaccessin order better arrangements for living themselves, forcing many -

revolutionary perio whowantedinto officer’s wives tomove as were those of the lower classes or theunemployed oftheclassesas few whohad werelower those or hese social thecomplex complaints illuminate and ofthe political context statement suggests that theHirschl

app legal difficulties were ear especially tohavebeen

tatus, as theprimary beneficiaries ofthe counter pressure d. The war and multiple revolutionswarandd. Themultiple had exacerbated a already embroiled inlegalalready embroiled problemslinked to their 70 ) ,

and the Ostenburg detachment. She was theyand told theOstenburgdetachment. She

people to give up their homes. Those togivepeople Those uptheir homes. political connection 136 or homelessness.

family thatadded of felt pressure

58, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 58,

the Hirschl’s

vulnerable tothe threat of - revolution. Yet theaboverevolution. Yet s, as well ass, aswell the

apartment. from a legal a from - - after revolutionary

political ya 71

their

Aside

CEU eTD Collection 72 with bro the ofhundredssearching andthe employment, influx ofthousands ofrefugees. for Further, encount paternalistic socialrelations. andpolitical overrode disadvantages theyfaced the ina dominated by associety women still more ho atmosphere tosecure including inorder materialbenefits in theapartments better male head counter threatennot similarlywere those who secure. felt securesocial enough statuspolitical order anduntarnished pedigrees intheir to in denunciationaffirm order in to their privileg to pressure fa accommodations, allowed as it threat themtousethe implicit ofviolence persecution or relationshi cases, which had political broad roles closely tied withthe maintenance of“order with more suc direct coercive access institutions to atmosphere postwar

Gyáni, Gyáni, using state’s suspension of as the complaints as the - The illuminate depositions genderand social hierarchy The complaints alsohighlight the ways women n - ered increasing economic pressures due to highered increasing economicpressuressoldiers dueinflation,returning to Women as Domestic Servants Domestic as Women revolutionary ad interpretations of Hungarian politics. Particularly for elite or bourgeoisHungarian Particularly politics. elitereactionary or for women, the starved city. The social city.starved The andpoliticalthey capital wielded as - ps to themaleps to power elite of

of - milies toabandonmilies their homes. household, were empowered by and exploited thewere retributoryempoweredexploited household, by andpolitical early counter

politics

of Mrs. GruberHirschl and Mrs. habeas corpus -

revolutionary politics empoweredrevolutionary politics by them them providing “revolutionary” political activitiesand thedelegtimization . Wealthier women, evenwho lackeda those like widows

, 38 , - 44. prov

and broad ided them with access with them to ided 72 137

Conversely,class families working ed position andtogain.women ed position Such Inexploited cases, thetoolof women other

- h asgendarmerie thepolice, ormilitias basedregime internment egotiated the minefield of earlyegotiated the of minefield demonstrate,

intersected better

social women’s personalwomen’s

in .” In some.”

elites

combined

regard likely

CEU eTD Collection 73 domestic sp the prisons and campstheregime of realconsequences for notthousands of if hundreds Hungarians physical they pick be were homeless went and left people hiding, into fearful fateawaiting ofthe themshould domestic sphereengaged inthe thebroadercounter and populace offer “Home is forced take to as onexpanded advocates roles them For Pappand oftheir women Mrs.Kecskes,husbands the like Mrs. imprisonment variety protecting ofways including from eviction. families homelessness their and/or political andlegal order channels in to Communityaid legalbureaushelp show, At other times, meantmen. At this they times were basis oftheir own violencemilitia defense.men were Working class primary the targets of they of the Soviet Republic’s laws, meant that

Tormay,

had neitherfinancial resourceshad the nor one Politicized evictions and trialsagainst domesticand workers,neighbors others

The Commune The per h here ome no longer” no ome ed up by the police ed ormilitias. upby the spective on spective as statements made to the Social Democratic Party and Pest Jewish Democraticas made Jewish statements tothe Social and Pest Party , butworking also class facedabuse women persecution andboth onthe

did not just mire just peopledid not in red orput tape them atthemercyof the activities or political stancesactivities , 44. ,

how

the

Violence Terrorthe Domestic in and Sphere

retributive ofthe dynamics Terror punished or incarcerated punished . But and the Terror counter .

take caretake of women the working class was particularly exposed as exposed class particularly the working was 138

T social social hese seemingly had very bureaucratic issues

and becauseand played a central role in status

andfor provide and breadwinners their for families.

prosecution by prosecution to mobilize of their relationship of

along with their husbands along withtheir - revolution - revolution

their families ina their families

penetrated the penetrated as ameans of

the regime the

who landed in who navigating

in the . Families

s with s with had

and

CEU eTD Collection 78 77 76 75 PIL. 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, 315, pg. Fond 1920, 23, March SDP, Csontos to Aladár fromMrs. Statement as BZsL). to referred hereafter collection Hungary(Document I Folder 137, pg. 74 lieutenant started him beating came homeonAugust tohis thing from thewindow. soldiers hadat the gate beat o up him verify hisstory. and that abuseauthorities began theat the hands inthe of tortured, experience from their beds pulled ofbeing onJanuary of themilitia. they Miklós, awaythe house before beat headquarters takingtothe him command in him KovácsRezső other doorstep groups away totake arrived ontheir them for TerrorWhite in Community’sJewish aidofficesexperienced show,theviolence peopleduring the legal domestic sphere quite literally. courts. ,Statement by Gyula Preizer to PIH pg. 32, BZsL.32, pg. PIH to Preizer Gyula by ,Statement Statement by Majoros Zoltán to SDP, November 22, 1919, pg. 31, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 31, pg. 1919, November 22, SDP, to Zoltán Majoros Statement by BZsL.77, pg. 1920, 4, February Minister, ofthe Prime Consideration Letterthefor S to Kovács Rezső Statement by 1919, 11, December (PIH), Hitközség Izraelita AidofPesti Bureau Legal to Lipót Weisz Statement by T Incases, made Democrat asthe many statements tothe Social the he physical violence simply

neighbor who witnessedneighbor being ona him buildingwho staircase could beaten inthe 75 -

E 1919 B/013 1919 1919 B/013 E recalled on Januaryguardsrecalledwhencame brother on his 21,1920that toarrest

77 A group residents Jewish madegroup aof the form ofthe formbeatings beganhomewhen inthesoldiers, police officers or because theybecause were Jewish.

GyulaFreiser recalled 78

Hendrik Hermann noted in his Hendrikin his Hermann noted

DP, January 21, 1920, pg. 232, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 232, 1920, January21, DP, 8

of militias

and , 1919, he had barely stepped out of his home when barely, 1919,he stepped the had outofhishome

- es feh in F érterror jegyzőkonyvek, Budapest Zsidó Levéltár, Budapest, Budapest, Levéltár, Zsidó Budapest jegyzőkonyvek, érterror f his house and his family his and thewholef hishousehad witnessed ebruary 1920 OszkarSchlesinger thatebruary reported 1920

described inthe previousinvadeddescribed chapter the in a complaint from Februarycomplaint in a 1920

76 139

One man,Zoltanthat his reported Majoros

guard’s building roomof hisapartment

statement , 1920at inthemorningand two complaint which recalled their questioning or searches. or questioning that when gendarmes ic Party’s and Pest andic Party’s

how militia militia how 74

CEU eTD Collection 83 BZsL. 35, pg. February1920, 5, PIH, to Lipót Friedmann Statement by also 192 January12, SDP, 82 81 80 BZsL. 107, pg. 1920, 21, February PIH, to Schlesinger 79 home alone husband was denunciationleft eight sofearfulhis of that hehad Istvánhome echoedofMrs. 1919complaint Borcsi the appear“afraidandaccording wife, was, tohis sleep to at goneheHungarian order had as followingan thereceipt hidingto authorities into of woman even didnot her realize husbandarrested hadand hel been was being one ofthein report by cases mentioned written reported thatone Marcus, he Joseph reported tofear searchesIn continued officers. and thatpeople visits home byHungarian Marcus, inMayCommune, Joseph the 1921, that they questioning. for were needed apartmentand tookaway were buildings names a telling thosewhose list, themonly on police across station thestreet. officers with the Spanish fluandcould get not ofbed. out two of themen taken, the tenants thehouse.Jewish in lodgedand Accordingsonof complaint by thewives tothe la Jewish religioncard. identity onhis upon trying wassaw hishouse hisJewish onBáross beatenaftersoldiers toenter utca, he

Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Hungary?,” 22A, JDC. 22A, in Hungary?,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, 137, pg. 1920, JanuarySDP, 2, to Lázár Mihály Statement by 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 1, pg. 1919, 14, October SDP, to Porjesz Sámuel Statement by LángSDP, to Józsa and Láng Irén Kreutz, Paula Statement by Oszkár by BZsL;57, Statement pg. 1919, September24, PIH, to Hermann Henrik Statement by On entered ndlord onVérseny Keleti near utca station

January

to go hiding into to

home and and home 0, pg. 185, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; pg. 185, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; See See PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 185, pg. PIL; 3, 185, pg. AllagDossier 0, 10,

31 , 1920 two police house officers theapartment came, 1920two toa ofthe

officers 79 pulled a man from his bedpulled a manfrom his .

Other statements that submitted

wanted to take one additional tenantwanted he one but totake was sick 82

Evenyear nearlya aafter the ofthe half collapse 140 JDC

representative visiting Hunga

Inanother in

January 31, 1920, pg. 245, 245, pg. PIL. 1920, January31,

Fond 658, Statement by István Radics to to Radics Statement 658, István Fond by Budapestoff fivecarted of and the

to take infor him at questioning a earlier home.”

statement, in the ch

- 83

month pregnant wife pregnantmonth wife soldiers ente

The sleeping fearat of apter

two police , whose d by the red ry,

CEU eTD Collection 87 Sch Salamon from Chief Prosecutor BZsL,to 137, Letter pg. 1919, 11, December PIH, to Lipót Weisz Statement by PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 313, 1920, 23, March SDP, to Badsó István Mrs. Statement by 1920, 23, March SDP, to Csontos Aladar Mrs. Statement by 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 304, pg. 1920, 16, March SDP, to Igert József Mrs. Statemetnby Statement 86 85 84 actions searching hi for recounted after being how upby beaten soldiers police,gendarmes. soldiers and treatedauthorities. by the who didnotconformalso how shows womenbourgeois to of decorum norms sexual were more systematiccoordinated dimensionsofTerror inregard efforts, to surveillance also believed lover was ofthe the the twomen’salso same lover.claimed theytothe Shehousewhothey didthe trustee, Mateika, who house weeklyas tothe toinquire Imréone complained case,August, thatcame since detectivestoher Mrs. Simon 1919, ortothelocalvarious militias front thencarted oftheirand awaybarracks, families, and toprisons, theheadquarters of TerrorWhite literally ofmany arriveddoorstep atwho werein quite times, onthe beaten, not asafefrom the authorities’ space immune

Statement by Gyula Preizer to PIH, Febraury 26, 1920, pg. 32, BZsL. 32, pg. 1920, Febraury PIH, 26, to Preizer Gyula Statement by pg. 289 1920, 7, March SDP, Ludwig to József Mrs. Statement by PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 230, 1920, January21, SDP, to Simon Imre Mrs. Statement by May 1 SDP, to Pál Jósef Statement by Apart Heightenedefforts surveillance thestate by As thecases above for further many show, inBudapest was and afield,the home continued well into 1920,andaccordingcontinued Marcus well into to by János Pelikan to SDP, March 19, 1920, pg. 307, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, 307, pg. Fond 1920, 19, March SDP, to Pelikan János by lomosuk, n.d., pg. 108, BZsL. 108, pg. n.d., lomosuk, ments were searched, ransacked,ments were searched, personal m s younger brother.s Theyeven theirbed. drove bayonets the into theyat house were believed because her sleeping they believedher tobe

police further. precincts where often they were abused 86

whereaboutsAndorVenczelt Fleischmann of and 4, 1920, pg. 360, 360, pg. 1920, 4, Incomplaint fromFreiser oneFebruary Gyula 1920, two men.

141 85

This complaint notonlyThis complaint the demonstrates a

ttempts tobring ttempts , the menransacked, the family his Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, FondAllagDossier 658, 10,

pg. 312, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 312, pg. also items andmoney items shaped , Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PI 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, , ,

harassment and major harassment and

the order to Budapest.order The to

domestic sphere. In domestic sphere.

was seized bywas seized

’s 87

home Such but 84 L;

CEU eTD Collection Statement by Ferenc Fried to PIH, March 25, 1920, pg. 33, BZsL; Statement by Pál Friedmann to PIH, PIH, to Friedmann Pál by Statement BZsL;33, pg. 1920, 25, March PIH, to Fried Ferenc Statement by 92 91 90 PIL. 3, AllagFond Dossier 658, 150, pg. 10, January 1920, SDP, 5, to Szuhi Robert by 89 88 neighborhoods. policeyoung andmilitias, other bands of thestreets oftheir menroaming but particularlyexperiencedpresence residentsconstant theJewish ofthedistrict of the quarterspecificallythe Jewish and thestreets of the totakehousehis tothe masterpolice him precinct. coming to January happenedat the “initiative” ( tenants harass thatthey so could tenants. claimed andbeat the Jewish Wettel thatall this apartment ofthe clothing saidthatthesoldiers other went from and him tenants. the the also to Wettel soldiers from army thenational housecame inorder torequisition apartment tohis households them withinformation hitting outwi of the nationalist Awakening organization Magyars. he sawwindowsbecause had destructive no raids of recounted onhis vi physical damage

Statement by Imre Tóth to SDP, February 20, 1920, pg. 267, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 267, pg. 1920, February 20, SDP, to Tóth Imre Statement by 35, pg. February1920, 5, PIH, to Lipót Friedmann Statement by 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 35 pg. 1919, 25, November SDP, to Wettel Gyula Statement by Pelik János Statement by 54 in Hungary?,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, Terror Incases, employees theauthorities, some with providing domestic were complicit

1920 was recounted byLipó recounted 1920 was

and denouncing tenants ndows with sticks, ndows withsticks,

not only reached into the actualIt overtook home.neighborhoods, reached into not only also 92 house master house

to homes to homes Just walkingJust a homeentaileda certain sit tothe cityhomes Czegledsit Jewish of inMay, 1921thatmany ofthe án to March 1920, to SDP, 19, án pg. on

tenants, searches, witnessingJewish home identifying continued well1921 into kezdeményezésére

Frigyés BanFrigyés some had thrown grenadessome had thrown houses into . 89 t Friedmann who recalledt Friedmann soldiers being ledby the

one complaint, Gyulaone complaint, that Wettel recalled groth asked and 142 , JDC. ,

307, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, St 3, PIL; AllagDossier Fond 10, 307, 658, ) of

Bangroth

eighth where district, many people, for families Jewish Marcus on Jewish homes on Jewish

mount ofrisk,mount as“patrols” stood BZsL. him him . reported that in addition to addition to reported thatin 90

A similar incidentA similar in about the religion ofthe 91

by . . For example,. For he 88

locala branch atement atement

CEU eTD Collection 97 96 Dos Allag10, 95 PIL. 94 278, pg. 1920, Febraury 23, SDP, to OszkárSchlesinger by Statement PIL; 3, 658, AllagFond Dossier 10, 134, pg. SDP, to Csillag Győrgy by Statement PIL; 93 BZsL. 106, pg. BZsL;1919, Statement 30, December BsL;n.d., 63, Statement pg. PIH, to Katz fromEndre BZsL;Letter 60, 1920, January15, PIH, to Horváth Miksa Dr. by BZsL;57, Statement pg. 1919, 24, September PIH, to Hermann BZsL; Statement 52, pg. 1920, June7, PIH, to Habermesch Salaman by 46,BZsL; Statement pg. 1920, January8, PIH, to Görög Samu Dr. by pg. BZsL;44, Statement January 1920, PIH, to 3, Lipót Goldschmid Statement by G Ferenc by Statement BZsL; 36, pg. 1920, January4, complaints made tothe Budapest quarter. 1920, there was particularlywinter between and the archiveJewish that alsoas raids those above indicate suchrelatively were common, attacks simultaneitycafé these raids of sugge called guests and and outthe beat Jewish butts Blackjacks rifle them with day mercy.” street soldiers by dog and“without whobeatthemofrifles allwith thebutts whips patrons,all including theJewish father,at their their neighborhood were the cafe sentinto removecaps. their papers. on street corners, stopped

Judgment by Royal Prosecutor against unknown perpetrators, n.d. pg. 113, BZsL 113, pg. n.d. perpetrators, against unknown RoyalProsecutor Judgment by BZsL. 112, pg. 1920, May PIH, to 19, Schwartz József Statement by 658, 271. pg. Fond 1920, 21, February SDP, to Jakabovics Hermann Róth and Sándor Statement by 3, Dossier Allag 10, 658, Fond 269, pg. 1920, 21, February SDP, to Deutsch Sándor Mrds. Statement by 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 133, pg. 1920, January1, SDP, to Blitz Juliska and Miksa Statement by

February

93 rather than spontaneous, disorganized actions by mobs. The documents in the byrather thanin disorganized actions spontaneous, The mobs. documents 97 94

Those whoreplied theyoften hassled were were being further, Jewish to asked

It toestimate howmany difficult is were way, people treatedinthis butthe A similar complaintA similar was lod sier 3, PIL. 3, sier

by Adolf Halpern to PIH, November 27, 1919, pg. 54, BZsL; Statement by Henrik byHenrik BZsL;54, Statement pg. 1919, November 27, PIH, to Halpern Adolf by

, 1920 regarding utcaaan caféwhere, 1920incident at onNépszinház soldiers another In one case,Inand thedaughter one

rash ofattacks rash number theJewish onaofcafes made in largely

people and themtheir asked religion orfor identification

Jewish CommunityJewish legal that aidbureau suggest spring of1920. sts that the actions were thattheactions sts organized ged with the Social Democraticon thesameged withthe Party

by Dr. Ödön Schwartz to PIH, March PIH, to Schwartz Ödön Dr. by 143 eld to PIH, December 9, 1919, pg. 42, BZsL; 42, pg. 1919, December 9, PIH, to eld

Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, AllagDossier Fond10, 658, daughter

Accordingcase, May toa on - in

- law of one man recalled of onelaw man that by Vilmos by .

14, 1920, 115, pg. 1920, 14,

and coordinatedand

. Schaar to PIH, PIH, to Schaar 95

The

18 ,

CEU eTD Collection March 26, 1920, pg. 69, BZsL. 69, pg. 1920, 26, March 100 99 BZsL. 70, pg. 1920, January4, well. as office legal aid Party’s Democratic with Social the report fileda Schlesin Oszkár Statement 60, pg. by 11920, 73, pg. 1920, 20, January PIH, to Emil Kramer Statement by BZsL, 36, pg. 1920, January4, PIH, to Friedmann Pál by BZsL;46, Statement pg. 1920, 8, 98 Schönfeld that He shows. hehad theregathering reported that heard tobe a was at the were communityand Jewish alsocomplaint attacked, as institutions the tefillin the faith made toforce asbyattempt Kóhn topray was theHugó somewith soldiers byJewishness whether wasexamining wasattack th healsoan circumcised on The as forced Jews. Jews undressing of the methods ofhumiliation and persecution enacted by were toshame intended soldiers more immediateofHungarian context counter historical Eastern persecutionagainst rather European inthe Jews, simply it putting than a (expensive) articleclothing. of coveringritually andmore thelossofa was forthan simply humiliating important Jews the reports coll Community theJewish repeated to absence documents records mentionin versus its in questioned about theirthelossofhats religion, some also( but note many Jews for women. men and many Jewish between well1920,street into autumn of1919 harassment the was ttackersas ( “pogrom sticks”

Statement by Otto Hoffma Otto Statement by PIH, to Görög SamuV. BZsL;Statement by 59, pg. date, no PIH, to Hoffman Otto Statement by

Statement by Rudolf Csernyegi to PI to Csernyegi Rudolf Statement by

and The was streets violencefaced experienced by onthe oftheir neighborhoods talith as

Je ected by the Social Democratic byected oftheir the Party islikely head it thattheloss ws

while intheirwas custody. unwilling,was he beaten. he When . Most ofthe. Most complaints indicate how by theattacks being began: n to PIH, no date, pg. 59, B 59, pg. date, no PIH, nto

pogrombot

Further, who calledclubs used by OttoHoffman the his H, July, 12, 1920, pg. 19, BZsL; Statement by Hugó Kohn to PIH, PIH, Kohn to Hugó BZsL; by pg. 19, Statement 1920, July, H, 12,

ger to PIH, February 21, 1920, pg. 107 pg. 1920, February 21, PIH, to ger

BZsL; Statement by Dr. Miksa Horváth to PIH, January 15, January15, PIH, to Horváth Miksa Dr. by BZsL;Statement Rudolf CsernyegiRudolf ), placed his attack a), placed within broader narrative of 144 -

ZsL. revolutionary politics.

by soldiers to validate his by soldiers tovalidate

Statement by Jakub Kohn to PIH, PIH, Kohn to Jakub by Statement a kalap

common experiencecommon 99 , BzsL. Schlesinger also also Schlesinger BzsL. ,

Likewis o ). Given the ). f Sándor f e rituals of e, some of 100

January Jews CEU eTD Collection pg. 39, BZsL. 39, pg. 1919, 9, December PIH, to Furmann Samuel Statement Mrs. 85; by pg. 1920, May 10, PIH, to Meijesovitz 104 discussed. been has in particular Jews class middle targetingof 103 102 101 interpretations of violence. violence, such as women and the elderly w prosperity humiliation and anger was also tied to their ideas of their social respectability they may have been targeted for attack as Jews b status. Jews, but also because militias meted out violence despite their elevated socio suggesting that they felt humiliated not only simply becaus mention the loss or theft of their hats indicate how expensive they were, strongly other multiple asin forms hierarchies. individuals ofpersecution and interpretations ofviolence organize army. a Jewish andambush him who other camefor Jews astrying themeeting them and to denounced Awakening the porter Magyars. Schönfeldwas intentionally convincedthat tried who hadwho tookthemandJews responded tothe call other tothe officesof the the meetingwas when but tothe beingtheyroom,met by held, theywent up police were brother. of Uponarriving, theporter thebuilding t receptionist) (doorman; told Budapest Community’s buildinginBudapestwithhis utca andwent onSip Jewish

Statement of Gyula Preizer to PIH, to PIH, Preizer StatementGyula of the chapter BZsL. 32, previous pg. Inthe 1920, February 26, to PIH, Preizer StatementGyula of March PIH, to Schwartz Ödön Dr. Statement by BZsL. 110, pg. 1919, September5, PIH, to Schönfeld Sándor Statement by 102 Yet

Others also list the valuables seized from them which demonstrates that although . 103

while

Further, broader ideas about those groups who should be exempt from

Jewishness 101

104

Hierarchies of age were upset asyoung militia members playedshapingan important rolein people’sexperiences

, it is also clear that people expe that isalsoclear , it February 26, 1920, pg. 32, BZs 32, pg. 1920, February26, ere extraordinarily salient in individuals’

145 14, 1920, pg. 115, BZsL. pg. 115, 1920, 14,

ymilitias or nationalist mobs, their

e militias’ violated them as L ; Statement by Hermann Statement by ; rienced their attacksrienced their and

Several of those who

and financial - economic hem where

to CEU eTD Collection 105 harassment and abuse. militias and other bands of nationalist activists placed many in constant danger of by the potential enemies of the state. Budapest’s Jewish community was touched in specific ways domestic employees who denounced their neighbors and aided the authorities in identifying was highly per the most intimate spaces of their lives. Terror and counter pulled people from their homes and beds, subjected them to physical violence and abuse in and militias performed destructive entailed the invasion of physical violence and terror into the domestic sphere, as the police bourgeoisie so closely tied their identity to their domestic power. important element of the transition from revol Reconquering the domestic sphere by removing the remnants of bolshevism was an domestic sphere was an important arena of violent political, social and ideological struggle. intimacy between neighbors and fellow citizen counter Conclusion were challenged, as men were beaten in accosted and beat pensioners as well as children and adolescents and gender hierarchies

Gyáni, Gyáni,

terror in these spaces, as the constant patrols of their neighborhoods and streets by - The discussion above demonstrates the extent to which the White Terror and revolutionary political strife bled into the domestic sphere, eroding trust and The Parlor and the Kitchen, the and Parlor The

sonal in nature, and often required the collaboration of neighbors and

115 searches, placed individuals under constant surveillance, - 117. front of their wives and children.

146 ution to counter s. Between August 1919 and 1921, the

- revolution in the domestic sphere - revolution because the 105

The struggle

also CEU eTD Collection fellow citizens in order to get revenge for the past wrongs of the Soviet regime. Prosecution Through (the threat of) denunciations, individuals wielded a great deal of power over their and (re)assert their dominant on the denunciations of landlords, employers, and neighbors eager to prove their loyalty ideological sympathies during the Soviet regime. Formal prosecutions also relied heavily (former) domestic employees the Kun regime or those employed by the Soviet state that ensured that those who had been empowered by the laws and policies established by court system. It entailed exploiting the s violence. state’s capacity for violence and saw that no space, however sacred, was immune to reach into the home meant that many people state. The White Terror and counter access to better housing by providing them with the means to use the coercive power of the revolutionary political environment allowed people to se reassert pre elite women, with opportunities to contribute to the counter willingness to entertain denunciations provided many people, in counter defined not simply by their religion but also by class, gender and age hierarchies. The - Reconquering the domestic sphere also took place in the counter However, people’s experience of the violence, both as perpetra revolutionary regime’s broad

- war social hierarchies and property relations. Moreover, the counter position in the social and political hierarchies of Hungary. — wer e penalized for their actions and political and - revolution may have targeted specific groups, but its - based efforts to root out communism and their tate’s broad interpretation of criminal law in ways 147 felt its effects. They were exposed to the

— specifically but not exclusively ttle personal scores and secure - revolution by helping the state cluding middle class and tors and victims, was - revolutionary - CEU eTD Collection 108 107 BFL 9434, BFL HU 1920, 106 who knew his father as an honorable and trustworthy man gathered in the courtyard of the case, during a search of his father’s apartment, Salaman Schlomosuk said that 500 persons masters in identifying them to th were left behind after his attack. accompanied a man who had been beaten on the street to get his umbrella and hat which also witnessed on behalf of each other in cour by petitioning legal aid bureaus on their behalf, reporting what they had seen. Neighbors protect and aid their neighbors in a variety of ways. Many people assisted their neighbors domestic sphere. In many instances, house trustees, porters, la and two revolutions. rela persons who were vulnerable to accusations. Such actions highlight the erosion of social elevated socio Often just intermediaries between the coercive organs of the state and their fellow citizens/subjects. collaboration with the policies, militias, or gendarmerie, many people served as population co ended with sentences in camps and prisons defined by abuse and deprivation. in the co

Statement by Lip Statement by BZsL. 59, pg. date, no PIH, to Hoffman Otto Statement by József Caseagainst tions and economic conditions that had taken place in Hungary over the course of war However, this is not the full story of the White Terror and counter Finally, the struggle in the domestic sphere illuminates the myriad ways the broader urts may not have been violent in and of itself. But for many defendants, trials ; Case against Gyula Jókai, 1919, 1919, Jókai, Gyula ; Caseagainst the - VII.5.c ntributed to the threat - economic status was enough to exact material advantages and instill fear in ót Weisz to PIH, December 11, 1919, pg. 137, BZsL. 137, pg. 1919, December 11, PIH, to Weisz ót - Reklovitz, 1919, HU BFL HU 1919, Reklovitz,

1920 of denunciation by people who wielded power because of their

–

4734, BFL 4734, political struggle

107 e authorities and vouching for their character.

; Case against Kálmán Kálmán ; Caseagainst People often sought the help of house trustees or house HU BFL HU - VII.5.c 148 - t proceedings. . Through their denunciations, their VII.5.c

- 1919 -

1919 - 7588, BFL; 7588, Mészáros, 1919, HU BFL 1919, Mészáros, – 9529, BFL.9529, 106 ndlords and neighbors helped

In one case, a house trustee

C ase against Izidor Izidor against ase

- revolution in the - VII.5.c

108

In one Lajta Lőwy, Lajta - 1919 – CEU eTD Collection 110 109 with…. “It’s quite terrify helps demonstrate that, in the words of one character in Dezső Kosztolányi’s completely battered trust among neighbors. Focusing on the terror in the domestic sphere house.

Kosztolányi, Kosztolányi, BZsL. 108, pg. n.d. Schlomosuk, Salaman from Chief LetterProsecutor to 109 110

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149

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Acco D Caseagainst in Hungary,” Revives “Hope Kuh, Frederick

Hungarian Siberia Hungarian Siberia: Siberia: Hungarian rceration inthe early rding to Roger Daniels, Daniels, Roger to rding — rally have no broader recourse because of their citizenship. In the case of Hungary, citizenship citizenship ofHungary, Inthe case citizenship. oftheir because recourse broader no have rally In Hungarian Royal 1925,the case against initiated Curia a Dezső Andorka,

not even the Friedrich government itself government Friedrich the not even an accountant anan in ironworks. Nikkei in the Pacific Northwest: Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians in the the in Canadians Japanese and Americans Japanese Northwest: Pacific the Nikkei in te Terminology and the Incarceration of the Japanese Americans Japanese ofthe the and Incarceration te Terminology ezső Andorka, 1925, 1925, Andorka, ezső -

(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2005), 183 2005), Press, Washington of University (Seattle: long politicallong internment inZalaegerszeg.

of Horrors; these are truths to be verified on a day’s visitBudapest.” day’s a on to verified be truthsto are these ofHorrors;

about internment underHorthy theregime

- postwar a distinction must be made between incarceration and internment. The The internment. and madeincarceration between must be distinction a day borders of Austria and Slovenia. It Slovenia. day ofand borders Austriathe alsoincluded Incarceration, 1919 Incarceration, nerally refers to the confinement of non of confinement the to refers nerally

Counter VII.5.c VII.5.c

period, which he himselfhadperiod, he experienced during which his Chapter Four Chapter -

The Liberator The 2 1925 1925

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which he allegedly hadwhich he ," in Louis Fiset and Gail Fisetand in Louis ," men and women who have have who womenmen and

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Case against Dezső Andorka, pg. 425, 1925, 1925, 425, pg. Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst LP/ 1919, 22, Party,Dec Labour British Author to No Russia,” LateImperial in Crime “Political JonathanDaly, 1925, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst ; Iván Völgyes, “Hungarian Prisoners of War in Russia, 1916 in Russia, ofWar Prisoners “Hungarian ; IvánVölgyes, ed on r wrote that “Crimes are comparisonr wrote“Crimes regime which being in to the thatperpetrated ofthe oned upassociations between counter of thepolitical conditions People’s History Museum and Archives, Manchester, England ( Archives,Manchester, and Museum History People’s Linking and Russia’s Hungary’swas systemsit ofinternment provocative as

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Case against Dezső Andorka, pg Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst Imperial

British Joint Labour Delegation to Hungary, to Delegation Labour BritishJoint -

he had ; 1921, New York Collection, American Joint Distribution Committee Archives Committee Distribution Joint American New Collection, 1921, York I nternational Committee of the Red Cross (hereafter abbreviated ICRC), “Report on th on ICRC), “Report abbreviated (hereafter Cross ofthe Red Committee nternational - The history civilian internment of andincarce In tobring theeffort book,Andorka publish his to tolight intended something , conservative authoritarian tions earlytions on,b

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Report on the Alleged Existence of ‘White Terror’ in Hungary ‘Whitein Terror’ of Existence Alleged the on Report

thereinterest was keeping sustained not in thememory or

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The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The t of debate and propaganda and t ofdebate ially 1919 between HU BFL HU 152 sonment wasof animportant thebroadersonment part

had -

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Andorka believed the experience of that

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VII.5.c VII.5.c systematically ration during the long World War I War duringration thelong World - Hungary , ary political incarceration and - Collection of Evidence Concerning the the Concerning Evidence of Collection

1925 1925 - 1921, political imprisonment 1921, political , trans. Tim Wilkinson trans.Tim , Wilkinson

– (n.p.: n.p. (n.p.:

8038 (London: Trade Union (London: Trade

perpetrated and carriedperpetrated

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- ügyészségi, e Hajmasker Hajmasker e

(London: His (London: His - 75. There There 75. 848

CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2010) Press, University stat“civilian 1914 War, 1919,” Terezin, Minorities and Immigrants ( Res “ Stibbe, 2008); Camp, 1914 Ruhleben the Germany: in Internees Civilian Legacy in Legacy?” Violent Austria in Suspects Political of Internment “The Stibbe, Stibbe. 11 effort. of “enemyaliens” countries to int in Hungary abated. aftercrisis even established between 1914 counter ethnic groups,out retribution and against metealleged enemiesofthe regime.The practicesand lawstomanage inorder marginalize certain crises, internal politicaland oftheimportant dimension ne organized violence the early historiographycivilian confinem on Ihistoriography War aftermath.and violent its onWorld Hungary,general broader problemthis a within butis European,United States, and aftermathits appear. hasThis de begun to so that workI ontheincarcerationof War civilians duringand and in internment World January

One of the historians most active in regard to the history of “civilian” internment has been has internment “civilian” ofthe history to mostin regard active historians Oneofthe ponse of the International Committee of the Red Cross,” Cross,” Red the of Committee the International of ponse ernal ofstep security out withthe emergency was inother not passed legislation , Agatha Schwartz, ed. (Ottowa:Universi ed. Agatha , Schwartz, Ingeneral, the - L 2006): 5 2006): revolutionary internme - egislation

counter 1918 during the course of World War I ofWorld War during thecourse us, see us, The Internment of Civilians by Belligerent States during the First World War and the and War First World the during States Belligerent by Civilians of Internment The Austrian History Yearbook History Austrian

(London: Hurst&Co., 2007). (London: Hurst&Co., - 19; Stibbe, “Civilians Internment and Civilian Internees in Europe, 1914 Europe, in Internees Civilian and Internment “Civilians Stibbe, 19; Tammy M. Proctor, Proctor, M. Tammy - Gender and Modernity in Central Europe: The Austro The Europe: Central in Modernity and Gender revolution (citizens from enemy(citizens states)

giving broad thestate and retribution and .

war had a providedpowers for of states’ expansion war dramatic across

26, 26,

- nos. 18, though extra 18, though ary ofstate dimension as periodanimportant

1 w government’s adapt wartime to w andtransform efforts - nt apparatus thepractices mirrored civilian internment of 2

(2008): 49 (2008): Civilians in a World War, at a 1914 in Civilians . It. entand analyzing by incarceration internment during

27 (January 1996): 199 (January27 1996): also examines internment and imprisonment as an also internment examines andimprisonment

For an important discussion about the changing nature of nature changing the about an important For discussion ty of Ottowa Press, 2010), 203 2010), Press, ofOttowa ty powers to powers arth is not unique toEast Centralarth Europe isnot orto - 81 - 153 , legal internment and imprisonmentcontinued

which included for provisions which theinternment .

See al See

and citizens whomig citizens and - 18 Journal of Contemporary History Contemporary of Journal so so

(Manchester: Manchester University Press, Press, University (Manchester: Manchester identify - Todd Huebner, “The Internment Camp at Camp Internment “The Huebner, Todd Hungary during the First World War: A War: World First the during Hungary - 211; Andrej Mitrović, Mitrović, Andrej 211; 11

This chapter contributes tothe This chaptercontributes

and rootpotent out - - 1918 Hungarian Monarchy and Its and Monarchy Hungarian - 218; Stibbe, Stibbe, 218;

(New York: New York York (New New York: ht harm the warht harm - direct Serbia’s Great Great Serbia’s - 1918,” 1918,”

British Matthew

41, 41, ial threats ed and ed no. no. 1 CEU eTD Collection course of the war. ofthe course 1918 15 14 46 Pölöskei, 13 72 1989), AkademiaKiádo, 1914 per suspect of internment and “deportation 12 regulationsall instituted that 7, 1914. British Parliament thefirst inAugust the passed ofthe Realm Defence Acts of (DORA) among things,detainright to enemy and other intern the a theirstates ownwartimelegislation alsoinstituted emergency which them, afforded authorities also used emergency an law tointern activism and marginalizing political upheaval by caused thewar legislation aris tensions todefuse social judicial procedures and importantly, and press, freedomassociation, ofthe freedom of over was thewar course ofthe opposition. war break out government legislation passedstate’s outliningeme special the Europe America. and North

Andrew G. Bone, AndrewBone, G. Stibbe, Rachamimov, thefor whichprovided powers, fromexpanded would whobenefit authorities military was it InAustria - 47. -

(PhD Dissertation, McMaster University, 1994), 2. These laws were expanded upon throughout theuponthroughout wereexpanded laws 2. These 1994), University, McMaster Dissertation, (PhD 1918

Similar toHungarySimilar and theDual generally, Monarchy more belligerent other 15 Hungary after Two Revolutions Two after Hungary “The Internment of Political Suspects Political of Internment “The

[Hungary in the First World War 1914 War World First [Hungary the in

T 12 he governmentshe ofFrance,

The of activated war declaration which onJuly 28,1914 the legislation, , POWs and the Great War the Great and POWs

civil authorities weregreater downinternalgivencivil authorities ever tobe toput powers Beyond the Rule o the Rule Beyond - 78; Stibbe, Stibbe, 78; habeas corpus habeas

those regarded as threats to internal to those regardedstatesecurity. as threats The In

empowered themtosurvei

1912, two years1912, two continuously excontinuously f Law: Aspects of the Defense of Realm Acts and Regulations, 1914 Regulations, and Acts Realm Defenseof the of Aspects f Law: “The Internment of Political Suspects Political Internment“The of , , 137, 137, , sons….”. See József Galántai, JózsefSee Galántai, sons….”. trans. ,

mainly bycurbingmainly forcibly labor str . 13 Germany, ,” 206. ,” ing the from

by Galántai

During war, the - 1918], trans. Éva Grusz and Judit Pokoly (Budapest: (Budapest: Pokoly Judit trans. and ÉvaGrusz 1918], 154 E. Csicseri E.

panded toa before the war even thewar began before , d surveil from citizens enemyd states. Hungary in the First World WarWorld the First in Hungary Canada, th

- economiccrises and Rónay (Budapest: Akadémia Kiadó, 1980) Kiadó, Akadémia (Budapest: Rónay l, intern, enemy and deport aliens Hungarian liens after the war began.liens the after war The brogatecivil rights, e United States ande Russia Magyarország az elsőháborúban elsőháborúban az Magyarország the suspension of normalthe suspension rgency powers ,” 206. ,”

auth

orities used the orities ikes and leftist ikes neutralize neutralize , the Hungarian, , 72 . S most most - 75; Ferenc Ferenc 75; hould 14

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CEU eTD Collection (January 1996): 199 1996): (January 17 Suspects.” 2009); University Press, Oxford Gage, Beverly Citizen American Modern the of Making Cappazola, Christopher 14; 1997), &Littlefield, Rowman 16 topurgethe Commune, Hungarian “Bolshevist” and anti politics society and of systematical presentedas measure used apreventative toquellrevolutionaryelements, to was it ofth dimension the war order and prevent emergencysupposed tobeto allowthegovernmentto maintain were designed powers born from the wartim Itwartime emergency rhetoricand practices mayperpetuated laws. used have similar state’s warefforts. allow governments respon to counter their governments.new legislation internal toroot out in threats of the successor states, not in late 1918and 1919 those regarded(potentially) as dangerous tothestate laws enacted more duringpave thewayfor WWI aggressive helped measures against and thoseeffort. undermining suspected thewar of

See for example Todd Huebner, Huebner, examplefor Todd See ArnoldKrammer, . The . The - Thewas 1919Hungarianorder internment not revolution

ly punish those parties regarded as responsible for partiesly caused regardedthe destruction as those punish responsible by The Day Wall Street Wall Day The count e internal government’s response toactual

- Undue Process: The Untold Story of America's German A America's German of Story Untold The Process: Undue 211 internal internal

ary governmentary Hungary, established in er . -

e emergency, but its goalsewere emergency, butits not revolution from worldfrom war tociviland war many revolution, in governments 17

All ofthese by laws,order theinternment including issued the crisis so that it couldcrisis thatit center so attentionand its resources only Stibbe, “ Stibbe, d more nimbly threats the tointernal as tohinder so not “The I “The

Exploded: A Story of America in Its First Age of Terror of FirstIts Age in America of Story A Exploded: ary order internment Hungary, continued and expanded sometimes emergency

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 173 2008), Press, University Oxford (NewYork: nternment Camp at Terezin, 1919 Terezin, Campat nternment The Internment of Civilians”; Civilians”; Internment of The an effort to fortifyan effort stabilitylegitimacy to and the of 155

Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the and I War World Wants You: Sam Uncle 16 ,

The substantial body emergency of later on theother hand simply a exactly . As the crisisEurope in . Asthe shifted

political cr certain designed procedures Stibbe, “The Internment of Political Political of Internment “The Stibbe, , ” continuation of its Austrian History Yearbook History Austrian the same. Wartime Wartime the same. lien Internees lien ises. ,

was animportantwas W - 205; 205;

hile it hile it (New York: (Lanham, MD: MD: (Lanham, - See also also See national winning winning was

27 to CEU eTD Collection Violence,” see violence and hierarchy, between Color “ Crenshaw, Kimberlé see ofintersectionality, explanation fuller a For hierarchies. in reinforcing role veryimportant violenc that argues Hill Collins Patricia differential experience. whichproduce disenfranchisement 18 confinement, differencesprisoners whileinothers, amongwere fla incarceration and internment hierarchies hierarchies oppression ofethnic, includingand privilege gend violence were ofinternment internment were nothomogenous.chapter explorehowthewill indignities and This in Hungaryestablished wasin late 1919.But experienc people’s of 1914 to ideology (see chapter three) law those who had topunish acts committed withthe revolutionary associated regime or legitimacy violence themcould occur against view, without undermining outsideofpublic the establishing all these beconcentrated spaces where “elements” would facilitate of violence the the“harmful against institutionalization by elements” streamline the the functionstate of and nation Je elements

Intersectionality is the study of the relationships between different dimensions of oppression or or ofoppression dimensions different between ofthe relationships study the is Intersectionality

wish. Inwish. the other internmenta was words, key order justice oftransitional dimension systematic state policy. ,” ,” Stanford Law Review Law Stanford The normsandof developed practicescivilian internment the which over course - 18 were relatively well entrenched by the time the entrenched18 weretime counter relativelywell by the ,

Ethnic and Racial Racial Studies and Ethnic

and to create a legal non expel anda basisto tocreate Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Women against Violence and Politics, Identity Intersectionality, Margins: the Mapping -

. of the fledglingof regime. the (re) 18

These categories intersected, and produced divergentunderstandings of building in counter building in

43, 43,

no. no. expanded the White Terrorfromexpanded theWhite extra shaped shaped . Some hierarchies. Some werereproduced inthe spaces of

Patricia Hill Collins, Patricia

6 21 (July 1991): pp.1241 (July1991): , no. , -

revolutionary Hungary revolutionary in a period of crisis. Moreover, ofin aperiod crisis. helpe the order The by or reflected individuals’ positions in multiple in positions individuals’ multiple by orreflected

5 (September 1998): 917 1998): (September 5

internment orderinternment 156

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Mária Ormos, Ormos, Mária Nemes, lumbia University Press, 1933) 1933) Press, University lumbia pation of Hungary often expressed a dual concern for how the violent Romanian treatment of treatment Romanian violent the how for concern dual a expressed often ofHungary pation Counter IET . See . , 22 , General General Magyarország a két világháború korában (1914 korában világháború két a Magyarország 8; Mocsy,8; - revolution who - 1925 Harry Hill Bandholtz, Hill Bandholtz, Harry were regardedas “dangerous.”

The Uprooted The ( chapter Budapest: CEU Press, 2006), 15. 2006), Press, CEU Budapest:

thousands. Those sources which discuss the the discuss which sources Those thousands. ary and internme incarceration

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- 3 of 3

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CEU eTD Collection in a World War at a in War First World the during Britain “ Stibbe, See interned. 1925), Boni, Albert&Charles Mihály Károlyi, 1914. 28 27 Detainees. and of“PrisonersWar “Internm Stibbe, See populations. civilian the for treatment of code a lay not concretely out “civilized” did normsto but appealed It conscience.” the public of the and dictates fr result as they ofnations, ofthe law principles ofthe the and rule the protection under remain belligerents and them,inhabitants the by adopted Regulations in included the not “In cases stated: which form) convention modified in 1907 Convention (it of1899 preamble in the Clause” “Marten’s theonlywas there however, than this, Other military. membersthe werewhonot of territories in occupied populations of treatment 26 negotiations between states their treatmentameliorated through bilateral couldbeormultilateral diplomatic status byelevated their captivity definition Thismeant tothesphere. international that was covered the not under Hague and Geneva Conventions, between parties.andgovernment Though opposition enemy the aliens of theinternment radical accept whodidnot a political established truce broke leftists when thewar out politicallyIn practice effort. tothewar suspect ordangerous often this targeted expanded wartime their exile toimprisonor owncitizensdeemed emergency powers governmentsHowever, of the states mostly interned somewhowere civilians, non those which civilians glaring becauseWar increase Great ofthe a during massive inviolence the particularly European conflictsabsence in butits because of all colonies, themore was international regarding conventions war.

See references in note 6; future revolutionary leader Mihály Károlyi wasintern briefly Károlyi Mihály leader revolutionary future 6; note referencesin See “ Stibbe, inse language was very broad There

differentiates The treatmentcivilian was prisoners, onthe themajor of s other blind hand, ,

The Internment of Civilians of Internment The which has regarded been as one by many ofthe dimensions historians key ; Jones, Jones, Internment of Civilians of Internment Fighting the World: The Struggle for for Peace Struggle World: The the Fighting the Vi om the usages established among civilized peoples, from the laws of humanity, humanity, lawsof from the peoples, civilized among established theusages om

olence against Prisoners of War. of Prisoners against olence Great War pg. pg.

, ” 92

and by international

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 81 and 95 and 81 1991), Press, University Oxford (Oxford:

- the 111. In Great Britain, approximately 32,000 enemy aliens wereenemy aliens 32,000 Britain,approximately InGreat 111. rted into the 1907 Hague Convention, especially in reference to the to reference in especially Convention, Hague intothe 1907 rted ,” ,”

Austria 5

from prior conflicts. from - 6; 6; , Proctor, Proctor, ” 7; Panikos Panayi, Panikos 7; ” 26 - Hungary and Russia went further andHungaryand further went Russia used

This omission was recognized to1914, prior 160 Civilians in a World at War, World at a in Civilians

humanitarian monitoringhumanitarian and

27 , trans. E.W. Dickes (NewYor trans.E.W. , The Enemy in Our Midst. Germans in in Germans Midst. Our in Enemy The ent of Civilians,” 7, and and 7, Civilians,” of ent

During - citizens fromcitizens enem an internee’s non the war the 5; 203 5;

, all belligerentall , appeared in the appeared ; Proctor, ; Proctor, ed in France in in France in ed gainst - 238 Scheipers, Scheipers, - y states.

ci . aid.

more tizen tizen k: Civilians Civilians pot of

CEU eTD Collection 31 206. Holocaust 30 WarGreat the Understanding 29 andIt disarmament.demobilization also saidthe camp that the conditions in were that theRomanianwas army inappropriately officers imprisoning was “ Transylvania. FrancescoBraccio International ArmySwiss ofthe and Committee Lieutenant Red theCrossandFirst InternationalMunro of the Captain Relief Georges Hospital Association, Brunier of the Hungary.committee A Romanian military General Bandholtz,mission, Hill t Henry I captivity War during World scale the problems “sanctified obligation.” ofhuman realm purposes, those political prisoners thewar internedou during found themselves who fearedgetting involved inthe internal of and states. politics Thus,for all intents and consequence they were of no humanitarian tointernational special organizations extraordinarily were because their vulnerable rightsascitizens own denying states them wereretaliation. targets for Nevertheless,

Bandholtz, Bandholtz, HelenFein, Civi of Internment “The Stibbe,

voluminous and somany contained voluminous details.” disgusting T

he 1919Romanian invasion (N ew York: Free Press, 1979), 123, as quoted in Stibbe, “The Internment of Political Suspects,” Suspects,” Political of Internment “The in Stibbe, as quoted 123, 1979), Press, ew Free York: An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An Accounting for Genocide: National Responses and Jewish Victimization during the the during Victimization Jewish and Responses National Genocide: for Accounting civilian pawns interneeswere inwartime as often and propaganda used Sheldon sent backSheldon a sent telegram

was sent to investigate Rom to wasconditions in sent and deprivations created composed of composed

, trans. Catherine Temerson (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002). Wang, and (New Hill York: Temerson trans.Catherine ,

29 something of lians,” 5; Stéphane Audoin Stéphane 5; lians,”

. Native

According to , 185. ,

- which characterized foreignwhich civilian characterized militaryand

born political prisoners, however,born werepolitical prisoners,

American and occupation 30 a he treatment oftheHungarianby POWs the

scandal among the Interamongscandal the 161

to Bandholtz, to Bandholtz, the diarythe itsAmerican representative of

Colonel - Rouzeau and Annette Becker, AnnetteBecker, and Rouzeau

of Hungary

Raymond Sheldon who wrote that 31 anian camps Arad, in

Sheldon’s

reproduced on a smaller reproduced ona smaller sent Aradfor to - Allied mission in Allied mission

telegram stated the telegram , Dr. Hector 14

- tside the 18: 18: ,

, CEU eTD Collection 36 35 34 33 32 Bandholtz was declared, thatit was Romanians] difficult “It to [the decided toinform deportingHungarianwar orphans toorphanages Budapest. from Transylvania in ICRC construct adequate bathin wounded ordisabled during militaryservice. Romanian release theirespecially civiliananchildren prisoners, leadership about the The c AradSheldon concluded conditions he“ saw that were, in the “mistreated” totheir incarcerated todeliverones.whencame provisions theyloved but alsotheirconditions, familyfemale specificallywhowererelatives members, their has written poetry.” amongfemale woman there the“evidentlywaswho educated prisoners, an one that many had (presumably male) prisoners andnoted nounderwear that Sheldon pants. together with themilitary for prisoners rank, without respect or class, affairs.” prisoners were withcold,half “blue starved Hungarianclothingg RedCross, therewere any hardly and supplies thatin terrible: heat,foodwaswere there by nobeds, supplied orevenwindows, only the

Ibid., 191. Ibid., 192. Ibid., 187. Ibid., 188. Ibid., 187. Ibid., onditions provoked the Inter the provoked onditions ,

in conformity towartime norms. 32

Sheldon stated thattheRomanians also civilian were prisoners took who held 33 unacceptability state of ofthe

He prison reported just also was thatit not

g and andfacilities latrine

- Allied mission tosend noticeAllied mission tothe Romanian 36

They were 162 [sic.] [sic.]

and worriedabout their private

Arad.were The directedto Romanians provide accesscamps the their to to d theelderly,as those well as also denounced by their alliesalso for denouncedby their

authorities were also told told authorities were also a disgrace to civilization.” a disgrace to ers who faced terrible sex, despite thefactsex, eneral the to 34

CEU eTD Collection 39 hereafterabbreviated (collection Levéltár Intézet Politikatörténeti 3, AllagDossier Fond 76, 10, pg. 658, 1919, 9, December 38 37 in interning orsuspected communists especially communists, the to thosewithlinks internment hadinitially begunthe under oc the “whites”later handed to inSzolnok. over him IstvánFekete, National Army inSzolnok government,communist theyprisoners over along andtothe them handed brought their According toSzőke the first of center thecounter prisoner inaprison and camp Arad,a placed them in city hadbeen inTransylvania that that theRomanian troopsof had Red taken Armygroup officers soldiers a and large one from documented in and the tothe purview thus Hung of orchestratedof thetransfer prisoners intheir custody tothe HungarianArmy National military and was civilian prisoners blurry. very Romanian military Moreover, the goals created came imprisonment. ofit layers when chaos totheissueof along thelinesindicated….” believe thatlaidclaims howany a tobeing civ nation in

Statement by Mrs. István Feketa to SDP, December 3, December 3, SDP, to Feketa István Mrs. Statement by the to Szőke Ida Statement by 195. Ibid.,

in Hungary, militaryin Hungary, defeat The warfare betweenand Hungary and Romania,

December 9, 1919 9,1919 December

said that her sonhadbysaid arrestedArmy, thatbeen her who theoccupying Romanian complaint PIL). , when theRomanianscontinued, when their westwardadvance against the

, made tothe Social Democratic Party’s bureau legal

Social Democratic Party Legal Aid Bureau (hereafter abbreviated SDP), SDP), abbreviated Aid(hereafter Bureau Legal Party Democratic Social who conti 37 made - r

evolutionary movement prior moving toit toSzeged. movement evolutionary and counter by a Budapest woman IdaBudapestwomanby a Szőke arian nued toincarcerate them. counter 163 cupying Romanians who were most interestedmost cupying Romanians whowere - revolution, meant that the linerevolution, dividing

1919, pg. 59, PIL. 59, pg. 1919, - 39 revolution

Other complaints state that ilized class couldilized handle children the aryregime. Thi Entente more broadly, Entente more broadly,

A nother The Entente’s twin . The complaint

woman, Mrs. woman, s transition is s transitionis , such as , such

stated CEU eTD Collection 43 49. 1980), AkadémiaKiadó, (Budapest: in reprinted 2140/1920; 42 LP/HUN/1/10/1.i Hungary,” in Persecutions Political the Respecting Powers the Entente of Responsibility “The of1919. summer the in government thePeyer government representative) and democratic necessarily 41 SD to Sándor Schwitzer Statement by 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 97, 1919, 15, December SDP, to Spitzer Olga Statement by 40 InteriorDecember of Beniczy Minister 1919,Ödön issued Hungarian an amended order state withemergency intheevent ofwar powers o of measure internments apreventative interests is ofstate security.” inthe vital 1919 withdecreeInterior by of 194/1919issued goal “The stated that theMinistry which revolution Overlapping forces’ ofsoldiers internment and withthe occupation civilians, InternmentRegulating would onlythepleasure theat take of place any internationalintervention Powers,Hungarian the tothecustody also transfer ofmeant authorities that prisoners of topreventinglimited (re)establishment of the the domestic a members were meant that direct intervention by andsubstantive the transformed from their incarceration Budapest(e.g.government. Kun) rder

Pölöskei, Pölöskei, M Levéltar, Belügyminiszterium non a of withestablishment the concerned wereprimarily Powers Great pg.1919, 79 December 10, SDP, to Fritz Imre Dr. Statement by

was bornoutofwas Hungary’s

Hungary after after Hungary ar y political internmentformally and incarceration beganinonAugust 20, ffairs of another state. I ffairs of anotherstate.

selective in regard theywhat extent selective and in towhen to Ferenc Pölöskei, Pölöskei, Ferenc Two Revolutions Two

agyar Országos Levéltár (hereafter referred to a to referred (hereafter Levéltár agyarOrszágos s

, ins P, December 6, 1919, pg. 67, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 67, pg. 1919, December 6, P,

maintenance of Law LXIIILaw maintenanceof of 1912 40 Hungary after after Hungary pections, orinvestigations of madeprisoners onbehalf

Each prisoners transfer of to Hungary from Romania ,

the 47. n th

inte e case of Hungarycasee of 164 counter - rnational to to rnational iv, LHA. iv,

a communist in Hungary in

Two Revolutions Two ,

which in1914. had activated been - revolution

Entente - 80, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 80,

as indicated by their by indicated as the

regime. domestic intervention

, was less likely was less

- trans. communist ary government.ary

would intervene into would intervene into 41 by ,

sMOL)

Beyond theGreat E. Csicseri E. which provided the which sphere , (ideally but not but (ideally ,

was primarily

nego , Alispán Iratok, Alispán Iratok, , , , which

as counter tiations with tiations - 42

Rónay its its

The 43 -

CEU eTD Collection 45 pg Andorka, abbreviated (Hereafter revolution] 44 made of“suspicion,” simply onthebasis which practic intheorderoutlined their communications,movements, socialization, and labor. be requiredpolice toreport according sch tothe toaset toathose, similar rigorous form ofparole, wherebyfamily theindividual andtheir would of theinternee. also The providedan arrangement order alternate “policeguard” of for available occupancy,unless all orsomespace for necess ofthe still was were tothe relevant over tobeturned would be authority immediately housing and sold off “at value market pay upkeepforand theirduring their families’ incarceration their property tobe was theft from long Hungaryaltogether. So If confinementauthorities. by police were they non concent deported,with their dependents inmany cases Hungary da were(1) public order to “dangerous deemed and safety”; (2) The revisedcalledforforeign theinternment order and of personsnative Hungarians who 91383/

Nemes, Nemes, Dezső ngerousand/or“harmful” topublic(3) safetytotheeconomicand life order; of , requisitioning, or,profiteering 1919.VI.a.B.M. elaboratedin Hungary. thecarceralwhich and expanded regime rate the population ofthosesubject whowouldstrict theto surveillance be rate population or IET . 44 s

, T , 431

239 hose persons who werehose persons swept oneofcategories upinto these were tobe Iratok az ellenforradalom történetéhez ellenforradalom az Iratok - . 434

, 1925, 1925, ,

were extraordinarilywere vague arrest since andinternment

transferred to the custodyoftransferred tothe ” (mainly stores).case offood internees The inthe homesof

VII.5.c VII.5.c IET

- ), 2 ),

1925 1925 as was it not nd ),

edition (Budapest: Szikra, 1956), 239; 239; 1956), edition Szikra, (Budapest: – and subject thus

8038 165 , Bíróság ,

[Documents on the history of the counter ofthe history the on[Documents to camps otherorder or to villages to in gained through illegal means i - - citizens, theycitizens, deported were tobe ügyészségi, the authorities. Itthe authorities. to uncompensated seizure, state ally suspended edule and would be limited in limited edulewould be and 45 suspected

The categories

BFL. ,

or otherw

Case against Dezső Caseagainst Dezső

habeas corpus habeas would be used to would ( ary forary thefamily gya

nus ise stor could be

( of persons smuggling, ) of being - ed or

and CEU eTD Collection 47 July 1 accessed 1919 46 in private employees. industryIndividuals targeted public were internment into called for enacted government Soviet by the capacity. Thiswa involved intrade election unions, activities, or any employedgovernment in by the state policy revolutionaryregime inboth actual pol members of who had thegovernments ties ofany and Károlyi.notonly sortto ofKun included This toHungary.communism former PO anti vulnerable tointernment I, War World and refugees fledJewish toHungary fightingeastern whohad duringfront the during onthe were tobe aauthorities threat by deemed Hungary’s the security.However, to Galician their families. langu This evidence. on thebasis ofmere oforeconomic harmful required suspicion political activity and no internees opportunities virtuallyno with havingwithout toorbeingcriminal tofile formal able chargesand against provided them dueIt processlaw toarrest inHungary. authorities of allowed persons andincarcerate the

Ibid., 433. Ibid., Kovács, Tamás, - - Semitic politicalSemitic climate. 1945 között,” között,” 1945 The law two primarily targeted

Ws were alsoWs that interned concerns they becausewould import of 1, 2014, 2014, 1, “Azi A Pécsi Határõr Tudományos Közlemények hivatalos honlapja hivatalos Közlemények Tudományos Határõr Pécsi A s

who had stayedwho had Hungaryfollowingarmistice inthe

potentially http://www.pecshor.hu/periodika/XIII/kovacst.pdf nternálás mint rendészeti válasz állambiztonsági és államrendészeti kihivásokra kihivásokra államrendészeti és állambiztonsági válasz mint rendészeti nternálás itical of parties forformulation orthoseresponsible directly the , 47

age of wasall non inclusive technically

because the the oftheir confluence of andstatusin ethnic legal

Thegroup second 46

a very large groupgiven thea policies nationalization large very

Likewise, wives ofand Hungarian veterans theRussian ,

which had turned many people employedwhich previously had turned groups,

s for recourse, be as initiated incarceration could , but any ofthose whohad individuals been, butany 166

targeted wastargeted leftists

the first the being

“suspect”and foreigners .

- citizens in Hungary in citizens who ,

including those all , ,

vol. were especiallywere

XIII (2012), 431, 431, (2012), XIII CEU eTD Collection Report by Vilmos Böhm to Labour Party Inf Labour to byBöhm Vilmos Report theat time. discussed was also justice transitional dimensionof This Records. Court Criminal Archives’ 50 LHA. LP/HUN/1/10.iii, 49 4, LHA.pg. LP/HUN/1/41, 1920, 27, March ofInterior, Ministry 2007) University, Columbia diss., (PhD. Statebuilding” Czechoslovak Klein Rebekah 48 varying following ofwar emergency byall states degrees theoutbreak in1914toenact organizat ideological principles and revolutionary regimes previous chapter) This law supplemented the new existing regime’s criminal use of laws basis toincarcerate against criminal whomnoformal those charge brought. could be and oth According to imprisonment those Moreover,flexible. in many thisarchitecture was cases designed toleg newlya independent charge Hungarianstate, was high which extremelyand vague andimprisonment ofpersonsdispossession regarded as tothestability dangerous ofthe resources oft leaningsor hadand whethera been todetermine onthe economic drain was someone way toAugust upon tooutline

The criminalization of political acts ofpolitical criminalization The n.d., in Hungary,” Persecutions Political the Respecting Powers Entente ofthe Responsibility “The Caseag ers, the order internment was with legal toprovide specificallythestate intended Employing languagean ambiguous ofstate security The internment createda whatactually architecture order for legal was the ainst Dezső Andorka, pg, 432 pg, Andorka, Dezső ainst ion for thecountry - Pejšová, “Among the Nationalities: Jewish Refugees, Jewish Nationalities, and and Nationalities, Jewish Refugees, Jewish Nationalities: the “Among Pejšová, he Hungary. Andorka

1 their personal, professional,economic activities going and all back the , 1914,which wouldbothallowauthorities toidentify political their

to prosecute people for enacting thevarious for people to prosecute policies of the

who had been weeks charge. incarcerated andwithout months , which which , , Vilmos Böhm, Social anexiled , Vilmos Democratic inVienna, politician

48 which envisioned

(see chapter three) had

is born out in the thousands of case files in the Budapest Municipal Municipal Budapest in files the ofcase the thousands out in isborn -

434 operated accordingset of toawholly different , 1925, ,1925, ormation Bureau, 5 March, 1920, 1920, March, 5 Bureau, ormation 167 VII.5.c VII.5.c

a completely and different economic social

. 50

1925 1925

–

8038 , 28; Ar , 28; ,

which had beenwhich to had used , Bírósági ticle 4 of Order 4352/1919 of 4352/1919 ofOrder 4 ticle LP/HUN/1/ - ügyészségi,

itimize the itimize (discussed inthe (discussed 13.iv.

BFL; LHA. ly ly 49

CEU eTD Collection “ 51 m the Ministry Internment 1922,whenchanges until the totheregulations prisoners, theZalaegerszeg atleast camp.last major from internment These were the dropped. in o andInteriormonths, for ofsuchthe theresults reviews presented totheMinister of tobe 13920/1920. These revisions IstvánandBethlen, in1920 language 1919December order. ofthe Sándor Simonyi internment those to punish marginalizethe goal of the law to was transitional justice legislationtoemergeearlycounter from the the summer of internment 1919.The ofthe orderimportant pieces most wasone of hadcarried been out ( concerned. legitimize The helped order a state ofemergency in measures,counter the AzInternálás

Case against Dezső Andorka, pg, pg, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst inistryinterest some didmaintain ofthe an in affairs of thesection. rder todecide Over the course of five years,Over thefivepolitical regulating incarceration the course of laws and 51

, This change, appears it

were amended andwere amnesties amended were issued ,” 431 ,” of the Interior of the identified as - Se - 432. whether thewhether proceedingsinternees against madam issued a issued madam new regulation

by judges, prosecutors, p

- revolutionary order internment postwar

to the control ofthe Department

more substantive changeswere intr enemies“Christian national” of Hungary.

calledall internments forbe to reviewed three within

440

Hungary where the reinstitution of order reinstitution lawHungary where and was the , 1925, , 1925, ,

helped lead to the paroling of a significant amountof tothe lead paroling ofahelped significant radical inHungarian leftists culture, and political As a result ofnegotiationsAs a result betweenKároly Peyer VII.5.c VII.5.c ex facto post 1 68 olice officers, gendarmes officers, olice militias and -

1925 1925

which onlyaltered the slightly –

) 8038

. emerged outof arrests and incarcerations In March 1920Prime Minister , Bírósági Section

of Safety, Public although the shoul - o revolutionaryregime, as duced inregulation - d proceed or d proceed ügyészségi, BFL; ügyészségi, was transferred fromwas transferred

, but also , but

prolonged be which Kovács, Kovács,

since

CEU eTD Collection “ 53 Hungary,” 52 resurgence re simply had passed, continuedpoliticians tobelieve threat thatevenimminent of the though some wealthierundoubtedly internees took. accused includingcorruption, serious taking of inexchangef bribes for as Hethe poor andprisons camps as ofcorruptionand conditionswas in wellextortion. Laszlóinternment section, Barkóczy, became about whoquickly targetcomplaints the of F unsatisfactory cond came toHungary Marcus, Commirepresentativeof Distribution theAmericanJoint a Jewish significancedescribingand“legal impact, internment as terror.” of such OszkarJászi as Böhm Vilmos and leaders’ the against publicity suspension ofhabeas andcorpus due process government theexcessesinternment, of aswell athome.Publicizing as state’s reputationand theprocess ofpolitical abroad for consolidation the new concernamong some Parliamentary re Azinternálás

urther, charges of corruption in1920werecorruption chargesurther, against thesecond of lodged hea Case against Dezső Andorka, pg, pg, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst in Terror the White on Memorandum Questions, International on Committee Advisory PartyLabour White TerrorWhite that Despite The “Internment provoked Question” significant inPar debate

n.d., LP/H n.d., ,” 432 ,” corruption -

433. to undertake ancamps of investigation internment UN//2/6.ii, LHA. UN//2/6.ii, itions equaled and violence perhapsmilitia surpassed equaled interms of its

in camps

within the internment section of the Interior theinternmentofwithin the many section Ministry, counter

445, 445,

- integrating politicalsociety former into internees back 1925, 1925,

to the New York JDC leadershipto the New JDC York - revolution presentatives thatthe issue presentatives VII.5.c VII.5.c

conceptualized 169 53 ,

- He ultimately was was a theexiledwas central in point labor

1925 1925 ary 1920. government well into –

8038 internment , Bírósági 52 replaced b -

was harming both the ügyészségi In as anoth

and reported ontheand (seechapter six) June June liament. There wasliament. There reedom, anofferreedom,

the on the communist communist d ofthe d 1921 Joseph 1921 Joseph ttee (JDC), y Baksa. János er dimension , BFL; , - going People Ková . cs.

CEU eTD Collection 55 54 internment termina Bar ÜgyvédiAssociation [Budapesti for called to Kamara] ofJustice theMinistry continuation of receded athe divide totheemerged background, between those whosupported internees of the after 1921. summer internment and numbers facilitiestothesteady subsequent contributed of declineinthe prisoners, but whether theshort in term suchactually of missions ameliorate theconditions helped Committee Distribution Joint andas Socialists theH theChristian party’s onall internment. their position But refusal,groups and despite other parties such legitimizing tothe anacceptable internmentopposition whichstoodin as political tool, groundsSocial Democraticrefused that onthe Party one to camp,send missions Zalaegerszeg,to investigate conditions there. inorder the The various political parties including theSocialParty Democratic government provide oversight theinternment in section, privations facedto contendand Therefore,withsuch accusations by prisoners. inorder internment of officials was thecorruption wasdesirable. neither nor practical

Kovács. pg, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst As time te internment on the basis that it was basis thatit te internment nolongerBÜK argued onthe necessary. The that

“ Az intAz had been

enlarged the committeeenlarged charged the withoverseeing inte according toTamás ernálás internment internment went

necessary in the immediate wakenecessary inthe immediate collapse, ofthe Republic’s Soviet ,” 435. ,” on, andperceived asrenewalBolshevist threat the ofaactiv of

others w ,

445, 445, took the government up on their invitation. Ittook the government upontheir invitation. clear not is

1925, 1925, Kovács, 54 55 ho called for its termination ho called its for ungarianAmerican Workers Party, as as the well

Moreover,many,for regarding theprimaryproblem

VII.5.c VII.5.c ,

not the treatmentnot the ofan 170 the increased transparency and of openness rather than abolish internment,rather -

1925 1925 –

sending wasa mission tantamountto 8038 , Bírósági

with . In. Budapest 1922,the rnment d the abuses and abuses d the - ügyészségi the opportunity to . It also provided . , BFL. , in 1921

the ity

CEU eTD Collection John Horne (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 63. 2012), University Press, Oxford York: (New Horne John in Europe,” Beast: Red the “Fighting Gerwarth, 1918 Politics, Domestic Hungary's 57 56 letter, subject political incarceration to time had notbeen formally variedpeople considerably and state withagreat amountofleewayarr to Republic Soviet inAugust 1919. barracksyear forofespecially time, inthe first undefinedperiods collapse after of the the necessarilyever ininternment time spend camps arrestedand by incarcerated theregime reasons, fordid not political they although werereasonAnother discrepanciesthatthousandswere ofpersons produced. for is for a polit of reasons, variety thepolarized including the use of criminal laws followingthe Soviet government, the collapse of the combined orderand results ofthe the practice yearsconcludetwo more until thanthispetition later, state suchand as “double due jeopardy.” process but reckoned toreturnlegal wastothe established thatit of time a constitutiona norms

István Mocsy, Mocsy, István Ibid., .

British pacifis internationalist, 437. Inany case, a Notwithstanding t thepolitical in conflict over internment, War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe after the Great War Great the after Europe in Violence Paramilitary Peace: in War

The The Effects of World War I: the U Warthe I: World of Effects ccording to esccording to

chargedcrime witha in regard in toimprisonment

1921

Counter

often

at between somepoint 1919and 1925. Because of the suspension

(New York: Social Science Monographs, 1983), 157 1983), ScienceMonographs, (NewSocial York: timates t andfeminist K.D. Courtney -

Revolutionary Violence in the Defeated States of Central ofCentral States Defeated in Violence the Revolutionary ha d

est and hold persons, the time spent in custody in persons, spent est the time andhold no idea when they as mightreleased theyno idea be

prooted: Hungarian Refugees and their Impact on on Impact their and Refugees Hungarian prooted: by historians 171

let alone sentencedalet alone for specific period of

but

were Figures are significant. imprecise Though not did formally internment ical environment inwhichstatistics

were prisonsand held various in helped , 60,000 to70,000persons were, 60,000 habeas corpus

initializ

he first yearhe firsthalf and related estimates the , eds. Robert Gerwarth and Gerwarthand Robert eds. , e negotiations toend 57

Ina May, 1920

provide ; Robert ; Robert d

the l CEU eTD Collection 60 59 58 versus e there had been internme Practices,The Internment Interpretations of Experiences,and role inthe establishment regime. orbolstering the communist of incarceration withmen, teemed women, have and whowere children a played believedto indicate that starting Julyearly inlate and internment continuestobe from debated,generated theperiod sources nevertheless servedrespective theirsentences.” were “aftereven they being had interned bee Distribution laterJewish whenJoint reportedAmerican Committee thousands the that Székesfehérvár inTransdanubia. b giventhese the estimates government that in Hungary there denied internment that was another Courtney, 15,000 werehowever, warned imprisoned. reliability about the of Károlyigovernm and Kun either in internment Labour Party. on political internment eyond held 2,000persons the

Mocsy, Mocsy, in Terror White There “Is Marcus, Courtney K.D. Letterfrom Counter nlisted men, which shaped men,actually captivity,nlisted which wartime somewere ofwhich The Uprooted The nt of soldiers and civiliansnt ofsoldiershad and been Accordin

many shared principles, such as the differential principles,officersmany suchas shared treatment of the - revolutionary came ofa heels inwhich internment war onthe

, 156. , camps orinprisons,whileformercamps boththe of Minister for War

to William Gillies to William gto to Bruce Gillies, May 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/34.iii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/34.iii, 1920, Gillies,May8, Bruce to

ents Vilmos Böhments Vilmos estimated that50,000were interned and Courtney’s letter

Hungary,” 15, JDC. Hungary,”15, in acamp Hajmáskér, in afrom townnotfar 58

59 Thereyear was clarity nomore a regarding numbers

Though ofofficial scope counter the ,

August, 1919, everyspaceAugust, conceivable of the Internationalthe British Secretary ofthe 172 n pronounced innocent by courts or hadcourts n pronounced innocent by

, approximately 46,000 were incarcerated a feature. defining

60 Between belligerents

- revolutionary

the

CEU eTD Collection soviétique 62 http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hague02.asp#art4 The 61 theirbut not interpretations agendas,I these triedso have touse the observerswriting andwere bycommissioned them particular with organizations camps the reportsforeign whowentcommissions Hungarian of to internment investigatory deal, knownaboutall ofwhatis counter though not deprivatio andthemselves: (1)facilities; accommodation focusing ofincarceration asfour discussed by maindimensions relatives orinternees on diversity of divergentfollowing effects groups.Thehelpdifferent will illuminate onpages the prisoners ways,were inparticular had policiesapplied whileother but uniformly sources sugg varied ideasgender Further,reflected ethnicand about and individuals’ social, relations. era captivity, experiences individuals’ and were interpretationsoftheir confinement characterized theHung alleviatethose held thesuffering captive. of relief organizations, Hungaria 600,000, enshrined law. ininternational

IvanVö “ of Text

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to gather information. Asthesecontain reportsto gatherand/or information. reflect the interpretations of , 14, no. 1/2 (Jan no. 1/2 14, , lgyes, “Hungarian Prisoners of War in Russia,1916 in ofWar Prisoners “Hungarian lgyes,

ns had bec Convention with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague II), 29 July 1899,” July 29 1899,” (Hague II), Land on ofWar Customs theand Laws to withRespect Convention it inRussia, who hadis likely beenfairly of POWs that a largenumber n; and(4) and punishment violence. physical experiencesand interpretations ofcounter est that some policies wereest explicitly designed groups thatsome toaffect specific of at Yale Law School, Law Yale School, at ome familiar withome theaid

such as sending and clothing offood parcels - Jun., 1973), 54 1973), Jun., arian system of internment fits within the broaderfits within systemarian history ofWWI ofinternment

of the physical conditions of theof of thephysical camps, andfacilities food conditions

Given the sheer number of Hungarians, an estimated Given ofHungarians,estimated thesheernumber an (Accessed 7 May2012) 7 (Accessed . urces in this chapterurces inthis primarily

173 62

practices However, (2) organization; (3)(2) clothing food and

- - revolutionary internment comesrevolutionary internment from 1919,” 1919,” -

revolutionary internment byrevolutionary internment

developed administered by or It is important to note that a good thatIt a note important to is even if much of what mucheven ofwhat if Cahiers du du Cahiers ,

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- CEU eTD Collection 64 63 war unscathed. andfirstrevolutions Bythe two time counter the the camps Front, theEastern on it WWI,Zalaegerszegcamp the at housed prisoners had rest notthousandsof if prisoners theremainsRussian of ofhundreds, war.” RoyalInternment ona sm Camp], the internmentZalaegerszeg: camp“To at the extremeleft of thesign[reading Hungarian visible repaired. yetalsoof wear indicatesand camp that some damage had tothe duringwar be to Italian duringcamphouse and Russian POWs thewar, wasand to constructed after and regardingCross condit the I.camps War International duringWorld 1919 made December report The Red by the Osztiasszonyfa,Zalaegerszeg Hajmáskér and facilitieslandscapesconfinement of development of political incarceration of theregime was alsoevident inthe physical revolution Accommodation andFacilities and six. Discussion ofsupplies. these missions

Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Hungary,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, Camp,” Internment Political the on Hajmasker “Report ICRC, ,

TheI legacy World War w of

according tothe 63 aryorder. internmenttheGreat Continuity between and thesubsequent War

A yearA later, the and ph half June June

ions of internions of 1921 report to by visit his Marcus.about wrote Joseph He

been hastily constructedand make didnot through it the

all hill, risesaall hill, forestBeneathcrosses. ofblack them . The tohouse camps political internees,as used such as not just evident in theorigins evidentas just in not ofthe ’ interpretations ysicalwas evidencecamps still ofthe origins

ment inHajmáskér 65, JDC. 65, 174 ,

had been established or used as POW beenashad POW established or used

7. of will bewill presented in

- war,and like many ofthe POW

specifically note - revolutionaryregime chapters 64 d counter

During that the - five five CEU eTD Collection 69 68 Ferencz Mrs. Statement by 3, PIL AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 38, pg. 1919, 27, November SDP, to Kaszt Dezső Statement by PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 22, 1919, November 19, SDP, to Singer Nándor Statement by 67 internees. civilian and warPOWs house to the during fortresses medieval cite was Castle Eger 3 AllagFond Dossier 10, 658, 1919, 113, pg. 18, December SDP, to Karácsony József Statement by PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg.1919, 94, December 11, SDP, to Schreiber Ignác Statement by 66 65 practiceswhen came totaking it prisoners.In carecases, of localor some police the chaoticwebpersonnel andofcivil overlapping andmilitarydiffere with indicates rootcommunism out to howHungary quickly efforts in intensified. eighteen collapse daysformal Hungarian theof after Margit Körut priso torelocateWar arrested tothe second onpolitical thoseof charges and floors the third representativeMinistry from requested the per ofJustice confinement acute spaces became very quickly. thecountryprison in teemingwas and withpoliticalprisoners…” theshortage of Budapest) and Csepel in the townhalls ofvillages intheseventeenth of (now likeRákoskeresztur district schools and medieval fortresses. ThisincludedafterCommune. vil collapse the of the theuse to manner of put spaces were continuous use,and fro began as camp,were it using aninternment co the barracks inpoor

Nemes, Mocsy, Klein Ignácz StatementMrs. of Fo 90, pg. 1919, December 11, SDP, to Klein Jénő Statement by 66. Ibid., The systempolitical incarceration and was of internment largely managed by Although have notoriouscarceral themost thecampsbeen may all spaces, The Uprooted The IET

, 142 , - 143. d as a place of internment, which was not unusual as many European countries used countries manyEuropean unusualas not was which ofinternment, place as a d n, a military prison,which was , 156 ,

Luthenberger, December 2, 1919, pg. 57, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 57, pg. 1919, 2, December Luthenberger, just outside of outside Budapest.just m being firewoodm for looted by locals .

to SDP to

, November 18, 1919, pg. 20, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PI 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 20, 10, pg. 1919, 18, November , Additionally, were manyand persons arrested placed for confinement, particularly in the first six particularlymonths six confinement, inthe first 175

68 67

In a letterAugust 1919,a dated18, AccordingIstván “Every to Mocsy, standing empty. lage nurserygaols, holding cells, nd 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, nd 10, mission from the Ministry frommission theof Soviet Republic,letterSoviet this .

69 ndition from ndition almost

Written Written only nt priorities and nt

; , PIL ,

a L . ; CEU eTD Collection Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Hungary?,” 19 in Hungary?,” Terror White “IsThere Marcus, SDP, to Fritz Imre Dr. by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 37, pg. 1919, Novemer 25, SDP, to Géza Kállai Géza by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 133, pg, 1920, 1, SDPJanuary to Blitz Juliska and Blitz Miksa Statement by 71 PIL. 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond Fon 251, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 55, 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 69, PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, State PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond Fond 57, pg. 1919, 2, December SDP, Róth to Mór Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 55, pg. December SDP, to Kucsera Ferenc Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 89, pg. 1919, 11, December SDP, to byKis Miklós Statement 3, PIL; Dossier Allag 10, 658, Fond 31, pg. 1919, Doss Allag 10, 658, Fond 10, pg. 1919, to Halm József by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 135, pg. 1920, 2, January SDP, to Almási Antal by PIL; Statement 3, FondAllagDossier 658, 6, pg. 10, 1919, 6, November imprisonment. ofpolitical phase least theinitial at characterized personally. detective the he knew because was paroled hewho that said 1919, November, o prevent potentially also could relationships personal course, Of beastly revenge.” the of prefecture’s as part place took the arrests and enemies personal are persons] arrested [the they because but only seriouscrimes, any committed “had thearrested camenot becau ofDunapataj the town in arrests wavethirty of that the said Goldstein Dezső Mrs. widow madea by complaint One enforcement. law membersoflocal with conflicts personal of camebecause AidBurea the Legal to theirnames evenprovided and them denounced or initiallywho arrested with those wereacquainted often theironbehalf advocated 70 who werewithtransferring often charged peop authorities inBudapest threats Army detachmentsNational militia or from nearby or remainedwerere imprisonedor that even judged when authorities local managing theSocial Statements to Democratic imprisonment. frequently indicated Party onlya very had authority when limited administering came it justice and byextension, military orformer militarypersonnel transferred prison,ormilitary camp, barracks toanother theyauthorities cells inthe holding until ofvillagereleased prosecutors were or either detachments militias. orlocal gendarmes arrests arrests whileinothers, theinitial officer made were by initiated

Statement by Andor Reiszmann to SDP, November 28, 1919, pg. 39, Fond 658, AllagDossier 658, Fond 39, 10, pg. 1919, 28, November SDP, to Reiszmann Andor Statement by Giv en the role that local authorities played in arrests and interrogation, prisoners and the relatives who relatives the and prisoners interrogation, inand arrests played authorities that local the role en d 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, d 10, 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL AllagDossier 658, 10,

Statement by Mrs. Dezső Goldstein Dezsöné to SDP, December 6, 1919, pg. 1919, December 6, SDP, to Dezsöné Goldstein Dezső Mrs. Statement by

PIL; Statement by Mrs. Ferenc Kucsera to SDP, December 2, 1919, pg. 1919, December 2, SDP, to Kucsera Ferenc Mrs. by Statement PIL; 70

Many thewere prisoners at of lea - ; incarcerated on the basis oforders from onthe higherincarcerated ier 3, PIL; Statement by Zoltán Majoros to SDP, November 22, NovemberSDP, 22, to Majoros Zoltán by Statement 3, PIL; ier

Statement by Mrs. József Herót to SDP, SDP, to Herót József Mrs. Statement by 34, pg. 1919, 24, November SDP, Zaklukálto József Statement by Statement by Zoltán Majoros to SDP, November 22, 1919, pg. 31, 31, pg. 1919, 22, November SDP, to Majoros Zoltán Statement by ment by Nándor Singer to SDP, November 19, 1919, pg. 22, Fon 22, pg. 1919, 19, November Singer SDP, to mentNándor by December 10, 1919, pg. 79, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 79, 10, pg. 1919, December10,

r at least delay persecution, as in the case of Zoltán Majoros in Majoros Zoltán of case the as in persecution, least delay at r or white mili that proceedings should bemany should halted,that proceedings people - u. Some even went so far as to claim that their arrest arrest their claim that far as to went so u.Someeven A,20 176 -

le to thelargercampsle to prisons. or A, 21 A, tias - A Statement by Gyula G Gyula by Statement . Local. authorities judicial andlegal , JDC. , ,

which were often staffedwhich were by often

st initially held February 6, 1920, pg. 1920, 6, February SDP, November 11, 11, November SDP, ichler to SDP, SDP, to ichler I ntimacy often ntimacyoften 71

bycivil

Thus,

2, 1919, 1919, 2,

3, PIL; PIL; 3, ,

se d CEU eTD Collection January 4, 1920, pg. 236, Fond 236, pg. 1920, January4, pg PIL; 3, Dossier by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier 27 pg. 1919, 20, November SDP, to Pataki János Mrs. Czakoand Andor by Mrs. PIL; Statement 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond 240, pg. 1920, January 28, SDP, to Kecskés byFerencz Mrs. 73 72 taken. assistance inhel loved ones, andthecomplaints many made of tolegal ai transfers made very between it forand institutions relatives difficult tofindtheir friends residedmen were in,orinthemilitarywhere barracks theirgarrisoned. detachments, typically imprisonment the hotelsthat beganineither the sent camps onto thecountryside.For initially in thoseindividuals by arrested officer holding before place for deportationtothe countryside), vagrants from their and there prison Margit on Körut Buda(a in Toloncházdetention orthe houseoriginally use interrogation atpolicewouldbe prisonersmilitary thesenttoeither localstation, the the place of surrounding whohadarrested been towns,those were transferred atonce often least from majoritycomplaints about internment of showthat especially the inBudapest and suspects was often during That tosay, their ofpolitical is incarceration. andinternment whileimprisonment was mirrored andconfinement spaces inthe number types of encountered many prisoners legal transition. semi developedbyit the internment was systemas oflocalandnational, theinterplay driven

Statement by István Eckst István Statement by Margit Statement by - official civil andmilitary and whoconflicted official, authorities the over state’s 73 The bureaucratic

their arrest and initial incarceration. initial It arrest and their wascaseafter arrest often the and that .

ping people actually people ping find out 235, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; Statement by Mrs. András Sávol to SDP, SDP, to Sávol András Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond 235, initialized by rarelyit local The jails. initialized authorities, inlocal concluded Tóth to SDP, February 7, 1920, February1920, 7, SDP, to Tóth ein, November 7, 1919, pg. 7, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; Statement PIL; Statement 3, AllagDossier 658, 7, Fond pg. 10, 1919, 7, November ein,

Gyula Schramm to SDP, January 19, 1920, pg. 219, Fond 658, Allag 658, Fond 10, 219, pg. 1920, January 19, SDP, to Schramm Gyula and confusion administrative encountered by many prisoners

658, 658,

Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL 3, AllagDossier 10, 177

where theirhadrelatives incarcerated been pg. 254, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, 254, pg. Fond 10,

; Statement by Lajos Eisler to SDP, December SDP, to Eisler Lajos by Statement d offices were pleas for d offices were pleas , Fond AllagFond , 658, 10, 72 leaders of militias

The multiple The multiple d as a d

CEU eTD Collection 75 http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/biro04.htm Hajmáskér,” “Onto Way the Biró, Mihály 74 3, PIL. Dossier Allag 10, 658, Fond 62, pg. 1919, December 5, SDP, to Bartanek Jószef by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier 658, AllagFond 10, 130, pg. 1919, 31,

Case against Dezső Andorka, pg, pg, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst setof a of part was image This

Fig. Fig. 4 Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy Hungarian Siberia; separate guard, separate barbed separate guard, separate Siberia; Hungarian .2

Hand drawn etching “The prisoners’ barrack got from the Russian Siberia to Siberia Russian the got from prisoners’barrack “The drawn Hand etching 4

“On the Way to Hajmáskér,” Mihály Biró, 192 Biró, Mihály Hajmáskér,” “Onto the Way postcards produced by exiled artist Mihály Biró in Vienna in 1920. 1920. in Vienna Biró artist Mihály by exiled produced postcards Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy 463, 463, 1925, 1925, Graphic Witness Graphic VII.5.c

178 .

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CEU eTD Collection 77 76 of 1920.However, widespread h not,and infact,it politicaldid imprisonment betweenNovember armistice the by and 1918 ofthe collapse abated Commune thespring

Case against Dezső Andorka, pg, pg, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst pg, Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst Much of militarycharacterized thepolitical and which disorder theperiod Fig.4 .4 “Detail from the Zalaegerszeg internment camp.” December 25, 1921 1921 by 25, December camp.” internment Zalaegerszeg from “Detailthe .4 Ill Fig.4 ustration inPrintustration Copy

Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy .3 “Detail of the camp. Barrack 19 and 20.” and 19 Barrack the camp. “Detail of .3

765, 765, 766, 1925, 1925, 1925, VII.5.c VII.5.c VII.5.c 179

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CEU eTD Collection PIL. PIL; 81 pg 80 LHA. Simonyi Minister from Prime Letter LHA; 79 PIL. 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond 19, pg. 1919, 18, November SDP, to Vajda Jénő by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 17, pg. 78 “aredeclared tothe greatestexposed deprivation”. thattheprisoners a campofBudapeston thecleanliness Cegled outside in commented cells and ofthe kept weregiven report in filthy,a whose by and threewomen husbands wer constantly coming in.” c Bureau such as harmed by exposure. barrac Mayand was 1920, quickly Simonyi assuredby Prime Minister expressed overcrowding hisconcerns about following theHajmáskér to hisvisit in camp prisons and c 1919 and 1921were thoseregarding cellsconditions of thephysical and barracks in livingand conditions, requesting from requestshelp focused relatives for and finding instead abon reporting By tothe Social Democratic January 1920,therequests generally Partyaway shifted byinstitutionalized consequence earlyorder.as a the of1920 ofthe months internment omplained to her that in prison“it isthefilthiestomplained there, toher that and in rain thatthereare scabies is

Statement by József Halm to SDP, November 11, 1919, pg. 10, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, pg. 10, 10, pg. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 10, pg. 1919, 11, November SDP, to Halm József Statement by 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 15, pg. 1919, 17, November SDP, Horváthto Rezső Mrs. Statement by Prime Minist to Hohler Letterfrom Thomas White There “Is Marcus, . 15, PIL. 15, .

Statement by Mrs. Károlyi Seres to SDP, December 1, 1919, pg. 51, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, Dossier Allag 10, 658, Fond 51, pg. 1919, 1, December SDP, to Seres Károlyi Mrs. Statement by

ks were under construction andwell construction ks were wouldbebefore under finished be prisoners Many totheSocial DemocraticLegal complaints submitted people Party’s Among complaints andabout concerns confinement common themost between

amps as well asovercrowding amps aswell widow Mrs. Rezső H Rezső widow Mrs. 79

80 Terror Terror

Another thattheconditions made prisonersclaim a similar were in Hungary,” 97, JDC; Statement by Mór Zsolnai, November 16, 1919, 1919, 16, November Zsolnai, Mór by Statement JDC; inHungary,”97,

help to improve their relatives’liveshelp improveincaptivity. to their - Semadam to Thomas Hohler, May 16, 1920, LP/HUN/1/40.i 1920, May16, Hohler, Thomas to Semadam orváth, theb whotold er Simonyi er 180 . 78

British Plenipotentiary Hohler Thomas

- Semadam, May 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/39.i 1920, 5, May Semadam, ureau that her son hadureau son thather - Semadam thatbetter Semadam 81

A reporter saidthat uses and pooruses e interned in

Aid ii,

- ii, CEU eTD Collection 86 ofthe blockade because coal 85 Party,1920), Labour Hungary, to Delegation Labour 84 PIL. 3, 83 82 exception of a fewrecently arrived prisoners latrines were clean. numerousIt and with the there alsostated that were novermin report indicate Cros course ofphysicalviolence. infectious diseases health c ortothe prisoners’ cold.inturn,made Exposure, exposure prisoners tothe vulnerable more to and coal areasfrom stripped them wooddu had that thebarrackshorrible because part thesurrounding condition werein in in peasants Marcus’ a lowceiling; nowashing, nochange o ft.straw Thiscellar square onthe orabout was floor 15 withtwelve fourteen others. "Sheprisoners or internees: remained(sic) five weeks inKalenfold woman held theKelenföld barracks in fairly was in “dirty was fulloflice.” rottenthat straw sitting incomplete darkness. during a to many prisoninBudapest, hisvisit found prisoners he

International Committee of the Red Cross, “Report on the Hajmasker Political Internment Camp,” in in Camp,” Internment Political the on Hajmasker “Report Cross, Red ofthe Committee International Terror White There “Is Marcus, in Hungary,”33 Terror White There “Is Marcus, AllagDossier 658, Fond 91, 10, pg. 1919, 11, December SDP, to Kriszmanich Nándor Mrs. Statement by buda a történik “Mi Lestyan, Sándor s on

The by December,report issued 1919 June June supplies. Hajmáskér confirmed camp 1921 report for the American Joint for Committee, theAmericanDistribution 1921 report Joint he explain d that prisoners were given prisonersabed were strawstatedd that and thatthe blanket, also but 85 10.

This contributed tothe structure

and the requisitions of the Romanian army. Romanian ofthe the requisitions and

The White Terror in Hungary in White Terror The

82 in Hungary,” 67, JDC. The country had been suffering from a lack of lackof a from suffering been had countryThe JDC. inHungary,”67,

One thattheprisoners complaint stated were forced tolay pesti fogházban?” fogházban?” pesti omplications associated with injuriessustainedomplications associated inthe , in part, the conditions described, inpart, the above. ring the revolutions to supplement their to ring revolutions firewoo the f clothes, no medicalf clothes, attendance.” , JDC. The story was storyThe JDC. , 83 181

, A description oftheA description conditions endured by a

the International ofthe Committee Red the but alsoreported thatthedisinfecting

A Világ A representative of those noted byrepresentative ofthose noted other

(London: Trade Union Congress and the and Union Congress (London: Trade ’ s poor condition and to the s poorcondition andto , October October ,

originally reported in reported originally

17 , 1919. , confined to dirtyconfined cells, — tow (sic) weekstow (sic) on

In Joseph In Joseph 86 BritishJ

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CEU eTD Collection 89 foghazakban?” budapesti 88 87 prisoners. 1919. Thefacility second healso visited helddouble themax inthesamewas facility prisoners doublecommunists earlier theamount of heldby the in 162 women, and heldnumber at largest 2504prisoners. its date This headcountto had officially 939prisoners,to hold was only but space actually had h Budapest, overcrowding. found serious he personala1919, theauthor uponhis to prisonand center visit claims detainment that in about thepolitical conditions of prisoners inthe published newspaper theyICRCIn reportas first aswhich pristine were claimed, isdoubtful. the an exposé see could devolve howquicklyinovercrowdedcampseven conditions if andprisons, the camp. toZalaegerszeg1921 visit Marcus showers Joseph camp, reported thattherewerein no the due tothe freezing there orbaths, of pipes, soap, werenorowing was noshowers there to camps.Despite ofthe therelatively portrait positive camp,ICRC also the reportedthat laundryan labor of suggests division whichgendered defined thatthe “domestic” taskslike such laundry which itstatedfacilities, were used by primarily fema the machine

Ibid. Világ A Terror White There “Is Marcus,

country’s economic and transportation problems. A yearcountry’s transportation A economic and problems. a and halfon an later, April

Because these lack of the withovercapacity, amenities of combinedis it

was the official press organ of the Freemasons Freemasons organofthe waspress the official was broken. The ICRC was Hajmáskér The broken. kitchen also adequate reportedthat and had 87 89 d cooking as women’s part,d cooking asin reproduced work atleast was ininternment

A Világ A

, October 17, 1919. 17, October , in Hungary,” 68, JDC. inHungary,”68,

88 182

In thefirst

and was leftist oriented. Lestyán, “Mi történika “Mi Lestyán, leftistwas oriented. and prison he visited, imum capacityimum of300 le inmates. This inmates. le olding 2191 menandolding 2191 A Vil

the prison ág

in October

easy to CEU eTD Collection technically special conditions allowed women in advanced pregnancy to give birth in hospitals or to remain to or hospitals in give birth to pregnancy advanced women in allowed conditions special technically because and together wereinterned families many cases, in since especially prisons, and inbirth camps that assume to isreasonable It in Budapest. center vagrancydetention in the incarcerated 92 91 http://www.graphicwitness.org/contemp/biro08.htm 90 their political incarceration. medical care. Ye as even childbirth given riskier, conditions prisons of theand poor lackadequate of prison, prisoners whoha healthy. scabies with diseases diseases and atthe other camp, sourcesinternment were suggest camps thatprisons rife Hajmáskér1919 indicated that was there inDecember, nooutbreakcontagious of i nfectious

According to the report written by journalist Sándor Lestyán, at least one woman gave birth while birth woman gave least one at Lestyán, Sándor written journalist by the report to According Lesty Hajmáskér,” to Way “On the MihályBiró, á

, n malnutrition in prison in malnutrition Owing prisons conditions of and tothec overcrowded

91 which spread quickly in prisons and camps, evencamps, which had among spreadarrived quickly thosewho inprisonsand , “Mi történik a budapesti fogházban?” fogházban?” budapesti a történik “Mi ,

Compounding thespreadphysical disease wereby injuriesfaced of diseases was a problem from early on. AlthoughproblemICRCdiseases from aearly thereport on.on was

Fig.4 particularly tuberculosis andwere syphilis, also plaguedand bylice t despite this, atleast this, were afewrecordedt despite giving women as birth during d been subject to beatings physical to and subject d been other punishments .5 .5 “Horthy: ‘No Complaint reached us against [sic] the treatment.’” the [sic] against us reached ‘NoComplaint “Horthy:

Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy 92 . Moreover,made events more disease such routine health

Graphic Witness Graphic A Világ A 183 .

, October ,October

held CEULibrary in , accessed September 18, 2014, 18, September accessed , 17 , 1919 , amps,the spread of

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while in

CEU eTD Collection prison. in sustained they thefor injuries attention sought medical people incarceration and arrest after claim that 94 93 14 pg. LP/HUN/1/41, 1920, 27, March ofInterior, home.at fiveThreecategories. prisoner ofthem, Organization their prisoners, twice weekly. wereasby well ca as internees who a the visited doctor approximately twelvelargelywas hundredprisoners who provided by twophysicians according toMarcus available appear toprisoners not tohave does impr to go were whileothers resources without The withinadequatecare. provided medical who desperately medical required attention ur the sickawaymost and tookweeks even thatit for the eightthe infirmary.Lesty whostaffed nurses the prison thatthere twicepermanent weeklyand weretwoexternsand two only doctors, two thousand prisonersdetention center inthe confined Budapest The Lestyánpublished by exposé Sándor in from amilitary didnote thattherewere thoughit notadequate medical supplies. doctor, three civilian doctors prisoners over to careinaddition to thousand for one

There are many statements in the records of the Social Democratic ofthe Social therecords many in are statements There in Terror White There “Is Marcus,

incarceration as ahealthy an andinvalid. individual leave

In Marcusat Joseph 1921 report, the Zala hisstated that ICRCThe reported December 1919 thattheHajmáskérwith was camp staffed Marcus, “Is There W There “Is Marcus,

’ report ’ 93

hite Terror in hiteTerror

Given thesewas it circumstances, common , inthe Zalaegerszegcare internmentfor camp medical Hungary,” 67, JDC. Hungary,”67, Hungary,” 90, JDC; Article 23 of Order 4352/1919 of Ministry 4352/1919 ofOrder Article23 JDC; 90, Hungary,” communists, communists, - 15, LHA. 15, 184

in the camps andprisons A Világ á n also reportedguards also turned thatprison n

oved significantly by even 1921,as , however,reported thatfor more than spies and foreigners were“political” mp which at held the time mp which 1188 genta casestoseedoctor. Many

Party’s Legal Aid Bureau which AidBureau Party’sLegal 94 egerszeg there camp

, doctors only visited , doctors

wereforced simply

for people

daily visits

begin

were

CEU eTD Collection 96 95 the women prisoners all held together were government. section thewomen’s discussing When heldarrested thousandsofpeoplefor after political the crimes collapse communist of the 1919 articlediscussed inanOctober a conditions of which regarding prison Budapest the vulnerable ofeconomicstate. tothe toaccusations harm andcitizenship were engaged activity and intrade merchant intended categorizations were heavily characterizationsofJews informed by and negative were gougersvaluable that and andresources hoarders scare of Thissuggests and food. overlap criminal wasZalaegerszeg the extremelyblurry.prisonersat categories the Moreover, of bygovernment theHungarian Soviet criminal courts prosecute those to whoha the use of categories as “spies” such “profiteers” and and “foreigners prisoners be should treatedas prisoner aspecial category rights. of However, withspecial criminals. the lack ofseparation between reasons for those arrested political andcommon Earlier,and inlate 1919 lived together and two,thieves, profiteers,

Marcus, “Is there White Terror in Hungary?” in Hungary?” Terror White there “Is Marcus, in Terror White There “Is Marcus, ped The lack betweenpolitical ofdifferentiation criminals prisoners and

to haveracialized imp a 96

with anti This lack went ofdifferentiation agai ,

without differentiatingwithout between pris - Semitic Semitic

1920, at the level there prisons, oflocal also wasconcernabout

were “criminal” stereotypes ofthe time

Hungary,” 69, JDC Hungary,”69, act manyHungarian have onJews, whomdidnot of ,

indicate that thelinebetweenindicate that prisoner and political 88 d performed tasks accordingd performed laws enacted tothe , JD , 185 ,

including those prisoners who had who thoseprisoners including . He claimed . He C

. .

nst theexpectation that politicalnst oners belonging toeachcategory.

of theprison,the ,

which often cast Jews aswhich oftenprice Jews cast

that all classesprisoners of . Thism ade very them

, writer noted ” and theuse and of ”

was also was also

that all 95

CEU eTD Collection 100 Diary Essays 99 1999), Publishers, the Present to 1800 from Society 1860 Vienna, and inBudapest Codes Gender Urban 98 97 politics. “deviancy” (astomen’s “promiscuity”) silently opposed radical accepted and leftist stereo as relationships ofmarriage, sexual outside more andliberalized divorcelaws. ideas about marriagechildbearing and pejorativelycalled “freelove,” was which defined frequently asso involvedinleftistWomen during politics theearly about regime’s the communist redefinitionof relations gender bourgeois c revolutionary“political” regimefor imprisonment because conform to didnot they women engaged innon interming aboutthe cohabitationnot just of sickandprisoners, healthyundesirable also but ofan urbanand thus areas inHungary, Thi prostitution. with the general of “criminals”:women population specifically female thatwomenheld suggests for prisoners “infectious [ syphilis”

Frank Eckelt, “Internal Policies ofthe Hungar “InternalPolicies FrankEckelt, Poverty and Female ofProstitution, Politics the from Disgrace: Living a “Making Zimmermann, Susan fogházban?” budapesti a történik “Mi Lestyan,

Tormay, , , Iván Völgyes, ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971), 74 1971), Press, Nebraska of University (Lincoln: ed. Völgyes, Iván , vol. 2, 2, vol. type c

ling of The The odes ofsexuality. conservative Many The Commune The reated perpetuated and/or Revolution ciated with ciated with 183; see also Marcus, “Is there White Terror in Hungary?” 93, 95, JDC. 95, 93, in Hungary?” Terror White “Is Marcus, also there see 183; s was a charge whichaffected disproportionately women impoverished in

women fromwomen fer , 197 , - , regulated prostitution wereregulated prostitution amongcounter thosetargeted bythe tő 73, 177 73,

ző vérbajos the - , Malcolm Gee, Tim Kirk, and Jill Steward, eds. (London: Ashgate eds. Steward, Jill and Kirk, Malcolm Tim , Gee, 19

different social classes. dimensions of communism which ofcommunism dimensions had liberal todowith -

179 (New York: McBride, 1924). (New McBride, York: 179

Lestyán’s observation

a link between working class women’s sexual a between link working class women’s ]. 97 ian Soviet Republic,” in Republic,” Soviet ian

A Világ A Noting presence the ofsyphilisamong the 186 - 1920,” in1920,”

political political , October 17, 1919. 17, ,October - minded Hungariansbeen had outraged counter The City in Central Cityin The 98

However, also itis likely that offenceswere being held together very likely a concern betrayed - revolution

Hungary in Revolution: Nine Revolution: in Hungary

(see chapter two) ; arrested for arrested

Cecile Tormay, Cecile

Europe: Culture and and Culture Europe: ary were period

(unregulated) An Outlaw’s Outlaw’s An 100 . 99

This

- CEU eTD Collection 104 103 102 101 between prisoners theofficialincarcerated categories of ina tobe facility, single and facilities orprisons orcamps. treatment in law, thereof systematic evidencebetween isno intermsof differentiation classes social financial be used upkeep for woud resources their internment than poorer conditions owing prisoners, to recognizingwith superiorenjoy financial resourcesable to thatpersons wouldbe better 1920 inHungary for provided differentiation of onthe prisoners basis ofclassorigins, differentiate betweenininternment classes facilities. the Slovak authorities overseeing to ofsuspected“bolsheviks” thepolitical internment Likewise specialoffered treatmentinthe hewas autumn of1914. byauthorities French imprisoned developed, thoug generally during respected thewar. speaking, ofthedimension conventions international regarding and thetreatment was, ofPOWs came the from I.law, and War World practiced during wasorigins. betweenenshrinedPOWs differentiation ininternational Class recognized stemmed in

Article 23 of Order 4352/1919 of Ministry of Interior, March 27, 1 March 27, ofInterior, of Ministry 4352/1919 ofOrder Article23 Huebner, Károlyi, Jones, Articlecounter 23of therevised Concern between categories about miscegenation thedifferent of prisoners Violence against Prisoners of War of Prisoners against Violence , inpost Fighting the World, the Fighting “The I “The civilians part f upper echelons society,upper of a nternment Camp at Terezin, 1919, CampTerezin, at nternment - h not universal practiceh notuniversal among rom concerns ofprisoners about different the treatment with class World War I War World , as thememoirof Mihály Károlyi suggests

41.

Czechoslovakia, PresidentCzechoslovakia, Masarykspecifically ordered , 143 , - Differential treatment ofofficers revolutionary internme .

In t fact, nd rank and file soldiers was an important and filesoldiersan wasnd rank 187 ” 101 Austrian History Yearbook AustrianHistory

Class differentiation aClass well also was belligerent states during WWIbelligerent statesduring who . 104 he state’s differentiation lack of 103

However,letter inspite ofthe ofthe

the fact that

920, LP/HUN/1/41, pg. 3, LHA. 3, pg. LP/HUN/1/41, 920, , when recounted he nt regulations issued in issued nt regulations prisoners’ own prisoners’

27 (January 1996): (January 1996): 27 , who typically, 102

204.

CEU eTD Collection 108 107 LHA. LP/HUN/5/46/13.i, Budapest,” Prison, the“In Women’s N.a., its irregularity. noted author the women,but even with the up locked Jesuit priest a the seg to wasexception an there Budapest, in women’s prison the 106 105 other insingle barracks. sex together wherethe femaleand inothers, male family were from members separated each to camps togethe cases primarilywhole ofGali families, where those also indicate that suchsex sourcesreportsforeign indicaterepeatedly andfacility of observers overcrowding, they spread ofinfectious(venereal) disease so astoensure of“morality” themaintenance andprevent camps inprisons andto the sex. least prisons,the mainsource in between ofdifferentiation pr desire thoseregarded tohumiliate lack(the ofcarceralfacilities conse crimes was with common criminals very likelytheresult ofan ofa acute perfectstorm material and needs deprivations. andphysical ofpolitical accused Placing thosepersons their behalfconcernedwith were not incarcerated describedconditions endured thedeplorableofwere by people “refinement”who commented onand deridedby outside betweenclasses of socialin prisoners different

S Delegation, Labour Joint lifein about article from an Delegation Labour by BritishJoint the collected information to According in Hungary Terror White “IsThere Marcus, See tatement by László Liska to SDP, January 26, 1920, pg. 238, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, 238, pg. Fond 10, 1920, January26, SDP, Liska to László by tatement 106

From theperspectiveofauthorities, such sex Most oftheMost sources discussthe imprisonmentthat, conditions of show at which . 105

However,internees sourcescomposed the pleadingrelatives by orthe on r, itappears that The White Terror in Hungary, Hungary, in Terror White The

- based differentiation consistently was applied. 108

According toM depending onthefacility,depending

as the political enemiesas thepolitical quence of mass punishment), coupled punishment), with mass thestate’s quence of

the

observers and investigatory and who commissions observers between between

issue , ” 188

JDC. ,

arcus’ during toHungary arcus’ hisfirstvisit instead emphasizing pressing their more counter prison

pg. pg. 11. cian - based differentiation was importantbased differentiation was ers. Even Hungarian though -

regation of men and women as there was womenthere as men and of regation revolution - Jewish refugees,Jewish were deported .

families isoners was on thebasis was of isoners on ary Hungary ary might bemight 107

However, in confined ,

was

CEU eTD Collection 112 Statement by 111 110 JDC.folder 148.1, 220048, doc. 109 counter 1919 the conditions camps of prisons,especially height and oftheir at population the percentagesmall was imprisoned,it whowitnessed ofwomen feature many anotable for wives offormer percentage camp ofthe population families awaiting women deportation, and wouldhavelarger children a composed 15 women.” them separately byfrom men saying things women. in theirat report Hajmáskérc onconditions wereInternational ofthe for TheCommittee Red CrossCommittee, male. example,noted byBudapest,criminal courts the prisonersand in theoverwhelmingnumberinternees of andwitnesses,commissions as my wellresear as from of dimension others,of seems women the incarceration have by theauthorities troubling to a been women enjoyedfreedom more thankept menwhosurveillance. under were heavier (but notpersonally camps) tointernment

Marcus, “Is There There “Is Marcus, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 58, 1919, December 3, SDP, to Adorján János Statement by the on Hajm “Report ICRC, 46, pg. 1921, 28, March Situation?” the Present Help to do OurCommittee Does “What Marcus, Jospeh - 1921. - Oftenattributed people Forgave who many statements people theSo to 110 revolutionary authorities not tothe activities not revolutionary authorities ofthe rather women but themselves,

Many plaintiffs mad Many plaintiffs Mária Zsömbölyi to SDP, November 25, 1919, pg. 36, F 36, pg. 1919, 25, November SDP, to Zsömbölyi Mária

111 counter

Incamps Piliscsaba, like wh

Hungarian prisonerswar of interned White Terror in Terror White - revolution

asker Political Internment Camp,” 6. Camp,” Internment Political asker

the e a mentionoffemale special accounting for prisoners, Hungary,” 87, JDC Hungary,”87, ary From thefigures political repression. by provided , inca

as thecamp wouldhave atCsót rceration andrceration internment

in the spring of1921, 189 amp that oftheonly 1004prisoners, amp that 38were ere most internees were “foreign” Jewish interneesere most Jewish “foreign” were such as, “theresuch includingas, prisoners, were 736

; Kovács, “Az internálás,” 433; “Az internálás,” Kovács,

in Russian werein Russian held. ch on the political trialsch carried onthe out cial Democratic Party as as well

ond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, ond 10, interned and incarcerated and interned

of women by the ,

where the Russian the Russian where

112

Despite the ,

between 109

CEU eTD Collection in Belgium in see examplesreports ofatrocity For 64; 14, 2001), Press, 117 116 115 114 113 genital mutilation tended toplaceagainst women, violence particularly violence sexualized like rape or duringwar the and inHungary specifically. population throughout theaftermath warand violent inEast its Central ingeneral, Europe encapsulated norms by these thebreachingmoment in of normsexcluding from “civilians” violence many regarded women aspolitical agents. themselves that even thealso political outlined activitiesand loyalties women themselves. of women’s politicalmen playedrole associations women’s with ainsome incarceration, Budapest,published on thewoman’sprisonin t women held, 97identified Incharacterizations.Lestyán’s article,for However, violence exempted certaingroupssuch andas theelderlyfrom women, children politi types of to the relationships thatwomenhadorwives, sisters. lovers,These withmen asdaughters

John Horne and Alan Kramer, Alan Kramer, and Horne John Proctor, fogházban?” budapesti a történik “Mi Lestyan, in Budapest,” “InPrison N.a., the Woman’s Proctor, Historians have shown that even though in practice World War IHistorians have War even World inpractice shownthat though awatershed was . statements reflected th reflected statements 113 ; An ; when observers Civilians in a World War, at a in Civilians World War, at a in Civilians

but womenprisonersthemselves d

But theyalso reinforced

Historical Record Historical ,

which outlined the by atrocities committed armies outlined enemywhich ,

at the foreat publications. the oftheir

regarded themselves

German Atrocities: A History of Denial of History A Atrocities: German 116 (

retained amongst theirthebroader European salience New York, G. H. Doran Co., 1917); 1917); Co., Doran H. NewG. York,

e continued relevancenorms which ofestablished This is evidencedThis is publis inthe reports pamphlets and 3. pgs.

women as pas women

the idea that women thatwomen the idea

4, 4, as political prisoners.

LP/HUN/5/46/13, LHA. LP/HUN/5/46/13, 9.

A Világ A example, he specificallyexample, thatof the162 noted 190 id not necessarily these id not accept

he author, whilehe acknowledging that Toynbee, Arnold J. Toynbee, Toynbee, ArnoldJ. Toynbee, , October 17, 1919. 17, ,October sive victims ofmen’s political activities, sive 117

The concern about the i 115

did not havedid not political agency Arnold J. Toynbee, ArnoldToynbee, J.

Similarly, article in an

(New Haven: Yale University University (New Yale Haven:

, the ideas , the 114 The German Terror German The . These reports .

This suggests The German German The cal ncarceration ncarceration

hed . CEU eTD Collection Internees,1914 Minorities and Immigrants 119 118 1917) Doran, H. G. York, Belgium in ArmyGerman the with months Four during Journalist Netherland 1917); Cassell, York: (London; New Retreat ( Front Macedonian the Serbian on Criminologist Austro the by WarCommitted and LawsRules of the of Infringements Neutral of a Investigations Personal WarSerbia; in Waged France Terrorin regardless the state if captor actuallyassista needed the and thecaptives’ homewith necessary statesclothing, tosupply food and prisoners on humanitarian well organizations as and as therelatives philanthropic captives of were holdingresponsible states feeding fortheirpriso prisoners, I. War World international Although explicitlycaptor conventions states stipulatedthat financing amongcaptivity emerged theirduring and ownpopularized was belligerents betweenresources. ofdifferential because prisoners The o financial idea the state. supportingas theirfinancialwouldbe themselvesmanaged taken and over resources by the camps. Food andClothing sim denied groups theseagencyas “exempted” legitimatepolitical actors proscribinggroups. certain violenceagainst suchalso However, concernsimplicitly of women in Hungaryaffirms, atleastcontinued part, relevance in the norms of

Heather Jones, “A Missing Paradigm? Military Captivity and the Prisoner of War, 1914 ofWar, the Prisoner and MilitaryCaptivity Paradigm? “A Missing Jones, Heather 7 Articles ultaneously groups, other sanctioning violenceagainst particularly military

( London; New Those andin experienced whowereclothingacutefood imprisoned deprivation 118 - According to internment regulations,According internees to responsibl were 9 of Order 4352/1919 of Ministry of Interior, March 27, 1920, LP/HUN/1/41, LHA.pg. LP/HUN/1/41, 4, 1920, 27, March Interior, ofMinistry of 4352/1919 ofOrder 9

The text oftheThe law stipulation text recognizedthatthis wouldgenerateinequality - 20,” 20,”

( London; New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1917); 1917); & Stoughton, Hodder London;York: New Immigrants and Minorities and Immigrants

York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1917); Author, No & Stoughton, 1917); Hodder York: .

26,

no. 1 no. - 2 (2008), 36; Matthew Stibbe, “Civilian Internment and Civilian Civilian and “Civilian Internment Stibbe, Matthew 36; (2008), 2 L. Mokveld, , 26, 1 26, , London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1919); n.a. &1919); Unwin, Allen G. London: The German Fury in Belgium; Experiences of a a of Experiences Belgium; in Fury German The 191 - 2(2008): 65. See also also See 65. 2(2008):

, trans. J. S. trans.J. ,

nce. R.A. Reiss, - Bulgaro 119 Their Crimes Their Paris: A. Colin, 1915; 1915; A.Colin, Paris:

Stibbe, ners increasingly relied , trans.C.Thi , - Germans; Letters Germans; a of How Austria How ,

while while , “

trans. J.E. Adams J.E. trans. The of Internment The f prisoners self e for ,

- Frightfulness in in Frightfulness eme( 18,” 18,” - Reiss, R. A.Reiss, R. - Hungary Hungary age men. age New New

CEU eTD Collection Pejsova, “Among the Nationalities.” the “Among Pejsova, 1878 Protection, Minority 122 121 ( 1988 Publishers, Transaction NJ: Brunswick, Merle 2014); Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: organizat 120 1997). Press, Greenwood York: Speed, Richard the Internati of the and Response War First World the Civilians charitableandorganizatio advocacy to claim afterwar. the ethnic minority ( many interned ofthose were either prisoners which been during had thewar themainpreventing deterrent states captor from state toaugment the system of provide regulations wereprecedent line withthis largely of in onto private charitable organizations and individuals. precedent increasingly that states could responsibility foist caring prisonersfor for their families totheirloved ones abroad. imprisoned establish the developments These helped money,and transportfood organized and parcels the deliveryof humanitarian organizations and which philanthropic carried inspections, raised outcamp of another citizens/prisoners, and states’ thedevelopment reprisals militaryandpoo “punish” civilian against prisoners states tofor their courseI,was ofWorld War theresult processes: oftwo parallel the increasing useof Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011 Press, University Princeton Princeton:

See Carole Fink, Carole See 42 “AParadigm?” Missing Jones, Jones, Theparticularover development the became norm,practice standard ofthis which

ions see also see ions Immigrants and Minorities and Immigrants or supplement - of - war harshly, waswar absent counter harshly, in Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy Captivity of the Diplomacy in War:Study Great A the and Diplomats Prisoners, almost exclusively Defending the rights of Others of rights the Defending

Bruno Cabanes, Bruno - 122

1938 1938 provisions to provisions

Moreover,who appealed interneestointernational

( Cambridge:C

, 41 , . incarceration

The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918 Humanitarianism, of the Origins and War Great The - 42; 42; Hungarian ornon citizens ns such as the American Jewish Joint Americanns suchasDistribution Joint the Jewish Jews)

prisoner ) For more on the development of war of development more the onFor ) .

and and ambridge ,

: Oliver which none ofthewhich was successor states eager 192 The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Jews,and the Powers, Great The . 121 s andrequired thus , Curti, ,

Furthermore,reciprocity of theprinciple University Press, 2004); 2004); Press, University revolutionary Hungary. This was becauserevolutionary Hungary. This Zunz,

onal Committee oft Committee onal American Philanthropy Abroad Philanthropy American 120 Philanthro looking tonon

Hungarian

and growth - citizen memberscitizen of an py in America, A History America,A in py

prisoners’ relatives orprisoners’ relatives the and r and counter - - and Rebekah and Klein oriented philanthropic philanthropic oriented

state actors actors state he Red Cross heRed emittances of international -

revolutionary sectarian r treatment

(

treating

New (New ” sent by to -

1924 and and

CEU eTD Collection Dossier 3, PIL. 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier Sta 3, PIL; Dossier 10, Allag Fond 658, 10, pg. 1920, 11, November SDP, to Halm József by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, 658, Fond pg.1919, 91, December 11, SDP, to Kriszmanich byNándor Mrs. Statement 3, PIL; Dossier 10, 1 17, November SDP, to Bárc byÁrmin Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, 125 124 Archives American Jewish Papers, 5. Warburg 191, Folder 457, MS Box 1920, 30, Nov Nathan, Maud to Warburg ways in aid disseminate Th Christian.” “Jewand the binary used Hitközség Izraelit the Pesti to submitted 123 one ofthe was punishments camp todeprive of days prisoners food almost all for ata rollasmall day(laterthey on wer receivingtheir withnofathusbands wereorsalt and only a turnipsandpumpkin just interned camp at because the Ujszaszi oftheirinthe Red Army service women T Zsigmond named Mrs. inadequate. were being held. camp, servicenotext this but did prisoners inPiliscsabaassistance toJewish provided Kosher programs which meals prisoners notshare. did conspiracy (Jewish) wereleftists anti and dangerous riskedCommittee, underscoringanti

Statement by Mrs. Zsigmond Tóth to Mrs. János Molnár to SDP, November 5, 1919, pg. 5, Fond 658, 658, Fond pg. 5, 1919, 5, November SDP, to Molnár Mrs. János to Tóth Zsigmond Mrs. Statement by 45 Situation?” the Present Help to do Committee Our Does “What Marcus, documents and Committee Distribution Joint The Gentile”, and “Jew binaryuse the Ratherthan s Most (Hereafter referred to referred (Hereafter 125

Statement by Mária Zsömbölyi to SDP, November 25, 1920 pg. 36, F 36, pg. 1920 25, November SDP, Zsömbölyi to Mária Statement by SDP, to Herót József Mrs. Statement by Statement by Allag Fond 10, 658, 106, pg. December1919, SDP, 16, to Kerbolt Alajos Statement to Allag Fond 10, 658, 18, pg. 1919, 17, November SDP, to ReginaWeinberger Statement by pg. 1919, 12, December SDP, to Helfgott Ármin Mrs. Statement by 658, AllagFond 60, 10, pg. 3, 1919, December SDP, to Frankó Emma Statement by

ources the indicate food by rations that provided were thestate Ina 5,1919 November complaint tothe Social Democratic Party, two 124 tement by Mrs. József Ihász to SDP, December 5, 1919, pg. 63, Fond 658, Allag Fond 63, 10, pg. 658, 1919, 5, December SDP, to Ihász byJózsef Mrs. tement

, intended to prevent or reduce animosity toward Jews. See Letter from Felix M. M. Felix from Letter See animosityJews. reduce toward prevent or to intended

and that and 123 Vencell Ruzsicska to SDP, December 17, 1919, pg. 108, Fond 658, Allag 658, Fond 10, 108, pg. 1919, 17, December SDP, to Ruzsicska Vencell

as AJA) Despite help these did fundfood real very concerns, the JDC

theyaccess unequal resources to had thatChristian

- national elements, thattheynational international elements, an of were part óth and Mrs. János Molnár óth andMrs. János . end toallthe internment were facilities prisoners Jewish

e given half agiven ofbread). halfkilo e Additionally they saidthat - Semites’ and conservatives’Semites’ and and claims thatJews 193

February 6, 1920, pg. 251, Fond 658, Allag 658, Fond 10, 251, pg. 1920, February 6, ,

whose husbands werewhose husbands 919, pg. 16, Fond 658, Allag Fond 16, pg. 658, 919, - 48. e JDC was very to careful JDC e

96, Fond 658, Allag Fond 10, 658, 96, , ond 658, Allag 10, 658, ond

complained thatcomplained CEU eTD Collection 129 PIL. 128 127 PIL. 3, Dossier Allag10, 126 to aconversation MarcushadZalaegerszeg withaninterned “… at the physician camp: the receive piecesdaily.” small have meat,wrote, from [sic], about14deker of it “I Marcus a piece small served.few ofmeatis and weak persons Asick plusthe eighty children Inaddition to internment camp asfollows: improved substantially.Marcus describe wastasted thatit “clear thesoupand just found water.” received as slightlythe food better oncewere ofsoupand kasha.who awhichThose day consisted corn prisoners sick political prisoners being temporarilyBudapest food heldToloncházreceived the only in while being an in unspecif held woma evenconditions, he though had been t time. hat internees intheSzerb

Lestyan, “Mi történik a budapesti fogházban?” fogházban?” budapesti a történik “Mi Lestyan, 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 15, pg. 1919, 17, November SDP, Horváthto Rezső Mrs. Statement by 3, PIL. AllagDossier 658, Fond 16, 10, pg. 1919, 17, November SDP, to Bárc Statement byÁrmin 658, Fond 5, pg. 1919, November 5, SDP, to Molnár János Mrs. and Tóth Zsigmond Mrs. Statement by

officials keep theto food insufficient themselves is alive.” thepeople that According 126 n said that her son wasn saidthathergiven onlypotatoes sondried a rotten and few corn pieces of Supper: The same as breakfast. cabbage. Lunch: andsomevegetable,fats, devoid as of Soup beans,or such potatoes peas, Breakfast:Blackcalled coffee,or sugar milk. water, without yearsNearlyand alater, one that for half does foodrations appear prisoners it not

Another complaintyounger made by Árminbehalf Bárc brother of on his

this, “[prisoners] ofbreadthis, receive OnSundays [dk] twenty per five person.

U tca were prisoninBudapest to subjected

ied camp. ir soup contained semolina.ir soupcontained Thereported author thathe allowed to bring hisinterned lunch. brother

d 128

A Világ A the rations su rations the 194

According to

, October ,October 129 pplied inthe Zalaegerszeg 17

the , 1919. , expose in expose

starvation starvation A Világ , the 127 ,

said

One

CEU eTD Collection 130 be a to problem 1921according or campsrelativesLack were where their ofadequate being to held. clothing continued arbitrarily preven warm wasand were clothing winterfall worsened of1919 when months inthe visitors adequateto beused with The toprovide lackclean them clothing. of and underclothing protection camp made clothingmore facilities noreal this acute allas shortage the people had thereforedoctor] believesthatthe people are sufferinga slowstarvation…” food the inmateskeep are receiving sufficient isnot theminphysical to conditio

Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Terror White There “Is Marcus, Fig. Adequateclothingcamps and of inthewas alsolacking,thephysical conditions 4 .6

from the natural elements. Like elements.from food, the natural prisoners’ownr “Political internees in the Hajmáskér gunner’s courtyard, searching in the searchingin courtyard, gunner’s theHajmáskér in internees “Political ted from seeing relatives,ted from their

Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy

Hungary,” 15, 68, JDC. 68, Hungary,”15, Marcus, whorecorded thefollowingreport inhis 195

or had diff

held CEULibrary in

iculties traveling tothe prisons esources wereesources supposed

trash for food.” for trash 130

n. [The n. [The

CEU eTD Collection somewhat abat somewhat crisis food that the acute 1920 springof until wasIt as BNA). not to referred (Hereafter Kew,England Archives, BritishNational FO/608/12, and FO/608/11 Office ofthe BritishForeign records See revolution. perio this during Office Century Twentieth 123 2009), Press, University D 132 131 Further, people claimedthatthestate some was manipulatingand misdirectingfood its provide betterprisoners for rations charities wouldstep in.S responsibl the wartime normalizedthepractice experience largely had wherebywould prisoners be that thestate didnotprovide they better because rations didno pressure resources. food onthestate’s along resources, themselves withmany other for during their occupation as partitioning of some most from its ofthe state continued blockade,which the summer was of1919. calledTerritorial not until off thecountry.conditions in had become Conditions worse by 1919be along ofresou withmismanagement as part ofthe Powers Central amount and poor qualityof rations provided to iplomacy among the Central Power Power Central the among iplomacy

Kenneth Steuer, KennethSteuer, Ther “Is Marcus, the activities army of theRomanian Historicalin Hungary developments probably at played inthe least asmallpart Underwear isa luxury.” coat….Littlechildren…were pieces essential clothing. themost lacking of werefortunateenough tohave tocover of a themselves, underwear pair o was born.Sweitzer,Silber, Kleinwere andotherscondition. inasimilar Some named Stein Huvositting near was astove.He asnaked as burning onthe day he IInfound a peoplethe largenumber totally of naked. e for their own upkeepe for and when their own ed.

, trans. Tim Wilkinson (Budapest: Corvina; Osiris, 1999), 85 1999), Osiris, Corvina; (Budapest: Wilkinson Tim trans. , Pursuit of an '"Unparalleled O '"Unparalleled an of Pursuit e White Terror in Terror White e d was very concerned about the lack of food, especia offood, thelack about verywasconcerned d ; Galántai,

ources thattheau indicate ,

had been subject to theEntentehad to subject been economic blockade, which 131 Hungary,” 67, JDC. Hungary,”67, N Hungary in the First World War First World the in Hungary ations during ations

which tothe problems contributed describedabove. rces 132 ,

which “requisitioned” Hungarianwhich

during the warduring the But notwithstandingchallenges, islikely theseit pportunity 196

they and theirhelp,privatthey families and could not

World economically regions productive

prisoners. Duringprisoners. Wo

War ” thorities did not feel didnot thorities to compelled : the American : the

I, 1914 I,

had contributedhad to , - 292 1923 hospital I hospital man found one t have to.Thattosay,t have is lly of its potential to reignite to llypotential ofits -

294; Romsics, Romsics, 294; YMCA

(New York: Columbia Columbia (NewYork: - 86 cause the of rld War Irld War . The British Foreign BritishForeign . The

and ,

food stores, food put further

P near famine risoner Hungary in the the in Hungary Hungary , as well r an old r an - of - war ,

CEU eTD Collection 134 133 Though ofthepoverty themoney does thenumber decrease, and prisoners not increases herethousands stood already [but] inthe queue today withnecessities, therearefewer. gate whoare theprison], [of bringin the carceralwrote system.He Lestyánfaced outside. onthe and their thus accesswas resources depen to largely also werealso ofrelatives heavily onthe reliant visits clothing, tobringand themfood fourICRC weeks according tothe report. These were supplementsafteran and visitors permitted indivi parcelsclothingthe starvingfood camps.andconditions in ameliorate tothem to of under the threatofviolence for inf could beeasily concealed enforcing with missions norms bytrue camps conditions in thatthe noting andprisons prisoners, also it outthe pointed prob but only intentionally charged with thestate necessaryrationsits back holding from prisoners, thefood thatinfact, but given was tothe guards. being international these missions food stores t huge foodwarehouses parcels. filled with thattheauthorities claimed She were showing following her a to husband visit Instores. Social Democra a statement tothe

ICRC, “Report on the Hajmasker Political Internment Camp,” Internment Political the on Hajmasker “Report ICRC, 351, pg. PIL. May 1920, SDP, 6, to Horváth byImre Mrs. Report Prisoners’and charitable relatives private

as missions hadas torely missions oninterpreters whoand were prisoners ’s articledescription aoffamilies’’s provided in participation

“In the pouring rain is a mass of a hundred storming isamass“In pouring ofa rain the hundred the ,

who was imprisoned at the Hajmáskér camp, she atwho wassaw the Hajmáskér camp, imprisoned ormation about camp about conditions. ormation g or Four foodweeks before tothe prisoners. five o prove their appropriate treatment ofthe appropriate treatment their o prove lems associatedwithcharging international 134 197 tic Party, Mrs. Imretic Party, that Mrs. Horvathclaimed

Prior tothe December prisoners 1919order,

organizations did send did organizations dent onthe conditions theirrelatives

dual had been interneddual hadbeen for 133

Her not statement

or brought CEU eTD Collection Jones, Jones, White “Is Marcus, There PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond 106, pg. 1919, December 16, SDP, to Kerbolt Alajos Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, AllagDossie 10, 658, Fond 16, pg. 1919, November 17, SDP, to Barc Ármin by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond 91, pg. 1919, 11, December SDP, Kriszmanichto Nándor Mrs by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, SDP, to Ihász József Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, 658, Fond pg. 60, 1919, December 3, SDP, to Frankó Emma by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, St PIL; 3, Dossier Allag 10, 658, Fond 36, pg. 1919, 25, November SDP, Zsömbölyi to Mária by Statement PIL; 138 137 136 135 prisoners toreceive packagesfrom som outside, deprivation state terms in oftheir arrange prisoner tra ensurerelative’saccess theirthese to important help from the Social Democratic Party prisoners ontherece likely depended traveling forwith foodparcels their beloved ones.” Marcus allparts reportedetc. that“From ofthecountry, are sisters, mothers, wives, prisoners, “ Zalaegerszegcamp,directorcamp heheard the tellfour arrived internment newly campscommon practice. was a CommitDistribution in prisons. country availablelittle pressure onthewhole topass familylovedones onto put and left ofruns outfor therelatives

Statement by Mrs. Ármin Helfgott to SDP, December 12, 1919, pg. 96, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, Dossier AllagFond 10, 658, 96, pg. 1919, 12, December SDP, to Helfgott Ármin Mrs. Statement by 69. Ibid., in Terror White There “Is Marcus, fogházban?,” budapesti a történik “Mi Lestyán, Violence against Prisoners of War of Prisoners against Violence atement by Mrs. Zsigmond Tóth and Mrs. János Molnár to SDP, November 5, 1919, pg. 5, Fond Fond 5, pg. 1919, 5, November SDP, to Molnár János Mrs. and Tóth Zsigmond Mrs. by atement The sources thatallprisoners tothe same were suggest subject levels of Betweenthe recordsDemocratic of 1919and 1921,theSocialJoint and the Party

Writefolks tos toyour r 3, PIL; Statement by Mrs. Ignácz Klein to SDP, November 18, 1919, pg. 20, Fond Fond 20, pg. 1919, 18, November SDP, to Klein Ignácz Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, r nsfers to make such essential visits tomake such essentialnsfers visits tee showthatsupplementing inprisonand relatives internment

the prisoners.”

Hungary,”6 According toMarcus - supplied rations. However, because rations. supplied allowed the state end you very food.Itis , 361. , ipt of these parcels. oftheseipt why is This ,

not to free their custody relative free fromnot to state 8, JDC; Emphasis in the original. in the Emphasis JDC; 8, 135 A Világ A 198

The continued the economic crisis in

supplements e prisoners others,e suffered than more , October 17, 1919. 17, October , 137 Terror in Hung Terror , whilehe visiting was the

The survival of many of theseThe of survival ofmany December 5, 1919, pg. 63, Fond 658, 658, Fond 63, pg. 1919, 5, December easier necessar

. to their rations 138

ary,” 101, 107, JDC. See 107, JDC. 101, ary,”

y . ” 136 some people sought some

Likewise, by helping ,

but to but to CEU eTD Collection 140 139 certaingroups Another prisoners. the of was the internment experience thatcreated a experience internment differential of families’ proximity to differenteffects dependingprisoners on ontheir Thus, whileprovisioning policies mayappliedhad universally, very been they have such as and Poland Romania)also were particularly He vulnerabletomalnutrition. stated: and remainedas re inHungary also suggests (i.e.who Jews” thosefled Jews that“foreign their homesduring thewar the food policies distribution and policies of Marcus visitation theinternment authorities. poorer working somethingdo notreceive orthoseoutside.” anything who from susceptiblewerehave purchase tostarvation“those whomoney donotwithwhichto hadthe camp’s ontheauthority it of familiestravel. wereablereport, problem notedhis toMarcus this in statingthathe not relativesparticularlyextra have didnot those whose whose money orsupplies, those

Ibid., 69. Ibid., in Hungary,”68 Terror White There “Is Marcus, The lackaccess extrafoodadequate of to rations of clothingwaselement and one together. forin view of classescamp, inmates ofthefact thethatinmates all are kept privilegeground wouldarouse it animos that onthe food (the had inthose efforts).government writer The nohand refused this has secure made supply severalto with effortstheforeign to permission Jews them, particularly theforei Butare there people who any after innumerable donothave relatives tolook

- class or peasantclass or background 140

prisons and prisons

fugees, but were now technicallyforeignfugees, were but now of citizens states gn Jews. The Budapest Joint Distribution CommitteegnBudapest Distribution The Joint Jews. internment doctors at Zalaegerszegat doctors most thattheprisoners , JDC , 199

s appear tohavebeenaffected particularly by arbitrary camps

social background, citizenship, and background,citizenship, theirsocial .

denial of ityamongst theother uncared 139 these privilegesthese bythe

Thus prisoners from between

CEU eTD Collection in Hungary?,” 40 inHungary?,” fromletter, PIL;Excerpt n.a., 3, 145 144 PIL. 3, Dossier Allag10, 658, Fond pg. 30, 1919, November 21, SDP, to Gregus István by Statement PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Mo János Mrs. and Tóth Zsigmond Mrs. by PIL; Statement 3, Dossier 658, AllagFond 18, 10, pg. 1919, 17, November SDP, to Weinberger Regina by PIL; Statement 3, Sta Statement by 143 142 PIL. 3, Dossier Allag10, 658, Fond 96, pg. 1919, December 12, SDP, to ÁrminHelfgott Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, State PIL; 3, Dossier 141 provided by relatives,whom travelled many distances of andprisons significant tocamps prisoners,were because they sohe the early counter for Jews militiasWhite often stopped and boarded arbitrary incarceration. natureofpolitical systematicallyapplied tocertaingroups prisoners, the of which defined illustrates food. Marcus soldiersthemselves administering report, thecamp helped toone prisoner’s persecuted togreet whencame they their visitors. be the camps access see wereeven or to their denied afterthey previously relatives, had to receive them. daughters campguards. andprison

en allowed S tobring parcels. Statement to SDP, Fond 658, Fond SDP, Statement to in Terror White There “Is Marcus, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 16, pg. 1919, 17, November to SDP Bárc Ármín Statement by February SDP, to Herót József Mrs. Statement by Allag 658, Fond 10, 108, pg. 1919, 17, November SDP, to Ruzsicska Vencell Mrs. Statement by tement by Mrs. Mrs. tement by 144 Lastly, particularly between 1919and 1920,manythat travellingpeople reported

While thesewereWhile incidents donotappear egregious,they tohave ,

who were then seized andwho were beaten. then

were denied clothingevenwere andprisonerswe denied food theother though

Mrs. Károlyi Kiss to SDP, November 13, 1919, pg. 11, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 11, 10, pg. 1919, 13, November SDP, to Kiss Károlyi Mrs. - 41, JDC. 41, Nándor Kriszmanich to SDP, December 11, 1919, pg. 91, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 91, pg. 1919, 11, December SDP, to Kriszmanich Nándor 142 - ment by Mrs. Nándor Kriszmanich to SDP, December 11, 1919, pg. 91, Fond 658, 658, Fond pg. 91, 1919, 11, December SDP, to Kriszmanich Nándor Mrs. ment by revolutionaryadded period dimension tothe vulnerability another of

Others told the bureauOthers told been thattheythey when had mistreated visited

141

December 22, 1919, LP/HUN/1/2, LHA LP/HUN/1/2, 1919, December22, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL; Statement to SDP, to Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, Ina Herót, complaintMrs.József made and byatwo his man

Hungary,” 33, JDC. Hungary,”33, till others the told till bureau thatth avily dependent on supplements to their onsupplements rations to avily dependent

trains and othertrains vehicles and searching specifically 200 145

6, 1920, pg. 251, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. 251, 1920, 6,

The of dangers during travelencountered

143 lnár to SDP, November 5, 1919, pg. 5, Fond Fond 5, pg. 5, 1919, November SDP, lnárto

Inanothercaserecorded inthe ; Marcus, “Is There White Terror Terror White There “Is ; Marcus, e internees weree internees

Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond been been re permitted

CEU eTD Collection 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL Dossier 10, Allag 658, Fond 247, pg. February1920, 3, SDP, to Fleischmann Andor Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier 10, Allag Fond 658, 239, pg. 1920, January28, SDP, to Zachar byJános Mrs. Statement 3, PIL; Dossier 10, Allag 658, 253, pg. Fond February1920, 7, SDP, to Kaufer Ignác by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, 1 January19, SDP, to Csendes Ferencz by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, 17, December SDP, to Ruzsicska byVencell Mrs. Statement 3, PIL; Dossier 10, 3, Dossier 10, PIL; 3, Dossier Allag 658, Fond 98, 10, pg. 1919, December 12, SDP, to byVáradi Jénő Statement 3, PIL; Dossier 10, 30, November SDP, to Pataki János Mrs. Czakóand Sándor Statement by SDP, to Zsömbölyi Mária Statement by Statement b 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 57, pg. 1919, December 2, SDP, Róth to Mór Mrs. Statement by PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 1919, 95, pg. December 12, SDP, to Verő Henrik Mrs. Statement by 146 arrest continuingduring longer andoften imprisonment andinternment duringcounter the Butthose held bycivilharshwer authorities. beatings detachments tohigherexposed levels been appear ofviolence tohave arrestingguardguarding of andThosemilitia prisoners. under themilitary the of violence seems variedsignificantly have dependi to cudgels, and even leadpipes. dog leather whips, metal or oftenconsistedThis most of ofinstrumentswooden beatings including bya variety extreme formsar ofviolencethey experienced upon Punishment risks by ones. helping their loved who were vi for singled out Moreover,to visit. the threataffected ofdanger while disproportionately travelling Jews,

Statement by Zoltán Pfeiffer to SDP, December 2, 1919 December 2, SDP, to Pfeiffer Zoltán Statement by

Dossier 3, Statem 3, PIL; Dossier One of the most common protestsOne made ofthe common by internees most ortheir was relatives the y István Gregus to SDP, November 21, 1919, pg. 30, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 30, pg. 1919, 21, November SDP, to y Gregus István

PIL; PIL; and Physical Violenceand Physical

Statement by Mrs. Alajos Kerbolt to SDP, December 16, 1919, pg. 106, Fond 658, Allag 658, 106, pg. Fond 1919, 16, December SDP, to Kerbolt Alajos Mrs. Statement by .

Sta tement by Katalin Tomane to SDP, December 13, 1919, pg. 103, Fond 658, Allag Fond 658, 103, pg. 1919, 13, December SDP, to byTomane Katalin tement ent by István Jobbágy to Jobbágy by István ent

olence and therefore by militias, personal tooksignificant

November

- term captivity.term

25, 1919, pg. 36, Fond 36, pg. 1919, 25, SDP, January 20, 1920, pg. 242, Fond 658, Allag Fond 10, 658, 242, pg. 1920, 20, January SDP, 201

- , pg. 54, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL; AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, pg. , 54, revolution, beginning moment of at the ng for responsible onthepersons rest their imprisonment. andduring e a systematice of feature

146

The prevalence ofThe physical prevalence

658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, AllagDossier 658, 10, 1919, pg. 46, Fond 658, Allag Fond 46, pg. 658, 1919, 920, pg. 217, Fond 658, 658, 217, pg. Fond 920, 1919, pg. 108, Fond Fond 658, pg. 108, 1919, ,

as opposed to as opposed PIL; PIL; CEU eTD Collection 147 military, reinvigorated thepractice Terror,White during was the as theimages suggest. yearsreforms the thirty previous over to purge had from the corporeal moved punishment a h his tied specially swung thecondemnedair hanging and preparedpost on upinthe isthus left tied backwards. Then theytie Arope hisfeet. a over isswung branchtreeor of callepunishment hadForguards been outlawed).atthecamps example, formally used a particular subjected themilitary commonin that toforms was punishment ofcorporal (although it barrack of size terms laid downby Entente the which Mar

military was thepre from which aholdover punishment

Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Terror White There “Is Marcus, the country’s s for weeks or months. Consequently, prisoners held by these groups wereweeks months.Consequently,s for heldgroups or prisoners these by The militarystaff amount ofthe acamps, provided significant internment ands and feet cus claimed aneffort was statecus tocircumvent the theHungarian treaty by d “tyinghands out”which are entailedfollowing: “The the[sic] victims military. andin the alsoarrested military imprisonedpeople Militias

for afor specified period”

Hungary,” 70, JDC. Hungary,”70, that demanded Hungary’sgovernment that 202 147

(See Figs.and 3.7) 3.6 - war period war

and .

while military his practicewashis reduce the

CEU eTD Collection 148 representatives receivedonly a a complaint single beating, of butthe depositions crimes often but were also

Case against Dezső Andorka, pg. 768, 1925, 1925, 768, pg. Andorka, Dezső Caseagainst as a form of discipline tokeepas ofor aform discipline and for otherand infractions for Beatingsalso frequently weresoldiers during usedand by police interrogations,

appear tohave been Fig.4 Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy inPrintIllustration Copy

“The

Governor has a good time,” by Mihály Biró, 1920 Biró, time,” Mihály by good a has Governor

. The reportICRC by theindicates that their Fig.4

administered .7

“Hungarian Siberia.” “Hungarian der in camps andalleged incamps as forder punishments VII.5.c VII.5.c 203

held CEULibrary in held CEULibrary in 1925 1925 systematically in prisons and camps,systematically inprisonsand –

8038 148 ,

Bírósági - ügyészségi,

BFL.

CEU eTD Collection There White Terror in Terror White There “Is PIL; Marcus, 3, AllagDossier Fond 10, 658, 44, pg. SDP, to Grünberg Márkus Mrs. by PIL;Statement 152 151 150 ornot. repeated wheth not indicate who do those to addition is3, in PIL. Dossier This 10, Allag 658, 221, pg. Fond 1920, January19, SDP, to Kraft György by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, 3, Dossier Allag10, PIL; 3, AllagDossier 10, 658, Fond pg.1919, 106, December 16, SDP, to Kerbolt Alajos Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Allag10, Nov SDP to Pataki János Mrs. and Czako Andor Mrs. Statement by 149 determine judged howpeople what severe violenceas orless was interpretations more differentiation were and Jews It difficult between leftists to accurate. alsoextremely is possibleinternment, not is toconfirm it sources from these ofsuch whether claims beatings. Marcus’ 1921 acts. made tothe Social However,insomedepositions Democratic well Partyas as subject similarviolent treatment, to whippings, includingand manual similar beatings asCommittee well asLabour theBritish were suggest Jews Delegation and thatleftists common feature ofincarceration and internment hard that they miscarried. pregnantwho were imprisonedwere women be The by contained documentsLabour claims collected that themultiple delegation writtenexposé by givesLestyan ofviolence prisoners. a description against similar death. confinement, were some damage ofwhich caused thatthey or sosevere physical lasting prisoners facilities held inmultiple frequently experiencedarrest beatings during and collected by theSocial Democraticreport Party tha

Statement by József Kohn to SDP, Novembe SDP, to Kohn József Statement by /10.iv, LHA. LP/HUN/5/46/2.1, Delegation, Joint by investigated be to Listincidents of foghazakban?” budapesti a történik “Mi Lestyán, PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 67, pg. 1919, December 5, SDP, to Schwitzer Sándo Statement by In one Collectively,of Distribution theSocialParty thesourcesDemocratic theJoint and 152

Since the Marcus Since theMarcus

report thatsuch a stated be

report, claimed weresevere people that singledoutfor Jews themost PIL; Statement by Mária Zsömbölyi to SDP, November 25, 1919, pg. 36, Fond 658, 658, Fond 36, pg. 1919, 25, November SDP, to Zsömbölyi Mária by Statement PIL;

Hungary,” 68 Hungary,”

151 Statement by Jénő Váradi to SDP, December 12, 1919, pg. 98, Fond 658, 658, Fond pg. 98, 1919, 12, December SDP, to Váradi Jénő Statement by

Ingeneral, that evidence indicates

r , JDC , eport under specifically dealt Jews withthe conditions of ; Joint Labour Delegation, Labour ; Joint r 29, 1919, pg. 41, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 41, pg. 1919, 29, r ating left the“flesh victim’s ating left shreds.” in 204 A Világ A

aten andaten kicked so intheir abdoments .

, October 17, 1919. 17, October , t regardless ofage,ethnicity, orsex, ember 20, 1919, pg. 27, Fond 658, 658, Fond 27, pg. 1919, 20, ember The White Terror in Hungary in White Terror The er beatings were constant and and wereconstant beatings er severe violence severe violence

was a 149 , 8. ,

The

150

CEU eTD Collection 156 PIL. 3, Dossier PIL; 3, Dossier 658, AllagFond 86, 10, pg. 1919, 10, December SDP, Ehrental to Jénő by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier 658, Fond 57, pg. 1919, December 2, SDP, Róth to Mór Mrs. by Statement PIL; 3, Dossier Decem SDP, to Ruzsicska Vencell Mrs. by PIL;Statement 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 103, pg. 1919, December 13, SDP, to Tomane Katalin Statement by 155 154 918 that Binds,” Tie “The Holocaust 153 of thebeatings had left torture, determined brother thather failure. seconda autopsywhen ofthe However, made, body was thephysician yearnotification thather had of husband of diedduringa heart acaptivity result as imprisonment hadled death. tohis her claimed She that sister Katalinthat beatings Toma, she onheradministered stated brother becausefacilities incamps poor medical of andprisons. orevenill ofthem. The diedasresult violencemadeeven a prisoners vulnerable more violence than non werein chapter that Jews isprobable two,it vulnerabletohigher levels ofphysical over the other. make theSocial to depositions Democratic as leftist Party perspective. and experiences violence class, aregender, mediated byethnicity of and ideolog

Statement by Katalin Tomane to SDP, December 13, 1919, pg. 103, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 103, pg. 1919, December 13, SDP, to Tomane Katalin Statement by PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 239, pg. 1920, January28, SDP, to Zachar János Mrs. Statement by Collins, Law it rence L. Langer, “ Langer, L. rence Some individuals claimedSome thattherepeated beatingsa form were ofpsychological Thewere majority those survived, beaten became severely butthere of thosethat as in the case of Mrs. Jenő Klein’s fatherasMrs. Jenő inthecase of impossible tountangleimpossible from their ethnic the political identity ,

“ Dalia Ofer and Lenore J. Weitzman J. Lenore Oferand Dalia The Tie that Binds,” Tie The 153

St 154

atement by Mrs. Dezső Goldstein to SDP, December 6, 1919, pg. 69, Fond 658, Allag Fond 10, 658, 69, pg. 1919, 6, December SDP, to Goldstein Dezső Mrs. by atement Furthermore, theintersecting of identities many those making of

Nevertheless, given the explicit targeting givenNevertheless, explicit described the by militias ofJews - Jewish internees,Jewish oftheir regardless political strip Gendered Suffering? Women in Holocaust Testimonies,” in in Testimonies,” Holocaust in Women Suffering? Gendered - 919. him

in astate of“hopelessness” goingwas and to he “close 919 in

- law “died violently in prisonfrom ablowtothehead.” “died violently law .

, eds , 205 .

( New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998 Press, University Yale Haven: New

ber 17, 1919, pg. 108, Fond 658, Allag 10, 658, AllagFond 10, 108, pg. 1919, 17, ber - in - ,

law whoclaimed constancy that the who were heritagealso ofJewish 155

In one - in - law had received law report made byreport made Mrs - in es. , -

and priori law

Women in the the in Women

during his

Allag 10, ); Collins,); tize onetize ical ical

156 . ,

CEU eTD Collection 161 Delegation, Labour in the Joint was included incident similar 160 PIL. Allag 658, Fond 10, 106, pg. 1919, December 16, SDP, to Kerbolt Alajos Mrs. Statement by 159 PIL. 69, pg. 158 PIL. 19, pg. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 1919, 10, 18, November SDP, to Vajda Jénő Statement by injuries,” “nervous claim of makessimilar a Anotherreport 157 become guard, theallowedraped mistressheher ofthe and times several then her to sex period,this the guard attemptedtoexchangequalitygood lodging and for rations higher was heldonlyfor weekguarded inthe jail,andwas During one bydetachment. a militia was raped whileinjailbecause a of denu Delegation’sin theanother Britishreport, ofPutnok” “Jewish Joint published report the and of in Mrs.Hamburger discussed had tooth. pulled outhis because him”. kill they’ll desperate becauseare constantly they and him, he beating senta messageto ormutilated, inthe caseof“situation was Mrs.Alajosinterned Kerbolt whose husband’s wife claiming that ontopofregular other prisoners’feet and hadbeen his beatings, of physical Mrs.Henrikaswrote torture,inthecasewho to the Verő, husband of of to attemptsuicide. were crazy”.

Joint Labour Delegation, Labour Joint 1920 January19, SDP, Kraft to György Statement by PIL; 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 95, 10, pg. 1919, DecemberSDP, 12, to Verő Henrik Mrs. Statement by Decemb SDP, to Goldstein Dezső Mrs. Statementt by December 11, SDP, to Klein Jénő Mrs. Statement by , which according report, tothe

s ix), occurredix), she was Héjjas forweeks. while by imprisoned the militia five compelled to beat each other in order to gain leadingcompelled confessionseach tobeatother to ofterrorism, inorder some 157 Sexualized violenceanother case was The infamous aspect ofincarceration. most

According Goldstein, prisonersfrom report toanother Dezső themselves Mrs. 158

For beatings others, were merelyprecursor

The White Terror Terror White The 160

159

Inanother thattheauthorities GyörgyKraftclaimed report,

c hapter

she refused. Finally,she afterrepeatedlyto refusing in Hungary in t nciation that she had been a communist. She that sheShe hadanciation been communist. wo (and wh (andwo 206

, pg. 221, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, PIL AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, , 221, pg. PIL. 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 90, pg. 1919, er 6, 1919, pg. 69, Fond 658, Allag 10, Dossier 3, 3, AllagDossier 658, Fond 10, 69, pg. 1919, 6, er , 8 - 11. The White Terror in Hungary, Hungary, in White The Terror ich will be revisited in ich will berevisited in

to more extremeforms c help him 11. hapters Dossier 3, 3, Dossier

161

In his . A . f ive ive CEU eTD Collection 164 163 162 sethouse for suggests Jews deportation, thatt Marcus’report ofsuch Piliscsaba was onthecamp, primarily in use exams to used which the impoverished andarrested working who classes, wereforprostitution. unregulated years beforeoutbreakofwar the gynecologicalCompulsory exams suggests an important roleininterpreting thatclass violence. played sexualized such gynecologicalas compulsory and exams violencethat involved forcible instatecustody sex gynecological exam. guardcamp called who af and her prostitute refinedgirl.”refusedThe day, todosimilar sheabused next and work was by a verbally neglected the hardsheis“a toilet” whilefrom work andill interned became because namedreported Jewess Miss case a the Polish of male relatives. accused When A.F. ofrape,hadhim her he interned. Marcus many claimedwhocame assaulted had women of onbehalf tohim their Jewish a prisonoffice work assignment inthe presidentarrested she who waseducated, and was she imprisoned.Because was placed in camp.was“Miss of A.F.”thedaughter Hewho story of recounteda the synagogue to the 1921 escape.

Ibid., 89 Ibid., in Terror White There “Is Marcus, 16 Ibid., 162 - -

90 17. S

he discovered she had become pregnant as a result of the assault. Accordingashe had aresult discoveredpregnantassault. become she ofthe report Marc by Joseph .

164

The case suggests thatwomen ofE.Y. faced forms distinctive of

Hungary,” 39, JDC. Hungary,”39, . They were. They typicall us, sexual assault wasZalaegerszeg commonatthe us, sexual were by performed thestate and by was Smoling, who boss,Milos raped her 207 orced her togo totheorced infirmary afor he regime used these invasive exams asaexams he invasive regimeused these unwanted fondling unwanted

E.Y. who wasclean“very forced a to

as well as threats other sexualized ywomen performed on for purposes public health . However, it also it However, . 163

Marcus also , largely from

CEU eTD Collection 167 166 165 andpublicize sensationalize storiesof violence sexual against convention against the played cultural ofinternment role an representations and outsized in in of shame tounsanc or violation, responsible becausenorms usually for great attacha theirsocial own amount notoriously underreported crime are largely often victims tofeel because made internment. they toowere incarcerated not relegated alone totheprisoner affected their butoften incident, alongwith others, sexuallyassaulted sexual indicate that wives surveillance byand persecution state officials. freed prisoners but “ specific of for form punishment inpart violate femaleinterneestheir to used respectability

Joanna Bourke, Bourke, Joanna in Terror White There “Is Marcus, 183 fromDisgrace,” Living “Makinga Zimmermann, . Moreover, internment offamily internment membersfamilies openedMoreover, upwholetoincreased ized It difficultviolence determineexactly is to sexualized was howprevalent during violenceSexual also appears forcommon beennotjust tohave

s of atrocity literature which exploded durings ofatrocitywhichI exploded literature War World violence.In whose incident women husbands two one were were interned counter

Historically violence womenand against menhas sexual both a been

was experienced by ” . Rape: A History fr History A Rape: 165

after they wereafter they called building by soldiers tothe municipal

- tioned sexual contact. sexual tioned and of daughter interne revolution

show thatt ary violationregime. onsexual reflected Thisemphasis the om 1860 to the Present Present to Day the 1860 om Hungary,” 39, JDC. Hungary,”39,

their rela he vio 167 es were vulnerablees were to tives 208

Nevertheless, stories ofNevertheless, violence sexual len Related to this, s tothis, Related

ce ofincarcerationce and was internment 185, 185, 187. who visited orattempted visited who toget them

(London: Virago, 2007), 2007), (London: Virago,

entire women ome of the reports families violence, including . T and leftist leftist hese stories hese , whether ornot

sought to

actual 15 publicity . 166 - 18.

This

CEU eTD Collection AMA Verlag, 1922), 1922), AMAVerlag, 169 168 system of the danger violation oflurking sexual ininternment andunderscored camps immorality the and Terror theWhite broadly. play more simultaneously The theconstant highlighted place hadefforts violence denouncing thatsexual inpublicity Mária” thethe examoffer if mother would “Szűz illustratesthe Mária tohim. central supported “free therefore and love” was sexually presumably active.He tobypass offered her employment stating asa during teacher thather theCommune, jobi because The however,a camp justified wasvirgin. theexam onthe she basis doctor, of the doctor require thatdidnot an her invasive vaginal daughter for exam venereal disease gynecologicalmandatory testing virgin ofher argu daughter mother The Mária. Mary],focusesconflict he and onthe regarding between a theinternment mother staff the V German as depictingcounter life inthe left presented press, by andinartwho intheleftist particularly andproduced artists literature, violence hada during internment central placeinanti counter dominated propagandasides onboth ofthe conflict. publications ienna,In play,was whereatMária”first hethe living time. entitled the “Szűz [Virgin

Gábor Andor, “Szűz Mária,” in Andor,“SzűzMária,” Gábor 116. note See

Hungary after ofthe collapse Republic. Soviet the counter - Frompublicity, theperspective e of One exampleofthisliterature writer Gábor isexiled Andor’splays bookof three was anwas effective way todiscredit revolution Horthys Lager

- revolution 21

was, in this sense, a point of continuity from wartime, as sexualized sense, this asexualized ofcontinuitywas, point as wartime, in from -

ary authorities who reportedly perp

and inHungari - revolutionary internment camps, revolutionary internment published in 1922 Egeszeszeg: harom kép a magyar életból és a magyar magyar a és életból magyar a kép harom Egeszeszeg:

it. Efforts byparticulartended Efforts in it. to theJDC an as an 209 mphasizing sexual violence mphasizing sexual

Egerszeg - counter

. Bothwere published in versions etrated such violations. - the horrors of internment of the horrors revolutionary stories revolutionary 168

The Hungarian in the internment ndicated thatndicated she halálról (Vienna:halálról ed with 169

CEU eTD Collection 170 women However, the sources suggestfor thatatleast some, how manywomen may eng have It formtemptation. ifthis coercion ofsexual clear not is althoughconditions, yield Marcus clarified thewomen above the didnot that to demanded, bureaucrats theinternmentmayguards sectionaccept in willing andbeen have to their incarcerated relatives. being“violated” by incident involving A.F.,womenshe had Miss Marcus stated thatobserved many (Jewish) wasPutok offeredfreedom herexchange in In forguard. themistress becoming ofthe the gain conditions fo better regarding suggestassaults also deploy their thatwomencould their sexuality to in order undeservingattacks. of such to bourgeois regarding norms sexualitytocl inorder Assuchof they prostitution. emphasized thevictims’ respectability conformity and their E.Y. was an required defended toundergo because exam she accusations herself against orpromiscuousillicit behaviors,the Jewess like thestory of youngrefined adamantvictims’ to engagealso They therefusal emphasized woman. in A.F.a prominentmember daughter wascommunity andwell the of a highlightelevated statusMarcu the ofthevictim like social

Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Terror White There “Is Marcus, Although above women thestories as recounted emphasized thedetails victims, could strategicallydeploy

bribes inth

Smoling when they came into the office to advocate on behalfSmoling theoffice whencame into advocate of they on to e form of sexual favors ofsexual form inexchange freedome for orbetter r

themselves or 170

These money, addition to incidentsthat in hint some Hungary,” p. 39, JDC. 39, Hungary,”p. aged order tohelpthemselves in or init their relatives.

to ameliorate the conditions of imprisonment. conditions of the to ameliorate

their relatives while in prison. The Jewess of their whilerelatives inprison.The 210

sex maysex currencya have that been early show that such women wereearlywomen showthatsuch

and violence s did, when he noted that Miss he when s did, of Putok or Miss A.F.of orMiss Putok Miss -

was widespread was or educated andeducated

, or CEU eTD Collection 171 motivated incarceration revolutionary violence diseases revolutionary had prisonfacilities notoriously hotbedsfor been of infectious thespread givenfrom internment tuberculosis,irony campsother ofan that something counter and the Zalaegerszeg cam functionedpolitical, andcleansing. social asnational, notAfter theclosing space for if of receded tothe background andr political opposition generallygoal asa internment theoriginalleftist means speaking, marginalize to of National were minorities also heavilyrepresentedamong imprisoned.But thosestill as aplace tosendthe capi society,authorities usedZalaegerszeg specifically butincreasinglythe camp internment designed and leftists “foreigners”, tomarginalize particularly from Hungarian Jews, and finallycommon criminals to prisonerswar changed ofand substantiallyfrom topolitical prisoners deportees prisoners aftermath December near 1924. the Over sentences had largely However, camps inprisons. internment by disbanded been counter Conclusion

Kovács, “Az internálas,” 7. internálas,” “Az Kovács, - Counter incarcerPolitical , revolutionary criminal courtsrevolutionary criminal activitieswere for their political their serving

inc , campsZalaegerszeg Hajmáskér, like , of hadseen Csót and thecomposition

luding tuberculosis - revolutionary andprisonscamps were of sites counter important p, the area was transformed into ainto sanatorium areasuffering for wasp, the those transformed

and deprivationand

were and was deprivation places were used violence ation continued wellthe1920sbecauseation into continued by convicted many

emove non

tol’s undesirables,tol’s including pickpockets andprostitutes. ,

although that one conclude the camp might ostensibly

ly ten years of operations ten ly ,

. in the early yearsin the early ofthe counter Counter - Hungarian immigrants from the troubled state,Hungarian immigrants from had the troubled

in Hungary. Institutions in Hungary. used for politically - revolution 211

ary internment hadoriginally been

between the war and its between its and thewar - revolutionary state. - 171

- CEU eTD Collection conditions of internmentconditions of andtheTerrorgenerally. White more Terrorgenerally foreign more by mission ethnicity helped shape ofinternment theWhite and also politics, and theinterpretations classexisting expectations and gender same class, These gender, elements: norms. weretimes and individuals’ ex thesame, one defeat prisoners’and addition to revolution.in But ethno eager personsgroups scoresthose against andwhich theyfor tosettle held responsible who were foreign ofHungary’simportant wartime dimension topeacetime. from transition thepoliticalpunish remnants ofth oftransitionalimportant dimension justice work. Counter Hungarianfollow a regimecould Europeanexperience the Great which of War, seta helped new legal the pattern designstruggle its broader owed andmuchtothe within Hungary, implementation to concentrate, ultimately control and of therest removethreatssociety. political from was successesas bothits regarded critical, and legitimacy failures, in toits and ability its counter which hadof the state. an Unliketheambiguous militias systematically tomanagecontrol enemiesauthorities those andpersons by state deemed - Persons involvedpolitics withleftist insome capacity particularly andthose Jews, As much as revolution - revolutionary imprisonmentandinternment, then,was onlyan not - born, werefor born, theprimarytargets ary carcera political incarceration was by therevolutionary shaped political l state was formulated andgovernment regulated was formulated and l state by the nd even and eveninfrastructuretostart physical its withwhich e previous revolutionaryregimes; alsowas it an s whichcame toHungary toinvestigate the , 212 whereby the state sought to remove andwhereby thestate remove soughtto periences of internment were alsoperiences shaped ofinternmentby were

internment by a regime whichinternmentregime was a by

- relationship to thestate, to the relationship political whichat identities,

CEU eTD Collection Br the tiesbetween inbuilding instrumental been had decade in and the previous questions” in “international wasveryinterested He also 1918. re in the involved heavily was hehis post, supported which wingthe party theof 3 as LHA). to referred Engl Archive,Manchester, and Museum History Archive,People’s 2 ( 1 Internationalbe enshrinedof Labour,” inthe heart themain letter thrustofhis was his Huysmansregards as “glowing idealists letter thepersecution does failHungarian and not tomention workers, of leftists who the international andTerror. socialist tothe worker’sWhite movement the Although and former Cabinet War memberinGr ofthe International Bureau Socialist politician Labour Henderson, (ISB),a toArthur prominent The inaletterHuysmans, words written from above, of Camille the thesecretary the blood in Hungary renderingpossible Britain ofGreat well and humiliatingwill a be It problem. theHu solve to efforts her astrayin gonecompletely has Britain Great intentions, of theWith best

London: P.S. King & Son, LTD., 1924 LTD., &Son, King London: P.S. Arthur Henderson had been a member of the War Cabinet until 1917, when he resigned. He had been on been had whenHe he resigned. until 1917, Cabinet War memberofthe a been had ArthurHenderson ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom Seton Robert proletariate [sic]. not openlyvindictive bestiality victorious commend ofa the freshly re with allthe reactionary thecastles whofeast elements, in ofRoyalist aristocrats completelywith the democratic outoftouch sentim democracies. theyget Whereas all hard or cynical militarists is cling aidand tothethemfrom hope comfort theWestern that come will to shamedemocra upon theEntente countriesa similarly have, prying situated, infact,become anda burning scandal The inHungary, activities ofmissions the Entente and probably alsoother in - Watson, forward to to forward Watson, — of this most advanced Commonwealth of the world ofthe Commonwealth advanced most ofthis - instated in their feudalglory,andinstated intheir whosecretlyif over chuckle they dare Rousing the Conscience of the World the of Conscience the Rousing 2

Revolution a Revolution

— ), vii. ), - to a to point stai - - nigh inexplicable fact for the future historian that the diplomacy thediplomacy that historian future factthe for inexplicable nigh Chapter Five Chapter organization of the Labour Party, drafting a new constitution in newconstitution a drafting Party, Labour ofthe organization itish labor movement and the continental movement. movementthe continental and itishlabor ned and reactionary rule of AdmiralHorthy. ruleof reactionary and ned

nd Counter nd and Martyrs of Socialism whose memoryand whose Socialism Martyrs must of cies. With patheticcies. faith With people these unfortunate — 213 British involvement in the Great War. Afterresign War. Great the in Britishinvolvement eat Britain, eat

January 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/1.i 1920, January8,

- revolution in Hungary in revolution

and (Document collection hereafter collection (Document and 3

provide insight into — ent whoare inglove hand played the principle part in part the principle played

gentrybeatena over , by Oskar Jászi by , Oskar - crusted lawyers

Robert Seton Robert - ii, Labour History Labour ii,

reaction of

ngarian

- Watson ing ing 1

CEU eTD Collection 4 respectively.Itgender, pay attention class,andethni will special tohow American analyzingnarratives thecompetingaboutBritish Terror produced the White by This chapter contest examinethis will likely crisisthebeleaguered prolonged in state political and instability inpostwar Europe. theEntente’sshift in entire policy inHungarywhich the very existence show will key tostopping labor regarded politicians officialsdebates politicians and between labor Entente im in Hu persecution by leftists workers and counterestablished of thenewly with the Hungariangovernment.” with aregime ofcivilization withthe notions before compatible they any have dealings governments Terror remove recognition ofthe to “White their and [regime] replac of milita labor and ondiplomatic their orderpowergovernments in their toobtaintherepresentation to exertinfluence over Henderson, Westernand labor accordingtouse letter,politicians tohis other prominent worker ofexpression deep withthe lacktraction dissatisfaction ofarguments andagainst pleas

Letter from Camille Huysmans to ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom portant international issue ngary. - Hu targeted violencegained a ,

government representatives and the British Joint Labourgovernment Joint British and representatives the Delegation ysman’s letter exemplifies the debate simply not was about

Huysman’s letterHuysman’ssignificance also highlights the an Terror ofWhite as

political persecutionagainst leftists. and violence and scope of scope

the Entente

postwar counter ry Hungary to missions and Entente toencourage 4 mong the Entente governments. theEntente mong implored He

’s engagement in Hungarian in ’s engagement political affairs response between labor andbetween labor -

revolution Europe 214 against against

January 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/1.iii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/1.iii, 1920, January8,

of the international labor movement tothe internationallabor movement of the . Violence ary violence. whom , politicians feared,, politicians regardingHungary Western governments governments Western

violence was directedbutover played anplayed important rolein

At st As t - revolutionary regimerevolutionary ake was apossible ake was he following pages

cityof both would have would in part because in

and by

as the e

it CEU eTD Collection not just fornot just revolutionary International Labo Labour the internationaltensions within andBritish to understand howinternational reflected this ideological advocacythe political work and understand was interpretedspecific howviolence tofurther and politicalinorder agendas production the andfrom contentreport of anintersectional pe organization of an investigatory toBudapest.It tobesent the consider mission will examinethecontext will regardingof prescriptions its for action Hungary, including the received labor fromand politicians other Hungarian movements’ reaction toth Entente’s toallegations response Terror ofWhite a for context understandingcontents ofthe the Parliamentary of report early1920 reconstructionthe collapseHungarian Republic of following Soviet the g analyze will it Next, Entente’s, the and particularlythe yearslast theirGreat andformulation of “war aims” War of the the and policy priorities. and po groupcameHungary.the violence toregarding questionin andvictims international observers shapedbothnarrativesaseach aswell theconclusions overnments litical transitionsgoing on The Great anda War aftermath period its was ofchange tremendous and upheaval In chapter story,this contextualizing totellthis order begin theideological will by ’

involvement in Hungary in tomilitaryinvolvement withregard and political occupation r , British Labo , British

Hungary, international butfor the whichwas labor movement e official

governmental the British andthe British international the in labor movements u r and ther Great and War 215

. Finally, labor. analyze will it the report,information and it toconflicting

movements. fellow travelers American and American

rspective in order to rspective inorder

a cross Europe.Itcross British . This will providewill

and the and the

CEU eTD Collection the International Socialist Congress of Stuttgart, 18 Stuttgart, of Congress Socialist International the 6 1989). Press, University Duke against Hau Georges 5 International,the wa this come war. disarmament arbitration militaries responsible reaffirmed thedemocratization for to also commitment and its of war resolution onthe issue history issue repeatedlyI ina the numberwithin itself ofdebates manifested bourgeoisie radical significant divide International,affiliated withthe Second even was little Internationalthe Bureau (ISB) Socialist International completely allbut was “executive”coordinating defunct,its though body, had been

International Socialist Congress, Socialist International Merle Fainsod, Fainsod, Merle 6

of The to War: Lenin, the Zimmerwald Left, and the Origins of Communist Internationalism of Origins Communist the and Left, Zimmerwald the War:Lenin, , win The InternationalThe uptheissueof took relati warand militarism

but socialism’s an agreement

organized und organized in the way ideological consensus between and of and foreign policy general pt, pt, g asregarded reformism amisguided attempt whichtoreconcile the

- it was only at th wasit at only dominated political andsocialdominated Thisideological political orderwith socialism. divide Socialism and the Great WarGreat the and Socialism International Socialism and the World Warthe World and Socialism International

was between was timidity ofthe statement reflectedthe

response response to war and militarism

. on The er the auspices of the Second International. theer auspicesthe Second of . But the s most deeplys most theinability notin about felt tocome toconsensus

concrete policy

e 1907Stuttgart that thea body Congress passed resolution

Pro as offensive ameasure war, toprevent

the reformist wing of the International ofthe morethe reformist andthe wing posals and drafts of resolutions with explanatory reports submitted to to submitted reports explanatory with resolutions of drafts and posals

statement

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972); R. Craig R. Nation, 1972); Press, Clarendon (Oxford: reiterated unbridled capitalist that regimes were ,

established in1900 established 216 - did not offerdid not any concrete strategiestooppose to respond to to respond 24 August 1907 24 prior tothe outbreakprior of

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1935); 1935); Press, University Harvard (Cambridge: .

inability ofdisparate factions to

war. ( Geneva: Minkoff Reprint, 1977). Reprint, Geneva:Minkoff within ,

continued For the leftist minority theFor leftist in nternational, including the nternational,

many parties the of 5

and promoted and promoted By 1916, theSecondBy 1916,

war.The most vely earlyits in

to operate

(Durham, NC: (Durham, n explicit n explicit War . T here

CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard Universit Harvard of Press Belknap (Cambridge: War Great 8 7 labor wasascendant andinternational thenational becoming onboth political stage an reaction Entente of the and Moreover, internationalism amongmany partiesand organizationsbelligerentstates. in labor g coupled with a had belief it that socio intern International 1923. in Internationalthe Second organized und splitan institutional mo political “truces”acrossEu cooperation withthe labor movement would,sinceit war“inevitable”as ofcapitalism. wasregardeddimension an preventing butintheto lackcommitment war, of

In Germany “defensism” led to the to led “defensism” InGermany Nation, overnments vingboundaries beyond the national contributed to solidarity, internationalism, anddemocratization socialism, - ationalism, across thesolidarity the national working and of class boundaries, economicchange However, I War World When broke War on WarWar on , 234 ,

t he he - which were which were 235; Michael Neiburg, Neiburg, Michael 235; er the and COMINTERN thereformists outbreak revolution of , with many internationalist favor abandoningan stance for parties in while the Second Internationalwhile the Second collapsed, , 23. See also Haupt, Haupt, also See 23. ,

at the end of thewar

national

to it to ,

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Dance of the Furies: Europe and the Outbreak of World War I of World Outbreak the and Europe Furies: the of Dance out in the summer of 1914, it split theinternational split it thesummer ofout in 1914, Socialism and the Great War the Great and Socialism

reconstituted as the Labour asreconstituted the and Socialist in Russia y, 2011), 152 y,2011), ; in France, the the ; in France, ,

with the revolutionarieswith the 217

discredited“capitalist, the bourgeois” reinvigorated resisting - 154. Union sacrée Union

were hardening of positions. This ledto This hardening ofpositions.

war when out,which broke it

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CEU eTD Collection (London: Labour Party,19 Labour (London: 10 Outlook L.Lorwin, Lewis instead. Switzerland neutral state fromenemy representatives not allow would but Clemenceau program peace, for formulate labor to a in order in Paris, organized be to conference socialist international ofe representatives would not allow governments as several challenge wasdifficult especially present an be states could neutral 9 Party parties coalitionwas a of (LP)multiple and more of trade tha unions movement werelaborgenerally politics. mirrored inBritish to test therenewed bondsofsocialist brotherhood. post developing the prewar period,reconstructed the international labor movement rathereliminated sources tensionsbetweenstates. than andeconomic ofnational which emerged from it and waspeace theslowness it with both disgusted ofthe process andthetreaties final over dictatorshipright and the of the current system Internationalthe warideological arguedhadbaretheandpolitical that bankruptcy laid of armistice,International the a took strong thewar andpeaceThe stanceon the process. between labor parties national in reforming the international system. Internationalthat the

This was no small feat considering that arranging meetings where representatives from all belligerent and belligerent and fromall representatives where meetings arranging that featwas considering small no This

The Labour Party, “The International at Lucerne:T at International Party,“TheLabour The - armistice

(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press Publishers, 1953), 50 1953), Publishers, Greenwood Press CT: (Westport, The whichdef debatesand challenges yearInInternational theSecond the thelast war, of policies forfuture,R apolicies unknowncrisis. Central Eastern and nemy states on their territory pr theironterritory nemystates .

(or an international (or labor organization) suppor 19), , arguing new thatthetreaties “international established injustices”

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I n self the Europe - determination

months andmonths The International Labor Movement: History, Policies, Policies, History, Movement: Labor International The

ior to a treaty.a to ior provided the International the provided opportunity an with 218 he Resolutions. The Provisional Constitution” Constitution” Provisional The heResolutions. ined and tested theinternational and tested ined labor

ather criseswhich theconcrete plague years immediately following the . It - 51. This prevented, for instance, an instance, for prevented, This organized against politics organized power s in Paris, so the held the meeting in the held the so sin Paris,

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- CEU eTD Collection o 39 esp. 1956), Press, University RichardsGraubard, movement.Vickers, Britishlabor the two primary of gathering anunprecedented was which LeedsConvention 13 12 1889 for Peace the Struggle and Socialism Manchester (Manchester: 1900 Policy Foreign Labour’s of Evolution The Jupp, James i and parties, socialist continental as the time the same around wasin 1893, founded ILP The policy. foreign Party Labour formulationof war and late Inthe socialism. Christian non a PartyLabour (ILP), the Independent Society; and Fabian the (SDF); Federation Democratic Social the including socialists Marxian the membership); off comprised was PartyLabour The newconstitution. ofupa the drawing party and reorganization major was a there when until 1918, in elections, Party Liberal the among candidates sympathetic identify workedto Party often L The in Parliament. class working ofthe to represent theinterests 1900 11 collapse of the move which to organize a to delegation internationalism whichin Russia, committed versusthe twomain camps revolutionaries) (reformists and movement ratherdiscussions thanpractical ofpolicy knowledge and debates tothat often prior displ excercised many narrow thelackfairly goals,which had coupled ofpowerthe of with purpose partyagenda. withaunified f Labour

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(London: Allen and Unwin, 1961), esp. 55 esp. 1961), Unwin, (London: Allenand The Evolution of Labour’s Foreign Policy Foreign Labour’s of Evolution The

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Henderson Kerensky visited 12 University Press, 2004), 2004), Press, University

The turning for point led to his resignation tohis the government.led from Following th

- send to 40; and Ralph Miliband, Ralph Miliband, and 40; ts positions were often communicated in both moral and political terms. political moraland both in communicated wereoften tspositions The Evolu The

the movement’s postwar

the international Stockholm conferencethe international1917,a Stockholm in ayed - 1914 11 tion of Labour’s Foreign Policy Foreign Labour’s tion of

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219

volume 1 of volume1 idealism that idealism ( meant that meant British labor was theo - , 34 , - London: Frank Cass, 1982), 18; 18; 1982), Cass, London: Frank 57. 23; 23; - British

Marxist “ethical” socialist p socialist “ethical” Marxist

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- the commitment toso commitment the Parliamentary Socialism: A Study in the Politics Politics the in Study A Socialism: Parliamentary 35. D

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labor moveme making. making. The Labour Party and Party and Labour The its foreignits policy formulations

characterized - 1924 1924 also RC and subsequently the Labour the subsequently and RC

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included included ideological strands ofthe strands ideological British Labour, European European Labour, British - utbreak of revolution utbreak of 65. See alsoSee Stephen 65. nt was split nt was split ci

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terms to internationalism, socialism, anti socialism, terms internationalism, to ,

and exclusion a committee whicha committee 220

, 66. , (London: Union of Democratic Control, 1915?), 7 1915?), Control, Democratic Unionof (London:

in the early period postwar

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influenced Labour Annual Party Conferenc Labour demonstrated postwar on. The postwarCentralon. The conditions andE of formulation of formulation by

its Europe and in the position of Britainand intheEurope international inthe position

ideological liberal to commitment andsocialist

provided an opportunity for the Labourprovided an for opportunity the Party and the that thepersistence oftensions between imperia - war Second International Second laborwar British andthe eReport policyaims, theirresponse was crisis toactual postwar Labour Party 221 , 1923, , 11 pp.

embedded in the immediate historicalembedded intheand immediate

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not CEU eTD Collection Central European University P University CentralEuropean 19 period. thisrevolutionary during Europe Eastern Centraland inmilitary personnel and from diplomats correspondence and reports was ideology 18 17 mobilizingin kind, forces already of tothe finalization thetr prior occupied regime organizedArmy a Redarmies “lostterritories”which toretakehad the foreign Hungary which surrounded and onall sidesbynew states, hostile socialist principles. of international counter international inthe labor movement, country to associated powers to theRepublic Hungarian followed similarlines Soviet Russia spilling over establish a“ alarmedRussia governments. the Entente militarists”“Potentates, and diplomaticists

Miklós Lojkó, Lojkó, Miklós ofcommunist the expansion describe medicalto terms and/or deploymentepidemiological of The UDC,

were allied with theEntente, revolution andcivilyears. war, which nearly ragedresponse five for Entente The The Morrow of W of Morrow The Because military ofdefeat their Dualand thecollapse of Monarchy,Hungary was invigorated it While the labor movement, t which would be transferredwould be which totheir oust oust extraordinarily common and can be found in both more propagandistic literature and officia and literature morepropagandistic both in found canbe and common extraordinarily cordon sanitaire its Meddling in Middle Europe: Britain and the ‘Lands Between’ 1919 Between’ the ‘Lands and Britain Europe: in Middle Meddling

the communist regimecommunist the power. Fromthe from theperspective of borders into the restbordersalsoThey ofEurope. into intervenedmilitar

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18 called for 222

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new allies. new period, theGreatperiod, emergedforce as Powers 17

eaty Their responded neighbors terms. namely he spread of he spread majorconcessions from territorial chances for , as they used the forces oftheir Upon takingt power,

Czechoslovakia and Romania, and Czechoslovakia “Bolshevism intervention into the into intervention against Hungary against ref orm based on orm - 1925

” (Budapest: (Budapest: ily the into

outside of he Kun .

l CEU eTD Collection FO/608/13, BritishNatio FO/608/13, in Hungary stationed diplomats other of opinions trueofthe same is The generally. more Entente the and government U.S. with swaythe readingofthe hiswell as allies as and enemies his about feelings personal hismonths, more six than for in Hungary official As U.S. the chief Europe. Eastern states in successor a the Entente to inregard other over policies ofcertain prioritization insightthe provide into does source, a as whileimperfect diary, as BNA) to referred (Hereafter England Kew, Archives, National British ForeignOffice, BritishMemorandum reshapement.” towards efforts contradictory and baffling and the baffled of and nowproceeding rapidly vo the “becoming was Hungary that Office Foreign thethere British in concern was 1919, January, Already 17. in 1933), Press, University 20 Further,although “P the the conductthe A Government toward ofthe Hungarian because, of peace.” their occupiers, Supreme which Councilwas the concernedwou wasmission alsocharged upheaval withpreventing between Hungarians and nationalist of theEntenteIn supervising forces to Hungary. occupying theoccupation, addition the forces specifically themilitary and Entente, theRomanian of also responsible for occupation lifting blockade overseeingand the ofthe the managing military agreedstipulations theallied according powers.was tothe onby mission The Italy France, and wasmission composedgeneral ofa byCommissioned the Supreme toworkof theEntente t onbehalf CouncilinParis, February 1920 Inter Hungarian was serious Europe… themost question in unilateral militarybutanEntente Believin action. occupation

General Harry Hill Bandholtz, Hill Bandholtz, Harry General - Allied Military Mission, Allied Military Mission, The Romanian invasionofHungary alate spring,was beginning innot 1919

as stated, thecouncil The council council The , after which it was it , afterwhich replaced diploma withregular , and ,

54. “Again on Hungary,” January 10, 1919, FO/608/11, p. 415 FO/608/11, 1919, 10, January Hungary,” “Again on 54. nal Archives, Kew, England (Hereafter referre to as BNA) to referre (Hereafter England Kew, Archives, nal s well as the dynamics between the Great Powers and the governments of the ofgovernmentsthe the Powersand Great the between the as dynamics well s was chargedwas required owers have notthe leastowers tointerfere affairs desire inthe interior

. rtex of the whole problem of South ofproblem whole rtexofthe

See records of the British Foreign Office FO/608/11; FO/608/12; FO/608/12; FO/608/11; Office Foreign ofthe British records See An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An

which “the maintenance of these new conditions will depend these“the will new on maintenance conditions of the mission the mission with

and escort his remainedactive demobilizing and reconstructin 223 to report onthe internal politicalsituation

, ed. ed. Fritz ,

from States, GreatUnited Britain, the

in Budapest , ” - - llied andllied Associat Konrad Krueger (New York: Columbia Columbia York: (New Krueger Konrad the Great Powers established established the Great Powers Eastern Europe Eastern , g that

wh crises in Hungary held a lot of lot a held Hungary in crises ld “retard the conclusionld “retard the tic missions ich comprised theich bulk

from August to 1919 from

“…the Romanian “…the — .

, of the disintegrations disintegrations ofthe g Hungarian the

Records ofthe Records ed Powers.”ed .

The Bandholtz Bandholtz The . 20

he - th e CEU eTD Collection 22 Diary Undiplomatic 21 the Horthy regency. became During tenure, mission important its clearinghouse the the political development, regimeSoviet between thecollapse ofthe of and theestablishment Entente’s internal policies ofthe were for issues urgent themost Great Powe politically and economically one over another some of these number of governments Powersgoals region had oftheGreat tobal andtherefore had for and between building cooperation the between and punishing ostracizingHungary as adefeated state and stabilizingtheregion proliferatedEuropeanFurther, nations.” “familywastension inthe of alsoa there postwar national Supreme CouncilinParis getwas supposed to Hungaryincompliancewiththe terms by ofpeace out set the “trust carryinternational to obligations.” its outfairly interestedgovernment inthe type of Hungaryesta of the Hungarian nation concerning government,” thechoice was oftheir theEntente

Lojkó, Lojkó, the Interto Instructions “SupremeCouncil’s The InterThe Harmonizing

Meddling in Middle Europe in Middle Meddling

period integrity and commitment todemocratizationcommitment and self ideological, diplomatic, economic,ideological, diplomatic,

entailed exacerbatingentailed probl other ,

where the numberwhere ofindepend the - . S , 368 , Allied Military Mission Allied Military Mission tabilizing theregion

- broader

369. sovereignty counter

and tosee thatthe ,

strategic aimsstrategic and preferences ideological while simultaneously containing communism inRussia communism while simultaneouslycontaining

- , revolution 32.

was awas central tension

Habsburg - Allied Military Mission to Hungary,” in Bandholtz, Bandholtz, in Hungary,” to Mission Military Allied generally ary regime tooka regime goals,ary backseat these asthe to was active 224

country returned tostability was and ent, butmuch lesspowerfulstates ent,

rs. Addressingrs. thepolitical characterand ems. This mea This ems.

su , blished, aswanted it a could regimeit

- humanitarian and Hungary particularly, ccessor the Nevertheless, states. determination. during a 21

Thus in the diplomatic landscapein the diplomatic ofthe , the Inter, the

nt that they toprioritize had liminal periodliminal Hungary’s in concerns, satisfying and 22

- Allied mission mission Allied

with

both the .

rights of ancea An An ,

CEU eTD Collection ofreig conditions assessment accurate wasas an disseminated and government by was U.S. the trusted Report Parliamentary no. 24 2014, July11, között,” Kovács, inHungary. movement communist the wouldreinvigorate Russia from POWs returning fearsthat 23 necessarily the Entente was foreign policy and/or policy Great priorities of Powers the governments relied toshape important pieces Hungary abouttheconditions ofinformation in specificallymission, British and Americanof were representatives, themost its some facilities (ICRC)Committee inspected and which Hungarian civilian information investigateused ownpersonnelits to and anti charge political of persecution to the Supreme and CouncilinParis to for

Nathaniel Kat Nathaniel ofrevolution outbreak The 1(1993), 1 1(1993), official

nationality howtheTerror White shaped interpreted was A Pécsi Határõr Tudományos Közlemények hivatalos honlapja hivatalos Közlemények Tudományos Határõr Pécsi A the mission with mission the “Azi In Hungary’scollapse wake of occupation,that and theimmediate theviolence - . Semitic violence committed by violencecommitted Semitic regime theprovisional inBudapest exiles 23

information about the politicalinformation conditi about Because of their officialBecause oftheir na the nternálás mint rendészeti válasz állambiztonsági és államrendészeti államrendészeti és válaszállambiztonsági mint rendészeti nternálás

- http://www.pecshor.hu/periodika/XIII/kovacst.pdf with reports 12. z -

burg, “Louis Marshall and the White Terror in Hungary Terror the White Marshalland “Louis burg, , and philanthropic organizati ningHungary. in of the labor movement, Jews and movement,of democrats the labor Jews makers and politici and makers

violence against suspectedviolence “Bolshevists The letters between Marshall and the U.S. Secretary of State shows that the British that shows State Secretary of U.S. the and Marshall between letters The perhaps

investigating in Russia had ground POW repatriation efforts to a halt, in part because of because part halt,in a to efforts repatriation POW ground had Russia in most concernedmost about and controlling was mitigating

compiled by other

policies for th

ans ,

atrocity and reports rumors but and reportingand onrumors in Paris andin Paris ture, t ture, the also

e region respective 225 institutions like like institutions ons active intheons active region he reports and memorandumshe issued by reports the illuminate how class, gender howclass,andilluminate ethnicity

ons in Hungary,ons in passed along which it

in their home countries . 24

Thesereveal notonly reports the governments C oftheEntente. .

, ”

but ratherthe Romanian thatof

by Hungarian journalists,

, the Internationalthe RedCross military internment vol. , ”

of political persecutionof American Jewish Archives Jewish American

by mission members by mission XIII (2012), 433, accessed accessed (2012), XIII 433,

on and supplemented this and this supplemented led the Entente to led the which which kihivásokra 1919 kihivásokra .

their . The mission . The mission not Tamás, Tamás,

- 1945 1945 laims laims

45, 45, for

CEU eTD Collection 29 28 27 BNA.p. 20, FO/608/12, Bandholtz, rainbowtrout.” a of by side the liketadpole a be would Budapest to compared city ofBucharest The equivalents. Hungarian with comparison sad a makes frhis In Romanians. the over Hungarians 26 25 Bandholtz theimpulsesdriving also understood anti not handle withdecency thesituation and de regime.communist But incloseto live a contactoffilthy, lot andfanatical with ignorant Bolshevists,” a ofanarchists, lot families and whose had confined been education, means, refinementhomes and charge whosehad been comfortable by taken of the mission sympathizedHungariansvisit camethat “… [he] whoto withmen of as “reaso long within asfell it acceptedit the violence regarded as by theEntente against and communists Jews, approve didnot mission of reputation as the worried treatment ofHungarians about bythe howthe followingmonths theoccupation of Budapest military especially occupationwithlead thefirst toaresurgencecommunism, three of in turning Mexicans.” Texas over tothe “Turning and belike refined portions ofHungarycivilized withits populationwill occupation forces

Ibid. 86. Ibid., 195. 188, Diary, An Undiplomatic Bandholtz, Bandholtz, Bandholtz,

An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An Diary Undiplomatic An ultimate ultimate . 25

American GeneralHill Harry he alsowas “this remindedhe noreason themthat, whythey should apredictable theas andtolerated outcomepolitical situation of it

representatives a source instabi of the nable limits.

emphasizing tothe new regi Hungarian , 361. It is clear in Bandholtz’s diary that he generally favored the favored generally he in that Bandholtz’s diary isclear It 361. , 149 , equent colorful language he wrote: “In fact everything Roumanian Roumanian wrote:fact“In everything he language colorful equent - 154. 154. 26

These we concerns

See also also See

(and gatekeepers)(and

” government’s and 226 28 corum”

lity shame and

Ba by Entente the

the ndholtz even remarkedgroup ofa ndholtz to An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An Bandholtz document

- now that the regime collapsed. had Semitism andviolenceSemitism against

Romanians harmed the Entente Romanians harmed

to one or two rooms andforcedto oneor tworooms re basedre harsh infearsthat

me that such acts were acts me that such

collection of

for the new governmentfor thenew . But was the mission also . White White

wrote diary in his that “ civilization

militias’ FO/608/12, BNA. FO/608/12, , 82. 82. , Se ”

. e also also e violence 27

under the The

Jews. Jews. . But

’s 29

CEU eTD Collection 32 31 30 youngthere wouldbe some hot Hungarian Army National The younglambasted about him the beatings boys: two Jewish of diary 1919,he onDecember metwith that 6, the conditions Hungarian of prisonsMission arrivedat the on, say it. approved of thatthey opponents Friedrich cabinet were making Bandholtz denied Horthy that Admiral rid themselvesinfluence.” ofthe Semitic wereas thepeople and aresult of Jews HungarianBolshevist leader, practically all hislieutenants, ofhisfollowers andmost Bolshevists nevertheless nor wereBolshevists, were Jews, allthe Jews Béla Kun, reports Terror, of White officer, aNathanWhen Jewish Horowitz arrived Colonel theU.S. toinvestigate from

Ibid., Ibid., Ibid. and

mission directlyandmission confronted Horthy Soós

263. 232. wouldseriouslyas it affect theRussians, the gotreports the same thattheHungarians out form were lapsinginto of barbarism England thatifanycould any understand conduct…[and] barbaric such such of theBolshevist l understand howthe most Hungariansfeel the sore wouldnaturally over fact that II tired thatalthough ofanyIand conduct; him wascould told such sosick To say tolerated the Mission someviolence to that against isnot and leftists Jews as the ; in fact,; in heregarded

credible threat of revolution subsided and subsided asthreat ofrevolution reports militia excesses and

Bandholtz wrote

eaders hadeaders beenneither nevertheless America Jews, nor ,

and vigorously remindedand vigorously Moreover

unnecessary and exces unnecessary and - them as “…perfectlythem as justifiable.” heads of the Hungarianwho w army oftheheads , their toleration for violence, their toleration wan , Hungary werefurious simply anddetermined to having just marched just having Budapest into 30 that

227 Even as lateEven as as mid Minister ofMinister Defen

“

I explained to him that although tohim Iexplained notall at least twice ir whole future….ir whole

them thatalthough“…undoubtedly sive

. arrests oftheir political Bandholtz recalled inhis

- se November 1919, 1919, November about the atrocities ofatrocities the about the 31 Károly

ould be crazyould be to 32

ed as time went time ed as Soós ,

and the

and CEU eTD Collection 37 36 of Existence 35 34 33 was of andthe themission government as aswell Terror’ inHungary. the politicalofHungary conditions onAllegedentitled “Report Existenceof‘White Hungarian press was afigment of theimagination ofpoliticians but astotherereal beingWhite a a greatanti of deal rascally of crimes, undercloak theircommitted religion thethat Jews had there was really circumstances.” atrocities thanwould ordinarily had committed been ofsuch understress happen the under Horthy’s wasprevent “nomore leadership workingand steadily to atrocities that against Jews. 1919 toinvestigate political conditions werecondition. bad invery Romanelli Colonel discreditcountry”. uponthewhole ashoot these Roumanian orhangtwo[of incidents] andor could a thatone bring Jews

Horowitz, “Communication for the Press,” 4 the Press,” for “Communication Horowitz, Bandholtz, in 7, 1919, October thefor Press,” “Communication Horowitz, Nathaniel Colonel Ibid., Ibid., an important

105. 263. 184, Later As reportst of violence mounted,

‘

WhiteTerror An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An , in the winter of 1920, theBritis 1920, , inthe winter of However,

35 in order to sooth politicaltensionsto sooth in order inOctober, 1919.

source of information the governmentsof information theofEnglandsource United and the Further, reporteHorowitz - , Semitic feelingSemitic many Bolshevists, onaccount having ofso been Jews

” toured HungarianBudapest and prisonsin

A ’

in Hungary in

slim collection of correspondenceslim according toBand

, 120; Horowitz, “Communication for the Press,” 4 thefor Press,” “Communication Horowitz, 120; ,

(London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1920), 4 1920), Office, Stationary (London: HisMajesty’s Terror, nothing danger therewas this ofthe kind,and 33

Further, t - in 5. he mission he mission

the countrysideand holtz, Horowitz reported Horowitz militaryholtz, thatthe 228 dly said toBandholtzgreat that“a said dly many

h government issued anh government issued officialon report the ICRC reportICRC oninternmentthe he Italian representativemission, he tothe .”

Horowitz’s findingsHorowitz’s were sent out Horowitz inthe autumnsent Horowitz of out

between the British members British between the the repor rumors of atrocitiesrumors of ted back 37 Report o

- 5.

sent the to 5. that they the report n Alleged Alleged n

CEU eTD Collection 40 of Existence Alleged 39 of Existence 38 supportable policy violence and deserved uponthemselves they whatevergot assumption “Well to massacre“torturers.” thenation’s the general says thatHorthy alsodeclined therestraint ofHungarians, commended who commendation.” the anger the people massofinto of the Admiral Horthy andtroopsunderindirecting maintaining such ofhimin and restraint the consequencesI beregarded cannot as surprising, and that the conduct venturetothink of in any implicatedinth however slight, way, atrocities, butargued “ that toward the regime. communist admitted Hohler thatthere were undoubtedlyabus revolutionary minded Hungarians Hungarian, “terror.”In tothe a Foreign fact, Earl in Thomas letter Hohler, Curzon, Secretary the skepticism ontheBritish part of towards postwar Terror,no White amountofcredibilendowed withasignificant States had about

Horowitz, “Communication for the Press,” 5. the Press,” for “Communication Horowitz, in reprinted 1920, 18, February Hohler, to Thomas Gorton Reginald General Letterfrom Letterfrom Thom - conducted Jews and Christians have,conducted Christians and therefore, nothing Jews tofear.”

Hungary ‘ WhiteTerror British toHungary HighCommissioner counterin 1920,actually praised then 38 as Hohler to George Curzon, February 21, 1920, reprinted inreprinted 1920, 21, Curzon, February George to as Hohler was thatcommunists postwar . alsoan formulationtoward played importantof roleinthe policy ‘

WhiteTerror

As the name suggests,As the the . Similarly Gorton Hohler fromto inFebruaryin aletter 1920, General

’

in Hungary in , post ,

patriotic Hungarians should desire those patrioticwho were Hungarianstopunish should ’

- i n Hungary n revolutionary Hungary. As , , 1. —

39 “a hot “a

— The overall

legal channels is worthy is legal channels ofhigh manywhom were of Jews (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1920), 4. 1920), Office, Stationary Majesty’s (London: His - bloode 229 e entailing events such disastrous calling anything goingcalling anything oninHungary report’s generalreport’s outlook ity and

d nation belief was violence,belief regard thatin to its findings,its namely thatthere was

” , although violencewas a not a parliamentary report, it was it a report, parliamentary — for “restraint” showingsuch — Report on Alleged Alleged on Report had brought the

was by defined 40

The underlying Report on on Report es and

- pro - CEU eTD Collection of some prominent members in the British representation to the Paris Peace Conference Peace the Paris to representation themembers British in ofsomeprominent 387, BNA. p. FO/608/12, Situation,” Hunga “real” ofwas comprised which government Hungarian ofa establishment the and Jews” all thefor “elimination of advocated Jews and and communism linkbetween in movement counter ofthe segments nationalist moreradical more to the notwas relegated Hungary of Existence Alleged 43 42 in7,reprinted 1919, October Press,” of Existence Alleged 41 TroubridgeHungar the leadership of emphasizedthe that was largely world…do andat not look cannot thingsas thesame we do.” regard of anti torumors Chief ofthe Constabulary Philippines in the U.S.colony inthe and these generalpopulations in Vienna.” oppression, hasgoverned alwaysrelationscom between the the passions are tothe surface much nearer here,and and of fear, the cruelty mother movement significantlyfrom differedEnglish its counterpart “Primitive because, clarify might becalled thatalthough “labor both movem simplyand justifiablemeasures temporary“induced byalso pains fear.”He took to against thelaborrights andrepression movement of civil andfreedompress ofthe were Danube between 1918 organmultinational with managing charged military and economicactivityon the

Letter from General Reginald Gorton to Thomas Hohler, F Hohler, to Thomas Gorton Reginald General Letterfrom Bandholtz, inreprinted 1920, 20, February Hohler, to Thomas Troubridge Ernest Admiral Letterfrom I According ofthe Troubridge, Danube Commission thehead toAdmiral Ernest n any case, a n 41

echoed sentiment

Theorientalization of theHungarians Admiral’s eastern and European Hungary. Prominent members of the British staff in Hungary and in Paris also propagated the propagated also in Paris and Hungary staff in British ofthe members Prominent Hungary. An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An directed ‘ ‘ WhiteTerror WhiteTerror

against arelativelyagainst communists.” number small of“Jews and other ccording to the Britishccording representatives inHungary, to political violence , - 1919 was was - socialist atrocities,of the that people section “The socialist inthis

s similar tothose s similar also , any wa which oppression ’ ’

in Hungary in Hungary in

Report on Alleged Existence of of Existence Alleged on Report , 308, 320. 308, , apparent Hohler’s in , 4; The link between Jews and Bolshevism in the case of of case in the Bolshevism and linkbetween 4; Jews , The ,

9; Colonel Nathaniel Horowitz, “Communication for thefor “Communication Horowitz, Nathaniel Colonel 9; 230

held byBandholtz who,h

ebruary 18, 1920, reprinted in reprinted 1920, 18, ebruary correspondence with Lordcorrespondence with Curzon, s takingplacecountry inthe rians. Lt. rians. ents,” thattheHungarian labor ian Soviet Republic was ian Soviet Republic ‘ WhiteTerror 42

. Bandholtz - munities east ofthe east munities Col. W.L.D. Twiss, “Political “Political Twiss, W.L.D. Col. ’

in Hungary in aving served as the -

revolutionary revolutionary

concluded in Report on on Report Report on on Report , 5. ,

a 43

CEU eTD Collection February, 48 myintegrity.” personal on wasan “[attack] wasbut rather not substantive Terror’… ‘White Alleged the on Report in the included ofTroubridge’s thecorrespondence that argued politician, Democratic Social Hungary in Terror’ 47 of Existence Alleged 46 in ‘WhiteTerror’ 45 of Existence Alleged 44 regarded as “…inspired ofreal withsentiments duty patriotism, and they thatis, justice,” sources, officers inthe delegation considered reports. T evidenceand statusandperceivedcharacter more of onthe making thepeople Vienna. as propa insidious, major exaggerations “whose bypeople was it toexaggerate,” interest IstvJustice because because, itsweakness and viewof of taking ofthe the Hungarian Minister (2) unsanctionedgovernment, by the Troubridge Kun, i.e.,and workmen Jews.” persecutionwas unofficial, taking place compr

Bandholtz, Bandholtz, in 1920, 6, March Hohler, Thomas to Barczy Letterfrom István Febr Hohler, to Thomas Troubridge Ernest Admiral Letterfrom 1920, 6, March Hohler, Thomas to Barczy Letterfrom István inreprinted 1920, 20, February Hohler, to Thomas Troubridge Ernest Admiral Letterfrom ised of R 47

1920, reprinted inreprinted 1920, eports of atrocitiesrepresentation regarded as were British Budapest in by the

he Horowitz report d report he Horowitz The British

because Horowitz himselfwas Jewish (andbecause Western). Horowitz án Bárczy

trustworthy A as confor n Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic n

middle class Jews, Jews, class middle

well as Bandholtz well Hungary

(London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1920 Office, Stationary HisMajesty’s (London: ‘ ‘ WhiteTerror WhiteTerror ming ming ganda spreadganda by

that and American commitment to this viewwasAmerican tothis commitment and ontangible based less ,

National Army, reliableNational werewere themselves they because 11. by Bandholtz, Secretary Stateby BainbridgeBandholtz, and of theBritish Colby Report on Alleged Existence of of Existence Alleged on Report to ideals ofmasculine military virtue

, “normal circumstances in Hungary are not yet, “normalin Hungary circumstances are not restored.”

’ ’

in in Hungary in isputing reportsanti of 44 , 86, 118 86,

Hungary

and Ingeneral, of Hohler, theand conclusion Gorton, was thatany violence insignificant; (1) taking place was Hungarian

he and ; Letter from General Reginald Gorton to Thomas Hohler, 18 18 Thomas Hohler, to Gorton Reginald from; Letter General

, 9. , relayed anyconfirmationHorthy’s that and 9. (3) impossible forgovernment impossible the tocontrol(3)

231

only“those who targeted had withBéla been communist

‘ WhiteTerror - reprinted reprinted Jewish violence,example, wasJewish for uary 20, 1920, reprinted inreprinted 1920, uary20, Report on Alleged Existence of ‘White of Existence Alleged on Report ), 11; Even Ernő Garami, the exiled theexiled Garami, Even Ernő ), 11;

and socialist s with whichs with theAllied in ’

in Hungary in Report on Alleged Existence of of Existence Alleged on Report 48

Moreover, Horowitz’s Horowitz’s Moreover, 46

or even more exiles in , 3. ,

were Report on on Report Rep ort on on ort

CEU eTD Collection 54 181 1999), Publishers, Ashgate from Society and Culture 1860 Vienna, and inBudapest Codes Gender Urban Povertyand 53 1771 938 Gender, Race, that Binds: ofColor,” Women 52 ‘ 51 ‘ 50 49 under n did the mission dismissing reports orasoutburstsofanger. as “propaganda,” understandable violence and againstcommunists committed “bolshevism” clear onatrocities. information officials a disadvantage andof politicalrungssocial normsandoccupy thoselower veracity haswho deviate identity topersonal meant that those from an atypicalespe practice because character liberalmost tendencies,”as“a was liberal Horthy, manof tendencies and strong adjudication of political crimesreliablebecause wasgentlemanBarczy“a also wasof the members couldmission ident WhiteTerror WhiteTerror

Bandholtz, Bandholtz, Female ofProstitution, Politics Disgrace:the from Living “Makinga SusanZimmermann, also See Ibid.; Against Violence and Politics, Identity Intersectionality, Margins: the “Mapping Crenshaw, Kimberlé in reprinted Hohler, to Thomas Troubridge Ernest Admiral Letterfrom Tro Ernest Admiral Letterfrom 5. the Press,” for “Communication Horowitz, , especially , 920 - 1800; Joanna Bourke, JoannaBourke, 1800; - report report Associating andwith credibility identity personal virtue andnot was iscertainly

Troubridge’s in Hungary ”

according to An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An ’ ’

in in in violence meant that the mission wasthe mission predisposedmeant believe notto that about reports

Hungary Hungary in Stanford Law Review Law Stanford - 926 ot consider thatreprisal fearof terms of havingterms voices their heard ; Leslie McCall, “The Complexity of Intersectionality,” Intersectionality,” of Complexity “The McCall, ; Leslie

generally

1800 to the Present the 1800to

and US Violence, US Violence, and on the Hungariancountrysideon friend” Jew at laughed “Socialist their preposterousness. 10. , (London: His Majesty’s Stat (London: HisMajesty’s Rape: A History from 1860 to the Present Day ( the Day Present to 1860 from History A Rape: Troubridge. ciallyviolent a dealing when with

- 183. ubridge to Thomas Hohler, reprinted in reprinted Hohler, to ubridge Thomas ify

failed more toconsider as structuralreasons tothelack of

, 120. , First, the vehement antipathyFirst, to the vehement ofthe mission . 49

43, 43,

The byofBarczy report Minister Justice regarding the 50

Ethnic and Racial Studies Racial and Ethnic

no. no. , Malcolm Gee, Tim Kirk, and Jill Steward, eds. (London: eds. Steward, Jill Tim and Kirk, Malcolm , Gee, Similarly, ofatrocities disregarded could reports be

(July 1991): 1241 (July1991): 232 other persons ionary Office, 1920), 10. 1920), Office, ionary

led

. both victims andinvestigatorsboth victims to just asjust suchfears had reports shaped 53 -

1920,” in 1920,” Moreover, government British the - 1299; Patricia Hill Collins, “The Tie Tie “The Hill Collins, Patricia 1299; cts.

associated with with associated 21, 21, and political Report on Alleged Existence of of Existence Alleged on Report of Existence Alleged on Report 52 no. no. The City in Central Europe: Europe: Central Cityin The

Lo However, linking 5 (September 1998): 917 1998): (September 5 ndon: Virago, 2007) ndon: Virago, Signs

the ascendant social , 30, 3(Spring 2005): 2005): 3(Spring 30, ,

hierarchies are at rev 54 o

51 Second, lutions

, 28 , - , - 44.

CEU eTD Collection 58 regime. the Soviet of thefor crimes revenge immediate thecounter m the atrocities of ofcomplaints number ‘ 57 56 361. 1914 Germany, and France, War:Britain, World Yo 55 political crisisat and They of aexpression the communists. anger popular indicated that 1920 of a resurgence communist Hungarian regime an armistice.” hangshould shame for totake they theirallowed country what in place heads inthis after the behavior Romanian troops of the campsPOW for Hungarian soldiers and uponleaving Hungary Ba their prevailingally.was outcryconditions Theresignificant about inRomanian the abilitythe mission’s to prevent wason themission regarded as byunwilling being Hungarians and/or to many incapable Hungar missions. Hungarianregime Armynew National and they by when were the interviewed foreign individ about treatment during ofPOWs afterthe and war WhiteTerror

Bandholtz, Bandholtz, 1920, 31, Curzon, March George Earl to Hohler Letterfrom Thomas LP/ 1920, April 30, Ewer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom Speed, Richard rk: Greenwood Press, 1997), 17 1997), Press, rk: Greenwood

, the uals were mission ian regime tothe The British representatives and American inHungary we or evenor acknowledge - 56 atrocities which or abuses revolution and used that as a way to extrapolate that the violence was largely the result of wasthe largely violence that the wayextrapolate that to as a used and revolution

An Undiplomatic D Undiplomatic An ’ Third, the mission did not take didnot accountThird, the into that reports mission ofby abuses the

in Hungary in 58 Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy Captivity of Diplomacy in the Study the War: Great A and Diplomats Prisoners,

But persistencefoll similar and vigor in either ’s abuseswas not

(London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1920), 12. 12. 1920), Office, Stationary (London: HisMajesty’s appropriately silent about or minimized the about orminimized violenceand powersilent abuses of by the

iary According tothe Enten -

18; 18; them.

, 361. , Heather Jones, Jones, Heather may have ission received had gone down precipitously from the beginning of the beginning from precipitously gonedown had received ission 57

as were taking ,

manage even that,“Thegreat wrote the Allies Powers of forthcoming - 1920 233 dropped offdropped aswent specifically because time

Violence against Prisoners of War in the First the Warin of Prisoners against Violence the

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 2012), Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge:

HUN/1/24.iv, LHA HUN/1/24.iv, place Romanian . 55 , especially while there was afear, especiallystill whilethere te representatives

Itassume reasonablethat is to

were the result extended were ofan the owing up on reports ofowing the uponreports Report on Alleged Existenceof Alleged on Report occupation force re .

ndholtz very Hohler said that thesaid Hohler

in the springin the of

concerned about concerned , referring to ,

which was

(New many CEU eTD Collection Brailsford, “Memorandum on the White Terror in Hungary,” March, 1920, LP/HUN/2/6.i. 1920, March, in Hungary,” theTerror White on “Memorandum Brailsford, was It government. their on pressure th violencein in the role Entente’s the exposing by region in the policy actualaffect to intended was memory,it that shaped has indeed while report but the Terror, the White “memory” of the 61 60 2 1920), 59 that utterly contradicted yieldedinterviews Hungarian withexiled a Hungary narrativeconditions socialists, in of of theinvestigation, along press withsupporting reports Terrorthe reports White rumors of and inHungary The results 1920. in the late spring of ISB,Trade theinputof organized with a UnionsCongress, toinvestigate delegation Hungary. of theHungariangovernment, UpontheBrit invitation the inandgovernments’condemned policies toward activities themissions’ Entente revolutionary it regime’spersecutionHungarian movement socialist of and the Hungary. Americangovernments’official thatthere determination was Terror noWhite in tryingInternational toreorganize theSecond thewake in war,disputedthe Anglo of the“[Rousing] Conscience the World” of representatives inHungary, was it surely whoever accordingInter the victims, tothe and bring the militarycompletely itsthu under yetgovernmentthe newnot wascompletely strongenough tosphere pacify thepolitical

Eliza Ablovatski conceptualizes this Briti this conceptualizes Ablovatski Eliza LHA. LP/HUN/1/1.i, 1920, January 8, ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom Existence of Alleged on Report - The democratic 5.

Prominent socialists and labor politician Prominent socialists - reformist wing theinte reformist the findingsthe

‘ WhiteTerror

part of an official protest to the actions of the Entente. H.N. H.N. Entente. ofthe the actions to protest official an of part sh delegation’s report as an artifact conducive to constructing constructing to an as artifact conducive report shdelegation’s of theParliamentary British of report. ’

in Hungary in not - 234 60 Allied Mission and other Mission Entente Allied

“terror.”

mb. Inmb. any case, reason, whateverand the rnational labor movement, in the midst of laborrnational movement, inthe midst

(London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, Office, Stationary Majesty’s (London: His attackedcounter theHungarian 59

and and correspondence ish Labour Partyish and e hopes of putting ofputting hopes e 61

- - CEU eTD Collection Europe. al ForeignOffice in Bandholtz, reprinted inBudapest, Inter too Council fromSupreme thetelegram See in Europe. peace the general to Diary theRomanian th of thesignificance LP/HUN/3/1.i 4, 1919, October ?, to Huysmans LP/HUN/3/4.i 1919, 10, October Huysmans, Camille to Garami Ernő Letterfrom LHA, 64 63 Party,19 Labour (London: 62 conceptualized TerrorWhite well as thenewly thestate’s in position revised internationalsystem. linked tothe specific political prevailing conditions in Terror borders the across of seeping Hungary the governmentsplaces had been where such evenwere established, concerned iftheyabout tosolidaritycommitment with“brother parties” reaction of tothe political collapse Kunregime was primarily shaped by and to, power tointervene hadreason inHungarythan todefeat noother the socialis revolutionaryarguing force,as thattheEntente number as condemned of resolutions aninternational counter which the Entente Lucerneof 1919. Atthe Conference 1919,therepresentativ August inearly disappointed by andcollapse the defeat the HungarianRepublic of Soviet inthe summer heralded ofanotherestablishment inEurope socialist the regime and bitterly was

See for example, Letter from Ernő Garami to Camille Huys Camille Garami to Ernő from Letter example,for See LHA. LP/HUN/1/11.iii, 1920, 14, February Party, Labour Independent the Böhmto Vilmos Letterfrom Internati Party,“TheLabour The violent , 17. Likewise, a telegram from the Supreme Council presented the presented Council theSupreme from telegram Likewise,a 17. ,

“…bring all revolutionary tonought conquests Mirroring theRussianrevolution,I the Second reaction to their methods usedbygovernments such - Hungarian question was the most serious question in Europe.” Bandholtz, Bandholtz, in Europe.” question most serious was the question Hungarian

was not just aHungarian ratherwas theinternatio just problem; not so emphasized that the problems in Hungary endangered the stability of the wholeof the of the stability endangered Hungary in that the problems emphasized so it

e crisis in Hungary as a world a Hungary as in crisis e as aninternational problemthatrequired an internationalsolution. 19), 11. 19),

onal at Lucerne: The Resolutions. The Provisional Constitution” Constitution” Provisional The Resolutions. Lucerne:The at onal

An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An - ii. I ii. - historical problem. Bandholtz, for example wrotethat example for Bandholtz, problem. historical 235 t

was not just the labor movement which emphasized emphasized which movement thelabor was just not which the labor movement to re thelabor movementwhich to .

63 the and and

However ofWhite reportsrumors and ,30

representative of global capitalistrepresentative of mans, October 16, 1919, LP/HUN/3/3i 1919, 16, October mans, to helping socialism flouri - … 31; Communications withinthe British Communications 31; counter .” 62

The movement’s events in Hungary as a challenge challenge a inas Hungary events - revolution - Allied Military Mission Mission AlliedMilitary nal labor movementnal labor Moreover, nternational nternational - aryHungary as ii; Camille ii; Camille An Undiplomatic Undiplomatic An es passed a

their t revolution

spond were initial sh in thosesh in

- the 64 -

ii,

CEU eTD Collection 68 67 66 LP/HUN/3/1.i 1919, LP/HUN/3/4.i 1919, 10, October Huysmans, Camille Garami to LP/HUN/3/3i 1919, 16, October Huysmans, Camille Garami to from Ernő Letter the of 19 “Report Party,Labour 65 Böhm, regime inHungaryfar those ofthe regime outstripped Bolshevik inR Lloyd DavidMinister George child’s play.” areCrimes the being incomparison perpetrated regime which to ofth (unknown) “The brutal,wrote: lying authorretains…its present regime character. violent movement… wholesale seemswhich massacre bentonexterminati who resisted anyIt orpolitical country. progress social ofa the “Government in was the counter engaged the conscienceworld, ofthe TerrorWhite such a frensy has stage reached (sic) of that seems it have atlast to rou Huysmans ArthurLabour toBritish politician inaletter declared to the winter of1920. the existence Terror ofWhite ofand theHungarian thepersecution prior labor movement thecollapsecontribution to ofgovernment andhad the Kunalsos issued

No Author , December 22, 1919, LP/HUN/1/2, LHA. LP/HUN/1/2, 1919, 22, December Author , No Ibid. L 1 Aug I, Resolution International, Socialist and Labour of Commission Permanent etter from Camille Huysmans to ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille from etter

a The labor movement had madeThe strong labor critical against movement theEntente’s had statements in prominent

- the events Hungary.the in revolutionary regime, which .” 68 67

Arthur from Henderson passed Huysmans along toPrime the information

- In letter another Budapest fromwithHuysmans’, enclosed the ii.

Hungarian 65

But was until it not

Annual Conference of the Labour ofthe AnnualConference ”

, that the international laborthat theinternational more movement heavily became

making sure to indicate that the atrocities of the White the White making surethat of the atrocities toindicate Social Democrat and formerand underSocial of Democrat Minister War

Huysmans’ agai spoke

he argued he

236 January1920,

January 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/1/i., LHA. LP/HUN/1/1/i., 1920, January8,

was aristocratsfeudalist composed of - ng anyofa trace labour ii; Camille Huysmans to ?, October 4, October ?, to Huysmans ii; Camille Party when nst the “ghastly atrocities”nst the“ghastly of ” (London: Labour Party, 1920); Party,1920); Labour (London: ” ISB SecretaryCamille Henderson that,“TheHenderson - ii, LHA, Letter from Ernő Letter LHA, ii, ussia e are Czar likes - 9, 1919, in The in The 1919, 9, tatements about tatements . V ilmos ilmos

sed CEU eTD Collection specific link Henderson makes between the White militias and the government. the government. militiasand White the between makes Henderson specificlink 73 72 71 70 69 under the Red Terror.” veryby villages small alone t and womenmurdered notbeen have more and wholesale, personsinthe killed havebeen “According there informants, a tomy isscarcely village inTrans As Hendersonwrote t concluded, atrocities any Bolshevik surpassed the Hungarianever regimecommitted. reported bandsof militarized ofofficer ontheviolence which, detachments, they allof professors, physi occupied sorts Thus abominable ofcompulsory withfor themost labor. instance, children, included detail the government dictatorshipLabour orders.” andcarriedthrough its ofthe revolution Party onMarch 5,19 getting justice in between promi sentiments Károlyiand of Commissar for War government, theKun

Letter from Arthur Henderson to Da to Henderson Arthur Letterfrom L LP/HUN/1/13.vi 1920, 5, Party,March Labour Böhmto Vilmos Letterfrom Vilmos Letterfrom 1920, 17, January LloydGeorge, David to Henderson Arthur Letterfrom etter from Vilmos Böhm to Labour Party, March 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/13.ix, LHA. LP/HUN/1/13.ix, 1920, 5, Party,March Labour Böhmto Vilmos from etter Prior tothe dispatch of

claiming that“Theinternated(sic) are people onhunger kept

punish thousandsdonepunish ofpeople nothing for served else, having but in his correspondencein his with ed information anded regarding statistics information women men, and theinternment of nent

cians and lawyersand carryingcians are with occupied dung.” Hungarian courts. Böhm aHungarian Labour courts.lengthy wrote in tothe British letter Böhm to Labour Party, March 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/13.iv. LHA. LP/HUN/1/13.iv. 1920, 5, Party,March Labour Böhmto

European 20 “…it is the most horrible isthemost injustice,“…it the thatthecourts 20 of o Prime Minister David Lloyd Davido Prime Minister 1920, George onJanuary 17, 73

he officers of the present Government than in Budapest Government ofhe thepresent officers than in

labor politicians the British Joint delegationthe British inMay, Joint 1920 vid Lloyd George, January 17, 1920, LP/HUN/1/3.i. Note the Note LP/HUN/1/3.i. 1920, 17, January LloydGeorge, vid the British Labourthe Party. 237 relayed

stories about of the impossibility communicated similar LP/HUN/1/3.i, LHA. LP/HUN/1/3.i, 69 -

- Danubia where Danubia men

vii. LHA. vii.

71 -

rates and are

Bohm also Bohm ,

c 70

ommunications

Letters counter

- CEU eTD Collection LHA. 78 77 76 75 &Son King (London: P.S. 74 over Hungary.controll [sic] PowersAccording are, any without opinion…the tomy the culture LabourBritish a wrote: more “Never inhuman persecution ashamed[sic] Party. had He sentiments were aHungarian letterexiled echoedBöhm from in Vilmos the socialist to pol any lodgedby theHungarian theEntente to government protests missions regarding its our Western democracies. democ countries and be allofthese should ofthosecitizens for whowere Western no doubtasource for humiliation socialist of reactionary he ofthe surmised elements”and thattheactivities Entente inHungary was Huysmansargued inHungary theglove Entente missions that were with inthe “hand and establishment mischievousfromofthepresent the Károlyi the Governmentto day.” terr seize andis theheavy lay responsibility for upon Entente the stress Governments of the was the atfaultTerror. White for Democrac across was it another Europeargued that internationalbloc, so

Letter from Arthur Henderson to Prime Minister David Lloyd George, January LloydGeorge, David Prime Minister to Henderson Arthur Letterfrom ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom LP/HUN/1/1/ 1920, January 8, ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom Seton Robert itical persecution “formal andperfunctory.” were ible events in Hungary.ible in consistently events reaction Their has and been persistently reaction

racies. The atrocities Hungarian regime of “feudal” the labor notwithstanding, politicians y,” i.e.

and civilisation ofcivilisation mankindbutthe detestableand white nowhas terror, which the - 76 Watson, forward to to forward Watson,

He was thatit thelabor proposed upto movement tosave ho “the the Entente led by Great Britain, theUnitedBritain, led States, and by Great Entente France the , LTD., 1924), 1924), LTD., ,

” 77

Henderson went further, arguing that Henderson went tothe Prime Minister further,

Revolution and Counter and Revolution 74

vii. Indeed wrote: to “Thepoint Huysmans important

238 -

and democratic Jan LHA.iii, LP/HUN/1/1/i, 1920, January8,

uary 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/1/iii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/1/iii, 1920, uary8, - revolution in Hungary in revolution 78

A monthlater Huysmans’ - - minded persons in those in minded persons called“International

17 , by Oskar Jászi Jászi by , Oskar , 1920, LP/HUN/1/3.ii, LP/HUN/1/3.ii, 1920, , i , LHA. ,

, nour of which which

CEU eTD Collection Huysmans to Arthur Henderson, January 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/1/iii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/1/iii, 1920, January8, ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans 82 81 LHA. LP/HUN/2/6/1.i, Hungary,” 80 79 waspoliticians, therefusal grant to andtherefore recognition capacity diplomatic tothe curse as toEurope thePr government ofthe composed great whichwas “…Magyar oligarchywho have as a been influence politicians topreventpoliticalpersecutionsoflabor had been more made seriously. England,would never daredifit protest such have a [against toignore theexecutions] government, becausesecret theand derives whichexists it open of supportfrom which prevent the executionof HungarianHegovernment.regarding wrote thefailureBritish ofthegovernment to aboutmore the power explicit of since thearmistice.” activist Questions labor movement that betweenLabourthe Hungarian and politicians theEntente state. from an Hungary. doubt, though all notlawfully, for thecruelties which morally are responsible nowin

Letter from William Gillies to J.J. Davies, January 27, 1920, LP/HUN/1/6, LHA; LP/HUN/1/6, 1920, Davies,January 27, J.J. to Gillies Letterfrom William LHA. LP/HUN/2/7.iii, n.d., Kuh, Frederick Garami to Letterfrom Ernő AdvisoryCommit Brailsford, H.N. LHA. LP/HUN/1/9.i, 1920, 8, Party,February Labour Böhmto Vilmos Letterfrom

only

The ofthe laborcondemnation Hungarian Entente’s policy movement’s stemmed wrote understanding and and understanding

” the Entente had thepowerthe Entente had 79 on Hungary

, “The p . In a memorandum 80 olicy of the Alliesolicy hasinfact dominatedof Hungarianever the politics

A letter from Ernőprominent Democrat, Garami,Social a was H.N

several “Thepoliticians, Hungarian prominent labor ussian Junkers.”

. Brailsford acknowledgementmilitary of and inequality diplomatic

tee on International Questions, “Memorandum on the White Terror in Terror White the on “Memorandum Questions, International on tee ” 81 that

Inestimation, t his

to stop the political violence Hungarian thepolitical againstto stop the by the Entente, and specifically the Entente, England , an important British leftist, an journalistandpolitical important the AdvisoryInternational the on Committee 82

239 The weapon true Entente, labor for of the

he Entente

but

was obligated and activists

instead indulging the Letter from Camille Camille Letterfrom

had over the

believed

to use its to useits CEU eTD Collection 84 LP/HUN/3/1.i 1919, 4, LP/HUN/3/4.i 1919, 10, October Huysmans, Camille Garami to Ernő 83 towards the Hungarian working argued thi among other Responsibility Powers ofthe RespectingPersecutions Political Entente Hungary,” in the sentiments were echoed in which supportswit Europe, the Entente inthe presenceof futurenext andworld beembarrassed thenthe will civilised tostate thatinCentral resolutely to“ heintended that claims and ofmoral advanced authority civilization lack undermined response,laborPowers’ ofdefinitive argued, politicians theGreat victory promotingofpolicy a set or labor and politicians supporters, Terror reaction inHungary tothe conditions rooted in international socialism’s recognition and allow wholesale massacre,” exercise instead their and power, lever. government, whichaspeace as long remained treaty theunsigned,

Letter from Vilmos Böhm to Labour Party, March 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/13.xv. 1920, 5, Party,March Labour Böhmto Vilmos Letterfrom Letterfrom Ern The actionThe not The condemnations inHungary Entente activities ofthe described were above only ő Garami to Camille Huysmans, October 16, 1919, LP/HUN/3/3i 1919, 16, October Huysmans, Camille Garami to ő

as a political asas crisis but amoral s of the Entente s ofthe h the most detestableh themost crimes, reign the ofthe terrorists.” - ii. Vickers, ii. ed it and theygaveand the ngs sohave moral Allied that,“The Powers responsibility the

represent itself a report of the British Laboura report British ofParty the entitled “The The Evolution of Labour’s Foreign Policy, Labour’sof Foreign Evolution The

publicate (sic) names the - class torealisethestoppage ofpolitical persecutionsif much more was atwas stakemuch moreclaiming thansimply political in Hungary permitted goals

goals country Rather, a the in small east. inEurope’s al - missions, it is possible tomaintain possible such is it missions, a system, so demonstrated . counter

But Huysmans

at the Paris Peaceat the Paris Conference.

240 the establishment of“tthe establishment were were

- revolution one despicable . Vilmos Bohm. Vilmos for examplestated as well.

’ ofpersons all themurderedin an attempt to frame the White theWhite an attempt toframe

and other labor politicians’ and politicians’ other labor - ii; Camille Huysmans to ?, October October ?, to Huysmans Camille ii; aryregime international

83 because theybecause

For many prominent

7. his Go

remained a significant

- ii, LHA, Letter from Letter LHA, ii,

vernment of 84 refused to

Similar Similar - CEU eTD Collection Garami to Camille Huysmans, October 16, 1919, LP/HUN/3/ 1919, 16, October Huysmans, Camille Garami to interventio unlessjuster a with catastrophe, proletariat Hungarian the and democracy until itthreatens will expand must and root this and regime, the of Friedrich root “the ridiculousbecause was intervention avoiding that Huysmans to argued movement.Garami labor Hungarian facing the solvethe crisis to militaristof intervention thepromotion about concerned was Huysmans debate. without LP/HUN/3/4.i 1919, 30, December Huysmans, Camille to 89 Vickers, long ofsocialism the goals to moralcommitment a but political a just 88 87 revolution blood world ofthe Commonwealth advanced well and humiliating willa “It be admitted, book OszkarJászi’s to “Forward” 1924 his in Hungary,admitted Seton Robert 86 LHA. LP/HUN/1/10.iii, 85 did. military toenjoy power states whichwere historical inHungarysituation prescriptionswith the regimeand for inthe were dealing rooted issue Terror ofWhite and notinsi Europe tothe were(eventual) and of essential which triumph thelabor perspective. the Entente TerrorWhite by the Entente certain limit, reiteratedassessm his necessary orother measures.” by economical

Letter from Camille Huysmans to to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom not reflected had movementsparticular in Britishlabor and international within the policy debates The LP/HUN/3/4.ii. 1919, 30, December Huysmans, Camille Garami to Letterfrom Ernő Party,Labour Independent Böhmto Vilmos Letterfrom n.d., in Hungary,” Persecutions Political the Respecting Powers Entente ofthe Responsibility “The - 89 nig - stained and reactionary rule of AdmiralHorthy.” ruleof reactionary stainedand

Inde h inexplicable fact for the future historian that the diplomacy of Great Britain ofGreat the diplomacy that historian thefor future fact hinexplicable

The Evolution of Labour’s Foreign Policy, Foreign Labour’s of Evolution The The of Terror conceptualization theWhite a moral as challenge was provocative , vii. , and political context of and political context ed,andadvocacy Huysmans’ Böhm’s efforts specificallycalled labor upon - Watson, a British historian noted for his commitment to liberalism and antipathy toward toward antipathy liberalismand to hisfor commitment noted historian British a Watson, ncere. claimed it was tryingclaimed itwas thenewly toestablishin

- for the prevention offor thepolitical persecutions.” theprevention 88 technically

Entente has, in fact, already ‘intervened’. In this ‘intervention’ is to be found thebe to is ‘intervention’ Inthis ‘intervened’. fact,already has, in Entente Yet, however ent that “…the Entente haveent Powers moral accepted toa obligation beyond the level ofnational

also independent but which did not have the economic or didnothave theeconomic which independent but

the realm of partisan politics, theirassessment politics, realm of the the ofpartisan ?,

— November 24, 1919, LP/HUN/3/2, LHA; Letter from Ernő Garami from LHA;Ernő Letter LP/HUN/3/2, 1919, 24, November

discredited which the democratic political institutions , as muchas, postwar played the principle part in rendering possible in Hungary theHungary in inrendering possible part the principle played

Europe 241

8 sovereignty in the way the Great Powers theGreat inthesovereignty way

the labor movement to the labor wanted Seton

In Böhm anotherreport inMarch1920, - ii, LHA.ii, February 14, 1920, LP/HUN/1/11.i, LHA. LP/HUN/1/11.i, 1920, 14, February which multiplied /3. - Wat i - n can be enforced.” enforced.” be ncan ii, LHA ii, son, forward to to son,forward

The c The

- before the outbreak of White Terror. Terror. of White theoutbreak before created states in East Central states created in . all to deploy this power wasnot power deploythis to all

86 Huysmans for his part came part his for Huysmans

The allowance of the

the Revolution and Counter and Revolution Letterfrom Ernő — number of

of this mostthis of elevate

smaller 87

Even Even

the

- - CEU eTD Collection 91 LP/HUN/1/10.iv. n.d. in Hungary,” Persecutions Political the Respecting Entente Powers the on “Responsibility Report, 90 LP/HUN/3/7. 1920, 26, February Party, Labour British to Huysmans ofintervention form somewithout politics in Hungarian place wouldtake change substantive no that the position to around deliberately public about the misleadingnatureofthe the against violenceraging leftists Ter regime compliancewas into the Great theonly not error with toWhite response Powers’ Entente. corrupti “civilized”Western societies Europe)was and of thereforea “moralperversion democratize thestandards to practice of (i.e. toconform political inthe prevalent and representingatcountry treaty the negotiations. recognitiongovernment from the fledgling Hungarian regime yetHungariangovernment not ratified had thepeace the signedor tomold treaty, argued theperfect had thattheEntente periodthe in the liminal opportunity when Hungary’scom economic,militaryEntente political, andshouldbeleveraged theensure resources of to waspolitical characterHungarian thatthe superiorassumption regime.The ofthe persecution untapped) the counter tocompel power oftheminded citizens Great governments Powers topressure(so far their deploy to their

Vilmos Böhm to British Labour Party, March 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/13.xvi, LHA. LP/HUN/1/13.xvi, 1920, 5, Party,March Labour British to VilmosBöhm See ror. The other issue, whichror. otherfirst, was The was issue, was relatedthatthe tothe Entente to Letter from Vilmos Böhm to the International Socialist Bureau, February 14, 1920, LP/HUN/3/ 1920, 14, February Bureau, Socialist the International to Böhm from Vilmos Letter demand that atrocities theand regimeendand against the Jews class theworking According theEntente’sWhite pressure tolaborunwillingness politicians, to the on”civilized purportedly ofthe and represented democraticby values the 91

of the Hungarian labor movement and tointerveneHungarianand tomodify laborof inorder the movement the , be it diplomatic or otherwise, of the Entente governments. See Letter from Camille Camille from Letter See governments. Entente otherwise, ofthe or it diplomatic be ,

pliance with thenormspliance andgoals by with set out theEntente

into theEntente’sinto international ownbythreatening towithdraw image

- revolutionary regime in Hungary to end revolutionary regime its to inHungary , 242

and from inpreventing Hungarian politicians 90

The Entente’s refusal to

. Labor politicians .

use this pressure this use

9.i - ii;

CEU eTD Collection 94 93 92 reaction Terror.” revolting White most and the governmentFriedrichobscure role inestabli their to the had “duped”missions theworking respective oftheir thenature classes countries asto of counter was even Budapest information was likely mission British because the whichHungary. systematically describeddidstate thattheincorrect theconditionsHe in regime was diplomatic fairly Britishof the problemsgovernment’softheevaluation thecounter with information they inBudapest.British from received mission the had Labourin Hungary by British inParliamentpoliticians was likely ofinaccurate indicative stated thathe suspected the earlyWhite that there assessment incorrect no was reports” inHungaryatrocities Parliamentary Böhm about during the the investigation. BöhmVilmos reported concerngovernmentBritish his that“incomplete hadreceived the (andIn a inHungary. Jews) letter toth

Letter from Ernő Garami to Camille Huysmans, December 30, 1919, LP/HUN/3/4.ii, LHA. LP/HUN/3/4.ii, 1919, 30, December Huysmans, Camille Garami to Letterfrom Ernő Ibid. 1920, 7, February Cunninghame, Thomas Colonel to VilmosBöhm counter

revolutionary elements — blunter - received information their from revolution

in his portrayalbetweenin his andrelationship the missions oftheEntente ary regimeary by using presencea the tokenSocial of Democrat the in

in its assessmentsin its

. In. a letter to e British LabourBritish e Party dated 243

conservative Hungarianconservative elites. Huysmans 94

, and was it accompanied by

— shing blackest “the the reign of and all thefo , h

e LP/HUN/1/13.i, LHA. LP/HUN/1/13.i, cl aimed that the Ententeaimed thatthe reign missions in in reign missions March 92

Böhm’s depiction - revolutionary

93 16 his

Ernő Garami , 1920,

report

Terror

CEU eTD Collection 97 LP/HUN/2/7.iii LP/HUN/2/7.i 1920, MayEwer,23, to Kuh 96 95 Justice government underFriedrich Tory” the“outspoken andan inthe whom Hohler Parliamentary report, truths…” about Terror. the White He were officials saidthatBritish “…brazen deliberately a presenting perv misrepresentatives,because was ingenuity.” than offiction woven little thisweb withso the networkin whichthefalsehood British of Foreignenmeshed by Officebeen has its inCentralBritish Europe, mission “…amazed revewas, Kuhsaidit lessbecause he ascould easily propaganda. dismissed been have attempted togiveevidentiary teeth the report conductItanalyzing mission’s Hungary. and in worth the is at length because it Terror”,‘White Kuh’s lengthy epistlesystematically challenged nearly everyelement of Cominggovernment’ ontheheels British of the for the sent

WilliamE to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom Újság Magyar Bécsi Letter from Frederick Kuh to William Ewer, April 30, 1920, LP/HUN/1/24.i, LHA. LP/HUN/1/24.i, 1920, April 30, WilliamEwer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom to Daily Herald the British Labourthe British Party Frederick by American journalist Kuh Describing leading hisreactiontocorrespondencebetween ofthe members The of candor - iv.

5 .1 , “Preparing the report of the mission: there is no white terror!” May 29, 1920. 29, May whiteterror!” isno mission: there the of “Preparingreport , the “ Preparing t Preparing

(a leaning left newspaper) Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy Kuh relayedanKuh he interchange ofMinister had withBarczy, the Garami’s

he report of the mission: “there is no whiteno terror!” mission:is“there the of hereport

characterization was e 97

wer, April 30, 1920, LP/HUN/1/24.i, LHA. LP/HUN/1/24.i, 1920, April 30, wer, laborassertionsto thewhose claims politicians, of DirectlyBritishcontents ofthe the tackling - iii.; Letter from Ernő Garami to Frederick Kuh, n.d., n.d., Kuh, Frederick to Garami Ernő Letterfrom iii.; 244

held CEULibrary in to his colleagueLondon. Ewer in to William s publication of, theAlleged “Reports on

choed

in a n

April

a correspondenta

95 See also also See

30,

ersion of ersion

1920 letter 1920 L etter from from etter als

CEU eTD Collection 101 100 99 98 rathermissions, billeted thanstaying inthe palatial inhotels of were instead villas the members with theMagyar aristoc venture and association almost Mission exclusive of todenyconstant British this counter AffairsLloyd cabin George’s in information communicated by the Harmsworth, Under Cecil Foreign Secretary for with peopleconservative outsidemore and reactionary aristocratic circles. information Te abouttheWhite Hungarian confirmed aristocracy,which claim Huysmans’ that the lackaccurate of foreignrelationship specifically between missions, mission, and the British the the antagonistic preconceived tohis sympathies….” facts Terror oftheWhite Kuh used “deliberate exchange evidence this themission’s as ofthe British of distortion” Barczy him: told Parliamentary hadclaimed denied Terror. ofWhite Reportallegations According toKuh,

Letter from Frederick Kuh to William Ewer, April 30, 1920, LP/HUN/1/24.ii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/24.ii, 1920, April 30, WilliamEwer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom Ibid.

Letter from Frederick Kuh to William Ewer, April 30, 1920, LP/HUN/1/24.i 1920, April 30, WilliamEwer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom LP/HUN/1/1.i 1920, January, 8 ArthurHenderson, to Huysmans Camille Letterfrom

- One ofthe thought thatcould there there TerrorWhite issuch a as thing Barczy inHungary. at laughed the very me.“Yes,” to visit Hohler,Barczy “I saidcalledand asked onDr. whether him late I andmonths whohas theTerror seen and results, days its outright.Afew laughed absurdity hasBudapestsome such from been Hohler, awho Mr. of question in for believe thatthere isactually aTerror inHungary White today. Atthemere myInMr. Hohlercourse ofhisconversation, department. asked the ‘Hohler saidBarczy, to see‘inordergather came general me,’ to available in data revolutionary elites and Terror. theWhite revolutionary He elites not “Mr. does wrote, Hohler r, a friend of mine told methatr, a Hohlerandmentioned tohim ofhadhis friend mine told spoken

most important threads of Kuh’s account was threads describingaccount important ofKuh’s the most

and thatHohler

rror was due to the British mission’s lack of interchange lackrrorwas British mission’s due of tothe be such reports.”’ et to support his assertion ofmission’s assertion theBritish tiesto et supporthis to racy.” 101 , “…deliberatelywhich material is ignores

Further, Kuh establishedFurther, Kuh that theforeign 245

99 98

v,LHA.

- ii 100 , LHA. , me whether Ime whether

Kuh related

CEU eTD Collection 103 102 Terror.White wasmission naïve and tootrusting government’sclaims ofthe about Hungarian the much betterex except includingthe by Hohler a hadofall Hungarian list compile setoutto reactionaries, have couldn’t done he arguingSmallholders, that,“…ifof thediversity despite theimpression thisgroup that of with avariety groups including ofdifferent reigning also cynically onHohler’s Kuh inHungary. claim commented that hemixed Democrats were interview British Parliamentaryreport accommod luxurious Inter betweenandBritishfall 1920.Moreover, theand of1919 theAmerican ofthe members the Hungarian Bandholtz’s and Cuninghame’s diaries there was indicate, asdismissed propagandaat the time of the r stayaristocracy, at of the the palaces too,forreasons.”characterization thesame Kuh’s speak infelicitous English truths. uponarriving journalists, are inthe Budapest, to invited Inter [the aristocracy,

Letter from Frederick Kuh to William Ewer, April 30, 1920, LP/HUN/1/24.v, LHA. LP/HUN/1/24.v, 1920, April 30, WilliamEwer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom diary his throughout in Budapest to access had he theluxuries about wasopen very Bandholtz - Allied mission relished Allied mission elationship andthe between theofficialaristocracy missions have might been Kuh sarcastically Hohler’s onHarmsworth’scommented and assessment -

to get balance to thestory to getbalance to Allied mission] which he

For example,For h aristocracy activegentrymissions inCentraland among theEurope might might ations during their stay inthe attributed tothe desireregimeattributed White ofthe “…obviously tokeep give Hohler a

away liberals, Jews, who andother from might ‘disreputables’

that there Democrats Budapest were in noSocial to

the trappings of ewhereby recalled aintervened situation officers English to

. ;

Kuh Kuh himself suspected as itwouldbe.But clearer - Kaiser Karl…”.

argued 246 Rabbis, Christian Socialists and Socialists Christian Rabbis,

picture as tothetrue picture their privilegedtheir status

that clarifying exactly Hungarian 103

At a greata of deal

best capital.

political Kuh argued

and access to and to access 102

where

sympathy for sympathy for conditions conditions

, theBritish the Social

. in the

CEU eTD Collection 105 104 excesses” ofBritish andliked tohang officers drunkenness aroundfanciest who the mission. the membersBritish ofthe Terror,Kuh’s ofeven evaluation reputation among foreigners intheregiona source reliable ofknowledge about as the sympathies. informants, andof becausedelib depth investigations, to lack the because mission’s of ofdivers government’s was sowildly information because inaccurate: a ofnaivetéand lack of precise and als information Hungary.government’s in provided ofthe evaluation official political conditions He punished. Foreign to was Office found providing be should buthe disciplined, theinformation also the said that if British “propaganda”.that ifthereceived reports held were hethat false the Kuh had informant reportsconflicteddismissed which wi revolutionary prisonswere untrue. Englishofevidence officersviolence as thattherethestories incounter and harm bodily men complied their liberty soas togain signed The thatnoharm duringincarceration. statements hadbeen done tothem their Hungarianguards at facility themen thefreed internment told thatthey wouldbe ifthey help whohad Democrats be 400Social

Letter from K.D. Courtney to William Gillies, May 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/34,ii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/34,ii, 1920, May8, WilliamGillies, Courtneyto K.D. Letterfrom LP/HUN/1/2 1920, April 30, WilliamEwer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom Kuh’s critique of the British mission wasKuh’s scathing takedown mission in its critiqueofBritish of the the

However, d However, espite significantespite which his undoubtedly evidence promoted

o provided interpretations multiple as towhy the be deliberately thatthey suppressing information be should

erate suppression erate suppression ts in Hungary also included attacks Hungarycharacter also ts in onthe of 104 105

At worst, British officialsAt worst, Hungary British in simply th their personal impressions by impressions th their personal classifying themas

He regarding related information “sexual the en interned inEger. the Heclaimeden that interned

andfalse thesetothe statements were shown 247

of information on account of of information onaccount ity totheir came it when 4.iv, LHA. 4.iv,

political

- CEU eTD Collection 108 107 106 based andleftists Jews ontheactions Regime.It ofthe Soviet therefore impo was rejected the representativesEngland inHungary,Labourandelsewhere supporters in politicians events they andthe information theAngloreceiving. Unlike were Party disconnect awide thattherewas B’naiB’rith, indicatedLabour Fraternal a organization, the Jewish totheleadership of Labourthe fromParty’s and offices Independent Böhm, from Huysmans, the combined withallthe otheratrocities andpouring reports and articlesof repression into paper” Terror White calling onthe unambiguously lie”. them “a refuted ofhisactivities asrepresentation reported by the Troubridge int cocktails and bedding prostitutes. raged inthe gossipsalacious that opera Budapest.finestresiding hotelsandhomesof inthe and elite Buda status in stability Hungarians restored toall was presenting groupthe mission, as a lessinterested of it men in to establishing the“facts”o and unrefined General Gorton Budapesthotels in uppros picking

Letter from Károly Peyer to Frede to Peyer Károly Letterfrom Bandholtz, See LHA. LP/HUN/1/24.i, 1920, April 30, WilliamEwer, to Kuh Frederick Letterfrom Thesupported Kuh letter wasbycorrespondence from Károlywho from Peyer

Inter countryside, countryside, , butfabulously wealthy

An Undiplomatic Diary Undiplomatic An of the Inter of the - Allied pest at withHungarianaristocrats,dining bythe theroyalbox using also likely would

mission’s tolerationmission’s for justifications violence and/or against

the men ofthe mission - f the White Terror, but it it f the Terror, but White Allied

rick Kuh, n.d. LP/HUN/2/7.ii n.d. rickKuh,

titutes. Mission wasMission was billeted residence was ofa the vulgar , 4, 13. 4, ,

Count. This Count. between arouse moral indignation,arouse moral

and more interested in making the most oftheirandmost more inmaking the interested

106 248

Kuh also claimedwhere thatthepalace

the government’s ofthe official version

spent their and time moneydrinking

particular served to - iii, LHA. iii,

information was irrelevant was information ensuring and security 107 impugncharacter the of

108

because His comments were - American

These letters he “very white he

as violenceas

Order of rtant to

also CEU eTD Collection LHA. 111 110 LHA. LP/HUN/1/34.ii, 1920, May8, Gillies, William Courtneyto m appalling in an exaggerated “…everyone him that, reminded Party, Labour ofthe Secretary International Gillies,the 109 message,Sándor Simonyi Prime Minister of economicinstitution and sanctions diplomatic In against responsetothis thestate. irrevocably rel damage the Hungarian that the government’sfailure toendthewould Prime Minister Terror democraticmodel of Western onthedemocracies. also values warned Hendersonthe movement andth governmentHe calledpersecution toimmediately its onthe of halt theHungarian labor byof theHungarian sustained persecution thereportsregarding working the 18 Labourtelegram onbehalf Prime Minister of theHungarian British to Party onMarch the detailedprovided by information Böhm mid in truth and slandering turned away counter by the orItalian respond Terror. theWhite to Party Socialist Earlier in1920, were deputies whatestablished the “truth”was inHungary. happening of investigation account that tookinto oflabor the perspective and wasnecessary Labourthe British and theinternationalParty, movementgenerally, more labor thatan

, 1920.He commu Copy of Telegram Telegram Copy of Simonyi Sándor Letterfrom William to stressed pacifist inVienna and internationalist an Courtney, from K.D. Correspondence

TheLabour British P anner — the Reds exaggerating the White Terror, the Whites the Red….” the theWhites Terror, White the exaggerating Reds the e formation of awhich Hungariane recognized formation civil state liberties and from Sándor Simonyi Sándor from

the Hungariangovernmentthe abroad. nicated that the Labour thatnicated the was, Party “deeplyhorrifieddisturbed and

- ations between England and leadations between Hungaryand tothe would England Semadam to Thomas Hohler, May 16, 1920, LP/HUN/1/40.i, LHA. LP/HUN/1/40.i, 1920, May16, Hohler, Thomas to Semadam - revolutionary regime,wh arty waslaborarty thefirst party not national toexpressconcern

- Semadam to Arthur Henderson, no date, LP/HUN/2/1/2.i, LP/HUN/2/1/2.i, date, no Arthur Henderson, to Semadam - Semadam invited theBritish invited Semadam labor movement 249

- March tosend a motivated Henderson ich

110

accused the them of distorting

Mounting reports atrocity and 109

Letter from K.D. from K.D. Letter - classes.”

111

CEU eTD Collection LHA. LetterLHA; 113 112 population of thepressaffectedassembly, which and execution. broader as delegation exposing theatrocities against year,Hungarian earlier that as Prime Minister theproblem well of imprisonments suppression of theHungarian labor movement specific and Terrorthe White naturecounter ofthe and the information. The cityKuh, whoregarded and foreigners was sympathetic like assource of atrusted delegation also inViennawhohad spent time political gathered interviewingexiles inthe Congress delegation ajoint toBudapestinvestigate sent to the “malevolently”government. by political opponentsofthe ofown to senda its mission

Letter from Thomas Hohler to Prime Minister Simonyi Prime Minister to Hohler Letterfrom Thomas Ibid. to presenttheir working of class adefense brethren and

The report Unlike the Parliamentary reportLabour Terror, onthe White the was delegation’s InBritish Labour theTrade 1920the with Party May incooperation Unions significance significance

from Prime Minister Simonyi Minister from Prime It sought to publicize thetruesought naturethe publicize counter to of as well

graphic in its discussion of discussion violence.Itgraphic inits addressedse also ,

the suspension of Labour emphasized emphasized . On a visit to theprison Szolnok, to in visit . Onathedelegationwith the met recorded in both thedomesticin both and international context.

delegation’s at awildly reportarrived d

many incidents of imprisonment without charge, without manyincidents and ofimprisonment torture, to Hungary in order to dispel the “baseless”spreadto Hungary to rumors inorder

the ,

andthe Hungarian the suppression ofmovement, labor attack on habeas corpus - Semadam to Thomas Hohler, May 16, 1 May16, Hohler, Thomas to Semadam not just thelabor movement but not just

250 civil rights andliberties s - ,

revolutionary regime inHungary. massacres, executions, and massacres, - , an issue Hohler addressed, had with the Semadam, May 5, 1920, LP/HUN/1/39.i 1920, 5, May Semadam, 112

to reflect on -

revolutionaryregime, White Terror. White veral issues includingveral the issues ifferent conclusion about conclusion ifferent

uch as thefreedom as uch anti 920, LP/HUN/1/40.i 920,

the White Terror’sWhite the - Semitism. the broader T he

as well - ii, 113

- In ii,

CEU eTD Collection 116 115 114 report andtorture man described whoarrived Polish theimprisonment ofa Jewish in government andincommercial enterprises. profiteeringdue were which as rootedJews anti notin unacceptability ofthe against violence respectability former, for and adv the elderly identitiesintersected men,theirother Jewish educated dimensions: with who were tiedcart. toahorse and However,thetwo inthe case particularly ofthe doctor counter of doctor a inAbonyi, Jewish violence.report atrocities The isrepletewithdescriptions including of thesevere beating saynot to delegationLabour thatthe was not primarilyanti by helped underscore that these men. same concluded night. mission that The the militarywas for death responsible the of because theplace ofthe timing massacre of menwhich of the andtook inthe theburial were The Jews. to stagea riot forDay. report May The onthecells killed pretextthat they and were clandestinely eventually had planning been themthatnineteenwarden told the prisoners prison who had of bee

Ibid., 24. Ibid., 8. Ibid., Delegation, Labour Joint - The fra small statement thatonlya revolutionary prisons andcamprevolutionary prisons

report also - communist andcommunist anti

the atrocities being committed inHungary atrocitiescommitted beingthe were motivated

The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The

- Semitism, but anti but Semitism,

indicated that the , they claimed, 114

the purportedly in more intense violence Jews against anced thelatter,age which underscored in the - socialist

them clarified s, 115 ction of Jews were present among those men werection of present Jews among those 251 116 t . The delegation. The regarded violenceagainst o the prominenceo the inthe communist ofJews -

and thetortureelderly men oftwo Jewish

delegation communism andinaccusations of interested inincidentsinterested ofanti

For one episode example, recounted inthe

rather thananti that oftheonly nineteenthat three killed , 4. ,

did not trustthe “officialdid not story” - Semitic n taken out oftheirn taken out

animus. This is This is animus. - Jewish Jewish CEU eTD Collection 121 120 119 118 117 left genital his mutilated. organs sixty horse they and cart dragged until collapsed leg. being totellthem where and unable and froma was, suffered broken hisson ribs cracked incident old children example, anLukacs incident where asix police detective severely named two beat war the corpus violence classes who, ofpersons according were toestablishednorms, against socialism Judeo Labour acknowledgedgovernmental delegation,mission like theBritish validity the of Terrothe politicalthe White character of the words “ barracksandwhere officers for tattooed days wasdown foreheadwith several his he held Hungarycare four daughters, totake ofhis w

Ibid., 15. Ibid., 14. Ibid., Ibid. 12. Ibid., 13. Ibid., 119

and which tended to emphasizewhich violence tendedand these toagainst groups - five yearwasfive oldmanforced toeat his -

bolshevism toacertainbolshevism extent In claimed another,report that the elderly still toachained two men were Jewish As the casesab , an elderlythe fatherprisoner, an man,waspolice by escaped for beaten of the ,

particularly women children and the elderly. In children fitparticularly women elderly.sense, andthis thereport the

of atrocityof literature well had become which Schleichhändler

for of todisclose their beingthelocation brother. unable .

ove suggest, thereportoveatrocities those suggest, often against highlighted

” [blackmarketeer/profiteer].

121

, by interpreting attacks as attacksagainst Jews r, this statement nevertheless thatthe suggests r, thisstatement , 252 120 own own ho was tortured and held in a military tortured awas in and held ho

and

excrement aftera beating severe wh another relayed an incident whereanother relayed an a incident - developedcourse the over ofthe 117

While intendingWhile toemphasize generallyexcepted . There was,. Therefor 118

In another

s from

- within within year ich - CEU eTD Collection Press, 2001), 36. For examples of atrocity reports see reports ofatrocity For examples 36. 2001), Press, 124 123 122 government. orviolation a sufferingdrive homebarbarous theimage to of depiction Terror ofthe White which shyaway didnot from imagery using of female violenceof sexualized inatrocityspecificaand in literature, found thatshe ofher asa was result rape. pregnant exchangemistress in her for and thenrapedtwodaysagain her her offered He the later. tobecome opportunity his her andrefused she advances.” the other toleverage prisoners.He treatment tried her special “making for improper sex, there, an officer and young aPutok,” involved the“Jewess of socialist agitatordenouncedwho was Jewish by which has inprevious alreadychapters. discussed been Thewas which other anincident Social Democratic Part Committee’sdelegation’s Distribution reports and theJoint and werecovered oneLabour be indetail,ofthe and foundthe storiescould inboth bycaptors. their There were twoincluded only i abuse against state’swere custody, violence women who inthe tosexualized subjected

John Horne and Alan Kramer, Alan Kramer, and Horne John Ibid. Ibid. one of the one of , , 16 , 16. The highlightPutok storiesof Mrs.Hamburger andJewessof the prominence the The -

17. 122

most sensationalweremost severe casescovered inthe report the thoseinvolving 124

She was refusedand arrested held custody and in

(see imageswere alsowhich the inchapterdrawn two

officer

despite her hunger despite y’s legalaid bureau.The f s

took alikinggave her toher,a and cell food better than private

German Atrocities: A Hist A Atrocities: German freedom, Eventually sherefused. shewas but free, but set

starved forstarved with Heagain twodays. sex triedhave to . He finally. Hecame cell toher and once raped

25 b y andetachment.shewas officers’ While Arnold J. Toynbee, J. Arnold 3

n the twenty n irst ory of Denial of ory 123

wasHamburger thestory ofMrs.

lly the Hungarian left’s theHungarian lly - five page report, but they but five page report,

The German Terror in Belgium; Belgium; Terror in German The counter (New Haven: Yale University University (New Yale Haven: was referenced -

revolution by artist Mihályby

in the ary CEU eTD Collection 1920. 125 1917). Doran, H. G. York, Belgium in ArmyGerman the with months Four during Journalist Netherland 1917); Cassell, York: (London; New Retreat ( Front Macedonian the Serbian on Criminologist Austro the by WarCommitted and LawsRules of the of Infringements Neutral a of Investigations Personal Serbia; in France Record Historical An governments 1918 in Biro inViennaimages who exiled and alsofor produced was therevolutionary

Bécsi Magyar Újság Magyar Bécsi

( ( London London; New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1917); Author, No & Stoughton, 1917); Hodder York: London; New

5 .2 ; New “Because it will be the grand and lovely thought for Hungarian women Hungarian for thought lovely and grand willthe “Because be it

(

New York, G. H. Doran Co., 1917); 1917); Co., Doran H. G. NewYork, York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1917); & Stoughton, 1917); Hodder York: , “Because it will be the grand and lovely thought for Hu for thought lovely grandand willthe be it “Because , - Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy 1919).

L. Mokveld, , trans. J. S. trans.J. , London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1919); n.a &1919); Unwin, Allen G. London: The German Fury in Belgium; Experiences of a a of Experiences Belgium; in Fury German The 254

held CEULibrary in

R. A. Reiss, Reiss, R.A. Paris: A.Colin, 1915; Paris: Arnold J. Toynbee, J. Arnold

- Bulgaro Their Crimes Their How Austria How , trans. C. Thieme ( trans.C.Thieme , - The German Terror in Terror in German The G ngarian women,” June 26, 26, June women,” ngarian

ermans; Letters ermans; a of Reiss, R.A. Reiss,

- , Hungary Waged War Waged Hungary trans. J.E. Adams J.E. trans. . ” ,

125 Frightfulness in in Frightfulness

New New

CEU eTD Collection 127 126 torture sexualized Hamburger female chasteness. thatMrs. respectability and for delegation, instance,emphasized The

Bécsi Magyar Újság Magyar Bécsi Újság Magyar Bécsi However, how thegendered story alsoviolence shows was

who was raped with the handle of a dog whip and subjected to otherwho waswiththe handlea forms ofdog whipand to raped of subjected , was “a quiet unassuming, and a, was highly quietunassuming,and “a re , “The Pain of Transdanubia,” May 22, 1920; May22, Pain“The of, Transdanubia,” May “Spring,” , Illustration inPrintIllustration Copy inPrintIllustration Copy

5 .4 .4

20, 1920. 20, “The pain ofTransdanubia” pain “The 5 .3 “Spring” .3

255

held CEULibrary in held CEULibrary in

126

127

spected woman, and wespected woman, were

tied toideas about

CEU eTD Collection 131 130 129 128 because ofMrs.gender theHamburger’s with intersection and of status combined social not standard practice,withmajor prison overcrowding even characterandthat holding by arguing people contested mantoo,shewas “misconductingthis found, herself….” Theyhim. thatsheclaimed was moved further to placed withaman, be cell was inaholding engaged relations insexual with foundto beenviolence becausehaving butthatthe beaten, Hamburger, wasbeen punishment Mrs. government refutedevents version of thestory no and pleading tobespared. her character unimpeachable, was andclear that violationby it made sheresisted begging violenceandgiven theinterpretation the de of isclear that wife and mother. goodwoman of education” andmoral withhigh a character, who woman afaithful was She conformedexpectations ofasexual vi victim to the true because imprisoned detachment and unconscionable simply was undeserved not bec This qualification suggeststhatthestoryHamburger’s officer ofMrs. torturean by informeda by her allmoral whoknew that characterreproach.” shepossessed beyond

Ibid., 10. Ibid., 9 Ibid., 11. Ibid., Delegation, Labour Joint rape - 11.

this version of events version firstMrs.Hamburger’sthis calling of byto attention status and

—

was illegal, but becausewaswas, who illegal,she shewhat of acted. shedid,and how the labor report indicates that never shewas chargedwith anything 129

That her “character” was an important dimension of her victimization “character”That ofher her dimension was victimization animportant

The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The

130

According delegation,Labour Hungarian totheofficial

256 of two different inacellof together two was sexes

, 10. ,

anotherman, and withanother cell with t by denying thatMrs.Hamburger had

131 legation twice commented thatlegationcommented twice

The BritishThe delegation (see chapter four) olence “respectable as a ause shewasunlawfullyause . It. was — or 128

CEU eTD Collection LP/HUN/5/46/36.i, LHA. LP/HUN/5/46/36.i, 132 conceptualizationsgenerally ofmasculinity held whichto be that men were supposed v underscore thatthesexual hiswife’shis nor was assault publ but rather therape hiswife, emphasized which of received Dündek deviationgender andviolationofmasculine norms. interpre character violence involving men against thesexual inthe incidents menindicates of genitals Again, by were mutilated an the lackelaboration detachment. onthe officers’ of report p conforming vigor.In togenderwhich prizedmalethe norms sexual another incident, oftheunderstood violation men’s as them from bodies aninherent whichwould prevent ofdiscussion thecharacter ofmen of wouldhave themen.castration been The of the twom violence example men.For inthe story against Mrs. Hamburger,genital the ofmutilation dist was ofsexualized commonPutnok toallvictims not violence, towomen.This just illegitimately andarrested, tortured. imprisoned her

Statement b inction is bornoutin inction is the delegation’s presentation conformity tomoral The LabourThe aboutthe also Delegation received had information onthecharacterThe fixation Hamburger of and andtheJewess of behavior Mrs. tations ofsexual violencetations of menwas andas victimization aninherent understood resented the story of two Jewish men whowere oftwo Jewish resented the whose story and severely beaten

, however, did not provide detailed abouttheattack, however,information didnot against by a White y József Dündek to SDP, December 19, 1919, pg. 115, PIL; n.a., “Texas in Hungary,” Hungary,” in “Texas n.a., pg.PIL; 1919, 115, December 19, SDP, to yDündek József ale prisoners militia

that made herthat

brought up

(discussed ictimization of menwas adestabilizing force on

ished in the final report,ished inthe lack final butits ofusability helps to rape Mrs. Hamburgerwasto rapeMrs.by accompanied a not

in chap a victim, not just thefacta notjust victim, that shewas 257 ter two

was him.Neither carried outinfront of 132 ) .

or suppression

The

information of sexualized of sexualized

the delegation rape

of József of József , CEU eTD Collection 134 Terror 133 persecution ofoutrage thatsuch actions outofa sense counter not (or could not which was courts laws using towreak and vengeance onits but the systematic of violenceandthe repression terror take account violencemilitias into “wild” which only didnot ofuncontrollable the and atrocities inHungary is a‘Terror’ inHungary….” as secure England”. here asisin it government’s provided a powerful, if responsibleenc for origins“moral and character”could have that not indicated they possibly been by severe undergoing physical their “honor” toprotect tests and/or their because social only “usable” because Insocial origins victim. violence ofthe ofsexual womenwere short,theincidents against viewed ofthe violations “natural asorder” moral inherent rather thantothe as linked had he thecapacity todisrupt was as well as because humiliated of hisinability topreventthe rape ofhiswife protectors

Joint Labour Delegation, Labour Joint in Hohler, to Thomas Troubridge Ernest Admiral Letterfrom compelled ’

in in - The atrocities storiesof violenceand inthe highlighteddelegation’s report revolutionary regime. The labour delegation challenged revolutionary regime.Thedelegation labour Hungary of women andof women definitive definitive to observe. More generally to observe.More , 9 , i.e.Jews ; ouraging their violation. Joint Labour Delegation, Joint Labour

the womeneither had demonstrated theirto the violation resistance

sometimes sometimes The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The declaration Terror,” no“White thatthereth and was

, not victims.

) conform National” the“Christian by ideal to touted the b ut it was aut it alsobased on 134 terosexual norm

This determination wasThis determinationexistence based ofviolence onthe 133 gruesome counter

The In Dündek,was thecase of he personally violated

The Labour , sexualized violence bymenalso against , sexualized men 258

White Terror in Hungary Terrorin White s , buthere too, such were acts largely

, 22. ,

counter report unequivocally that,“There stated report

more expansi - narrative to the Britishnarrative tothe Report on Alleged Existence of Existenceof Alleged on Report offended and democratic socialist - revolutionary opponents and those who did opponents and the Hungarian regime’s , 24. , ve

conceptualization of conceptualization

government ,

which he at “life was ‘ White CEU eTD Collection leadership of their governments. oftheir leadership the to correspondence in and their other between each correspondence their in regime oflegalitythe 137 Consolidation 136 135 simply Government, inthe Communist especially tookpart when isremembered it that the report, suppressed participated theEntente. with uprisings and innegotiations in July,genuine, 1919,were legally governments constituted laws, which passed governm regimes were The fundamentallyillegitimate. argued delegation the Károlyi that andthe militias’ thegovernment’s Terror, White the namelyKárolyi Kun that and violenc and norgovern unstablewas, the theregime militias new asitcouldnotcontrol without and morally method unacceptable legitimacy ofth a facilitator of terror. such aas way to demonstrateitself government that the revolutionary regime,emp by Theypolitical tool. the storiesHungarian delegitimize ofatrocities used to counter demonstrates asa leftists that thefundamentally representatives rejected violence against but commitment defining“Christian” notastatement somethingas inHungaryof morality orspiritual was principles, asideals well as representedclaim the byof“Christianity” the clarifying that

Joint Labour Delegation, Labour Joint Lorman, Thomas 24. Ibid., e Thethat thedelegationalso report indicated thelogic both rejected undergirding . ent, the “Commune” and the socialist governmentent, and for the “Commune” thesocialist whichtookover briefly it 136

“…there is no justification for calling“…there thedeath for isno who sentence onthose

(Boulder, CO: East European Monographs), 226. Monographs), CO: European East (Boulder, e Hungarian regime,e Hungarian because notjust had Counter

“definite political Thus,

The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The - revolutionary Hungary, 1920 Hungary, revolutionary

identifying violence and publicizing hasizing ofviolence certain types andterror in by defining

of political control significance.” 259

, 5, 25. Labor politicians frequently stressed the stressed frequently politicians Labor , 5, 25. - 1925: istván Bethlen and the Politics the and Bethlen of istván 1925: , butbecause howweak itshowed 135

violence

was animportantand perpetrator The delegation British report was

aimed the to threaten

treated as treated 137

According to

a politically - CEU eTD Collection 139 138 which groundseven dosounder to hadthe it though agreement July had it brokered 191 in Ententerefused intervene had Terror theWhite to consistently power against touse its Horthy,and thegovernment organize had Károly helped under British governmentascendance Supreme had CouncilinParis andthe orchestrated the and religious freedom,” Hunga Hungaryargued andtheBritish Supreme Council,and specifically that were the government’s failure portraytothe tohonestly political repression and in violence legi repeated the revolutions justice used by counter the Labourwords, the British delegation fundamentallyrejected the predictable out of atrocities by already committed regime theWhite perpetrated by the Government.” severalarmed counter

I 5. Ibid., bid., 24. bid., counter timacy and moral authority of Britain and the Entente. They moralBritaintimacy and authority of andreiterated British the the

rian government’saccomplicesrian of industrial, oppression policyof political, in“a among other things I n addition to linkingaddition to Terror theWhite n tothe

the labor movement’s the labor movement’s

- .

revolutionary government 138 come of the upheaval caused ofthe come by

T Soviet Soviet he delegation did not refutehe didnot delegation thatthere claims was some violence - revolutions wererevolutions and attempted suppressed by the because of theirbecause refusal of

regime, butcompared

- calledofcessation all forpolitical persecutions(white the and revolutionary regime to grapplerevolutionary regime ofthe with thelegacy to

concerns that the White TerrorWhite concerns that the , the British Labour, the delegation 260

the the

to intervene,cause.ampleto despite “Red” war , whilealso

question ofpolitical question

violence with the breadth andtype and imperial collapse

in Hungary in Hungary Huszár. Moreover, the

contextualizing it as it contextualizing methods oftransitional methods ’ sreport

de facto de legitimacyof threatened the . In. other

also

139 9,

The a of of CEU eTD Collection 141 140 another because thefundamentalexposed contradictions of Entente’smovement’s policies. For Terror theEntente, andWhite thelabor theissue of debates also Terror helpreveal about boththe significant in White contradictions and instrumentalizing violence gender, ethnicity loyalty andan political playedpublicizing important roleindefining, bynarratives it movementabout that demonstrate Ententeclass, and produced the labor onceattention it did. philanthropic organizations from abroad, commanding butnot nearly theinternational legal 1920. the country,unsuccessful awhich relatively action Interna Hungarywith the p stop didnot Conclusion responsibleall forthecrueltiesnow committed inHungary….” Terrorthe White by thisnegotiation, because acceptingof they w the terms red).

Letter from Vilmos Böhm to British Labour Party, February 8, 1920, LP/HUN/1/9.ii, LHA. LP/HUN/1/9.ii, 1920, 8, Party,February Labour British Böhmto Vilmos Letterfrom 24 Ibid., 140

dimensions, continued for another few years, continueddimensions, for few another Despite tional Trade Union Federationtional called Trade Union inAmsterdam a for

: The Terror White cont an became issue ofinternational The international labor movement’s The Entente

it required prioritizing one of“civilization” requireddimension it prioritizing democracy, even if it meant ifit democracy,even toleratinga - 25.

international

governments

outcry

in order to achieve spec toachievein order ublication of thereport.On

therefore were not just observers,thereforejust but were not

by labor politicians their 261

attempts anend toput Terror tothe White in

anti

more authoritarianregime.

provoking was eventually on calledoff - communis , the White Terror,, theWhite especial ific international June continued : estation. The competing 141 t policy

anti

transportation transportation 20

, 1920,the - communism over

in Hungary in collaborators policy attention from ere “morally

The labor

boycott of goals. The August ly its its ly ,

8 , CEU eTD Collection organization, the American Jewish Joint Distributi organization, theAmericanJoint Jewish revolution Hungary. in followingchapter will The shedlightof one onthesuch efforts sending tothe beleagueredcounter ofthewar, and aid and missions terror victims gapNorth this tofill America attempted byraising caused Hungary.organizations from Europe across by theviolencePhilanthropic in and ideas solvetheactual and provoking outragecouldand humanitarian deprivation not pain capitalist It animportant front was in were than higher stop violence ideological sisters. againstand their brothers unequalsocial and politicalpower inorder justice toexploit relationsbetween to states Terrormovement’sWhite responsewil to showsthe Ultimately, t “ imperialism just ending just he stakes ” inthe interwar period in

the ideological and battle between democratic socialism of the debate the over existenceof and natur violence against leftists inasmallstate inEasternviolence against leftists Europe 262 . The proble . The

on Committee.

money, publicizing conditions and money,conditions publicizing lingness dedicated ofpoliticians to m was of thewar thatwinning

e of White Terrore ofWhite -

. CEU eTD Collection English. into Yiddish from the translated werealready articles These East. the and Near Europe wartorn in ofconditionsJews w received leadership May14 J.D.C. of to Interest Press 3 AJA. Papers, 2 as AJA). to Papers) 1920, 12, 1 facing inHungary hopelesstheintervention Jews without chapter as of outsiders.This The plea the Yiddish language anti the of some as narrow as guarded so anti fight to isimpossible It

“Jews of Hungary Appeal to American Jews,” American to Appeal “JewsofHungary Box 1 457, MS 1920, 30, Nov Nathan, Maud to Warburg M. Felix Letterfrom Becker, Lieutenant James “The Most Tragic of All the European Jewries” European the ofAll Tragic Most “The , Jacob Rader Marcus Center of the American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio (hereafter referred referred (hereafter Ohio Cincinnati, Archives, AmericanJewish CenterMarcus of the Rader , Jacob all perish. theterriblestop to ofthe slaughter Hungaria America. upontheAmerican toprevail tointervenegovernment Try a and put growshope worse, insight,free of Brothers,citizens andnoescape. thereisno whose crowdedon with Jews, and orphansconcentrationeverywhere.and jailscamps aboundthe The are women arepresence andwidows in the oftheirhusbands. defiled Jewish parents ar very air deathgorror of isfraughtwith forHungary. andJews (sic) the Many Jews makeare pogroms, andThe aterrible they most observingmanner. oathin this return. Hungarian to army revenge totake and officersontheJews have sworn some twohundred are placeswh Jews andfrom notseized to taken to leave we ourhomes, Not because oneday are safethat never passes outside. Brothers, attacks outlawed it, arewills are and us.We saveus.We whoever afraid In by in April, 1920,anwas toAmerican appeal Jews Hungarianpublished Jews pg. 114, MS 114, pg. painted a portrait sufferingpainted pitiful ofJewish in aree alive,bodiesof buried others whilethe Jewish unspeakably mutilated.

Distribution Committee and the White Terror White andthe Committee Distribution to put us in a position where we cannot be attacked, with foundation, as being equally equally being as foundation, with be attacked, wecannot where a position in put us to

eekly collections of news articles from the Yiddish language press about the about press thelanguage Yiddish from articles news of collections eekly

457, Box 190, Fol Box 190, 457, daily, - - Semites. “ Semitism successfully in one battle, but it is very important that our actions be be actions thatour important is itvery but battle, one in successfully Semitism Minutes of Joint Distribution Committee Executive Committee Meeting, Committee Executive Committee Distribution ofJoint Minutes

F - 17, 1920,” MS 457, Box 192, Box 192, 457, MS 1920,” 17, orward

der 2, Felix M. WarburgFelix Papers M. der2, Chapter Six Chapter

lyguilt thatthey is are Jews… [not my[not translation] Forward 263

, May 17, 1920, in “Digest of News in Yiddish inin Yiddish “Digest ofNews 1920, May17, , n Jews. If youIf we notdoit shall will n Jews.

Folder 1, Folder

Hungary thecrisis and framed :

(hereafter referred to as Warburg to referred (hereafter

Warburg Papers, AJA. The JDC JDC The Papers,AJA. Warburg 91, Folder Warburg 5. Folder 91,

Daily thesituation Felix M. Warburg, 1921 Warburg, Felix M. 1 : The Joint Joint : The ich they neverich they

”

Dec 2

CEU eTD Collection most of them are civil or militaryofficials... civil or are mostthem of 4 agains “economic defend the tohelp Jews Hungarian Jewry, destruction”of and themselves the humaneof non repatriation work inHu ofthedimensions JDC’s bycounter theHungarian on the armistice. to declaration of war in1 The andPoland, anti remained alien afterNovember, armistice the as 1918 Europe. above,as evident and However, is thehumanitarian notabate did political crises transformation of counter responded (JDC), Committee tothefacing political crises their foreignbrethren in focuses philant on how one

n.a., "The report starts out with a flaming denunc withflaming a out starts report "The n.a.,

specifically JDC

t legal persecution and/or discrimination of Jews. Jews. and/ort legaldiscrimination of persecution group’s interpretations of the of andpersecutioncommitted group’s violenceof interpretations Jews against - This chapter examines the JDC’s intervention in This chapter JDC’s Hungary, examinesthe focusing specifically The Greata was War watershed many moment in respects, the including revolution

wasmany one ofthefounded inthe wake organizations ofthe benevolent

ngary. These includedngary. Terror, their theWhite attempts topublicize These in toassist

Jewish victims ofwar victims andJewish to contributed ated their from homes, - Jewish persecutionJewish raged Republic. followingHungary’s failed Soviet international philanthropy atinternational aimed “warrelief”reconstruction in and ary Hungary. 914. It todistributing914. committed funds and was materialassistance —

- revolutionary militias. regimeand both its Newboth its York Budapest and branches hropic Distribution organization, theAmerican Joint

- Hungarian Jews totheir address (new)Hungarian Jews homelands, the 4

”

January 1, 1920, Doc. 220552, folder 151.3, JDC. folder 151.3, 220552, Doc. 1920, 1, January pogroms against Jews erupted Jews and inUkraine pogroms against

thousands of persons across Eastern Europeof persons acrossEastern thousands iation of the Hungarian anti Hungarian ofthe iation 264

the

reconstructive workreconstructive afterthe It explores themultiple - Semitic leaders, who though leaders, Semitic — anti - violence

CEU eTD Collection the war WWI and aftermath. moment for its atransformative many was philanthropic explores theimportant rolethat international humanitarian o transition. political upheaval andinstitutional in relief effort interactioncomplex between withthose coming Hungarian Jews toassist “outside” from local Budapest committee as theunequ roleincluded as theJDC’s mediator between theHungarianGalician and Jewry, as well entangled waded as it thecounter into JDC and act its assimilation Jews Terrorthe White t laidbare Terror.great narrativeByelites, theexperience paying attentionto JDC’s of such of ofstatusloss andpower,whose and wealth respectability didnot who were especially committee’s narrativeTerrorthe White ofby shaped priorities of was American the Jews, TerrorWhite humanitarian as aninternational crisis. past, which played par an important facing inHungary theJews Hungary’s recent to inrelation , they argued, By This chapter end,chapteranalyzeTo this this will ivities inHungary,ivities

examining the . al andoften

s and between humanitarianands andthe state organizations of between in aperiod

had enjoyedhad will alsowill analyze moved contentious

international

and the Hungarian government.and theHungarian Assuch,itreveals he fragility life ofJewish even inplaceslikeHungary, where

by the

by significant

exploring the complex web ofrelationshipscomplex whichexploring the

Hungarian t in the development of their conceptualization of the thedevelopment oftheirt in conceptualization

relationships theAmerican developedwiththe JDC

how citizenship status shaped the JDC’s narrative status shapedcitizenship theJDC’s how

Jewish responseJewish to

prosperity 265

the JDC leadership’s crises portrayal ofthe the JDC

upper classupper and bourgeois -

revolutionary These political terrain. It , emancipation

will also show how the also howwill show the

the wartime andwartime revolutionary rganizations playedrganizations during Terror, thischapter shield

and

them from the them

high levels of levels high Jews’ suddenJews’ CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2011 Press, University 224 period. confessio or ofbasisethnicity theon were organized States United in the organizations most benevolent period, InStates.this theUnited 6 Pa 5 colle affected the European Jewry. established in November1914toaddress the consequences ofthe Great as War they the JDC facing there. Jews Hungary an played important roleinthestrategies theysituation tocombat the used Terror. leadership their ofthe composition interpretation JDC and The crisis in ofthe wartime significant is context for understanding of people “…the Jewish Europe need asavior…” shaped understanding people’s processes ofimportantand events. historical engagedduring statesaftermath,andwar, inits howthey (small) how the withnew they the reconstruction. addition to in isimportant, Thus it analyzing role inHungary, theJDC’s effective relief, butalso provoked organizations. The scaleof warfare toproviderequired notonly a massivemobilization

The outbreak war had provoked the organization and expansion of charitable activities across Europe and and Europe across activities ofcharitable expansion and the organization warprovoked had outbreak The Warburg 16, Folder Box 178, 457, MS 1918, 10, December Warburg, LevyFelix to Letterfrom Irving pers, AJA. pers,

- JDC 258 and and 361 258 cted by the American Jewish Reliefcted Committee byJewish theAmerican (AJRC) War the for from Sufferers MerleCurti, The Joint Distribution CommitteeThe ofFunds Joint Sufferers War was for (JDC) Jewish Un

navigatedarbitrated and provides a long derstandinggenesis, its in structure,activities the of and theJDC concerns

- - term 390 American Philanthropy Abroad Philanthropy American .

It ),66 See also Oliver also See

casestudy ofhow internatio assistance in alleviating suffering and assisting postwar reliefassistanceassisting inalleviating suffering and and postwar

also helps illuminate thewebalso complex helpsilluminate ofrelationships andconflicts - 67. n, and in this regard the JDC followed established charitable norms ofthe charitable established followed the JDC regard inn, and this

philanthropies

Itan which umbrella wasdistribute organization Zunz,

during ofits theperiod Philanthropy in America, A History A America, in Philanthropy

to turnmodern 266

(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1988), 1988), Publishers, Transaction NJ: (NewBrunswick,

nal developed humanitarian organizations the organization’s the 5

intensive scientific methods toprovidescientific methods

work inHung response to the White response tothe White

( P rinceton: Princeton rinceton: Princeton

ary. funds

CEU eTD Collection 9 1918),” (19 East the and Near Relief Europe in War AmericanJewish of Logistics and theRelief: Politics Doc. Members, Committee Executive Committee LeArthur Magnes, Judah Rabbi Reform prominent wealthy banker, prominent and a Felix Warburg Taft), W.H. President by Court Justice Supreme 8 1914 Committee, Distribution Joint American Soci Publication Jewish (Philadelphia: Bauer, Committee Distribution 7 Intheir constituents. offundraising, the terms operate to conflicts andalsotheJDC inmore allowed regionswithbetter access and to was apolitical,JDC whichtamped downerase) didnot (though it intra EuropeNear East. and the place oftheamong oforigin)thebesiegedbelligerent populations of empires Jewish according opposedtoreligious (as toneed political loyalties, or adherence, language of powerand influenceand inbusiness politics. the leadership dominatedAmericanagreat by was other men prominent with Jewish deal and philanthro socialist andlabor joined politics theorganization. M.Warburg, Felix banker a prominent I interests ofthe mo established, of wealthy German andthe Jews Reform UOC the represented origin, different inthe United Jews constituencies of Unio Organization for ofSuffering theby Jews Relief (CRO),established through theWar the which wasand theAmerican established (AJC), theCentralby Committee Relief Jewish

n 1915, the People’s Relief Committee (PRC), an (PRC), People’sinvolved Committee organization of Relief Jews n 1915,the in Hyman, appointed was nearly (he leader Jewish and lawyer prominent a Louis included board Marshall, The C.Hyman, Joseph n for Orthodox Congregations (UOC). These AJC and UOCn forCongregationsrepresented AJC Orthodox (UOC). two These My B My First World WarStudies First World The wasgoal overarching thetoensure JDC th of Twenty rother's Keeper: a History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1929 Committee, Distribution Joint Jewish American the of History a Keeper: rother's - pist inNew andpist York chairthe City new appointed of was organization, five Years five Twenty re recently arrived orthodox Jewishrecentlyre immigrants arrived orthodox from Europe. Eastern

(New York: Jewish Publication Jewish York: (New - , 10 , five Years of American Aid to Jews Overseas: a Record of the Joint the Joint of Record a Jews to Overseas: Aid American of Years five

9 -

11. 11.

Despite thecooperation 5, no. 1 (April 2014): 55 (April 2014): 1 no. 5,

ety of America, 1974) and Oscar Handlin, A Continuing Task: The The ATask: Continuing Handlin, Oscar and America,1974) etyof hman, a partner in Lehman Brothers bank. LehmanBrothers in partner hman,a - 1964 (New York: Rand (New York: 1964 173, 173, 267 S Folder4.1, JDC was extraordinarilyJDC successful during

Society of America, 1939), 10. See also 10. 1939), America, of Society tates: was largely AJC composed ofwell 8 -

68.

with the People’s the Committee,

JDC at funds were distributed to Jews fundswere Jews at to distributed om House, 1965). 1965). House, om .

See also Jaclyn Granick, “Waging “Waging Jaclyn also See Granick,

“Joint Distribution Distribution “Joint - organizational organizational

Yehuda 14 - 1939 -

7 -

CEU eTD Collection doc. 200102, file 6, file 6, JDC. 200102, doc. 12 http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/American_Jewish_Joint_Distribution_Committee. Europe Eastern 11 2014, 24, September accessed million dollars, nearly 475 to was equivalent inflation, for adjusted Statistics, Labor of Department Bureau Science, Social and 10 about the “true” Hungary. conditions in end, Tothis recentlywas even wellreconstructionand not toward informed moving work, particularly thou 1920 report,had approximately theJDC local four thousand established local committees. operationalso launched inEurope,ownbureaucracy its their developing own and local disbursementcontinuedbut the organizationsforJD of afterthe the funds war, of Hilfskomit ZhertvamKomitet Pomoshchi Voiny organizations like th monies collected toa varietyoflocal aswas“the it known. Joint,” dollars formillion Jewish relief, acc yearfirst years,the wardonations ofmore U.S. and acquiring thanone million adollars inthe half

Meeting of the Joint Distribution Committee Held Committee Distribution ofthe Meeting Joint Michael War,” World in Relief the Jewish “American Albert Lucas, e ground

which financialand material received disbursed sand in Poland alone.sand inPoland The posed which politicala crisisJews was facing challenge theJDC, only to During activitieswar,much ofcomprised of the theJDC’s of most distributing

Beizer of the conflictof the e fürPolen undLitauen ,

in war zones. in war zones. , 2010, , , “Americ , vol. 79 vol. the accessed May 22, 2014, 2014, May accessed 22,

Jewish Committe , an Jewish Joint Distribution Committee,” Committee,” Distribution Joint anJewish

. By September 1918, the JDC collected anByJDC estimated September. 1918, the War Relief Work Relief War

http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm 12 This meant that the “Joint” was heavily on reliant

the time of time the

in Germany ording to a report by Albert Lucas, by Secretaryreport ording toa of Albert the

, or that international organizations were active

(Septem EKOPO) in Russian territory inRussian EKOPO) e for theRelief ofWar Victims ( 268

at the Hotel Pennsylvania, December 12, 1920, pg. 5, 5, pg. 1920, 12, December Pennsylvania, theat Hotel

European Director ber 1918): 1918): ber

and the and Annals of the American Academy of Political Political of Academy American the of Annals in response t 221

Alliaz Alliaz assistance. - YIVO Encyclopedia of Jewsin Encyclopedia YIVO 228.

committees inEurope, two zu Hilfsverein

According to the U.S. U.S. Accordingthe to Lt. o mounting of reports 11 .

, James

This pattern ofusing Das Jüdisches Evreiskii Evreiskii

local in Austria, all

Becker’s twenty

relief on C

CEU eTD Collection pgs. 115, Warburg Papers, A WarburgPapers, pgs.115, AJA Papers, ofIntere Press inNews Yiddish 16 folder 15 14 Klein 13 dataindisputable on rel mid long missions sent Marcus, JDC Joseph a JDC Terrorreach committee theJDC on behalf November in of theJDC 1920 interneddeportation. and markedfor aAmerican alsorepatriation office established those Jews toassist JDC factions oftherelieforganize andand communityreconstruction dispense work. Thus, thenew would committee Budapest Budapest leadership were organizationsin major from JDC’s Jewish taken allthe inHungary Jews new committee was tobe established DistributionaYork local JDC Committee Budapest inApril1920.The Joint anti

“Dr. Goldman Confirms Re Confirms “Dr.Goldman Joseph Goldman Julius Dr. Letterfrom Hungary. of Kingdom in the emerged which strainJudaism ofReform particular a Judaism is Neolog iable information regard in to - - Jewish violencelargeJewish and - Apri Pe 148.1 jšová, “Among the Nationalities,” 7. Nationalities,” the “Among jšová, Despiteof theorganization Marcus, “Galician Jews in Jews “Galician Marcus, l in an effort tobridge within commin an divisions theJewish the

, , JDC. ; to “Minutes of Joint Distribution Committee Executive Committee Meeting,” Dec 12, 1920, 12, Dec Meeting,” Committee Executive Committee Distribution ofJoint “Minutes ed

early

to Hungary

its parent organization inNew Therefore, York. New parent its York in1921,the

) andIstván former) cabinet under minister Tisza.

June 1921.The June had t he frequently reported of acts JA. established in Europe. ports of Hungarian Persecutions, ofHungarian ports , the , chaireda( deNeolog by Eugen Polnay, st to J.D.C.,” April 8 J.D.C.,” st to

to Felix M. Warburg, April 13, 1920, doc. 220522, folder 151.3, JDC. folder 151.3, 220522, doc. 1920, 13, April Warburg, Felix to M.

- Hungary Prior to the War,” pg. 6 pg. the War,” to Prior Hungary first from February toearly from March, February andfirst thesecondfrom scale deportation efforts deportation scale the present politicalcond representative unite the Orthodox, Neologunite theOrthodox, (Reformed) Zionist and

trips were primarily for organized the local committee, 15

A ,

ccording toBecker the Budapest committeethe 269 - 11, 1920, MS 457, Box 192, Folder Warburg 1, Folder Box 192, 457, MS 1920, 11,

active in Eastern Europe, on two,month inEastern on Europe, active

injustice, in ” Forward

of Jewish Refugeesof Jewish little itions of the Jews; to collect to the of itions Jews; - 7, March March 7,

who briefly visited Hungarywho brieflyvisited

, April 11, 1920, 1920, April 11, , information abouttheWhite humanity persecution and 13 a was 28, 1921, 1921, 28,

Reformed faction of Other members ofthe

unity Hungary. in “

securing themost the best the who had been doc. 220051, 220051, doc. , theNew , in “Digest of “Digest local 14

The

- CEU eTD Collection Press of Interest to J.D.C. May14 J.D.C. of to Interest Press 19 Hungary. in facingJews conditions the of improvement the component to vital a be to state American withthe relationship close a regard war. the of course the over government 18 151.4, 17 population wasby proposed of regime.Acc members thenew inHungaryJews eruptedand alegislation directed spate of thediverse Jewish against following thearmistice,lasting the collapse until of demanded attention and themajorityThisfocus of resources. no did war. Ukrainian, territories Polish, Russian well as and asthePalestinianMandate “Brothers, saveus particularlywelland theelite groupdiverseIt livingof Jews inHungary. alsorevealed of American the Jews, priorities f stop anti the U.S (andgovernments Entente) intervene Hungarian to inorder in political to affairs provide the J to meetpopulationravaged theIt needs wouldalso ofthe byand violence deprivation. toactivities inHungary wouldallowtheJDC more effectivelyresources asits it deploy Hungary suc to whichthe Jews acing inHungary engendered thetensions it thelarge Jews and and conflicts among and

“Jews of Hungary Appeal to American Jews,” American to Appeal “JewsofHungary withthe US developed had the JDC that the on relationship elaborates Relief,” “Waging Granick, Marcus, Joseph h conditions.

JDC. Hungary a not focal primaryattention was during after oftheJDC’s the point or - based Semitic persecutions.Semitic

DC with dataDC with could it use to publicize Terror theWhite toprovoke inorder

Report Report on evidence ” 17 were be to subjected; said a

” Thus, establishing a narrative about the natureThus, establishingaabout narrative Ter ofWhite 19 “Is There White Terror in Hungary? Terror White “IsThere

- was oftheJDC’s important dimensions most one 17, 1920” MS 457, Box 192 Folder 1, Warburg Papers, AJA. Papers, 1, Folder Warburg Box 192 457, MS 1920” 17, -

connected Jews who served intheJD who connected Jews as leaders 18

The narrative revealed thenatureTherevealed thecrises complex narrative of JDC leaders active in Hungary between 1920 Hungary between activein leaders JDC Forward 270 nd to ascertain the underlyingnd to

, May , ,” pg. 4, June 5, 1921, doc. 1921, June5, 4, pg. ,” 17, 1920, “Digest of News in Yiddish inYiddish “Digest News 1920, of 17, Commune ording to , when against violence t change considerably - 1921 continued to to continued 1921 a statement

220561 causes ofcauses C. ror

, folder folder

in CEU eTD Collection Statement of Lipót Schwartz to Military Prosecutor, March 5, 1920, pg. 114, BZsL. 114, pg. 1920, 5, March MilitaryProsecutor, to Lipót Schwartz Statement of 11 pg. 1920, May 27, PIH, to Stein Samu by Statement BZsL, 91, pg. 1920, May 30, PIH, to Neumann Simon BZsL; by 94, Statement pg. 1920, May 27, PIH, to Pfeffer Béla BZsL; by 96, Statement p 1920, May 30, PIH, to Neumann Simon by BZsL;Statement 80, pg. 1920, May20, PIH, Laxto byMátyás BZsL;Statement 53. pg. 1920, 21 1921, 25, 20 refugees. The refuge to another crisis oftens Hungary, namely, ofthousands in theinflux of Galician Jewish “foreign” ideas (communism) seekingnation ofthethrough soul Hungarian toundermining the theintroducti inthe leadershipof regime,and Jews thecommunist as castcolumn afifth Jews was acentral of tenant communists. treaty,”the Romanian occupation, and importantly, cooperating most being with for period,supplemented expanded onand withnew charges “signing including thepeace profiteering facedwhich Jews andthe war shirking during were, inth hadaccompanied The been andleftists by againstJews. charges massatrocities of an ofstate importantIdea) dimension ideology (the Szeged inthe early interwar period, Hungary Terror oftheWhite victims provide succortoJewish war and sufferers Jewish that atrocities theJDC demonstrated to necessitated intervention. American Jewish the political fortunes country of the releasedgroup theUnited by Hungarianimmigrants ain States Jewish of

Statement by Imre Kuefler to PIH, May 29, 1920, pg. 68, B 68, pg. 1920, May 29, PIH, to Kuefler Imre Statement by Zedek, Ohab firstCongregation Hungarian The The was politicalbut it closely crisisHungarian facing was Jews distinct, related The risecounter of the pg. 1 pg. .

- 21 3, doc. doc. 3,

As discussed inChapter withcommAs discussed Two, ofJews theassociation 2 20068, 20068, e crisis wase caused thewar the crisis post continued andlargely by into counter

folder 148.1, 148.1, folder g. 91, BZsL; Statement by Zsigmond Rabinek to PIH, May 22, 1920, pg. pg. 1920, May22, PIH, to Rabinek Zsigmond BZsL;g. by 91, Statement

- and perverse morality - revolutionary embraced regime, which a revolution had l JDC. a more intentional strategy was to necessary ed to a deterioratied to ary ideology, which highlighted the prominence ideology,ary whichthe highlighted Letter from congregation Ohab Zedek for release, April release, for Zedek Ohab congregation Letterfrom

271 20

Mounting stories

ZsL; .

Statement by Mrs. Mór Hahn, May 31, May31, Hahn, Mór Mrs. by Statement on of Jewish life,on of Jewish

of Jewish focused of Jewish is post

nti , the - Semitism as Semitism

- which Soviet Soviet 8, BZsL 8,

change in

in on of their unism unism ; - CEU eTD Collection disc 23 War thefor 1982) Press, Wisconsin Consciousness Jewish German and German Jew the in European East Ascheim, Steven See Jewry. the Hungarian to notwas unique GalicianJewry 2007) University, Columbia diss., (PhD. Statebuilding” Czechoslovak 22 wereHungarians’ the Jews ofall mindsets ofHungary’s that thecause economic, visibility refugees ofGalician Jewish fed many into nationalist andconservative Ileader’s] talk th could see the attention of non street…with their peculiardress attracted andwith their and beard long And this peies. Galician were Jews notalways Marchbeen bya told 1921thathe national had that Neolog leaderof “‘the Jews the and profiteering, theBudapesteven Marcus Neolog by reported (reformed) in Jews. on increasingly scarcefoodst in Hungarian ofGalician putreal society.theinflux Jews Second, pressure orimagined Jews origins.reminder humble of their Galician typicallypoorer who were as Jews, andassimilated, a more less orthodox, origins Galicia,albeit of in after Hungary. in the influx ofsettlement decades They saw whom had Hungarian assimilated into down uponbyBudapest educated themore and community, prosperous many Jewish of inHungary population Jewish ways.wereFirst, inanumber of Galician Jews looked Hungary had significantlyd disintegrationEuropeanwhich defeat.refugeecrisis empires of followed in the The armistice period,consequence a ofwar and ofboth thepolitical upheaval

Joseph Marcus, “Galician Jews in Jews “Galician Marcus, Joseph RebekahKlein ussion of anti ussionof

(Portland, OR: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2008) for thefor Austrian. 2008) Civilization, LibraryofJewish OR: Littman (Portland,

as undesirableoutsiders, threateningvisible and legaladvances Jewish andpolitical - - Pejšová, “Among the Nationalities: Jewish Refugees, Jewish Nationalities, and and Nationalities, Jewish Refugees, Jewish Nationalities: the “Among Pejšová, Semitic stereotypes of Jews. See also also See ofJews. stereotypes Semitic - Jews who commencedJews about ‘the From Neolog Jews’. talking [the

German case and David Rechter, Rechter, David and Germancase at [the Hungarian fearedat [the Jews] very this much.’” isturbed intra uffs, andrising refugeeswere frequently blamedprices for

Hungary Prior to the War,” pg. 2 pg. the War,” to Prior Hungary clean dealings. They intheir business appeared inthe 22

G alicians were regarded society. Many also Hungarian traced Jews their - Jewish relations betweenofthe Jewish segments 272 Klein

- Pe The Jews of Vienna and the First Worldthe First and Vienna Jewsof The jšová, “Among the Nationalities,” 27 Nationalities,” the “Among jšová, - , , 18 3. See also chapter two a for chapter also See 3.

(Madison, WI: Universityof WI: (Madison,

by many more assimilated assimilated moreby many . This embarrassment concerning concerning . embarrassment This Brothers and Strangers: the the Strangers: and Brothers

The - 28.

CEU eTD Collection 2 26 25 1944 24 April 1920: of 1920.According article toone published in the year.cut Hungary for off nearlyanother Newsreports andlettersabroad provided from arrived early inHungary inthe daysconflict. ofthe feedingof oftherefugees, thousandschildren primarily who women, aged, and the especiallycommunities, hadin the countryside, taken thecare those responsibilityfor and cooperation withthe The committee assistance had refugees channeled toJewish inBudapest through its inHungary hadmeant verytheJews direct that the JDC little with contact after1914. task because Hungaryan thestatusof enemy as territoryrevolution and thewar during develop effective and deploy policies theirefficiently. waning funds cr neededremoved tobethrough expulsion. weremore thatJews reactionaryelements an foreignpresenceinHungary inherently that andpolitical, spiritual social problem ; Marcus, “Galician Jews in Hungary Prior to the War,” pg. 2. pg. the War,” to HungaryPrior Jews in “Galician ; Marcus,

Klein example,for See A.Paul Hanebrink, ises, the New York JDC had to understand the conditions in Hungary had Yorktounderstandin ises, theNew theconditions order JDC to in bulk

(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 27 2006), Press, CornellUniversity NY: (Ithaca, - Pejsova, “Among the Nationalities,” Nationalities,” the“Among Pejsova, out. Daily however, not that prove, occurrences the are respectablenative Jews permitted toremain inthe country,all others, and even that be ifnatives, driv refugees. only Hungarian He that therespectable,native be insisted Jews Hungarian hewasof expelling parliamentthat heartily all theGalician infavor favorexpelling of therefugees.ex Recently inparticular,Jews that theleaders both and of masses thearistocracy ofare in the …Such istheprevailingsentiment againstingeneral theJews and theGalician In the violence tocombat order whichaccompanied and these persecution legal of information about the eruption of the White Terrorof theWhite eruption information ofthe about the early upuntil months

Statement by Oszkar Lemberger to PIH, n.d., document 80, BZsL document 80, n.d., PIH, to Lemberger Oszkar by Statement In Defense of Christian Hungary: Religion, Nationalism and Antisemitism, 1890 Antisemitism, and Nationalism Religion, Hungary: Christian of Defense In Allianz

in Vienna, but for the most part,in Vienna, most the butforlocal the Hungarian Jew

s. 22 24 -

25 It alsostrengthened arguments by made 25 ; Letter from Congregation Ohab Zedek for release, release, for Zedek Ohab Congregation from; Letter

273 - 2 Day

, a Yiddish - 26 premier Friedr

Afterarmistice the - langu ich declared in the ich declared inthe age dailyage inearly This was adifficultThis .

revolutions

the the en - ish pg. pg.

CEU eTD Collection folder 151.3, JDC. 151.3, folder doc. 29 in Hungary,” Terror the White and Marshall “Louis Katzburg, Nathaniel 1920); Office, Stationery Majesty’s (London: His Congress 28 AJA. Warburg Papers, 1, Folder Box 192, 457 MS JDC,” 27 narrative throughout 1921 was those JDC different which 1920and produced bythan the motivated by political revenge than andrather anti retribution persecution by identifying of thev Jews internationalism. leadership andcommunist withcommunism theof fueled Jews association leadersJDC feared thatoffi of information by Hungarianandgovernment Western boththe diplomats. hadbeen distortion desire outentirely, stamped a thatcommunism toensure willful ledto concerned thatt character the Terror White seriously of enough. For leadership, many inthe JDC thesetake didnot reports theexplicitly characterization of theanti the American These objected Committee. tothereports’ organizations Jewish drewit and substantialcriticismother from theJDC like American organizations Jewish narratives and thechara violence of Party 1920) (May report TerrorWhite ParliamentaryBritish were the(Marchreport Labour andBritish the 1920)

Joseph Marcus, Marcus, Joseph Hungary, to Delegation Labour BritishJoint Le

on Shalit, n.t. Shalit, on 220048, folder 148.1, folder 148.1, 220048, In newsaddition to reports, theothe theyarerefugees respectable ornatives, orotherwise. spared. death arebeaten assaulted, whether whipped Jews regardless and to of and the Labour Party, 1920); 1920); Party, Labour the and “

Morning Journal Morning he Great Powers’he Great polit What Does Our Committee do to Help the Present Situation the Present Help to do OurCommittee Does What American Jewish Archives Jewish American Therewas concern JDC; which

- Translated Letter from Barti to Dearest Rose, May 25, 1920, doc. 220524, 220524, doc. 1920, May25, Rose, Dearest to fromBarti Letter Translated Jewish violen Jewish cial reports which emphasized the Jewish heritage theJewish cial which reports emphasized the of

, April 5, 1920, in “Digest of News in Yiddish Press of Interest to to ofInterest Press Yiddish in inofNews “Digest 1920, April 5, , shed more light on the situation inHungary. thesituation shed However,more on the light Report on the Alleged Existence of “White Terror” in Hungary Hungary in “Whiteof Terror” theExistence Alleged Report on

that these reports providedforreports athethat these justification ical and diplomatic priorities,ical especially anddiplomatic fervent a cterization of the Hungarian government’s of theHungariancterization role in The White Terror in Hungary in Terror White The

45, 45, iolence and persecutioniolence and themas acts against ce and persecution as no. no. 274 r major sources ofinformationr major aboutthe sources 1

(1993), (1993),

Like was thelabor JDC movement, the 7 - 8.

27 - Semitism.

tied toanti

(London: Trade Union (London: Trade ? ,” pg. 3 pg. ,” 29 anti 7 -

, , M communism Therefore the Furthermore, - arch arch Jewish 28, 1921, 1921, 28,

. 28

CEU eTD Collection 1921, 1921, 32 JDC. 151.3, Folder 220522, doc. 1920, April 13, Warburg, M. Felix to Goldman Hungary. in ofthe Jews behalf on intervene to government the U.S. provoke Jewsto theon Hunga pressure exert fruitfulmore to be and would thatit Terror of White eruption the to factors as contributing these refute tryand pointlessto not were ofcommunism followers majorityof the the fact that despite place”, what took for responsible held naturally “arewhich leadership, communist ofthe heritage Jewish ofthe because war, and theduring and to prior exploitation th for blame to greatly are themselves “…theJews 31 JDC. folder 148.2, 219963, folder 219965, doc. in in Hungary generaland in inworkEurope from charity excluded werebeing Jews that concern was continuing there However, contributin factors structural the underlying address to wasthat intended confessionally from away transition a undergoing was 30 Hungarian and thereforeinfluence nation. destructive ontheHungarian morea recent way pastas of also and meant patriotism emphasizing the strident anti fabrications the to deliberately thelinkbetween and spread about Jews misinformation andrumors theygovernments ofthesuccessor believedthe work theHungarianU.S. governments. with both and the primary facets oftheJDC’s revolution entirely of Jews tothe victimization precededof forreasons, it a number

Joseph M Joseph Budapest, and in Vienna the Jews to wrotethat according Director European JDC’s the JuliusGoldman, single This doc. 220562, 220562, doc. According Undermining between communism link and thesupposed Jews arcus, “The Political Background a Background Political “The arcus, andpolitical ideology. despised - Jews regarded themselves asJews whowere true patriots soloyalHungary to minded focus is mindedfocus - communism ofEntente,communism especiallygo and the United States’ folder 151.4, 151.4, folder 148.2, JDC; Letter from Alex Landesco to Julius Goldman, March 5, 1920, doc. doc. 1920, 5, March Julius to Goldman, Landesco Alex from JDC; 148.2, Letter to a memorandum producedand citedto amemorandum by Polnay Marcus, the new governments’new state of thesuccessor particular. See Letter from Letter See particular.

not unique to the JDC. Benevolent and philanthropic work during this period work period this during philanthropic and Benevolent JDC. uniquethe to not JDC. narrative striking atstriking Jewish

or had abandoned the faith abandoned had or

as Jews but most importantly because it paid attention almost importantlypaidbut most it attention because rian government by using the political connections of American of connections theusing bypolitical government rian

about the White TerrorWhite about theadvocacy and members’ its nd What it Means to Hungarian Jews,” pgs. 5 pgs. Jews,” Hungarian to it Means What nd the claim that Jews wereclaim that Jews revolutionarythe a foreign, e change which has taken place…” because of economic ofeconomic because place…” taken has which change e 30

275 loyaltyof theJewry and thelonger inboth the , ratherthan as co

Alex - focused charitable giving to more “scientific” work work “scientific” more givingto charitable focused

Landesco to Julius Goldman, March 5, 1920, 1920, 5, March Julius to Goldman, Landesco communism. Marcuscommunism. attributedthese 31 . Goldman believed that it wasit that believed Goldman .

skillful exploitationof the skillful This g to impoverishment, disease, etc. etc. disease, impoverishment, g to

- conspirators required

Letter from Dr. Julius Julius from Dr. Letter became

vernment. combatting the

in states - a defeated 6, 6,

the the one oftheone June 5, June5, 32

that

It CEU eTD Collection 148.1, 148.1, 192 28, March 4, pg. the War,” to Prior inHungary Jews “Galician Marcus, Jews..." 36 35 34 33 Europ overshadowingpopulations across andEastern facing Central theproblems other Jewish Europe. ofrebuildingcolossal The task lifeUkraine inRussia, was Jewish Poland and namely leadership)“reliable”JDC (inaccountabout Terror the eyesof theHungary, White in Terr military tactic,a service particularly wascommon among people themselves he asitwas ownpriority, interviewedhis cast emphasizing since 28, 192 Hungarian themilitary service state byrecords stressing ofterror victims. States comp themselves firstand withby as foremost, Marcus Hungarians a sympathized development and their high definitively ofMagyarization regardeddemonstrated level Jews that many civilize fact “ that Hungarian Jews, Terrorsuggesting informationWhite aboutthe of thatthelack wasdue possiblytothe abroad in the prewar period

Joseph Marcus, "The Jews in Hungary are divided into two classes: (1) Magyar Jews and (2) Galician (2) Magyar Jews and (1) classes: intotwo divided Hungary Jewsare in "The Marcus, Joseph in Hunga Jews “Galician Marcus, Marcus, in Hu Jews “Galician Marcus, or, to show that the violenceor, that toshow was and undeserved persecution aring immigration patterns Hungary of in and settlement withthose inthe United JDC. . e. Ine. oftheir hadresources most committed material fact,human the JDC and 35 . d 33 There asignificanttogathering and was producing hurdle information an official, 1 report the enormity of the wartimeaftermath Eastern enormityandits ofthe crisis the of inother parts

In (male)MarcusJewish another loyalty report alsohighlighted tothe

“ world MarcuswasHungarian somewhatpoint, onthis himself of critical Jews

What Does Our Committee do to Help the Present Situatio the Present Help to do Committee Our Does What .”

used this approach,whichused was this 34

However, their prominence life inHungarian economicand political

they they

had ngary Prior to the War,” pg. 2. pg. the War,” to Prior ngary are toputthei toopatriotic ry Prior to the War,” 1 the War,” to Prior ry avoided totheirreligious building ties and brothers sisters

276

very - 2.

likely

r fatherlandbefore toshame the Jewish as much n ? ,” pg. 3 pg. ,”

victims ofthevictims White ( s 0. a ofhowthe reflection ee Two). Chapter

1 , doc. 220047, folder folder ,220047, doc. 36

His March

CEU eTD Collection 40 folde 220522, 3, doc. pg, 1920, 13, April Warburg, M. Felix to Julius Goldman Dr. from Letter JDC; 151.3, folder 220523, 5, doc. pg. 1920, 1920, 39 T White “IsThere Report Marcus, Joseph 114; pg. Meeting,” ExecutiveCommittee Committee Distribution ofJoint JDC. 151.3, folder 220515, doc. 1920, 5, January Richardson, Gardner AJA Warburg Papers, 1920, May21, J.D.C.,” to ofInterest Press Yiddish “Our JDC; 38 37 Warburg,Felix wrote, he For European19, 1920letter exampleinanAprilfrom JDC Director Jul wealthflourishing whichand bankers hadmillionaires.” industrialists turned into“poor legible whocould theempathizewith sudden loss totheJDC, leaders of ofstatusand Understanding Terror theWhite as affected it bourgeois the andelitesit made inHungaryJews the statusand success been had of in Hungary, Hungarythe conditions arguing in worseelsewhere that were than because of Terror the White tocenter degeneration thesudden around tended of the exist. was,a infact, direct which was smaller inscale, there.

Letter from Dr. Julius Goldman to Felix M. Warburg, April 1920, doc. 220522, folder 151.3, JDC. folder 151.3, 220522, doc. 1920, April Warburg, Felix to M. Goldman Julius Dr. Letterfrom “ 151.3, folder 220522, 2, doc. pg. 1920, 13, April Warburg, Felix to M. Goldman Julius Dr. Letterfrom Meeting,” Committee Executive Committee Distribution ofJoint “Minutes Digest of of Digest doc. 220025, 220025, doc. 38 37 error in Hungary,” pgs. 10, 10, in Hungary,”pgs. error

ch even anti wasthe Jews anexceptionally Pogroms and one favorable were sothat unknown control andalmost exclusive ofthequite recently whileuntil Jews thestanding of finance, industry,commerceyears have many and for been journalism development Jewry in theone place taken which than has While inHungary. There probably inmodern times remarkableand has notbeen amore drastic In the urgency tostress order the inHungary, situation of and reports descriptions The wasthepersecution inHungary first of demonstrating step,then, Jews that

Understandin angedalmost overnight… Report No, 2 ofthe Hungarian 2 No, Report - folder 148.2, JDC; Letter from Dr. Julius Goldman to Felix M. Warburg, April 13, April 13, Warburg, M. Felix Goldmanto Julius from Letter Dr. JDC; 148.2, folder Semitism, atleastSemitism, asan activefactorwas of life negligible, all ofthis g of the Hungarian Outrages” Outrages” Hungarian the gof consequence

wasattention and worthyabout of thatthelackevidence it of r 151.3. JDC. 151.3. r 12

, JDC ,

of evidence the Terror, didnot not thatsuch terror 40

. Branch of the Joint Distribution Commit Distribution Joint ofthe Branch

277 Forward, Forward,

so good May 18, 1920 in in “Digest of News in in in News in of “Digest 1920 May 18,

Lieuten

prior to the war. war. prior tothe

; Letter from George G. Black to to Black G. George Letterfrom Dec 12, 1920, 1920, 12, Dec ant James Becker, “Minutes Becker, James ant tee,” December 1, 1, December tee,” ius Goldman to ius Goldman

status of Jews status ofJews pg. 92. pg.

in the in the more

, 39

CEU eTD Collection 43 2. pg. the War,” to Prior Hungary in Jews “Galician 42 1920, 12, 41 intheiropportunityexpansions United States over the half inthe previous century. that resonated inthewho had executive committee withtheexperienced men emancipation Emphasis was placedthe sudden declineHungarianafter on Jews of experienced collapse Republic. Soviet He of followingthe the wrote spring of1921, the Similarly, i to Budapest 1920he stated: December, in Incharacterized recent committee thesituation. to aboutreport executive his his trip year, H.Later Becker,Lieutenant James Acting that the Director, similarly European

Marcus, “Galician Jews in Hungary Prior to the War,” pg. 1. pg. the War,” to Prior in Hungary Jews “Galician Marcus, Political “The Marcus, Dec Meeting, Committee Executive Committee Distribution ofMinutesJoint Becker, Lieutenant James theya real were asset the to abilities,the formerdistinctive placedgovernment where liberal theminpositions inexceptional distinction therealm And art. because ofscience oftheir or wo art,people in science, etc.occupied ‘Is a the positions music, Jew?’ foremost he always percentage ontopofthein stood list ofeducation. have The Jews Accordinggovernment, totheDepartment Statistical Hungarian the Jews of “Thecommerce industry whole and been ofHungary has European today…” Jewries Hungary,probably thattheiris onerealize situation all must the of tragic themost thing ofall. one When thedifferences, considers theovernight change in favorable and overnight position, change c the all, becausewe were that forget the cannot Hungarian alwaysinavery, Jews very areI veryisprobably very, thatit think greatest personally bad. catastrophe of the areinstitutions growing and s slimmer yesterday of The richsupporting was istoday possibilities poor. their local worse Businessworse. andA man and terrible. worse conditionsare who …Probably pgs. uld ask when discussion wouldgoa whohaduld askwhen person aboutacquired discussion n the reports producedreportsn the

115. , assimilation

J the situation in Hungary an equal.growing iswithout arethe situation Conditions DC representative thegreat had emphasized Hungarian Jews fall

Background and What it Means to Hungarian Jews,” pg. 5. See also Marcus, Marcus, also See 5. pg. Jews,” Hungarian to it Means What and Background

and financialand political prosperity

by Marcus during his two visits to Hungary to visits by Marcus during histwo inthe 41 nation….”

278

limmer; andlimmer; onthewhole, the conditions 42

ame. Aftertheworstall, thatis ame. , a dimension of suffering, a dimension developed by Jews. bydeveloped Jews. : a

period of period

similar similar 43

CEU eTD Collection 45 theWar,” 44 appearancecorpses aswell ofthegender as Recalling theageand victims. of a body the from violenceexempt gender,age,which and dredgedvictims Danube, from also the hisdescriptions military followingIn unit during capturewar.cataloguing andhis imprisonment the of “one Professorswas ofthe notedJewish inHungary” most denou who dirty and thearmyfora work whole.” theofficers as mention that “Even university placed Jewish studentsare toperform insuch units the charged undesirablewith doing labor. themost Accordingw it tohim menthe military, were Jewish he that typically wrote organizedgroups special and into of fromvictimization theupperJews classes.Forexample, inrelating in of therole Jews out ofbeards. persecution,ban inthe Hebrewas onprinting alphabetand the suchthepulling materials by middle violence ofatrocities.isclear and However, thatsuffered thevictims decline it the social Indeed,Terror. iswovencategories throughout of intersection description these of the the gender status,understandingcitizenship and play theJDC’s not did role ain persecution dimensions the multiple Terrorof White descriptions and ofviolence and intheir characterizedassimilated and was asprosperous, interpre reflected intheJDC’s

Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Hungary Terror White There “Is Marcus, in Hungary,”pg Terror White There “Is Marcus, Marcus’ The concern the ofsocial for loss and economicstatusofthe Hungarian Jewry,

6 - - 7, JDC. 7, class and elite Jews wasJews andeliteclass against Jews inHungary. Jews This against 44

But throughout healsoBut throughout June

report . For example,h fit people categories into thosefit persons of often

frequently

very e frequently and onthedress commented physical ?

emphasized thespecific foremphasized singling outofJews ,” pg ,” paid attention particular to troubling to the troubling to

. 16, JDC; 16, . is not tosayis not dimensions, suchas thatother 279 . 16, JDC. 16, .

Marcus, Marcus,

He relateda sonof story ofthe

emphasized markers ofclass,

JDC. JDC. “ Galician Jew Galician

the experie as important to to as important s nced bynced his

in Hungary Prior to to Prior inHungary believed tobe

of the White nces and tation of CEU eTD Collection 49 48 47 46 Budapest,prison in recalled had thebeen woman Marcus that imprisonedbecause she lodgeda complaint tothe prisonofficials. rapedZalaegerszeg thrown and intothe her her, after thenhad camp, internment she frequently whocame onbehalf coerced women totheprison ofrelatives, he their male well educated, refusing butafter advances sexual inthe ofaoffice the man arrestedShe foundand employment theprison imprisoned.shewas office in because the daughtera synagogue“refinedgirl” of who was a and whowas president, kind home, leaving children twosmall But includeda behind.healso story ab verbatim, adding only Mrs.Hamburger was and that Jewish Labourexample quotedthe British ofthe Hamburger torture Report’s ofMrs. description hierarchies inwaysreflected similarlyofother organs. inthereports H women, wereJewish heavilyintersectiongender also byand the of informed class violated. indicated thatwas the woman well refinement hadclothes, fineand fromwouldseem [and] hands, it allotherthat indications hewas of another the Danube pulled from 10,1921,he victim “…He wrote, onApril wore dark “…judging herclass… belonged wearinghave from [She] shemust apparel tothe better pulled fromyoung ofthe theFebruary river fe on 10,1921,he said

Ibid., 39. Ibid., 23. Ibid., 20. Ibid., 19. Ibid., Marcus’ the violence, about violence, descriptions particularly sexualized against 48

, blue coat, embroidered shirt, fine silk stockings and highblue coat, embroidered fine boots.” shirt, stockingsand silk black

” 47

while of anotherwas whose victim found body

- dressed and according anddressed coroner was tothe 49 280

R ecountingIvanov Mrs. thesuicide of

that

on May 15, 1921, he on May 15,1921, was taken from herwas taken male victim, victim, male is report, for is report, out Miss A.F., Miss out

who woregood likely 46 ich ina

Of CEU eTD Collection 51 50 because the violence, natureofthe of or their reaction notbecause character, to status, ones exchange favors sexual freedom for for orbetter themselves loved treatment or their advances women reveals ofthe authorities, thatatleast some ways, particularlyemphasis ofwomennobly “victims” inthe deny discredit thecounter observations chapters,violence from ofsexualized previous theuse as despite away to freedom associaland elites. Howev privileges, orincreased intheir status of blamelessness this byfightingof foradvances menwilling off the toexchange sex sufferingTheeven women’s was victims dependentontheretention or death. visibilityas class women, especially thedefense purity, oftheirmeant ifit even sexual increa TerrorWhite theirexpectations associated conformitywithupper depended on tothe gend these women predicated was onexpectations which derivedfrom theof intersection their prostitute and forcedto go hera tothefor infirmarygynecological exam. refused and work was todosimilar by abused guard verbally camp who a called andhard “agirl.” becamefrom work ill theday, refined sheis next because The she finally, named Jewess E.Y.was a Miss toclean Polish “very forced neglected toilet” variety while ofconfinement lime spaces crying drank am out,“I innocent. refuseda sexualadvances militaryaand in months after being officer’s held for several

Ibid., 57. Ibid., . er and class identities. Interpreting erclass and identities. asthoseofthe ofblameless their stories victims

89 (Jewish) men(Jewish) whohad sexually been violated, however, were inhe Like Mrs. the Hamburger, story of -

90.

- revolutionary suffering regime,theframing ofwomen’s incertain

Marcus’ 281

interpretation of the violence against ofthe violenceagainst interpretation may willing been have to ing the sexual thesexual ing 51 rently victims rently victims er, reiterating

” 50

And

her a sed sed CEU eTD Collection 53 52 largely overseeing whotook becauseof corruption ofthoseauthorities the internment, wealthier had acce Jews particularlythe Marcus reveals the also by traumatic However, Marcus report report. that between 1920 therefore norms. affirmingmasculine was definitively overpowered for impossible makinghim it suggests thatMarcus afraid Schiffman’s persecution as to object well to the twomen, included made informationclear that it which Schiffman stripped of hisvictimization. hisdignity compounded entiregrotesquely incident Schiffman was was violent, the fact that literally quite givencudgel,clothes, back hisoutof boundandthetrain thenthrown car. completely immediately, despitewomen, undress thepresence of as and aJew, called officermilitia man andinplain clothesenteredcompartment, identified his another him yearSchiffman, a 50 hadcase of fallen. theabuse theSolomon Such was inthe report’sof description Mr. demonstrate howfacing thesituation wretched was, far Jews statusof and howthe descriptor women,both menand for and was it the violence.

Ibid., 99 28, in Hungary?,” Terror White There “Is Marcus,

60 Marcus’reports - 61.

52 pointing out that pointing out -

1921 often represented1921 often t This being said, it is alsoclearThis beingsaid, is it the report from Schiffman a “speculatorprofiteer”. and a orderedSchiffman Schiffman was to -

intended to emphasize that Schiffman was not acting cowardly toemphasizethatSchiffman actingintended not was old, well old,

and those of other JDC representatives who visited Hungary representatives who visited ofotherand JDC those ss toresources alleviatewhichThis was could ss their distress.

- the other (non to - do businessman on a traindo businessman head

he suffering ofelitewashe Jews as represented suffering 282 - Jewish) men Jewish) , JDC ,

deployed inw . Ca .

Yet sting light inwhis thesituation

could

in this case,in this Marcus also in the compartmentwere too

to resist suchtreatment,

that ays that not

edDebrecen. for

and was beatenwas withand a “refinement”

resist the coercionresist the of served to 53

Although the

as a A

but CEU eTD Collection from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust ( Holocaust the to Habsburgs the from 1981), Press, University 55 83. 2006), Press, University Indiana Europe Eastern Century Twentieth in War AJA. Papers, Warburg 54 was tenuous. enjoyed, nomatterand howpatriotic assimilated theyinthe nation were, their inclusion TerrorWhite that nomatterfreedom assuggested how andprosperityJews it much discrimination against thempla particularly tohigher education. Jews, 1920 about rioting inuniversities as with clothing support. and financial ofattentionbit was paidtothe plightstudentswhowerealso be ofuniversity to provided food packagesset aside were for also distri given men”“professional withnew ofclothing. toprovidesuits number of Aspecific exclusively butwas alsoreflected onpaper, relief inseveral Aidwas ofthe programs. the corruptprison. an system offered escape hatch outof who had theresourcesauthorities, totake the advantage shortcomingsethical ofthe of authorities bribes inexchangefreedom.Fourindicated, for AsChapter

Nathaniel Katzburg, Katzburg, Nathaniel 3, folder 190, Box 457, MS Committee,” Distribution Joint ofthe Branch ofthe #2 Hungarian Report Numerus Clausus concernThe JDC’s the for suffering th of

was a

major

Hungary and the Jews: Policy and Legislation, 1920 Legislation, and the Policy Jews: and Hungary See also Eliza Ablovatski, “Between Red Army and White Guard,” in Guard,” White Army Red and “Between Ablovatski, Eliza also See 60 - , which was intended to limit the access, which was intended minorities, tolimit ofnational 79. source of debate within the halls of government, thehallswithin of forsource ofdebatethose but

See also Mária M. Kovács, Kovács, M. Mária also See

well as yed conceptualization of intheJDC’s an important role Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). Press, University Oxford Oxford: , 54 ed. Maria Bucur and Nancy M. Wingfield (Bloomington, IN: IN: (Bloomington, Wingfield M. Nancy and Bucur ed.Maria

The concern forstudentswas to related 55 broader broader

Theof wealthier misery legal and the Jews bution among Quitebution a families. class middle 283 legal legal

e Hungarian Jewish elitedidnotexist Jewish e Hungarian Liber concernsabout the passage ofthe al Professions, Illiberal Politics, Hungary Hungary Politics, Illiberal Professions, al

the - corruption 1943

( Ramat

- of internment Gan: Bar Gan:

concerns Gender and and Gender - Ilan CEU eTD Collection organizations to pressure the regime into expelling refugees in order to free up livingfreeup to space. inorder refugees intoexpelling regime the pressure to organizations Hungarian irredentist and withnationalist werewhoallying “lost territories” from the refugees 57 56 refugeesJewish byAmerican among caused bysomethe tensions theinflux Jews Jews, and economiccircumstances. hierarchyon the basis ofboth between which citizenship woulddistinguish status Jews foreign causedfed warand revolutions, this by the Increased“Christian course.”anti popular taken upby the their refugees. ofsights theJewish theexpulsion These on eff 1914, successive governments, Hungarian course the over had the war, of specifically set the war.the arrival Moreover, first since ofGalicianSeptember wave ofrefugees the in had beenproblem theJDC confronting defining facingfeature thecrisis refugee oftheHungarian Jews, anolder questionwas assimilated segments community presented Jewish of the the assingular was perhaps sojourners with the Hungariangovernment, community Jewish the local Galician Hungarian and salient regard in refugee development tothe relationship questionand inthe oftheJDC’s TerrorWhite affected, aspect it status.This and waswho was p citizenship whichTerror, shaped distinction other of theconceptualization important what the the Re A “Haven of

Marcus, “Galician Jews in Hung Jews “Galician Marcus, 2. pg. Zedek release, for Ohab Congregation Letterfrom - Despite Hungary’s c In therolegenderclass addition interpretation to ofand inthe JDC’s ofWhite born Jews, and other proposedlegislation and soughtalegalborn other Jews, piecesestablish of to

in Hungary counter fuge”? . While thesuddenWhile deterioration of thestatusof. t - 56 revolution

haracterization asharacterization a“havenrefuge” of during for thewar ary Prior to the War,” 8 the War,” to Prior ary 57

aryregime across Eastern Europe Eastern across - Semitism, combined withmaterialSemitism, deprivation 284 drive

starting under Friedrich as part of Friedrichthe starting under as part

. Inter -

9 . in . Reportedlythe nment laws specifically targeted orts were enthusiastically since the e the since fluence of ethnic Magyar Magyar ofethnic fluence he wealthyhe and arly of months

articularly CEU eTD Collection 60 1, pg. 59 58 and themorearrived Galician trustthat recentlythese didnot a men had Jews genuine populatio of theJewish First, representing was Jews although committee comprised different of the segments the MarcusJews, wrote: Forfrom the perspectiveexample,inregard JDC. ofthe totheplanneddeportations Hungarypopulation in were whichinmade different, t part because the and standing ofthe legal needs segments ofthe different Jewish ofthedimensions JDC’s involvement inHungary.Butdifficult doing madein sowas yearswho cameafterand outbreakofwari ago, (b) the those TheJews. Galicianbe must divided into Jews “The i Jews therefore, neighbor. beborne should Austrian thecrisis by their Austrian halfempire, of theHungarian sincehistoric not was Galicia territoryand allegedly requested thattheH of Galicianso great refugees was thatthe duringthewar

Ibid., GalicianJews..." Magyar (2) and (1) Jews intotwo classes: divided are Hungary Jewsin "The Marcus, Klein doc. 220047, folder folder 220047, doc.

- 4. Pejšová The conflict instances war…” foughtthelast in establishments, they property; have we children their of thosewho have inHungaryfor living been decades…They business have greateranymore, still is the butit internment andexpulsion towitness misfortune and forced form toreturn totheir “…Itsee who Hungary enoughhad Jews expelled tragic come is to to after1914 Navigatingwaters troubled di ofthese the

n Hungary divid are , “Among the Nationaliti the“Among , s

between Jews inHungarybetween Jews plaguedfunctioning the the committee. of

148 n, was it dominated ofsociety by from echelons theupper those

. 1, JDC. 1, ungarian government expel the recentlyungariangovernment expel tothe arrived

d into two classes: (1) twoclasses: Magyard into and Galician Jews (2) es,” 24 es,” - er places of abode, many of which do not exist places ofabode,exist er many ofwhich donot 25. 60 285

(a) thoseHungary whohad settled man in

visions wasvisions one ofthe important most heeachgroup suffering of distinct Budapest community Jewish re born there, and in many there,reand in born n 1914. 58

Accordingto Marcus, ” 59

CEU eTD Collection official duties of Polnay and his need to dele to need his and ofPolnay duties official 66 1921, 30, March 65 64 63 62 JDC. folder 151.4, 220567, doc. 1921, May16, Marcus, 61 Budapest lower levelfunctionaries. JDC’s seriousl unfounded,concluded thattheenmity hethe Hungarian wasand between GalicianJews investigatedall oftheseestablished were that theaccusations accusations, andwhile he the poli workinggovernment,closely ofdenouncing withthepoint to even Jews Galician tothe regard withthe new regime.relationship totheir TheyNeologs were believedthatthe Orthodox J “tolerateGalician the Jew.” director repatriation bureau whosaid ofthatheKorein, a theJDC in didnot meeting Mr. “No Hungarian J 1919. of recommendingBudapest thatthey tothe be City deported Council [Galician Jews] in Galician Some Jews. on theissueof thecounter (Reformed)with thecommunity, former twoaccusing thelatter of and between theGal understanding facing ofthe problems them.

He did say that the lack of trust did not extend to Polnay, who was well respected. However, given the However, wellwasrespected. who Polnay, to not extend did trust say lackof the did He that t Prior in Hungary Jews “Galician Marcus, Ibid. 15. Ibid., 3. the War,” to Prior in Hungary Jews “Galician Marcus, 15 the War,” to Prior in Hungary Jews “Galician Marcus, 62

ce, arrest, whowould incarcerate eventually then and them. expel y havereliefdid not efforts many hinderingGalician confidence the Jews in as of Marcus that reported even

ews and theGalicianrefugees suspicions aboutthe deep Neolog held Jews doc. 220042, 220042, doc. ew for cares a Jew.” Galician ician refugees, communityand theHungarian theOrthodox ician Neolog Jews, accordingwentJews, thefaras so Neologs toaccuseof toMarcus,

220568, folder 151.4, JDC; Letter from Budapest Jews to Joseph Marcus, Marcus, Joseph to Jews from Budapest 151.4, Letter JDC; folder 220568,

folder 148.1 folder - revolutionaryregime’splans forof Galician theexpulsion 64

Third a leader inthecommittee, RabbiFriedman, local said, , , JDC.

and closelyrelated tothesecond, Hungarian gate much of the quotidian work to subordinates, he washe worksubordinates, to quotidian muchofthe gate o the War,” 9; Letter from Letter E. 9; the War,” o

66 286 61

Furthermore, hisreports that also indicated

Second, 63

This attitude, heThis attitude, shared said,was by the

- 16; Letter from Budapest Jews to Jews fromBudapest 16; Letter bitter resentments festered among M.

Baynton to JDC New York, York, New JDC to Baynton remaining “passive” 65

Marcus

Joseph Joseph

in CEU eTD Collection and Romania. and Poland Czechoslovakia, respectingHungary, treaties postwar ofthe articles minorityrights ofthe creation Europe. 69 68 67 in Hun Jews “Galician Marcus, work. the repatriation to regard especiallyin Jews, Galician and Hungarian problemsbetween for blamed to the demandshowever of theregime, distasteful this local Budapest JDC, actively engaged constituents inpersecuting its hadtowor which and boththelocal American JDCs discriminatory designed a and topersecutescenario in legislation Jews produced leftists, and theregime,white militias relationship between coupled with thepassage the of respective populations Jewish the creation smallstates ofwhere multiple between considerable therewas antipathy the were thegreat intact.Central collapse However, Europeanhad empires still of ledto the arrangement very hadproblematic 1914 notbeen between orderrelied national This governments tocarry oncooperation activities. with in onits andNew theHungarian the Budapest York JDC, theJDC JDC, state. Since inception, its redifferent inHungarythecomplex factions as as on ofJews well and and thegovernmentJews shedsuneasy lightbetween ontherelationships complex fai greatly among They themasses. ofappealstheyforcourt fromexpected awhich tookme A altogether and look instead the deficit oftrust ledmany

ccording to Marcus, “[d]issatisfaction withthe ccordingworkBudapest toMarcus,“[d]issatisfaction was ofthe JDC felt See Carole Fink, Carole See Ibid., Marcus, r and treatment.” unbiased

7. A concern for the rights of particularly Jewish populations in Eastern Europe co Europe Eastern in populations Jewish ofparticularly thefor rights A concern The fears of the Galician Jews regardingThe fearsJews of between theGalician therelationship theNeolog

“Is There White Terror in Hungary Terror White There “Is

Defending the the Defending

cooperation might gary Prior to the to Prior gary

directly Galician Jews inHungary Jews Galician R 68

ights of Others of ights and theirgovernme new

to the Americans forto the assistance and succor ? ,” 102 ,” War,” 14 War,”

for a detailed history of minority rights in East Central Central East in minorityrights history detailed a offor 287

entail negotiatingentail submitting and sometimes , , JDC

in order tocarry goals outits - 15 .

, inorder toensure thatoperations

, JDC , k with a governmentk witha was which nts to bypass the local committee committee to bypass the local .

. - 69 19

Inambiguous Hungary, the 17, when the old empires 17, when the lationship betweenlationship the ntributed to the to ntributed

. For the . 67

CEU eTD Collection Papers, AJA. Papers, 73 JDC. 72 January5, Richardson, 71 accordingly. strategies their adjust and was theirrepatriati 70 government recognition implied andlegitimization, which was unconscionable tothose organization and goals. its the Hungariangovernment was universally not the recognized of by supporters reduceanti ability saw tofunctionas and it away rebuild also Je toperhaps “… accusingly asked whyWarburg theJDC children. to Jewish children respect without oftheir thata religion, certain provided given number (25%) be grantedJDC $25,000totheHungariangovernmen and safe travel. disseminate materialfinancialto regulations and aid,and assurances submitting ofaccess aid the refugees complained abouta inthe police the presenceofoffice officer which would carryraids thepersons and against out fami accused andregistrants collecting providingwho then of thepolice of names to lists would continue. thecase Such was repatriation withthe JDC office. was The office

Letter from Maud Nathan to to Nathan Maud Letterfrom 7 pg. 1920, 13, April Warburg, Felix to M. Goldman Julius Dr. Letterfrom 3 in Hungary?,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, pg. the War,” to Prior in Hungary Jews “Galician Marcus, . allowedand have thepogroms robbing torturingcountry.” been and of theJews 70

ForNew York the Both committees cooperation regarded government their withthe to asessential

- on efforts because they did not, it was argued, fully understand how corrupt the new regime thenewregime corrupt how understand fully was argued, it not, did they because efforts on feelings.Semitic and 71

hindered theworkagency ofthehindered For example, inorderNewFor toprovideneedy theYork shoes example, Jews, 72

1920, doc. 220515, folder 151.3, JDC.folder 151.3, 220515, doc. 1920,

This supporteraction who least was at oneJDC protested by

JDC, cooperationJDC, entailed

Felix To detractors, coopercommittees’ the

But

Warburg the need for a cooperative spirit between the JDCs and the needJDCs forcooperative abetween spirit

Nov. 29, 1920, 29, Nov. cooperated - 7 288 , JDC ,

;

Letter from George G. Black to Gardner Gardner to Black G. from George Letter by peopleseeking discouraging from lies on such lists. Refugeeslies onsuchlists. also t to purchaset to shoes to and distribute 9

enlistinggovernment the help to

- MS 457 MS with agovernment which 11, JDC. The JDC was also criticized for was criticized JDC also The JDC. 11, ,

Box 191 Box wish life inHungary and - ation withthe 8, doc. 220523, folder 151.3, 151.3, folder 220523, doc. 8, , F older 5 older created fearcreated among , , Warburg 73

CEU eTD Collection Papers, AJA. Papers, 75 JDC. 148.1, folder 220042, doc. 1920, 30, NewMarch JDC York, to Paris JDC 74 unburdenedcon by the respectivecountries. American as was primarily The represented by Marcus, JDC whorespectable hadconsiderablewomen, menenjoyed political and influence intheir regardless with the government. didthecommittees wield Nor the same amount ofpower, constituency. shareBut not thelocalpopulation in theythesame did Jewish or status of h easierand receivemight life aid more bedisproved.” than theChristians, charge the anti of greater effect“…[showing] thatwe minded thanthey are of broader are, transfer moneyshoes, was of for it leaders thehope ofJDC had that the transfer the simply aid. Warburgthe AsFelix toawoman of wrote who thedistribution protested leadershipJDC may had have cooperation otherfor motivations “Joint let alone acceptedrefugee by the population. closed foreclosingwereeven possibility ofhumanerepatriation, ackn the not feargovernment,Budapestwholewould be such that asJDC’s repatriation office the cooperationsevereBudapest for alternativeexplanations JDC’s withthe the that Budapestcommittee, theerosion of trustbetween local andrefugee popul who had about heard regime’s For orobserved of theHungarian Jews. persecution the

Letter from Felix Warburg to Maud Nathan, Nov. 29, 1920, MS 457, Box 191, F Box 191, 457, MS 1920, 29, Nov. Nathan, Maud to Warburg Felix Letterfrom in Hun Jews “Galician Marcus, aving to defend their work with a governmentworkaving defend witha to whichwas their actively persecuting their , ” The theythat some oftheir pointed out

of the fact that theleadershipof thefact and that of ofwealthy bothwere comprised

American and local - Semites that the Jews, by thatthe Jews, ofinternational means Semites an have assistance, flicts dividing the local Jewish community dividingand thelocalflicts moreover, had Jewish the

gary Prior to the War,” pg. 7, 9 pg. the War,” to Prior gary

committees may thesame faced have dilemmainterms 289 critics seemed thefact to critics oblivious that the 74

From theperspective of - 10. See also M.E. Baynton, Letter from Baynton,Letter M.E. also See 10.

with the

older 5, Warburg older the American 75 and thatthe and state ations was so ations

owledged,

besides CEU eTD Collection 80 79 78 p between witho but troubles, himtheir of talktell and get people to hetried manyoccasions on that stated He him. to talk not even would cause,they him in have they confidence the complete despite people, our popularit his despite that very stated plainly He theon subject. had what he him “Iasked Marcus: 77 war. the during Jewish/sectarian “Am as aid representing of implications the political someof discussion a for on 63 also See efforts. in relief overseas leaders Jews perfect American dimensions cultural including ways multiple in oftheirphilanthropy nature American thedistinctly emphasize to tended JDC The 76 Marchargued that“justas he 1921report thepresence Americans uniform in ofacting in presenc Marcus thework” JDC. Budapest argued “hampered ofthe propaganda abroad.against thestate Hungarian believedBudapest who committee thatthewas authorities” in engaging governmentBudapestwas b thancommittee, thewhich “…distrusted and disliked Ibut remain must here." family. you to Ifchildren. it Marcus’guide duri everyone fear retributionauthorities. The worked of up,for the by manwho tospeak as However, as even anoutsidera from morestatus could hisconvince powerful not country despite their unwillingn aboutthe provoke tellhim to the localprevailing population Hungaryconditions in advantage

Ibid Ibid., 11 in Hungary?,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, told Jews.He against atrocities investigating commission ofa waschairman the friends One ofMarcus’ folderJDC 148.1, 220064, doc. 4, pg. 1921, Lehman., May12, Mr. to Rose~~ fromDr. Memorandum .

5. the homes peo ofthese The American JDC alsoThegreat wielded a Americanclout JDC more deal e of Americans was vital for the JDC to accomplish to for vital theewas any ofAmericansJDC goalIn Hungary. in his You arean You

p . 10 . of coming from of - 11. becomes known becomes

ng hissecondtoHungarydeclared: visit “ Ameri ess to speak to withother,ess formerly trustedcommunityleaders. 78

which emphasized the ingenuity of the American spirit which made which Americanspirit ofthe ingenuity the emphasized which can and they can do nothing to you.cancan and Youwill to they donothing

ut success. Marcus, “Is There White Terror in Hungary?,” Terror White “IsThere Marcus, ut success.

a more powerful country. ple, I andple, that disappear will

[to the Hungarian[to authorities] 79

The government’s distrust of the local JDC, TheJDC, ofthe government’s distrust local 290 , JDC ,

because of his long service for the Jewish thefor Jewish service long of his because 76

Granick, These twofactors will beo will theend 80

that "Ia marri am According to “Waging Relief,” Relief,” “Waging

with the Hungarian

Igoingam with around erican” rather than rather erican” return toAmerica,return helped

ed man, I man, ed have JDC, Marcus, the f me and my esp. pages 61 pages esp.

note

Marcus y amongst y the 77

. - CEU eTD Collection 83 82 81 government: Terroragainst wasa theJews forforeign pressure toput state ontheHungarian ForofNew Jews. leadership, theonly someYork inthe theWhite JDC tostop way government suffering ofJews. produce“reliable” a about Terror particular narrative the White which the highlighted amoun enjoyed doaJDC) to significantgovernment withtheJDC Hungarian allowed anyaccess. camps the Hungariangovernment an after all with being provided government, theprivileged the andillustrated American relationship committee held with Ma the representatives organization of due that without consideration.” dealingwith representa behalf elsewheresohasgoodeffect, theabsence of a theJDC has ofsuch had

Memorandum from Dr. Rose~~ to Mr. Lehman., Subject: Report by Mr. Marcus on Hungary, Hungary, onMarcus by Mr. Report Lehman., Subject: Mr. to Rose~~ fromDr. Memorandum 5 in Hungary?,” Terror White There “Is Marcus, “ Marcus, rcus dynamicand similar theHungarian reported a between JDC thelocal

t of work in Hungary. Itt ofwork inHungary. tocollect alsohelpedinformation Marcus substantial and where Jews were being werewhere ofthe while members were Jews Budapest held “Joint” denied desiresgreat and inHungary prejudices. There isdissatisfaction due tothe wants live,have it good to the the outside. The Hungarian suppression of Anti orcoming measures by Jews, of the favor outin the for taking strenuous No The privileged theAmerican position JDC What Does Our Committee do to Help the Present Situation?,” 31 Situation?,” the Present Help to do Committee Our Does What tives Thewas inHungary it thecontraryGovernment saw had that effect.

HungarianGovernment, however may liberal it stakeby safetywill its be, 82 s toplacepressure persecutionHungarian regimetoendtheir political onthe

local people

This information lobby to used couldthenbeby JDC the

and relief an and notwith has American it organization, treated - Semitism unless there unless Semitism isactive pressure broughtfrom bear to

Government is nodifferentGovernmentIt is governments. than other , JDC , 291 -

. will ofthewill people andcater their will it to

( as compared withthat of - access pass to visit internment access pass tovisit , , JDC 81

InJune his report, .

Italics inItalics ori

the Budapestthe 1, JDC. 1, ginal.

CEU eTD Collection 84 providedarrived status th GalicianJews).This prejudices toward would manyits ofthe committee local of American of held privileged the position JDC which was outsider by the unencumbered of population Jewish Hungarian of class interpretation prioritization inits history,its anti of the organization’s identity, especially in Consequently, representatives facets its thenarrative produced reflectedthese multiple of as adistinctly bodyand Jewish Americanandwealthy ledby prominent men. as well as information Terror abouttheWhite a for inHungary largeinternational audience philanthropic organization played a of as significantand theinterpreter role disseminator Conclusion the internationalgovernment of theHungarian reputation doing: abroad Terror against publicizingtheWhite Jews and theatrocities doingcounter what the In by itsexploiting as privileged position short, the outsider,

Ibid.,

2 These with the local alsoaffected dimensions relationships JDC, their DistributionThe Committee American Joint as animp necessary. reason government of onthepart a absolutely that foreign strongpressure is of be the mobwill satisfiedgovernment and the will who as scape tried Ifand eases in most successful. proved can the putonthe Jews blame be economic towant conditions; andmise - 3.

politicians and philanthropists engaged philanthropists in and politicians

- postwar goats, andfeelings tortured, punished are the ofrevenge part onthe - revolutionaryregime

Hungary, and t

regard to 292

he suspected and accused andsuspected the ry. ofleast The been line resistance has e Americanaccess a committeeto with

counter

its conceptualizationits of recent postwarIt humanitarianwork. so did - revolutionary regime. Therevolutionary regime. .

not interfere.It for is this be constituents (i.e.recently American ortant international -

Jewish violence Jewish JDC wasJDC actually Budapest

and tarnishing the diverse

of Jews of Jews JDC of JDC .

- CEU eTD Collection Jewish people inHungary.Jewish work The inHungaryisalsoawindow JDC’s into status producedportra a distinctive dimensionsofidentitymultiple gender, class, citizenship including well ethnicity, as as the workingagainst was ofthe theinterests unable state todefend and which whichundermining was asa theHungarian regarded JDC authorities thelocal by because organization.came anAmerican Here status of itwas too,this at the expense unsuccessful,enjoyed they privileged statusthe Hungarian with g efforts ofgovernment influencetheir thepolicies own to were toward Hungary largely Americangovernmentswell. buttoforeign as leaders, United States and gave their Americanwhich citizenship them great ofinfluence deal because leaders’inthe ofand their economicposition social granton thelargesse states them access to their wielded of to constituents. a They also the Greatvery as played a War, importanttheiractiviti politicalrole organizationsAmerican which emergedexpanded during and/or after philanthropic and circumvent and address committee the local the bydivisions alloweddifferentfactions the community ofthe Jewish theopportunity to ultimately becauseBudapest undermined authority theithelped JDC the reinforce of conflicts and inthe broader political crises whic outsider status meant that theycame toserveinlocal as mediator intra larger suffering portion ofthanthe population the But local Jewish committee.their backing ofitsparentorganization. Overall, storyin Hungary theJDC’s howthe demonstrates intersection of Despite the claim that it was staunchly apolitical, the JDC, like many like claim was that it theJDC, staunchly apolitical, other it ofthe Terrorhistoryit thebroader White within ofthe

293

h they This fullyunderstand. didnot American JDC directly.American JDC

While ingeneral,While American JDC

access onlyto not overnment largelyovernment es largely depended - communal communal

itself without without itself CEU eTD Collection goals organization over the ofthe althoughimportant functi they performed system toattain order in their organization’s diplomatic andgoals. humanitarian And thewhich exploited oftensometimes reproduced and inequalities ofthe international international actors inthe understanding hownon - governmental emergedas organizations increasingly important postwar

complex complex era. T hey roles increasingly carried outimportant ons, their work often entailedprivileging the 294 needs of needs of

a diverse community. CEU eTD Collection term developmentsemerged course, Europeduring across This, thathad war. of was the Many the state’s espec practices, of of laws,delegitimization policies andthe Károlyi theidealsgovernments. of andKun to marginalizing from opposition the left and“threats” political as tothewell state as the to restoreafter stability criseswarand the revol of transformed and from hademerged practicesthe wartimeemergency norms that inorder much tothelonger Many wartimecontext. state’s early ofthe onand built policies Terrorand policies enacted retributive by thecount reassert their and their power material social improve and standing. provided tothembycounter the Moreover,much broader itengaged swath a population,whoused thetools ofthe deprivations andas suffering integral these caused Terror. practices parts ofthe directed as persecution such andIt bustingneighborhoods. through city alsoincluded systematicof state forms Terrorthe White theviolence just out by not was roaming meted militias countryside the and Terroraout in White n played eachviolence,chapter.The understand us counter which first is helps howthe analytical of therearerun Nevertheless, a frames. through common number themes that revolution, theyexamine theperiod from a Although may thepolitical conditions the emergence new, been have ofWhite Although aboutTerror thisdissertation everyis the White chaptercounter of and internment, retroactive all ofthe incarceration, and justice - revolutionary state as wellrevolutionary state asviolence (threats of) to umber Especially of differentdimensions. victims, for ially in regard to internment, alsocontinued inregardially to longer Conclusion 295 variety of differentplaces perspectives,variety and

utions. This included This policiesutions. intended er

- revolutionary governmentrevolutionary owed

- revolution - - - CEU eTD Collection regimes women, which had been pro Hungarian counter revolution from anintersectional perspective, important wartimeshortages, and dislocation aspersecution. and aswell repression and material well status. as These as citizenship necessities wereconsequence all a of challengesmultiple facing community, Hungary’s diverse Jewish as acces such concernsabout, andthewere tothe to,thecrisis response closely Jews facing tied TerrorconceptualizationWhite of thehumanitarianThe as JDC’s aninternational crisis. persecution alsocentralCommit theAmerican was to Distribution Joint nations,” and intervention theEntente’s inthe domestic affairs of Hungary. Violence and movement) aboutenlarged ofa theofHungary future European member the as“family of (particularly governments Powers and oftheGreat between theinternatio the andrelationship it, its to capacity at stood the it, heartmany to stop debates of that affectedandViolence stability the ofEurope.new security and regime’s the organizations and framedinHungary governments events theas anintern response domestically it provoked both and internationally. not on useful for understanding is not ofmuch it comfort but thousandsand suffering to prisons, camps ininternment moted aconservative more gender reje which politics In violence,addition to thedissertation’s themes make other main several alsoViolence playedroleretribution aninhowforeign and important , women played an , women an played

contributions - revolution andTerror. the counter White While revolution

First, promoted integral by experiencesand Terror examining counter thelived of ly ofviolence thecontext ofthe butalsothe nature

through policies enactedthrough by the policies role in helping the role inhelping 296 it showsthatwomenit were integral the to

counter cted of the emancipation

- revolutionary - Ká revolutionaryregime rolyi and Kun rolyi tee’s

ational issue issue ational regime nal labor s tofood - CEU eTD Collection which frequentlywomen traversed indangeras tobring placed they countryside the male inmates relied toprovide onwomen roles intheirhusbands’ women were whoserelatives take male on to incarcerated enemies challenged through incarceration authority male “ quasi class. an important rolein in the strugglegender the prewar toreassert and social, hierarchies, and political played inrevolutionaryand theirinvolvement Many politics. lackalso were of women in aperiod when were prove many nation people scrambling their loyaltytothe to loyaltythe national and community thestate belonging to and coercive italsoprovided the them organs state, of Participat punishment the regime enemies identify potential and those played Women communism. a vital role oftransitional inthe mechanisms justice, helping opportunity the stateefforts to assist inits “cleanse” all thecountry to of remnants of frequently class denouncers,middle witnesses andwith the and as elite women provided the domestic sphere. Participating inthe re reconstruct traditional -

state actors T he violent andrepressive ion

”

and p for t

gender relations. Forgender example, relations. in what some he revolutions, occupationhe revolutions, and olice

demonstrate affirming the power ofaffirming thepower elites an traditional

the pre the

brothers’ or fathers’ absence.brothers’ or

termednot only “legal terror” connectedtothe women - s war

the contradictory

actions social

hierarchies in all aspectshierarchies inall ofsociety, including

prisoners of the counterof the - 297 conquest ofthespacesconquest sphere, ofthe domestic state efforts to

the territorialHungary. of truncation they believedwere impact with the opportunity the toassert

with the materials for Moreover, -

of violenceandon retribution

revolut and by many power requiring

important and economic social

marginalize and punish punish marginalize and , which was important very d the (Christian) middle middle d the(Christian) ionar both state officialsboth state and

deserving yand actors state their their of survival

invested - state its ir

, in

CEU eTD Collection the existence and nature of White Terrorthe existenceof White and nature body legitimate violence intheabout debates and illegitimate international sphere, spec to restore: the inviolability upright,classof middle mother. themorally class sexuality, b bourgeois “free of behaviortocommunist and norms sexual working inopposition love” guardiansThis violence protect to wasinways justified which her. often affirm soughtto vulnerability m without and womenfrequently enacted was inwayssimultaneously women’s highlighted that violencemethod and and punishment Further, discipline. against sexualized bothmen right bodily to i helped reinforce they retributory policies provide forfamilies. their welfare greater ofincarcerated and responsibilities relatives inorder tookonever to carceral system. Many placed their personal mothers and were wives, integral women thefunctioningcounter to ofthe werewhose husbands orsons vulnerableroles imprisonedintraditionally feminine as undertake their to provisions relativesThey incampsalsofemale andprisons. relatives relied onto also that show violence violence, againstspecifically committed women, sexualized Women alsoWomen playeda central role inthe counter W

omen’s experiencesimprisonment of legal advocacy advocacy legal ntegrity. Guards in camps and prisons used sexualized violence usedsexualized Guardsandntegrity. incampsprisons as a

gender, class and gender, by political hierarchies undermining ut cameunder sought attack conform for it ut thevery failing to to norms und ermined thetraditionalermined order gender ale protectionale whiledemonstrating male her theinability of ifically of the instrumentalization withregard tothe female

on their behalf. . The image of image. The of Despite common representations ofwomen Despite 298 safety injeopardyensure the inordersafety to

and internment how shows violenceand - the revolution as it asit revolution sexually violated femalesexually violated body . However, at. However, the same time , as well as about, as debates well

(some) (some) played inthe out - revolutionary women’s

CEU eTD Collection patterns. This was violence social andpolitical inpart, privilege onan understanding inHungarywas based, that well as in defining theborderbetween legitimate “civilization” inapost norms and practice in the wake collapse. played ofthekey Women Commune’s roles in broader was investedinrestoring population hierarchies class and outrevenge inmeting genderand challenged hierar activities andhow women thatoften rolesacted simultaneously showinways affirmed that women’s was participation integral therevolutionary to struggles inHungary symbolically, hierarchies by emphasizing female vulnerability and women’s bodies had brokenpressures and ofwar the down under revolution. respectability fromwho shouldbeexempt were, violence and of victim democracies. Yetcontested image wasbecausea this ability statusasa woman’s toclaim legitimacy andregime new intheir attacksthe(moral) ofthe theEntente on authority of was animportant This dissertation alsoshowshowclass rolea played inthe post central In thatwomen roles showingthemultiple ho

committed bycommitted at the t men sexual violationsexual was dependent onaconsensus w the relationship bet the relationship in the counter by

symbol inthe laboreffortspoliticalsymbol movement’s the undermine to reinforced by s of violence as they contributed tothe widercontributed s ofviolencestruggle as between they

both - war “West”: anti democracy vs.

the labor movement - revolu chies. Their participation alsochies. theextent shows Their which participation to the ween masculine sofraught. andviolence was class Elite the selective tion op of hierarchy thesocial

and White Terrorand White

and illegitimate violenceand and illegitimate retribution 299

and the JDC and the exercise of exercise

played, both physicallyplayed, and the absence agency. ofpolitical - communism.

, this dissertation demonstrates dissertation, this demonstrates aboutmarkers what the of and abstinence violencefrom and

reaffirmed gender

Furthermore shou .

This consensus, however,This consensus, ld conform to certain to ld conform the reconstruction ofthe

, theuse of and class - war period war . Their , as

CEU eTD Collection within certainwithin so limits, unofficial an and understandingmiddle strong upperreaction to thatthe classes’ about howtheviolence militias of forms th andimpulses actions ofthe bourgeoisieto say not elites. Thisis and approved of they representativesgovernmen of theEntente privilege transformatio their hierarchy, totheeventualrelationship class committed to even by persons privilege. path to atrocities against theelderly,to underscore women, children and violence that was a not identify asillegitimate.Labormilitias theviolence of commentators grotesque stressed governments ofth movement’sthe whiteHungarian critiquesgovernment militias, ofthe and of violence, including the desire fo the desire political for revolutionary political struggles dissertation showsthatsigni as well as While thelaborWhile critique Terror ofWhite older assumptions mobilized restore because undermined hierarchy, itactually at revenge and retribution took. Indeed, took. at revenge andofficials retribution some were concerned very

Their anti the protection of the protection attacks propertywas tolerable privilege ontheir predictable, and was challenge r revenge n of societies on the basis of socialist principles.n ofsocietiesonthe basis ofsocialist e Entente mobilized theassumptions mobilized e embedded Entente inelite masculinity to - violence work shows thedurability work ofnormsviolence about and violence

. Years of war, revolution, and counterwar,revolution,. Years ofand

the violence as ofmilitias illegitimateunjustified, andthe how violence behow should deployed reform long broader hinderpolitical asdidnot stability the it ofthe state

specific ficant cracks in this formulationficant cracks this occurred in during Hungary’s , thedesire “traditional” toreassert socialand hierarchies,

because of the tensions thatexisted between ofthe mediatingbecause tensions

reflected Entente. B onthe

vulnerable groups from violence.groups this However, vulnerable ts voiced their understanding vengeful ofthe ts voiced 300

and towhat ends anof important base - revolution ut on the whole, thereut onthe whole, was

both official and

altered practices . The labor

about elite elite the

CEU eTD Collection those persons groupsinternationallyand domestically ofviolence and against thattheuse retribution dissertation thattheregeneral demonstrates aagreement was among andthe violencerepression lessprosperousJewry. and lessassimilated against, of the community, for as concern some interpretedelite as Budapest the sanctioning JDC’s Jews denominationally andstatus) diverse legallycitizenship (with Jewish regard to approachJDC’s also exacerbatedeconomically, thetensions between the eliteat Hungarianprioritized theof Jews expense more impoverished norms affluent inBudapestcommunity Jews ofHungarian the assumption economicIn and political life inthe previous helped promote century. theJDC sodoing, class the toshow mobilized important contri Terrorand the critiques ofthestability theJDC’s class and was inrelation alsopresent in to engage in violence to limits by determined class were lifted, “east”. Theref narrativeframework of an about orientalist the natureofthefrom Europe’s peoples and region ,

Related tothe centralityof norms class toarticulations regarding violence, of this but alsosignificantly undermined the Defining legitimate boundaries ofviolence interm the

Jews were targetsspecificallyJews greater violence levels of . Moreover, they tended to explain the“excesses”Moreover, they the toexplain within tended Terror ofWhite ore, the Entente articulatedore, Entente the the genuinely

relief and reconstruction andrelief that certain groups namely ofassimilated Jews, andthe prosperous connected revolutioncommunist was predictable and to .

because

work they did in didin they work 301 , should befrom, should exempt butions Jews butions

position position JDC’s

of of their prosperitychallenged notonly permitt

work inHungary, that under certain conditions, the that under certain conditions, post

ing “respectable people” to had made toHungarian - s of political and economic s ofpolitical andeconomic war Hungary. The JDC Hungary. The JDC

violence. That many many refugee Jews. which had different White White

The

CEU eTD Collection utterlygain among to failed traction many incounter however,on theclear which was and dependent between distinction communists, Jews willingnessstate. The concede JDC’s to thatso communityJewish charges disloyalty from communismand Hungarian nation of tothe primaryand economicThe JDC’s goal was development. Hungarian protecting the as wellregionally as more forfocused their spreaddid not westwas further significantEntente forfrom the an standpoint ideological itself engagedEnsuring against inRussia. communism thatBolshevism inanintervention also accepted that and thecarceralgovernment.of theHungarian policies wereand punished hierarchies revolution Communist Hungary defeat communisminHungarywideamong acceptancepopulation had of broader the deportation, violence, and torture incarceration, from the wilde reform However, communism. the was labor from a crying largely movement voice out inanattemptthemselves fromtodisentangle democratic theCommune for impulse the although acceptable. not,understandably, did Thisconsensus labor include movement, the Likewise, representativesofthe Entente international andcommunity the Jewish

and b intheKárolyistsome ofgovernment thoseinvolved distance to alsosought

and rness. T rought many people, including women, intothe roughtwomen, manyincluding people,

property relations. Ensuringproperty the peoplesuch for violation responsible that some thoroughly marginalized over undergirded housing conflicts thelegal idea thata ofmethods variety he reached spheres intimate oflife, themost into challenged violence ag ainst communists ainst communists 302 geopolitical goalsgeopolitical security, ofpeace, stability

me people deservedme violent revenge,

should be mobilized toensure bemobilized should thetotal - revolutionary Hungary. was legitimate. was Entente The

including legal repression,

political struggle.

of - CEU eTD Collection male communists was permissible. male was communists permissible. under which violence generalacceptable anewconsensus some was against normestablish that violence helped the retributory thestate policies of onthebasis ofthese international formulated labor movement their ofthe critique violencethe and militias of For for women,elderlyexemptions fast.and children others, the heldNotably, the of their understanding distorted and thetenets the of ofsocialism of for revolution. militias, example,frequently Members of violence onthebasis justified war intonewmen which roles movedwomen as had revolution whichsoughttoreorder which hierarchies undergirdednormsand the these a ( stabilization. Within this struggle boundaries violencerevenge between legitimate and struggle calling all people for to engage inclass struggle socialist ideology challengedgender, social, ethnicreligious traditional relations and fromas violence, totalwar blurredbetween distinction Further,home front. and war the experiencewar inpractice, ofhad, already challenged exemption the revengeand and retribution ended target indefining theboundaries anacceptable ofviolence,whowas including for which children had exemptedwomen, elderly and the For salience had older manybeenwake the norms inHungary, of destroyedinthe But there about it someviolence consensus was being accepta

in Hungary, and across andin Hungary, Centralbroadly, more was Europe — even in its more inits extremeforms even to what types treatment they of be should subject.

was was

a broader debate a a broader 303

. An impor

in relation to state to in relation were ) —

older norms. However, theolder norms.However, relevantfollowingwere a still bout whether older norms olderbout whether against (confirmed) young,against (confirmed) mobili tant part of the

zed for battle. forzed agents of communism. agentscommunism. of

about of certain groups ble, - building andbuilding

(re)defin agreement postwar The

ing

the CEU eTD Collection called War. thelong Cold of struggle sites thelong One,butalsoone might War ofthe inwhat World be first the counter years, fortynext all inthefrom namecontainingviewed lens, When this communism. of dictators, juntasLatin and governmentsAmerica, oppressive and in Africa Asia for the the 1953coup, State theUnited foreignWar UnitedStates. Beginning policy ofthe Iran Shah of withsupport for in the Thissort ofsupportcommunism. for illiberalbecame regimes a the hallmark Cold of enactedrepressive toward policies longer such, counter ofdemocracythe expansion c and early exampleof legitimate how helps understand us - term pattern ofterm western pattern democratic states illiberal supporting whichthen regimes This -

revolution and Wh revolution and consensus that violence - revolutionaryasHungary perhapsas thefirsta seen stage may be of the nearly century

ite Terror inHungarychould only not considered part be s provided overtcovert a and support of variety for apitalism

their populations in order in spread topreventtheir the of populations - the events post in long effort by western to effortlong by democratic states and retribution against “genuine”and against retribution was communists 304

with acommitmenttoanti

- World War I War World Hungary served as anHungary served as - communism. balance

As CEU eTD Collection Egyénlőség B’nai B’rithNews Bécsi Magyar Újság Periodicals University Cincinnati Library of UniversityLibrary Pittsburgh of Hungary IntézetPolitikaitörténelmi Levéltár HistoryInstitute [Political Archives] States NewLibrary,Bedy York Collection Public Rosika Schwimmer Országos Széchenyi Könyvtár MagyarLevéltár [Hungarian Országos Archives] National Labour H LevéltarHadtörténelmi [Military History Archives] (FSzEK) FővárosiLibrary] Ervin Ervin Szábó Könyvtár Szábó [Municipal BudapestiFővárosiLevéltár [Budapest Archives] Municipal British National Archives Bayerische [Bavarian Staatsbibliotek State Archive] (JDC) Distribution CommitteeAmerican Joint Archives Jewish American Archives Jewish Archives Libraries and

(NPL)

(PIL) istory Archive and Studyistory Archive Centre

, Kew,Britain Great , Cincinnati,Ohio,U , Budapest, Hungary , , Pittsburgh,United States Pennsylvania, , Cinc Bibliography innati, Ohio, UnitedStates innati, Ohio, , Manchester, Great Britain Great, Manchester, 305

(BNA)

nited States

(OSzK) , Budapest, Hungary , Munich, Germany

, New York, NewUnitedStates City, , Budapest, Hungary

(AJA) , Budapest, Hungary , New City, York United

, Budapest, Hungary Budapest, , (UCL)

(LHA)

, Budapest, (BSB) (HTL)

(UPL)

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