BF Skinner and Carl R. Rogers on Behavior and Education

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ED 098 087 SO 007 822 AUTHOR Swaim, Eugene E. TITLE B.F. Skinner and Carl R. Rogers on Behavior and Education. PUB DATE 28 Jul 72 NOTE 48p. AVAILABLE FROMOregon ASCD Curriculum Bulletin P.O. Box 421, Sales, Oregon 97308 ($2.00, payment,must accompany order) JOURNAL CIT Oregon ASCD Curriculum Bulletiti-08 n324 Aug 1974 EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 BC Not Available from EDRS. PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS Behavior; Behavioral Objectives; Behavior Change; *Behavior Theories; *Conditioning; Educational Philosophy; *Educational Psychology; Educational Theories; Humanistic Education; *Learning; Operant Conditioning; Psychology; *Self Actualization; Self Concept; Social Behavior IDENTIFIERS Rogers (Carl); Skinner (B F) ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship between the theories of B.F. Skinner and Carl R. Rogers. In sections 2 and 3, the author discusses the Skinnerian and Rogerian theories by selecting and explicating key elements and delineating the general, comprehensive, theoretical position of each. Sections 4 and 5 present each man's thoughts on education. Chapters 6 and 7 infer some of the issues and problems if each theory were accepted totally and applied to a real social setting. Chapter 8 contains conclusions and implications of the study. The main conclusion is that both Skinner's and Roger's models have their merits, butan educator cannot value both of them equally without creatingan inconsistency within his professional practice. A reasonable approach might be to consider either set of theories only in selected and limited educational situations. (Author/DE) U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION T 115 DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO 0 KED EXACTLY AS RE(EivEDFROM T I 4E PERSON OR ORGANIZAT ION ORIGIN ET COPY ARRAN A ING IT POINTS 0; viEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE SE NT OF F ICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTEOF Et ,uCAT ION POSITION OR POLICY tegon ASCD

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B. F. Skinner and Carl R. Rogerson Behavior and Education

Prepwedby: Eugene E. Swaim No. 324 Graduate Student 30111111 University ofOregon August 1974 Spode Men Price $2.00 bore Marie Service

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Oregon ASCD Curriculum Bulletin, P.O. Box 421, Salem, OR 97308 1 B. F. SKINNER AND CARL R. ROGERSON BEHAVIOR AND EDUCATION

by Eugene E. Swaim, Ph.D.

Copyrighted by the author on July 28, 1972. Reproduced with hisperndaslon.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction skepticism that tends to scorn ideological and utopian Skinner on Human Behavior 3 .approaches to education. One characteristic of Rogers on Human Behavior 9 skepticism is a cancerous quality whichseems to Sidnner on Educatkos 13 prohibit the skeptic from recognizing factorsessen- Rogers on Education 22 tial to his own modes of knowing and behaving. If Skinner's Theory in Social Context 29 skepticism hi allowed an unlimited control of one's Rogers' Theory in Social Context 35 perspective, learning becomes impossible. Implications for Education 39 An adalysis of the dynamics of theprocess usually labeled education reveal certain factorsto be BiblialiraPhY 43 essential for human life. On theone hand is a cultural framework, some basic elements of which must be handed on to individuals. Humans have always lived in social groups: this fact mandatesthe INTRODUCTION provision for some minimum of social stability. Until possibilities are developed. if indeed theycan be. Rapid change intoday's society, and subse- which permit human life withoutnumerous. interper- quently in today's schools. raises significantques- sonal relationships, the cohesive qualities tions for the educational theorist, the necessary educator of for individual existence must dependupon cultural teachers. indeed. forall who are engaged in the controls. The viability of such controls ismaintained process of education. What will the schools of the largely, if not completely, through socialization. future be like? What will tomorrow's teachers On need to the other hand is the individual.experiencing his know that today's teachers do not? How willfuture idiosyncratic existence within the frameworkprovided teachers work with students and withone another? by his particular culture. The relationshipbetween How will instruction be defined and carriedon? How society and individual is one of existential will students do their work? What will be symbiosis. considered Neither can exist without the other.Intrinsic in this appropriate "wok" for the student? What will bethe relationship is a paradoxical characteristic role of teaching machines. computers. of mutual and other control; the society and the individual educational technology? each, to some degree. control the development of the other.What is An adequate educational theory must offer at the nature of such control of human least temporarily satisfactory answers to behavior? two funda- The present study of human behavioral mental questions:first. what part of our present control focuses upon two conflicting approaches.those of B. cultureistrulyworthtransmittingtothenext F. Skinner and Carl Rogers. Thesemen participated generation. and second. what methods of teaching. in a debate atthe convention of the American carried on in what institutional organizations. will be Psychological Association in the fall of1956. The effective in transmitting these most precious parts of issue that these psychologists (lc bated our heritage? The essence of these two questions was the use of scientific knowledge in moldingor controlling human have probably always been relevant to the efforts of behavior. (Rogers and Skinner. 1956)Later.in a those involved in the teaching-learningprocess. symposium forming a part of RiceUniversity's semi- Today. in the American society. many youth feel that centennial celebration. the again Skinner and Rogers traditional wisdom of our culture has been argued contrasting views. (Wann. 1%4) Both shattered. Such youth are left with a kind of corrosive encoun- ters demonstrated the opposing. andrepresentative. 2

positions held by Rogers antiSkinner in what transmission, a specific question concernsthe Professor Morris Bigge calls "the two mostpromi- necessity of using greater and greaterdegrees of nent familiesof contemporarylearningtheory." control.(Augenstein.1969) Modern technological increasing (Bigge. 1964:49) advances have placed at man's disposal an In the debax Skinner and Rogerseach empha- array of agents capableof manipulating human sized profound socio-political resultsthat would ensue beings. Through techno-psychologicalpersuasion by from the acceytance, or rejection.of his own psycho-biological and pharmachological means aswell approach to the problems of socialcontrol as by other technological meanssuchas mass "desired" society if accepted. or diresocial conse- conintunication. it is technically conceivable to create quence if rejected. a sort of painless concentration campof the mind for Skinnerian **operant conditioning" restssquarely entire societies"artificial cultures."asitwere. in the behavioral tradition, amechanistic approach Both Skinner and Rogers acknowledgethis technical which emphasizes the importance ofstimuli from potential Skinner advocates immediate and maximum external environment, and relies uponobservable use of techno; .inbehavioralcontrol;Rogers physical movement. B. F. Skinner sees man as an strongly denounce- scch action. The currentpossibil- organic machine. (Skinner. 1953:46) Inhis attempt to ity of carrying eith. !approach to an extreme is the reduce human psychology to physical terms,such fact which gives tu.e two approaches suchsignifi- concepts as individual purpose.spontaniety. mean- cance. ing. and even consciousness areexcluded. Skinner's The possibi:,.:,of the use of such techniques methodology requires manipulating theenvironmental thrusts into prominence social, ethical, andreligious stimuli on the individual in such fashion thatit will questions of the greatest importance. Everyscience reinforce movement toward a predeterminedgoal. in sooner or later get", into areaswhere major questions a novel. Walden Two(Skinner, 1948) he visualizes a of value arise. Most scientists attempt to evadevalue society in which people are controlled by ahierarchy deci".ions by assigning to themselves a purely instru- of experts. The experts decide what is"good." and mental role, leaving the cultural use oftheir they prescribe appropriat_s conditionsof living and discoveries to the decisions of others. Skinnerand learning. Rogers' suggestions regarding educational issues are. Rogers, aligning himself specificallywith Abra- however, evidence that, in one sense. neither ham Maslow (Warm. 1964:109). declareshimself for pyschologistisuncommittedinculturalmatters; the Third Force Psychology(Goble.1971), which neither is neutral. The diametrical nature oftheir embraces elements variously labeledPhenomenology, suggestions is, nevertheless, very confusing to the Existential Psychology, and Gestalt-fieldtheory. Such educator. Their conflicting des-Aptions of man and a position emphasizesexperience, insight and his behavior may lead the educator to question the personal meaning. Carl Rogers says."The assump- cultural reality of both theories. tionisthat the subjective human being has an Not only professional educators, but most people importance and a value which is basic: that no matter of today, are disturbed and confused. They do not how he may be labeled or evaluated heis a human know where to place their loyalties. Although they person first of all and most,leeply. He is not only a give lip service to the concept of freeiom, a machine, not only a collection of stimulus-response socialization process (which takes place in both formal bonds. not an object, not a pawn."(Rogers, et. al. and informal educational settings) has led many to 1967:2) The object of Rogers' method, which is non- believe that all things, including man's thinking and directive and non-manipulative,isto permit each behavior, are completely determined by forces over individual to develop himself along linesof self- which men have no control. The behavioristi': orienta- selection. Rogers is convinced that. an open social tion in psychology deserves much of the ,:redit for situation, characterized by mutual trust and individ- instilling this view. (Misiak and Sexton,1966:425) ual growth, willresult from his approach to Much current opposition toitcomes from a interpersonal relationships. phenomenological orientation. A distinctive orientation toward the controlof Possibly the conflict of these two psycho-philo- human actioniscentralinthe thought of each sophical orientation is actually a current manifestation psychologist. Thus. the divergent psycho-philosoph- of a struggle which has been going on for thousands ical positions of Skinner and Rogers offermaterial of years. The basic elements of man's nature, and of with which one might approach a problem of current his potential for modes of action. have never been significance. Within the general issues of cultural agreed upon. The increasing intensity of today's 3

social problems leaves no doubt that it is essential for (Kuenzli. 1959:7) Yet. Rogers says. "There is a lot educators, if not for all people. to see clearly the about behaviorism that I accept. I was simply trying possil*: Alternatives for social direction. The Skin- to go beyond it." (Warm. 1964:157) "Coexistence" of nerian and Rogerian positions offer the educator these opposing psycho-phi!osophical positions seems divergent directional emphases for the practice of his to be impossible unless a "complementary" relation- profession. These positions hold contrasting views ship can be established. As previously stated. an concerning the nature of man and different methods effort to study this relationship must consider the of educating him. The adoption of one approach may views of both men on two levels.theoretical and produce a completely different kind of society from practical. that which may be produced from adopting the other The method of research usedinthis study. approach. In Walden Two (Skinner. 1948) Skinner pealing primarily with ideas. is exploratory in design. advocates a technically controlled society.ruled by (Sellitz. et. al.. 1959:51) The writings of B. F. Skinner "Managers." He states plainly his rejection of the and Carl Rogers are primary sources. Other sources Western democratic tradition. (Skinner.1953:9-10) in the behavioral and physical sciences contribute to Rogers repeatedly argues. from a humanistic perspec- the process of analysis and elaboration. At the outset. tive. against such scientifically controlled utopianism. the stated purpose of the study is to analyze the (Rogers. 1961:384-401; Rogers and Skinner.1956: relationship between the Skinnerian and Rogerian 1057-1066) positions and thereby to strengthen one or the other Within an analysis of the Skinner-Rogers of two hypotheses: (a) The relationship isone of dichotomy. one must first delineate the boundary antithesis: (b) The relationship is one of complement- between the two theories. Of equal importance is the tarity.In other words.isaneducator, who is delineation of the boundary between each theory and committed to one theory. precluded from using the social reality. The obvious assumption is thatany other? Or. can an educator be committed to both theory. to some degree. is a reduction of reality. Only theories simultaneouslyas he practiceshispro- after clearly drawing the above delineations isit fession? possible to consider the possibilities ofa working Organization of the study will be accomplished relationship between the two theories. Sucha by dividing it into the following sections. In sections relationship is controversial at present. T. W. Wann two and three the Skinnerian and Rogerian theories names several scholars who think " coexistence" is will be analyzed by selecting and explicating key possible. (Wann. 1964:v) Is "coexistence"a valid elements and delineating the general. comprehensive. term when considering diametrically opposing philo- theoretical position of each. In sections four and five sophical views? Snygg discusses the confusion each man's thoughts on education will be presented. resulting in an attempt to adhere to both positions. In chapters six and seven attempts will be madeto He says this attempt is analogous to "predictingan infer sonic of the issues if each theorywere accepted eclipse from a synthesis of Ptolemaic and Copernican totally and applied to a real social setting. The facts. with the earth going around thesun while the concluding section will contain educational implica- sun went around the earth and both stood still." tions of the study.

SKINNER ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR In the fall of 1 071. an intensification of interest more than illusions; whether man will admit it or not in B. F. Skinner and his work was experienced. he is controlled completely by external influences. A especially in certain educational circles. The occasion consideration of this fact permits only one reasonable of renewed interest was the publication of his book course of action. A scientific study of behavior reveals Beyond Freedom and Dignity. (Skinner. 1971) The techniques to use in designing a utopian society in title alone. not to mention the book'smessage. is which man can only behave in modes beneficialto disturbing to people who favorably view the both himself and the society. Skinner claimsto have traditional democratic values of American society. made such a scientific study of behavior, and he Skinner is. in this book. stating once again thesame believes an absolutely predictable societycan be thesis he has held since the publication of Walden designed. A Harvard professor. Skinnerpossesses Two. (Skinner, 1948) Freedom and free willare no credentials which guarantee hima large audience. 4

A writer in Time maeazine says: 8. Discriminationis what connect'the behaving organism to a given set of conting,....ies. The con- Skinneris the mostinfluential of living cept of discrimination has great importance in American psychologists, and the most con- Skinner's theoretical framework. as well as in the troversial contemporary figure in the science practical control of behavior. When a discrimina- of human behavior. adored as a messiah and discovered. or established,the experi- abhorred as a menace. As leader of the "be- tionis havioristic" pyschologists, who liken man to menter (or controller) may alter the probability of a machine, SkinnerisAigorously opposed a response by manipulating thediscriminative both by humanists and by Freudian psycho- stimulus. (Skinner. 1953:107-108) analysts. (Time. September 20. 1971) Skinner discusses the process of discrimination The term most associated with Skinner's brand and discriminative stimuli at length.(Skinner. of behaviorism is operant conditioning. Although he 1953:107-1 t?8.134, 261-264. 285; 1966:18,19) The was influenced by earlier S-Rtheories, within his process of discriminationis observed when a themtical framework Skinner has a particular focus. response is reinforced in the presenceor one property The emphasis is upon the response and not upon the and extinguished in the presence of others.When stimulus. His intent is to show that the cause of this process is established the experimenterhas behavior is the consequence which follows the obtained a powerful control over the subject. The behavior, while avoiding notions of purposive behav- discriminative stimuli which improve the efficiency of ior. A complicated terminology is created with which behavior under certain contingencies of reinforcement to state the theory. Following are some important are important. but they are not tobe confused with terms: the contingencies themselves. Care must also be taken to distinguish the effects of the stimuli from the I. Operant is used to distinguish between a reflex effects of the contingencies. (Skinner, 1966:29) and a response. Skinner writes. "The unit of a Consider the behavior of an organism which seems to predictive science is. therefore, not a response but evaluate a situation before taking a given action; the a class of responses. The word 'operant' will be observed pattern of behavior merely resembles the used to describe this class. The term emphasizes behavior of an organism whose behavior has been the fact that the behavior operates upon the envi- shaped by prolonged exposure to such situations. ronment to generate consequences." (Skinner. As mentioned earlier. in his effort to avoid all 1953:65) notions of purposive behavior. Skinner employs a 2. A response is illustrated by a single instance ir. peculiar language which is.at times. exceedingly which a pigeon raisesits head. The behavior difficult to understand. Consider the following called raising the head is an operant. example. He is arguing that behavior which might be 3. In a pigeon experiment, food for the pigeon is the called "following a plan" or "applying a rule" reinforcer. cannot be observed when behavior is considered tobe 4. Giving food to the pigeon when a certain response a product of the contingencies alone. Headmits that is observed is called reinforcement. The operant is rules may be formulated from reinforcing coteingen- the "property" upon which the reinforcement is cies, and once formulated they may be used as contingent; for example. it could be the height to guides;yet, the directeffect of contingencies is which the pigeon must raise its head. different. (Skinner. 1966:29) Skinner cites the case of 5. The change in frequency with which the pigeon a person who declares he is speakingcorrectly raises its head to this height is the process of because he is following the rules of grammar: operant conditioning. 6. A point, important to Skinner. is that operant be- When a man explicitly states his purpose in acting in a given way he may. indeed, be havior is emitted, not elicited. (Skinner, 1953:107) constructing a contemporary surrogate of Skinner is clear in his theoretical minimization of future consequences which will affect subse- stimuli in behavioral study. He believes stimuli are quent behavior, possibly in useful ways. It constantly acting upon the organism, but the func- does not follow, however, that the behavior tional connection is not like that in the reflex. generated by the consequences in the ab- 7. Cortingency is a connecting word, a linkage con- sence of any statement of purpose is under cept. used in developing the behavioral theory. A the control of any comparable prior stimulus. contingency contains stimulus, response. and rein- such as a felt purpose of intention. (Skinner, forcement; all three must be specified. 1966:29) 5

All behavior is caused behavior, For Skinner,a description of the contingencies of reinforcement cause is a change in an indcpendent variable and an should necessarily have the same effect as direct effect is a change in a dependent variable. Acause exposure to the contingencies themselves. He doubts and effect connection becomes a functional relation- if a subject can accurately describe the way in which ship within his theory. He is not interested in howa he has been reinforced. Even when the subject has cause produces its effect, only that different events been trained to recognize a few simple contingencies tend to occur together ina certain order. Any s then unable to identify or dew-We new or condition or event that can be shown to havean plex ones. Furthermore, certain verbal contingen- effect upon human behavior must be taken into cies between the subject and experimenter would account. Skinner believes that by discovering and have to be taken into accountfor example the analyzing these causes hecan predict behavior, and experimenter's tone of voice. How could such to the extent he can manipulate the "causes" hecan contingencies be accurately measured or controlled? control behavior. (Skinner. 1953:23i ( f. Skinner, 1966:12.32) Psychologists using the theory ofoperant behavior interest themselvesnot only in how Skinner's theory emphasizes teihnology,and organisms behave, but they desireto supplement with this emphasis comes a technicsterminology. such narrative with consideration of why they behave (Skinner.1971:3-24) He sees great vain inthe in certain ways: careful use of his terminology. For example, the concept of reflexis good because itcarries no What is required is an analysis of the condi- overtones of the consequences of a response. The tions which govern the probability that a adaptive aspects of behavior are minimized by using given response will occur at a given time. the term reflex. The term operant is introduced to (Skinner. 1966:16)...psychology is con- distinguish between reflexes and responses operating cerned with establishing relations between the behavior of an organism and the forces directly on the environment. He would avoid terms acting upon it. (Evans, 1968:21) We need a such as "instrumental" or "reward" because they complete account at the external level. After have purposive overtones. One should avoid such all, the organism cannot initiate anything expressions as "the rat uses a lever to obtain food." unless you assume it is capable of whimsical or "the pigeon is rewarded for behaving in a cetlein changes. As a determinist.I must assume way." Reinforcement is a better term because it that the organism is simply mediating the simply denotes the strengthening of a response. relationships between the forces acting upon Even when using the specified terminology, care it and its own output. and these are the must be constantly maintained because the concept of kinds of relationships I'm anxious to formu- purposiveness will tend to creep back into descriptive late. (Evans. 1968:23) statements. For example. "The pigeon was reinforced The rate of responding is considered extremely for pecking the key" should be rephrased. (Skinner, important data in such scientific analysis. Changes in 1966:15) the rate of responding are dir.:tly observed and In using this theory the experimenter controls accurately recorded. Such data are appropriate to important consequences for the subject. The manipu- scientific formulations. Under skillful experimental lator can increase the probability of some behavior controluniformity and precision canresult. The occuring again by reinforcing it, or he can decrease cumulative record of this process is the essence of this probability through some form of punishmentor operant conditioning. by instituting a procedure labeled extinction. Skinner Skinner maintains that verbal communication is opposes the use of punishment.(Skinner.1953: not a substitute for the arrangement and manipula- 182-194; 1971:60-100) Reinforcement is a manipulation of environmental variables. (Skinner. 1966:23) He tion of environmental factors that increases thetate distrusts efforts to study or shape behavior which rely of response which it follows. Positive reinforcement on verbal communication. On the other hand, some requires use of a stimulus desired by the subject. psychologists relypartially. and some exclusively. Negative reinforcement requires the environmental upon verbal exchange. Skinner argues that such an removal of an undesirable factor. undesirable from approach is usually favored by psychologits whu the subject's perspective. The process of extinction formulate their subject matter in mental terms. He may be initiated by the manipulator in two possible deplores such practice because precis'm and control modes. Extinction may occur with the presentation of are not maximized. He sees no reason to believe a disturbing stimuli (Skinner, 1953:58), or itmay occur 6 when the designated behavior is no longer reinforced. 1968:24) The element that seems tc, be emphasized in (Skinner, 1952469) his basic assumption underlying his theory isthat the The efficiency of behavior modification may be physical movements of man are connected byinvari- maximized by following a few simple rules:(cf. ant relatiopships, that is.all behavior is reaction Meacham and Wiesen, 1969:38-46) according to lawful patterns. Whimsy orcaprice are never observed in behavior.Behavior which appears I. Define tae consequences (thereinforcers or irrational is indeed law obeying; theenvironmental punishers) only in terms of how they affectthe cause has not yet beenidentified. subject, not in terms of the experimenter orof other subject's behavior. The hypothesis that man is not free is essen- 2. Recognize that the effects of reinforcement or pun- tial to the application of scientific method to ishment are automatic, that is. verbalization in the the study of human behavior. The free inner form of contracts or instructions are not messary. man who is heldresponsible for the behavior related to of the external biological organism is only a 3. Choose consequences that are closely prescientific substitute for the kinds of the desired terminal behavior. in the course of 4. Be consistent. a necessity for precisionand pre- causes which are discovered a scientific analysis. (Skinner,1953:447) dictability. 5. Arrange schedule of reinforcement so that conse- Passive man, studied as a group of physical quences follow closely thebehavior on which they movements, does not have attributivecharacteristics are contingent. such as cordial, !mighty, h Apful.heedless, hard- 6. Use care in choosing the amount ofreinforcement hearted. or humorous. Accoi ding to Skinner, ifthe for the specific behavioral change. providingthe psychologist uses such adjectives a focus is placed on frequent reinforcement needed for newbehavior. some "inner" entity thatdoesn't really exist; at least 7. Carefully program the entire process ofbehavior if it does exist it is not available for scientificstudy. modificationso thesubjectisabletomove To use such terms results in confusion.The smoothly from one step in the process to the next. pyschologist. thinking in terms of "aspect-description" (certain attitudes possessed by his subject)fails B.F.Skinner states repeatedly that certain By using the assumptions are essential for the study and practice to advance the techniques of control. 17, 45-58;1971: "functional analysis" of physical action both the of his theory. (Skinner,1953:9, experimenter and the subject are placed within a 184-215) The basic assumption concerns the nature of formulation which contributes to precision, both in man. In Skinner's view, man is aphysical, passive prediction and control. (Skinner, 1953:194-200) product of his environment. This physical organism is totally a responding. not a thinking, animal, andit can and The definition of the nature of man as should be studied essentially as a physical scientist passive removes any use of such concepts as purpose. Within the theory attempts to remove allsuggestion studies a stone or a tree. Man is more complex than Thorn- a stonea complexitypartially characterized by of teleology are constant. Skinner considers physical movementthus the analogy "man the dike's Law of Effect a step in the right direction. Simultaneous occurence of a response and certain machine." "Man is a machine in the sense that he is environmental events changes the organism and a complex system behaving inlawful ways, but the increases the probability thatthe same sortof complexity is extraordinary." (Skinner, 1971:202) (cf. Las not Skinner. 1953:45-58) The physical organism, man. is responses will occur again. The response studied only by observing overt reactions. Empirical been altered. By emphasizing change In the organism, Thorndike's principle "made it possible to restrictions of scientific method preclude attempts to analyze the inner workings of the machines. include the effects of action among the causes of Psychology thus becomes a study of complex patterns future action without using concepts like purpose, 1966:12; of physical movements. "I would define behavior as intuition, expectancy, or utility." (Skinner, the movement of an organism in space with respect 1953:60-62) Consider the case of a piano virtuoso. He to itself or any other useful frame ofreference." did not become a great pianist because he hadthe (Evans. 1968:8) Skinner feels that a description of desire, ambition, or purpose of doing so. His unusual ability to play scales smoothly is not the resultof man as a machine is an"oversimplification." (Evans, intention. According to the theory of operant 1968:69) He says. "If by 'machine' you simply mean "select any system which behaves in an orderly way,then conditioning.the smoothly playedscales man and all other animals aremachines." (Evans, skilled move..-nents." "A pianist neither acquires nor 7,

executes the behavior of playing a scale smoothly And some analyses do. What is calledme- because of a prior intention of doing so. Smoothly thodological behaviorism limits itself to what played scales are reinforcing for manyreasons. and can be publicly observed; mental processes they select skilled movements." (Skinner, 1971:204) may exist. but they are ruled out of scien- The behavior of the pianist is the result of specific tific consideration by their nature. (Skinner. environmental forces which have reinforced the 1971:190) The dimensions of the world of observed behavior. mind and transitions fromone world to Defining man as merely a physical organism and another do raise embarrassing problems. but limiting its study to patterns of physical movements it is usually possible to ignore them, and this may be good strategy...(Skinner. results in rather intricate explanations of certain 1971:12) psychologicalconceptualizations.Self,self- knowledge. self-control. awareness. and responsibility The environment acts upon the organism and the are examples. Such concepts are important in some organism reacts. "Reflex" is closer to the spirit of other psychological theories, especially that of Carl the theory than "deliberate action." Skinnerstates Rogers. Although They would be considered periph- clearly that the behavior of the organism doesnot eral to Skinner's theory, he does not ignore them. depend upon that organism'sawareness of its A self is a ref ertoire of behavior appropriateto a environment. Awareness is something that is imposed given set of contingencies. (Skinner. 1971:199)Since upon the individual by the society. (Evans, 1968:7) an organism may display various patterns of behavior Other statements concerningawareness are: it may possess many selves. (Skinner, 1971:199)In discussing self-..,ontrol he says thata person may Awareness is a reaction to a part of theen- control his own behaviorifthe"individual can vironmentlike any other behaviorbut it identify the behavior to be controlled." (Skinner. happens to be a part of the environment 195,3:229) Complications rise because ifone allows contained within the organism itself. (Evans, the individual to manipulate external variables then 1968:8) Awareness may help if the problem the status of "private events" must be discussed ina is in part a lack of awareness. and insight science of behavior. (Skinner. 1953:229) into one's condition may help ifone then takes remedial action... (Skinner. 1971:192) A purely private event would haveno place in a study of behavior,or perhaps in any Closely related to the idea ofawareness is the science; but events whichare, for the conceptualization of voluntary and involuntarybehav- moment at least. accessible only to the indi- ior. Skinner writes: vidual himself oftenoccur as links in chains of otherwise publicevents and they must The relation between the discriminative thin be considered. In self-control andcrea- operant and its controlling stimulus is very tive thinking, where the individual islargely different from elicitation. Stimulus andre- engaged in manipulating hisown behavior. sponse occur in the same order as in the re- thisislikelyto be thecase. (Skinner. flex. but this does not warrant the inclusion 1953:229) of both types in a single 'stimulus-response' formula. The discriminative stimulus does Skinner explains that theconcepts of self- notlelicit a response, it simply altersa prob- knowledge and self-control implytwo selves. The self ability of occurence. The relation is flexible knower is a soda'. product; theknown self comes and continously graded. The response fol- from other sources. The controllingself is of social lows the stimulus in a more leisurely fash- origin; the controlled self isof genetic origin. ion. and it may be intenseor feeble almost (Skinner, 1971:199) These selvesare not persons; without respect to the intensity of the stimu- they are observed patterns of behaviorexhibited by lus. This difference is at the root of the clas- the same physical organism under different sical distinction beween voluntary and invol- stimuli untary behavior. In the present analysis and contingencies of reinforcement. we cannot distinguish between involuntary Skinner mentions variousaspects of self- and voluntary behavior by raising the issue knowledge. ways in whichman observes himself and of who is in control.It does not matter his existence, then writes: whether behavior is due to a willing individual or a psychic usurper if we dismiss all in- Any analysis of human behaviorwhich neg- ner agents of whatever sort. Nor can we lected these facts would be defectiveindeed. make the distinction on the basis of control 8 Today, or lack of control. since we assumethat no such national television shows as behavior is free. (Skinner,. 1953:110-111) Dick Cavett, David Frost, Firing Line and CBS Morning News. His new book was ac- Skinner goes on to explain that when all the rele- cepted and praised in the August issue of vant variables have been arranged, anorganism the widely circulated magazine. Psychology either will or will not respond. If it responds in a Today. The American Psychological Associa- certain way then it can; if it does not respond in that tion gave him its annual award in September and hailed him as "a pioneer in psychologi- way then it cannot. The organism in fact respond cal research, leader in theory. master in in the only way it can, as determined by that specific technology, who has revolutionized the study set of contingent variables. of behavior in our time. A superlative schol- Possibilities of self-conflict are not discussed ar. scientist, teacherand writer." Ac- within the theory. According to the theory.the cording to the Times, his colleagues have organism is a different self each time is :s observed in judged him "the most influential psycholo- different environmental situations because the behav- gist in the country." (Sennett. 1971:1) action. ior pattern is different. No single instance of Skinnerian theory has gone well beyond earlier or pattern of behavior, could be morecompatible with forms of behaviorism. Some debt to Watson. the total existence of the organism than anyother the only Thorndike, Pavlov. ant! others is evident. The same patternsince any pattern observed is ideals of quantification of behavior and systematic possible response permitted by the environmental objectivism govern research projects and theoretical factors. No conflict between the 'rganismand a within the formulation. Operant conditioning has a different pattern of action would seem possible focus than does earlier behavioristic theories. More theory be,,ause the "self' of the organism is the evident than this difference, however. is the complete pattern of action. Yet. indiscussing self-knowledge simultaneous separation of Skinner's thought from all "non- and self-control. Skinner implies the behavioral" psychology. Concepts found useful by experiencing, by the organism, of two conflicting psychoanalytic. existential. or gestalt psychologists selves. The controlling self represents the interests of The following are others and the controlled self represents the interests are irrelevant to the operant theory. some of Skinner's reactions to conceptswhich have of the individual. (Skinner. 1971:199) Concepts like "conflict" and "control" appear some significance in other theories: intricate within a deterministic theoretical formula- I don't see any reason to postulate a need tion. Within the theory, both "others" and "the anywhere along thiz line. (Evans, 1968:10) individual" are animals of no purpose. Presumably, a The important thins is to analyze the contin- theoretical distinction is made between "interests" gencies of reinforcement. not the needs to and "purposes" relative to human action. be satisfied. (Evans. 1968:10) Emotion. so If the student of human behavior can conceive of far as I am concerned, is a matter of the complete environmental determinism. the only pos- probability of engaging in certain kinds of sible behavior is that behavior which is observed. The behavior defined ')y certain kinds of conse- notion of responsibility is dropped along with the idea quences. (Evans, 1968:11) I think ananalysis which deals with verbal behavior without ap- of free will as an inner causal agent. Skinner believes pealing to mental concepts such as meaning that "personal responsibility"isassociatedwith is a step in the right direction. (Evans. certain traditional techniques of controlling behavior. 1968:15) As far as I'm concerned. the organ- These traditional techniques which generate "a sense ism is irrelevant either as the site of physio- of responsibility," or "an obligation to society" are logical processes or as the locus of mental- relatively ill-adapted to their purpose. When com- istic activities. I don't believe the organism pared to the techniques of operant conditioning they contributes anything to these overall rela- appear extremely inefficient. (Skinner,1953:116; tionships beyond the fact that it is the be- 1971:60-100) The behaviorist position. according to havior of an organism we are studying. Langer, is undoubtedly the most scientifically (Evans, 1968:22) respectable psychology of today. (Langer. 1964:12) Skinner isnot interested in "the fictions or Skinner is considered the current leader. metaphorical apparatus" which Freudians feel they He has been the subject of a Time magazine observe in the organism. "So far as I'm concerned. cover story. a New York Times interviewand these are .versions of some sort of primitive editorial. a Newsweek education column. animism.** (Evans. 1968:7) He opposes stating 9 behavioral linkag;S .in terms of feelings. emotions, behavior has clarifiedthe nature of the relation recollections, and memories. His interestisin a between behavior and its consequences and has science of behavior that is a Van of biology. (Evans. devised techniques which apply the methods of 1968:7; cf. Skinner. 1964:79) Skinner's conclusion is natural science to its investigation." (Skinner. that "in its very brief history. the study of operant 1966:31)

ROGERS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR

In defining man. Cart Rogers puts great In writing this book I have often ,thought of emphasis upon "the experiencing person." His the idea expressed by a semanticist, that the theory of personality development representsan true. the genuine, the real meaning of a approach to psychology that falls under the generic word can never he expressed in words, be- classification of phenomenology. Phenomenologyre- cause the real meaning would be the thing lates to the individual's unique (phenomenal) world of itself. If one wishes to give such real mean- experience. In this discussion, Rogers' theory will be ing he should put his hand over his mouth limitedto ysychologicat constructs necessaryfor and point. This is what I would most like to do.I would willingly throw away all the minimal presentation and understanding of this words of this manuscript if I could, some- thought. Within his frame of reference man's how,effectively pointtothe experience subjective, conscious experiences area fundamental which is therapy. It is a process. a thing-in- source of information. Notions of self-concept. itself, an experience, a relationship. a conscious awareness, and interpersonal knowingare dynamic. (Rogers. 1951: ix) examples of important Rogerian concepts. Much of Rogers' theory centers in theconstruct The assumption that man is a physical. feeling. of the self. (Rogers. 1951:15) The self isan consciously experiencing organism is essential in this abstraction similar to the theological conception ofthe theory. (Rogers. 1961:118) Rogers writes of "deep soul. The self represents thecore of the individual. organismic feelings." Sometimes heuses a term **As the infant interacts with his environmenthe which has been popular on collegecampuses. "gut gradually builds up concepts about himself, about the feeling." Precise definition of thisterm israther environment, and about himself in relationto the diffiilt. The implicationseems to be that an environment."(Rogers.1951:498)Rogerswrites. individual can know something that is not mentally "We may look upon this self-structureas being an known. It is an "irrational" knowledge which insome organization of hypotheses for meeting lifean way brings the organismcloser torealitythan organization which has been relatively effectivein knowledge resulting from mental activity. One might satisfying the needs of the orgaMsm." (Rogers. be tempted totranslatethisideaintophysical 1951:191) Rogers. in his concept of set/.seems to sensations of the body. Sucha "translation" of mean the locus of evaluation, decision. and life of the Rogers'idea would placeitin proximityto the individual. (Rogers. 1961:119) organic machine reacting to environmental stimuli Inhisdefintionof man's behavior,Rogers that we met in Skinner's theory. parallels existentialist thought insome ways. Indeed, Rogers states clearly that he wishesto "go he mentions Kierkegaardon several occasions, beyond" the machine analogy.so his concept must pointing out with surprise how clearly theDanish be seen. at least by himself.as theoretically different philosopher seemed to picture what Rogershimself from that of Skinner. (Wann. 1964:157: Rogers.et. experiences inhis study of psychology.(Rogt...... al.. 1967:2) In his discussions of "awareness"and 1961:110) The similarity between existentialismand "self," Rogers seems to describe individualexperi- Rogerian theory seems to be the beliefin man's ence on a level somewhere between pure animal intrinsic ability to direct hisown process of develop- instinct and intellectually contrived conceptualpat- ment. Rogers' optimistic view of man's existence terns which have been socially imposed. Theconcept separates his thought from that pessimistic view may be identical. or very similar, to the process commonly associatedwiththethoughtof some described by Perls. (Perls,1947)If one can existential philosophers. experience a process. he may not be ableto verbally -Rogers' thought can he identifiedby a positive express what has been experienced. process in man's development: possibly themost The reader may grasp some of Rogers' thought important conceptinRogers'theoryisthatof from the following quotation: process. Students often consider the self hismost 10 based upon his experiences intherapeutic situations. important concept, but in Rogers'thought. the self is in therapy may be the process. To overemphasizethe concept of process The environmental conditions would be difficult compared in some respects to thelaboratory environ- in a study of Rogers' theory Skinner has based his theory. because it permeates all his thought.He believes that ment upon which Certain influential factors in each"artificial" environ- truth exists in the "process ofbecoming"; individual through action is ment contrasts withinfluences on behavior as creation of a tentative personal truth experienced in the larger society.In describing a the essence of personalcommitment. His thought Polanyi. whom Rogers therapeutic session Rogers usesthe term "pure parallelsthat of Michael 202) What can pure (Rogers. 1969:271-275; Polanyi. culture." (Rogers. 1961:111-112. quotes on occasion. culture be? Rogers' theory dealswithindividual 1958; 1959; 1966) scheme as a development. socialization. enculturation.Accultura- Rogers sees his explanatory has little or developing process which he derivedprimarily from tion. the mixing of two or more cultures, within his context. Obviously his use his involvement in therapeuticrelationships. As a no importance defines man as a of the word culture carries its ownparticular result of these experiences. he also does not use the process rather than aproduct. He sees a person "as definition. A cultural anthropologist a stream ofbecoming." (cf. Allport, 1955) "afluid term as does Rogers. process. not a fixed andstatic entity; a flowing river In the daily life of the individual,thousands of of change, not a block of solidmaterial; a continually influences that "reside within the socialsituation" changing constellation of potentialities. not afixed prevent the self from fullyexperiencing its attitudes. quantity a traits." (Rogers.1961:122) His extreme (Rogers, 1961:1 1 1) Away from thesesocial pressures, emphasis upon process and his consequentneglect of within the therapeutic relationship,within a "pure the social influences on behavior maybe a weakness culture," the self can fully experience.During the in the theory. limited time of the session "the personishis fear, or Another basic assumption in Rogers'definition of heishis anger, or heishis tenderness, or man is that man hasbasic tendencies toward positive whatever." (Rogers. 1961:112) Rogerswrites. behavior. To state that Dr. Rogers feelsthat impec- cability characterizes man's basic naturemight be too The essence of some of the deepest parts of heishis therapy seems to be a unity of experiencing. strong.Yet Rogers sees man "when feeling in negative attributes. The client is able to experience his complete organism" as having no its complete intensity, as a "pureculture." (Rogers. 1957:291-300; 1961:105)The organism who without intellectual inhibitions or cautions, has a complete "awareness ofexperience" will not without having it bounded by knowledge of only be a unique individual, but willalso blend contradictory feelings; and I am able with harmoniously intoa perfectly functioningsociety. equal freedom to experience my understand- (Rogers, 1951:524; 1957:291-300)This optimistic ing of this feeling, without any conscious assumption is essential to his views o;control and thought about it, without any apprehension human behavior. or concern as to where thiswill lead, without Rogers senses the following reactions tohis any type of diagnostic oranalytic thinking, assumptions of "a complete and fullyfunctioning" without any cognitive or emotional barriers to a complete "letting go" inunderstanding. organism: "Do you mean...man becomes nothing but (Rogers, 1961:202) a humanorganism.a humananimal?Who Rogers refers to an "out-of-this-worldquality," will control him? Who will socialize him? "a sort of trance-like feelingin the relationship from Will he then throw over all inhibitions?Have which both the client and I emerge atthe end of the you merely released thebeast. the id,in hour. as if from a deep well ortunnel." (Rogers, man?" Rogers replies, "...the individual 1961:202) Clearly, "pure culture" means anabsolute has actuallybecomea human organism, with from all the richness which that implies. He is re- separation from cultural influence. an escape alistically able to control himself. and he is "cognitive" and **emotional" inhibitions. incorrigibly socialized in his desires. There The punctual ending of thetherapeutic sessions is no beast in man. There is only manin is evidence of external. orcultural.influence.If, man, and this wehavebeen able to re- indeed. the relationship were freeflowing with no lease." (Rogers, 1961:105) inhibitions it would continue for anindefinite period. Punctuality is only one of the most obviousexamples As mentioned previously. Rogers'theory, is which could be used to denythe possibility of 11

experience which is absolutely devoid of cultural moving toward greater self-awareness and see the influence. Observation of Rogers anda client during following: he a therapeutic session would undoubtedly reveal a ...graduall.. reduces the intensional quality variety of "cultural elements" such as seating of his reactionshis tendency to see experi- arrangements. use of chairs, verbal expressions and ence in absolute and unconditional terms, to so forth. The results of years of socialization can overgeneralize, to be dominated by concept hardly be doffed as one might removea pair of or belief, to fail to anchor his reactions in overshoes upon entering a room. space and time. to confuse fact an(' evalua- ion, to rely on ideas rather than on reality In his discussion of the therapeutic climate. pure testingand moves toward a more exten- culture, Rogers seems to be trying to emphasize the sional type of reaction. This may be defi ,ed importance. from his point of view, of seeing his as the tendency to see things in limited. If- client as a subject rather than an object, and of ferentiated terms, to be aware ofspace time focusing upon change in that subject. Rogers may be anchorage of facts, to be dominated by facts, picturing a theoretical ideal which in fact cannot be not by concepts, to evaluate inmultiple located in social experience. The intensity of ways, to be aware of different levels of ab- socialization pressure may be increased or decreased. straction. to test his inferences and abstrac- An analysis of the Skinnerian and Rogerian aptions by reality insofar as possible. (Rogers, proaches to the control of human behavior raises a 1951:144) fundamental issue. To what extreme can the intensity Rogers believes that as the infant develops he of socialization be increased or decreased within distinguishes a SELF. But the parents and others also everyday social experience? What is the range of impose conceptual patterns upon the Want. As long intensity which may actually be experienced by an as the developing child can keep thinking of all individual within the evolutionary process of cultural experiences which enhance his self-image as positive dynamics? and all experiences which threaten his self-imageas Two questions, the importance of which will negative, he is psychologically healthy. Assoon as become explicit later, must be raised in connection the conceptual patterns, which are imposed by with Rogers' implicit assumptions in "pure culture." others, become a part of the evaluation of the SELF, Is it possible to totally escape from cultural influence. the individual can experience difficulty. He is told, even for an hour, or does one carry along, both "You are a good boy." "You are a bad boy." "What overtly and covertly, numerous cultural artifacts to you did this morning was good." "What you did this the session? Second, if it were possible to transcend aftbrnoon was bad." All kinds of evaluations, made one's culture, how would this "out-of-this-world" by others, become a part of the infant's perceptual experience pertain to ordinary cultural processes field. "Social experiences" become mixed up with his upon return from the trance into everyday social life? own private experience. This results in what Rogers calls a "distorted symbolization of experience." Regardless of whether or not onecan actually Because of social pressure, the individual begins to experience the "pure culture" which Rogers des- deny tohis own awareness some of hisactual cribes, the purpose of this ideal is clear.Rogers' experiences. (Rogers. 1951:498-499) effort is to design a certain environment forthe self. What the individual is actually experiencing is The reader must see clearly how Rogersuses the idea being filtered through imposed conceptual patterns. of self in order to appreciate his desire fora "pure The individual increases the confusion by distorting culture." his experience in the effort to fit it into the prescribed In Rogers' definition of man, hesees the SELF pattern. Through the practice of distorting experi- as that inner core of the individual which is somehow ence. in the effort to fit interpersonal impositions, the separated from the environment. The process by organism becomes a "hollow"entitywhich,in which this self is constructed he callsawareness. This Rogers' theoretical description, very much resembles term seems to indicate an ability of the individual the organic machines described by Skinner's theory. organism to distinguish between what that individual Rogers thinks that in the presence of some peoplewe is experiencing and what other individualsseem to be never know exactly with whom we are. We may view experiencing. In awareness, Rogers alsoseems to various facades. We wonder what the individual indicate an individual's ability to discriminate within really feels, indeed sometimes we wonder if he knows his own experiencing. what he feels. (Rogers, 1961:342) His argument is that one could watcha person Rogers advocates self-enhancement.Self- 12 awareness is an element in the processtoward the course. the other men laugh.To them he was goal of greatest realization of all potentials of the experiencing anger at the physiological level. Proba- individual.In order to counteract or minimize the bly several factors are involved in the man's refusal self-destroying results of socialization. Rogers recom- to consciously accept this experience.Yet, evidence mends a "safe environment" for the individual whose exists that incongruence exists between his experi- self-image and self-awareness has suffered from over ence and his awareness. and betweenhis experience socialization. The "pure culture"is such a safe and his communication. Rogers states that. at the environment in Rogers' scheme. A climate can result moment, the degree of congruence may notbe from lack of cultural design in which the individual evaluated by the person himself. (Rogers, 1961:340) feels less threatened if he does not experience his Rogers feels that behavior is not based directly feelings in culturally-designed patterns. The individ- on something called reality,but rather upon the ual.therefore.decreases the denial of his own individual's perception of that reality. This distinction feelings and thus moves toward awareness. is essential in the study of human behavior. "It is He moves from generalizations which have noted that behavior is postulated as a reaction to the been found unsatisfactory for guiding his life field as perceived. This point is proved every day in to an examination of the rich primary experi- our experience.butitisoften overlooked. The ence upon which they are based, a move- reaction is not to reality but to the perception of ment which exposes the falsity of many of reality." (Rogers, 1951:492) A mirage will cause a his generalizations and provides a basis for thirsty man to struggle forward in the desert. The new and more adequate abstractions. struggle is "real" action, just as real as it would be if (Rogers, 1951:143) the mirage were indeed a "real" lake of water. A Little by little the individual finds that it is not only man will work long hours for years,striving for possible but extremely satisfying to accept his own money because he perceives the money as a sourceof self and self-awareness as the evaluation locus of his security. The money may not in fact satisfy his need. actual experience. Regarding its motivation of human behavior, the When this happens. values no longer are fixed mirage perceived as water, or the money perceived as absolutes: existenceis no longer threatening; the security, operates just as efficiently as the "real individual can relax and examine his experience with thing" until the perception changes. Time is an open attitude because he isnot locked into a involved. A future or later perception changes the conceptual system. He does not feel the constant man's action with respect to the mirage. The need for defense. (Rogers. 1951:151) Rogers writes. perception must be accounted potentrelativeto There is no longer the firm. tight gestalt behavior rather than "reality" or "lack of reality." which is characteristic of every organization Rogers' view of potential human behavior under threat, but a loose. more uncertain contrasts sharply with the view of Skinner. Possibly configuration. He begins to explore his con- this contrast is seen most clearly if the term ceptual field more and more fully. He dis- responsibility is analyzed in each view. Skinner sees covers faulty generalizations. but his self- responsibility exclusively in the sense of an automatic structure is now sufficiently relaxed so that physical response to environmentalstimuli.Only he can consider the complex and contradic- upon this basis could he argue that an individual is tory experiences upon which they are based. no more responsible for the act of murder than for (Rogers. 1951:193) the act of coughing. Both are simply physical re-actions to the organism's environment. Skinner Inthis process the person comes to be,in awareness, what he is in experience. Congruence is argues repeatedly againsttheuseof individual the term Rogers uses to indicate an accurate responsibility as a conceptincontrolling human matching of experience and awareness. (Rogers. behavior. (Skinner, 1953:341-344: 1971:71-76) He not 1961:339) he gives the following example of only excludesthe conceptfromhistheory,he incongruence: A---man becomes angrily involved in a vigorously opposes its use in any context. group discussion. His face flushes: he speaks in an On the other hand. responsibility is an important angry tone; he shakes his finger at another person. bitof Rogers'theoreticalfoundation.His entire When one of the group says. "Well, let's not get theory rests upon the ability of the individual self to angry about this." the fellow replies. "I'm not angry; be aware of both itself and its environment and to as a matter of fact.1 don't have any feeling about respond efficiently. We gain a clearer understanding this at all!I was just pointing out the facts." Of of Rogers' thought if we translate "responsibility" as 13

"ability-to-respond." (cf. Green. 1964) Rogers'ideas nixing the possibility of Skinner's "world o&control." seem toparallel,veryclosely.much existential he sees it as an extremely unpalatable choice. thought. He mentions both Kierkegaard andBuber Rogers cites gains in knowledge whichindicate several times. On occasions when he isdescribing the possibilities of increasing the amount ofcontrol over experience of the person.some of his conceptualiza- individual behavior. He even listssteps to consider in tions are close to other existentialists,for example the process of developing thiscontrol.(Rogers. Sartre and Nietzsche. 1961:387) He tries to givean "objective picture" of In Rogers' therapy sessions,as a client becomes such control. (Rogers. 1961:390)but he feels aware of the possibilities of actual choice, much of his compelled to state hisown opposition. He would feeling is similar to that describedby Sartre as equate Walden Two with Huxley's Brave NewWorld characteristic of existential choice.(Kaufmann, and Orwell's 1984. Rogerswants to feel that he is 1956:222-311) The individualmay feel awesome advancing science: "I feel thatto the limit of my responsibility, anguish, despair. abandonment,to use abilityIhave played my part in advancingthe some of Sartre's terms. Of course, kinds of feelings behavioral sciences..." (Rogers. 1961:391),but the as wellas emotional depths as experienced by thought that what has been learnedcould be used to different persons mayvary, A similar parallel car be turn man into a robot makes him extremelyunhappy. seen between aspects of Rogers' description ofthe The humanistically-oriented attitudeof Rogers individual's experience in becomingconfused when toward the control of human behaviormay be almost mixing imposed conceptualizationswith personal identical with that found ina statement by Sidney experience, and that experiencedescribed in Jourard: Nietzsche's term resentiment. (Kaufmann, 1967) A lot of knowledge abouta lot of men, if it Rogers' theory seems torest its full weight upon the is possessed bya few, gives these few possibility that this "existentialchoice" is available power over the many. Psychologists seek to the individual experience. knowledge about men. Men consentto be Rogers' thought contrasts clearlywith that of studied by psychologists. The question .is, Skinner at this point. Skinnerargues that the who is being helped when psychologists individual has no choice; the physicalorganism is an study men? If I have knowledge aboutyou, I "it." possessing onlya completely determined action can use this to my advantage, and against pattern. Rogers' theory, while maintainingfor the yours. If I have knowledge about myself, I individual the existence of choice,seems to allow him can increase my freedom and my power to live my life meaningfully. If the possibility of choosing to be manipulated.In some you have knowl- of Rogers' articles heseems to fear the advance of edge about me, I would likeyou to enlighten technical control as advocated by me. not control me. And I would liketo Skinner. Recog- know you. (Jourard, 1968: preface)

SKINNER ON EDUCATION

11. F. Skinner has writtena book, the Technology labeled "contingencies of of Teaching (1968), in reinforcement." Learning an effort to apply his theory of. requires a situation in whichbehavior occurs, the human behavior directlyto educational practice. He actual behavior. and the rejects traditionally used consequences of that "metaphors" suchas behavior. Doing, experience,and trial and errorare "growth or development,""forming, shaping,or representative of the three building" the individual. parts of a set of contin- Traditional ways of viewing gencies: doing emphasizes theresponse; experience. learning are also consideredinadequate by Skinner. the occasion during which Examples are: the response occurs; and we learn by doing, we learn by trial and error, theconsequences. experience, and we learn by trialand error. (Skinner, His educational theory, 1968:1-8) Suchways of viewing education as does his general are to be theory of behavior,centers in the concept of control. avoided, not so much becausethey are wrong, but If learning is seen merely because he considers them as the changing of behavior incomplete. They do not patterns according to environmentalstimuli, then fully describe the educationalprocess as he defines teaching is necessarily it. seen as the manipulation of the stimuli to control the change.Skinner esteems the According to his theory, alllearning takes place precision of such control, relative to three factors which, especially whenitis collectively, he has carefully designed to bringabout specific terminal 14 behavior. He deplores the vague behavioral goals that Skinner, while declaring that educatorshave have been used by educators. Terms such as done a good job relative to the resources attheir "educating for democracy," "educating the whole disposal and given the attitudes of the publictowards child." and "educating for life" are familiar them, holds that much more could beaccomplished examples. How. exactly, are these nebulous goals to by changing to his approach. For example, the useof be reached? What is the exact behavior and teaching machines might. in addition toincreasing necessary set of skills that are desired by those who the effectiveness of educational methods.have a recommend such goals? salutary effect upon educationalphilosophy. By Today's educational demands willnot permit placing themselves within. and by being subjected to, misty, cloudy cisign if the societyisto survive. the educational patterns Skinner prescribes,both Skinner sees education as an extremely important teachers and students will change their waysof aspect of our lives, and although his theory includes thinking, and therefore.their ways of behaving. attention to the individual, the urgency of adopting Skinner would not use, theoretically, the conceptof his scheme is based upon soceity's needs rather than "Thinking." For him, the use of such concepts individual needs. His theory is designed to coordinate confuses one who is attempting a scientific analysis of social productivity rather than to encourage idiosyn- behavior. cratic development. His central interest is in a kind of A fundamental criticism of traditionalmethods cultural transmission whichiseffected by using used in controlling human behavior,especially com- carefully planned methods. The precise design mon in traditional educationalpractice. centers in permits each individual one mode of behaving. If all Skinner's conceptualization of aversive control. behavior follows the prescription. the result will be an Teachers are committed to a philosophical stance absolutelypredictablesociety.Such a societyis which is based upon a "punitive system." Dropouts. Skinner's intention rather than development of truants, and vandals are by-productsof this "aversive individual potential and the enhancement of personal control." The traditional approach, characterized by a experience. (Evans. 1968:68) negative reinforcement pattern, is inefficient in Skinner thinks that a carefully designed society producing the stated goals of education. For example, will result in maximized individual development. His some teachers assign additionalhomework as view is the exact opposite of Rogers' which contends "punishment" and excuse students from 'school 'work that self-enhancement results in the optimum society. as "reward." By such procedurethey reinforce kinds Skinner writes, "Educationisperhaps the most of behavior other than that indicated by the important branch of scientific technology. It deeply educators' declared goals. affects the lives of all of us." (Skinner. 1968:19) Although now largely in disuse, corporal punish- Education, for him, is the effecting of an exact pat- ment is an example of aversive control.With its tern of behavior in the life of each person. No longer abandonment. teachers merely adopted other kinds of can we permit the educational system to operate in aversive measures. such as ridicule, scolding, outdated modes as directed by traditional conceptual- sarcasm, criticism. incarceration, extrawork, with- izations.Educators can, and must, use currently drawal of privileges,forced labor, and ostracism. available technology in the process of molding precise Skinner maintains that "the student spends a great behavior patterns. The potential role of the educator part of his day doing things he does not want todo." in redesigning the society is tremendous. (Skinner, 1968:96) In such an educational environ- Although Skinner is somewhat critical of the ment. behavior has not been stated precisely in terms current use of traditional methods in education.he of educational goals: therefore, rather than movement should. by no means, be associated with other toward thehazily chosen goals.theeducational educational critics. In some ways Skinner defends our experience merely reinforces techniques of escape educational system, and Dewey's ideas as well. He and avoidance. A "technology of teaching" advocates feels that American schools are suffering from over- positive reinforcement of the precisely defined. population and from lack of popular support. Yet desired behavior. these schools are turning out many productive Since Skinner wishes to construct an environment people. The schools of today are better than those of in which the individualis manipulated toward a fifty years ago; earlier schools could not have solved specific goal, some might see little basic difference icurrent problems as well as they are actuallybeing between his approach and the coercive methods handled. Skinner simply feels that improvement is which have been used for generations in controlling possible. (Evans, 1968:68) behavior. Skinner distinguishes his approach by Is tacitly holding some methods of control asnon- the precise behavioral patterns which Skinner desires. coercive. That iscontrol by reward, or "reinforce- Further. Skinner points out that behavior labeled ment."isessentially not aversive.Whereas the "free" or "non-conforming" is not necessarily teacher using the traditional coercive methods desirable. How useful are the idiosyncrasies of the arranged for consequences of undesirable behavior, psychotic? A nightmare is original, but it is not useful his plan focuses upon the teacher manipulating the in behavioristic psycheli,gy. Anarchists and rebelsare consequences of desirable behavior. The teacher not necessarily valuable to either themselves or their should not threaten the student with certain penalties society. One can hardly deny Skinner's basic position: contingent upon socially undesirable behavior; "You "A culture inust remain reasonably stable, butit will be unable to get a job unless you do your school must also change if it is to increase its chances of work well." Rather. the educational environment survival."(Skinner,1968:171) The idiosyncrasies should be arranged so the student will be constantly. which do arise in the behavior of individualsare consistently. and immediately reinforced for the sometimes useful and sometimes harmful. The socially desired behavior. Within such theoretical valuable ones e ill be selected by the greater society argument the statement, "The problem is to induce and incorporated within its evolutionary development. people not to be good but to behave well" (Skinner, With occasional statements. Skinner seems toagree. 1971:67) makes sense. to some extent, with those who champion "freedom": Skinner mentions the schools set up by Neill, "so long as obviously dangerous and harmful Tolstoy. Russell. and the social experiments of variations can be avoided or dealt with, anything anarchists. (Skinner, 1968:102-103) He believes all which encourages individuality is probablya move in failed. He considers them to be therapeutic. possibly. the right direction." (Skinner, 1968:172) for youth who have been badly treated, but theyare For one who holds consistently to the assumption not "educational."Withholding punishment may of environmental determinism, as does Skinner.the help a child, but something more is needed. The individual can never be "free." The individualex- missing ingredient is positive reinforcement which periencing an awareness of himself in relationto the rewards the behavior of a socially adequateperson. various elements of a particular situation. and then Those educators who idealizean abstraction cognitively making an intelligent choice of behavioral labeled "freedom" may failtounderstand how alternatives,isprecluded by theassumption of Skinner is consistently able to advocatea technology environmental determinism. If environmental condi- of precise control, based on a deterministic science of tions determine the individual'sresponse, then the human behavior. while holding that eachman is individual is absolutely dependent. He will be absolutely unique. An educational theory which directed in his behavior by other peopleor he will be defines teaching as the arrangement of contingencies dependent upon "things." Skinner doesnot point out of reinforcement in such manneras to precisely and that such assumption and itsresultantstate of completely control the individual's behaviorappears dependency may indeed cause the individualto feel to be inimical to notions of freedom, inquiry, and dependent on both people and things. Skinner originality. An understanding of Skinner's theory discusses the teaching of a child withina practical. depends completely upon the adoption of his initial everyday situation. The example he choosesconcerns assumptions. the problem of the child getting to schoolon time. Skinner repeatedly states that individuals have Possibly the child is dependentupon his parents' no choice concerning who they are or what they do; direction. "It's time to go." Or, "Hurryup or you'll each person isnot ling more than the product of miss the bus." The childcan only be "free" from genetic and social influences. This kind of determinis- this kind of interpersonal directionif he becomes tic assumption is useful for the professional,argues dependent upon clocksor other stimuli which would Skinner. becauseitencourages him tolookfor result in the behavior called "gettingto school on causes. The attitude of the teacher who believesa time." The parents and the teacher shouldrecognize studentisgoverned by some inner faculty(for exactly what behavior patterns theyare reinforcing. example. the self of Rogers' theory),or that the Since Skinner's theoryisfocused completely on student acts by caprice. is not likely to look in the product or precisely, designated terminal behavior, classroom environment for the influencing factors. he does not discuss the possibility ofthe individual Skinner believes such a teacher will be less ablethan considering the particular situation andthen redefin- the determinist to explain a given behavior:also. he ing the behavior in terms of how heviews its would be less efficient in manipulatinga student into relevance in his own life. For example,the high 16 He writes: school senior might or might not be a "slave" to the behavior labeled "getting to school on time" or. We can teach the student to think for himself without sacrificing the advantages of "getting to school on time" might. in some cases. be knowing what others thought. He will not defined in terms, by the student, independent of waste time in discovering what is already clocks. Possibly the student might choose not to go to known. but what is known must he transmit- school at all. Precise definition of terminal behavior ted in a form he is most likely to usepar- and reinforcing patterns precludes such consider- ticularly in those unforeseeable environ- ations. ments in which his contribution as an indi- How the sentient individual operates within an vidual will be most conspicuous. (Skinner, existence which allows no personal choices is not 1968:178-179) quite clear. Skinner says that the individual may If an "environment" (an actual situation in life) struggle to free himself from the ultimate aversive is unforeseeable." then a precise behavior pattern consequences of certain positive reinforcement. for that situation can neither be designed nor Drugs. flattery, and incentive wages are examples of predicted. In such a situation the person's use of reinforcements which may be seen temporarily as knowledge in a unique "contribution"is identical positive ones. A powerful technology of education will with personally chosen action, as discussed in other extend the kind of freedom sought by the individual psychological theories. Skinner's "personal utility" inthisstruggle againstthecontrolof positive seems close to Dewey's thought. and "individual reinforcement by permitting him to behave "under contribution" seems close to Rogers' thought. minimal control of practical consequences." (Skinner, Presumably. theoretical distinctions can be made 1968:172-173; cf.Evans. 1968:54) Tacitly. Skinner from Skinner's frame of reference. He does not seems to be advocating the education of individuals enlarge upon the individual student's unique contri- so they will be able to make choices identical to the bution. Within the deterministic theory such contribu- "awareness choices" advocated by Rogers. Many of tioncoulddirectlyresultfrom anunconsciously Skinner's explicit statements will not, however, allow possessed genetic and social heritage. If such this interpretation. assumption is correct, the individual essentially John Dewey advocated 'a learning situation in contributes nothing during his own life.Also. the whichthechild learned by doing.CarlRogers source of his genetic andsocialheritageraises emphasizes individual. personal exploration and perplexing problems. Skinner advocates ignoring such discovery. Skinneris remarkably similar to these embarrassing questi,as. (Skinner. 1971:12) credenda in some of his arguments for individual The quotation above probably does not accurately development. He uses terminology different from that reflect the central thrust of Skinner's educational of Dewey or Rogers, but the tone and goal may by theory. The operant view emphasizes the response proximate. He provides an illustration in which a and the contingent consequence. In order to teach parent buys his child a new toy. When (he toy is any subject from the behaviorist viewpoint, a close brought home. the parent will almost always carefully examination of the terminal behavior is mandatory. instruct the child concerning the exact mode of its Furthermore, if the terminal response is complex, the use. This corresponds to Skinner's general advocacy sequential set of responses must be carefully of precise behavioral patterns. Yet in this case, he specified. When this task of specification is com- explicitly deplores such practice. (Skinner. 1968:179) By such action the parent is not arranging contingen- pleted. the student must be analyzed to determine which stimuli will operate upon him most efficiently cies which would result in individual exploration and as reinforcers. A reinforcer may be a smile, verbal personal discovery. Skinner believes the school praise. M and M's, or the most generalized reinforcer curriculum is seldom designed to protect or strengthen the contingencies responsible for individual in our society, money. The educator. as an operant conditioner, can initiate the learning process (defining curiosity and exploration. In the practice described in the above example. valuable contingencies which as response a 'quisition). The educator arranges the reinforcement achedule: he also chooses and precisely would shape and maintain such behavior as reaching defines the terminal behavior. toward and grasping a novel object and exploring its possibilities are destroyed. He believes the child can The procedural tool which most closely fits this be directed yet permitted to "think" as an individual. defintion of educationistheteachingmachine. Exactly how such independent thought fits into the Factual material is presented. a response is required. and reinforcement follows in the form of blinking deterministic philosophic framework is not discussed. lights or some other device to indicate "correct" 17

answers. The student is, in this way, manipulated individual behavior in orderto realize a product. along a prescribed path of behavioralresponses. In Rogers deplores control of individualbehavior; he this approach the curriculum isorganized on the would minimize suchcontrolinorder that the basis of various capacities,or abilities, rather than in individual could experience aprocess. specific subject matterareas, i.e.. history, geography or literature. Following the above explanation.the reader should be able to distinguish betweenskinner's Such curriculum design shouldnot be confused ration of the "student's interest" and with the old idea of "developing Rogers' idea of mental disciplines." "personal meaning for the student."In the behav- Capacities andabilitiesrefer to skillsinoven, iorist scheme "interest" individual response to prescribed stimuli. means smooth, efficient. The fact external manipulation of the behavior.In the that Skinner's curriculum would focusattention on phenomenological scheme. the initiative ofbehavior the individual studentcan be misinterpreted. Specific isinternal;the individual statements made by Skinner must be used carefully if ch vses his mode of behavior using some internal frame ofreference they are to fit the tenor of the totaltheory. Skinner labeled meaning. A clear understanding says. "I'm much more concerned with the students' of either theory, if examined from the opposingpoint of view, so-called personality traitshis interestin what he's may be impossible. doing, his perseverance. his abilityto stick with an unpleasant task, his enjoyment of Skinner believes that lack ofunderstanding literaturethings hinders the acceptance of his approachto education. likethat." (Evans.1968:70-73)Notice the term He argues that ''so-called." power frightens people, and the efficiency of his theory of controlrepresents a great In the above quotation. Skinner clearlywarns source of power. He thinks thatitis within this that he is using traditionalterminology,not the context that some. critics of his theorysay teaching precise terminology that would accuratelyreflect his theory. Terms like personality machines and programmed learningwill mean traits. interest, regimentation. He says that "nothingcould be more perseverance. ability. and enjoymentmust be regimented than education carefully translated if theyare to be congruent with as it now stands." his total theory. Each (Skinner, 1968:90) He cites therequired syllabuses, term must be made to fit a entrance requirements, standardized behaviorism which omits mentalisticprocesses. For examinations. example. behavior that has traditionally certificates, diplomas. and honorsfor specified been ex- behavior. He argues thatwe do not need to worry plained by the use of theterms interest and about these conformity-oriented perseverance are, in Skinner's theory. explained goals because we in know the current methodsare so inefficient that the terms of "not losing the subject." Skinner'sstudents are warned early in their laboratory work students never learn what the statedgoals prescribe. to "not lose (Skinner. 1968:90.91) He would define their pigeon." If the contingenciesof reinforcement exactly the desired behavior, thencreate the educational environ- are planned with enough precision, the subjectwhose behavior is being manipulated will ment which will result precisely in thatbehavior. be led smoothly Concerning regimentation, Skinner from one step to thenext. His behavior, whether the realizes that subject is a pigeon his technology could be "misused."It could make all or a student. will correspond to men alike.It could limit the beneficial that behavior which has beentraditionally attributed effects of to "interest." Continuation of accidents on the evolutionarydevelopment of both smooth. precise individual and society. Yet if manipulation is descriptive, for Skinner,of the same used "wisely." it could behavior that has been explained maximize the genetic endowmentof each individual: by attributing a it could build thegreatest diversity of interests; it personalcharacteristic of "perseverance"tothe behaving individual. could enable each individualto make the maximum Skinner's focus on the individual possible contribution to the survivaland development and Rogers' of the society. Skinner is fords on the individualcan only be contrasted, not emphatic: the means of such control is available; the technologywill be used in cimpared. The opposing approacheshave no funda- one way or another. He hopes mental point incommon. For Skinner. the activity of itwill be used the individual must be carefully "wisely." (Skinner, 1968:91) controlled if the The behaviorist's basic paramount goal, a designed society, isto result. For assumptions about Rogers, the individual self has human nature and the possibilitiesof control require an intrinsic value: it that he accept a certain view, should not be utilized by externalagents for purposes or at least limit his of social design. Skinner possible perceptions, whenviewing other theoretical desires absolute control of approaches. In line with thispattern, Skinne Is declares that the humanist who uses persuasion. any effort to put theoreticalconceptualizations into argument. inducement. emulation. or enthusiasm to everyday practice. The problems in attempting to get a student to learn is controlling the student just implement Skinner's theory are great. He realizes as much as the person who uses a machine or that educational change will come slowly. Some of his "programmed learning." The question is merely one recommendations could be used as adjuncts to other of method. Skinner deplores inefficiency. He thinks kinds of teaching. He is not entirely satisfied with traditional trmulations of the learning process have this measure of improvement. To merely borrow a been tried for two or three thousand years and have few of his notions and tack them on to traditional been proved ineffective. His technology of teaching is philosophy and procedure is really not an implemen- a new conception focused upon methodology. Skinner tation of his theory. Yet. exactly how to proceed when explains: one completely accepts histheory is not even specified by Skinner himself'. The whole thing is a question of method. Smoothly changing behavior (participation, coop- That's the crux of my argument with Carl eration. or interest. in traditional terminology) is vital Rogers: I'd like people to be approximately to the theory of operant conditioning. Emphasis must as Rogers wants them to be.I want indepen- be focused upon the individual behaving organism. dent people. and by that I mean people who don't have to be told when to act or who Each must be observed and reinforced appropriately; don't do things just because they've been therefore,an educationalsituationinwhich the told they're the right things to do. But how individual student can move ahead at his own rate is do you build independence? I'm convinced desired. Yet Skinner realizes thatif every student thatI can specify methods which will be were actually allowed to do so. theconfusion would more effective than Rogers'.Ijust don't be intolerable. Skinner confesses that he does not think his conception of inner determiners is know how to solve such problems.but he feels valid. We agree on our goals: we each want strongly that they cannot by neglected any longer: people to be free of the control exercised by they must be solved. He states emphatically. "We othersfree of the education they have had. simply must not hole hack quick students or force so that they profit by it but are notbound by slow students to go so fast that they miss important it. and so on. This is all part of the educa- stillslower andeventually tional design which I'm trying to implement. steps and hence go not only with teaching machines but with the become hopelessly discouraged." (Evans. 1968:74) application of an experimental analysis to An emotion-laden. mentalistic term like"dis- classroom management. It boils down to a couraged" does notfitinto Skinner's behavioral question of method.not of the ultimate theory. In the quotation above he is concerned, quite worth of the individual.I want to preserve obviously, with ''losing his pigeon." He is arguing the dignity and worth of a man, too. (Evans. for individual reinforcement schedules. His advocacy 19ht4:7-6/4) of teaching machines is one of his attempts to solve This statement must be accepted from Skinner's educational problems. Machines. correctly designed point of view. This is not to say that Rogerswould and programmed. do offer the desired reinforcement. agree. nor would oneworking outside either Rogers' Such machines. however, are not essential for or Skinner's theorynecessarily agree. Skinner sees operant conditioning to take place. Indeed.their use the essence of his approach. as well as the cruxof his may not be the most efficientmethod of practicing difference withRogers.as simply methodological behavior modification in many educational situations. procedure. Does he in fact define independencethe Consider the following example. same as Rogers does? Howmuch of their differences Hill Walker and his research associates at the could be centered in fundamental differencesin the University of Oregon have used behavior modification ways they define the humanbeing? What does technologyinadverseeducationalcircumstances. Skinner mean. exact/v. by the last statementof the Their cart:11111y designed and reported experiments quotation, considering the title and contentof his were undeniably successful in changingand control- latest book? (cf. Skinner. 1971) Further discussionof ling behavior. (Walker, et.al..1971; Walker and these questions willbe foundinlatersections. Buckley. 1972) Within the present context. we note only thatsuch In one experiment twelve students from grades questions may hinder the educator's efforts to trans- four.fiveandsixwereselected,allof whom late psychological theory into educationalpractice. possessed a number of behaviors which inhibited A certain amount of frustration may accompany learning. 19

Teacher defiance, distractibility, hyperactivi- (trinkets)to the kinds of socialreinfiircers which ty. and tantrum behavior were attributed to obtain in the typical classroom. Three months after the group as a whole. Individual behaviors the experiment. six of the students were observed. exhibited were physical and verbal abuse of along with their classmates. in a regular classroom peers.pre-delinquentbehaviors (stealing. setting. Data from these observations indicate a high smoking. glue-sniffing) rejection Of peer in- persistence of treatment effects. traction.and excessiveverbal outbursts (swearing. loud noises. etc.) These behav- Comparison of pre-experiment and post-experi- iors were identified as most annoying to the ment tests revealed impre..ssi% e academic gains. regular classroom teacher; vet the subjects Walker and his associates beliese that the model of exhibited many additional behaviors illustra- behtnior modification they followed was very effective tive of inadequate social and academic ad- in changing both wending behavior and academic justment. (Walker. et. al 1971:2-3) Since the students were academically retarded in The treatment model was very effective in math. reading. language. and spelling, instructional producing behavior change among the sub- attention was focused on these basicskillareas. jects in Experiment 1. This group produced Materials used included programmed tests. books appropriate attending belt:whir an average or from the students' regular classrooms. and some 39 percent of the time airing baseline and teacher prepared material. 90 percent of the time dining treatment. The Timers and a display hoard with flashing lights mean difference of 51 percent between the were essential in effecting the reinforcement sched- two conditions was swistically significant beyond .001. (Walker. et. al., 1972:17) ules. Individual timers were placed on each student's desk, and they were used in a variety of ways to meet A second experiment was designed to evaluate the specific behavioral requirements of each child. A reinforcement components of the behavior treatment large timer. placed in the front of the room, was used model. (Walker, el. al.. 1971:21-30) Walker and his to record and monitor group behavior.Behavior associates' conclusion was as follows: corresponding to that desired by the experimenters resulted in the accumulation of both individual and Three components of the treatment model, group points. Students could exchange their individu- token reinforcement,socialreinforcement. al points fir free time, model cars. airplanes. games. and aversivecontrols were evaluatedin books. paints, baseballs, and footballs. The group terms of their efficiency or potency in controlling the behavior of a second group of could exchange group pointsforactivities ofits five subjects. The results indicated that so- choice such as slot car racing. pool. howling. cialreinforcement exercised thegreatest swimming. or museum trips. control over the subjects'behavior while Lights and butters informed students how their aversive controls were slightly less effective behavior was being evaluated. whether appropriate or in controlling the same behavior. Token rein- inappropriate. Timers were not permitted to run (the forcement exercised surprisinglylittlecon- method of gaining points) concurrent with inappropri- trol over the subjects' attending behavior. atebehavior.Individualmisbehnvior stoppedthe (Walker, et. al.. 1971:30) group timer as well as the misbehaving individual's Further experimentbyWalker (Walker and timer.Inadditiontothefocusuponindividual Buckley. 1972) show as conclusively as did the first reinforcement. a group reinforcing climate was two experiment% that a method of control. generally created which was particularly potent sinceit labeled behavior modification. works in some educa- incorporated positive stimuli. (trips and other "fun" tional situations. Timers and lights are substituted for activity)and aversiveconsequences (peerdisap- teaching machines. Students do indeed conform to proval) into the same procedure. socially desired behavior. The only major deviation After appropriate behavior became fairly stabi- from Skinner's theory that was used inWalker's lized. reinforcement schedules were modified in a experiments was that concerning aversive control. staging technique designed to phase the students Skinner believes such controlisineffective while hack into the regular classroom environment. An Walker found itto he very effective. Viewed within essential part of transferring the student from the an overall evaluation of Skinner's theory, or within experimental to the normal environment was the the context of implementationfeasibility,the one change of focus from the contrived rein forcers point of difference may he of no major importance. 20 The experimental detail offered above is included which control their daily life. I'm all for that. as only one of numerouspossible examples which But that would raise problems on its own; a illustrate conclusively that operant conditioning is an world in which people were freely and wildly original could be a very difficult world to live effective Mea of controlling some behavior.of some who in. too. A certain amount of conformity is individuals. in some situations. If those persons needed for just the ordinary articulation of a areparticipatinginsuch a program conform to group. I don't feel. personally, that it is par- Skinner's bask assumptions. the efficiency ofthe ticularly valuable to ride the issue of con- behaviorist theory isunassailable. No comparable formity in defining a better world. Noncon- experimental data has been obtained which indicates formity is not what you want, any more than that an entire society, however. can beenticed to conformity. You want people who are accept Skinner's assumptions. making the most of themselves, and this Different philosophical assumptions seem to usually means people who are least under enable their respective adherents to view the current control of manners. customs, and other educational scene with extremely divergent conclu- people. I seldom think in terms of conform- Skinner ity:Idon'tthink its a usefulconcept. sions and recommendations. As stated. (Evans, I914:7-1-75) believes his educational design would augmentthe unique individual's opportunities of realizinghis own Again, the reader finds the meaningof Skinner's potential maximum. relative to hisgenetic and specific statement by carefully aligningitwith the environmental circumstances. His thought maybe total theory. Skinner sayshe wishes people to be contrasted with a number of rather vocalcritics of "less under the control of whatother people say" cu.ent educational methods.Paul Goodman (1956: and more under environmentalcontrol.Histotal l'462: 1%4). Edgar Z. Friedenberg(1959; 1965). and theory advocates precise designof the environment. Juleslicitry (14h3) share a common beliefthat Distinction between being controlled bywhat other cootempotary society and itseducational system limit people say and being controlledby an environment the individual in the process of learning.They believe designed by other people islacking. Presumably the the present system is performing tooefficiently in the first refers to action that resultsfrom some verbal. socialiiation process. Critics belonging tothis group philosophical influence, and thelatter is direct beliexe th:lt parents. teachers. guidancecounselors. physical manipulation. school administrators, and adults ingeneral. seduce The degree of efficiency may bethe only funda- and werce youth into paths ofself-denial. The adult mental difference betweenverbal control and non- world. epitomized in the educational system.firces verbal control. If Skinner's critics areequating control the child Imo too much conformity.(cf.Schrag. and regimentation and Skinner is not,his statement. 146') Essentially. the question being raisedis, "Are as quoted above.will not allay their fears. Conformity we becoming a societyof over conformists"? Skinner is.in many minds, connected tonotions of being believes his theory would permit lessconformity than coerced into a pattern of behavior.Such coercion is is now statedineducational goals;only the indeed advocated by Skinner throughouthis theory. inefficiency of current methodologyallows the As he applies his theory toeducation. Skinner secs individual great flexibility. Rogers andother human- the teacher as the controllerwhose primary duty is to isticallyoriented psychologists and educatorstear manipulate the students alongprescribed behavioral Skinner's proposals. (Time.1971:47-53) They arc patterns. afraid thetechnical.mechanistic approach would The preparation of teachersisof paramount induce even greater conformity.Skinner argues that concern to Skinner.He notes the pedagogy is not a his methodology could be used toproduce regimenta- prestigious study. Skinner thinkseducational psychol- tion. but that this is not auinevitable result of his ogists have spent the last fifty yearsmeasuring the suggest ions. resultsof teaching withoutadequatelyanalyzing Commenting on this issue. Skinnermakes the teaching itself. Pedagogyhas not been a true following statement: technology of teaching. Collegeteaching has hardly been taught at all, whileelementary and high school I think man could be much less conforming teaching has been primarily by akind of apprentice- than he is. Our school systems couldbring handed along, but the people even more under the control ofthe ship. Possibly some skills are natural environment and less under the con- major source of teachereducation seems to be the trol of "what other people say." what they young teacher's ownexperience. Some even argue read. what they memorize by way of rituals that a good teacher issimply one who knows his 21

subject verywell.Skinner doesnotagree.He student learns. According to Skinner another function believes a science of teaching is necessary. Teachers must be facilitated, a function which engages the need the kind of help offered by his scientific analysis student on an individual basis. He desires the kind of of behavior. (Skinner. 1968:93.95) The process of edu- interchange which is often possible if the teacher- cation is far too important. and too complex. to be student ratio is one to one. He refers to the tutorial left to casual experience. He believes the teacher method. should be a specialistin human behavior whose Productive educational interchange. accordingto occupationisto bring about complex changes in Skinner, becomes possible in the tutorial situation. complex material. His scientific analysis helps the Population pressures have greatly limited thisaspect teacher in two ways: it offers standard materials and of education. and if educational hardware isused methods, and it supplies the understanding of human increasingly merely to present information, the behavior which is essential in creating solutions to tutorial teacher-pupil relationshipmay be destroyed new problems. (Skinner. 1968:255-2561 altogether. Skinner sees this process causing the In his "experimental study" of learning Skinner student to become more and morea mere passive has found that the contingencies of reinforcement receiver of instruction. He denounces this trend and which are most efficient in controlling the student states his desire to see teaching machines designed cannot be arranged directly through personal media- and used which encourage the studentto take an tion of the teacher. Mechanical and electrical devices active role in the educationalprocess.Machines should be used. As a reinforcing mechanism the which present material. test.score. and reinforce teacher is extremely inefficient when compared with correct behavior immediately not onlyengage the mechanical devices such as teaching machines student in the desired manner but also permiteach (Skinner, 1968:21.22) Skinner's definition of teaching individual to progress at hisown speed. (Skinner. must be kept in mind. He says, "That's all teaching 1968:29-30) is. arranging contingencies which bring about Such a teaching machine brings the studentinto changes in behavior." (Evans. 1968:59; cf. Green. contact with the person who composed the material 1964) For Skinner. one of the tragedies ofcurrent which it presents. Oneprogrammer (theoretically a education is that the teacher does not have toomany top expert in his field) is in contact withan infinite reinforcers at his disposal. Prizes. tokens. patson the number of students. Althoughsome educators view back.approval, and attentionare the kinds of this process as a form ofmass production. Skinner reinforcer% which are sometimes used by teachers. believes the effect upon each student is surprisingly (Evans. 1968:61.62) Such reinforcing techniquesmust like that of a private tutor. He feels thiscomparison be improved. holds in the following respects: All of Skinner's proposals emphasize aficiener. Within his view of educational needs theuse of (1) There is a constant interchange between teaching machines isessential to attain maximum program and student. Unlike lectures. text- efficiency. Population is not only increasing. buta books. and the usual audio-visual aids. the greater percentage of that larger population desires machine induces sustained activity. Thestu- an education. Educators must avail themselves of dent is always alert and busy. (2) Likea more advanced techniques and equipment good tutor, the machine insists thata given ifthe point by thoroughly understood. either frame schools are to meet the demands of thesociety. by frame or set by set. before the student Remandsinmostareas of thesocietyleadto moves on.Lectures. textbooks. and their invention and rapid acceptance of labor-saving mechanical equivalents. on the other hand. equipment and methods. According to Skinner. proceed without making sure that thestu- education seems relatively slow to make the'ame dent understands and easily leaves him be- kinds of adjustments because or misconceptions of hind. (3)Likea good tutor the machine the educational task. presents just that material for which the student is ready.It asks him to take only For a number of years, of course. audio-visual that step which he is at the moment best aids have beenusedinasupplementatyrole. equipped and most likely to take. (4) Likea Eventually, they may take the place of lectures. skillful tutor the machine helps the student demonstrations, and textbooks. Use of audio-visual come up with the right answer. It does this aids represents. however. onlyone function of the in part through the orderly construction of teacher. This function is to present materialto the the program and in part with such tech- student so clearly and so interestinglythatthe niques as hinting. prompting. and suggest- 22

ing.derived from an analysis of verbal rate. Grades would change in meaning. Traditionally. behavior. (5) Lastly. of course. the machine. a "C" might mean the student had acquired a like the private tutor, reinforces the student smattering of the course.If machines instruction for every correct response, using this imme- assures mastery at every stage. a measurement could diate feedback not only to shape his only indicate how far the student has gone. not how behavior most efficiently but to maintain it well he knows the materia.. in strength in a manner which the layman Students who are able to proceed rapidly could would describe as "holding the student's not only move vertically to more difficultMaterial. interest." (Skinner. 1968:37-39) but they could also enrich and broaden their educational experience by choosing additional pro- The task of programming the material for this grams in lateral movement. Sutdentswho miss school method of educationisindeed formidable.Ina for any reason could pick up exactly where they were textbook a confusing passage is not critical: hope- with no problems. Home study could be facilitated. full. it can and will be clarified by the teacher. In When teachers are unavailable. students could be contrast. the machine material must be self-contained taught with adequately programmed machines. and wholly adequate. Skinner recommends these The constant theme in Skinner's theory of steps be followed in the construction of a program. education is the need to carefully define the exact (Skinner. l968:48-49) behavior we desire. search for the environmental conditions which reinforce that behavior, and then (I) Define the field. design the most effective contingencies of reinforce- (2) Collect technical terms.facts.laws.principles. ment. He says to impart knowledge is simply "to and cases. bring behavior of given topography under the control (3) Arrange these in developmental orderlinear if of given variables.** (Skinner. 1968:203; cf. 196b.184) possible. branching if necessary. He concludes his book on education with a (4) Distribute the material among the frames Of a chapter in which he emphasizes the dire necessity of program to achieve an arbitrary density. implementing his "technology of teaching" if society (5) Choose techniques for strengthening responses is to survive. Power. control, and his brand of and transferring controlfrom one variable to education arc inseparably mixed within his theoretical another. according to a given schedule. formulations: 0) Mechanically seed previously learned terms and facts among succeeding material to keep it active. Absolute power in education is not a serious issue today because it seems out of reach. Skinner's educational plan would assign tasks However. a technology of teaching will need :hat can he mechanized to machines and thus permit to be much more powerful if the race with the teacher to assume "his proper role as an indis- catastrophe is to be won, and it may then, pensable human being." (Skinner.1968:55) One like any powerful technology, need to be teacher could accommodate more students in fewer contained. An appropriate coanter-control hours with less routine chores. Possibly his greater will not be generated as a revolt against co- efficiency. Skinner suggests. would be rewarded by ercive measures but by a polity designed to increasing financial remuneration for his services. maximize the contributions which euucation Instituting the program would result in various will make to the strength of the culture. The changes in educational practice. For example. issue is important because the government grouping studentsingrade levels would not be of the future will probably operate mainly his own necessary since each student could move at through educational techniques.(Skinner. 1968:260) ROGERS ON EDUCATION

Almost twenty years have passed since Carl 1961:273-275) The essence of Rogers' approach has Roget.was invitedto a Harvard conference on changed little during the intervening years. -Classrixm Approaches toInfluencingBehavior": Rogers had been requested to put on a there. he presented his views. little expecting"the demonstration of "student-centered teaching." He tumult which followed. Feelings ran high."(Rogers. felt that a two-hour session with such a sophisticated 23 group,tryingtohelp them formulate their owt pants remarked. "You kept more people awake last purposes. and responding to their feelings asthey night!" Rogers concluded the experience had been a struggled in the experience might be an extremely successful one. Keeping people awake is no his goal. "artificial" experience. Yet this had been. and still but helping them to examine their own experience is.the essence of his educational approach. He and ideas is. (Rogers. 196,1:273-278: cf. 14'69:151-155) simply did not know what he would do. or what he Consider certain factors in the description of this would present. (Rogers. I9(1:273) At this time he experience. Rogers recognizes the dangers of artifici- went to Mexico for a winter quarter vacation. He did ality in attempts to create educational "situations." some painting, writing, and photography. (The He sees the "good" teacher changing constantly. Rogerian teacher focuses upon his own lifeand "learning" with the students. and apart from them experience). He spent much time on this trip (both teacher and students being in "process"). He "reading and digesting** the writings of Soren sees the educational experience as "meaningful" to Kierkegaard. (Rogers.1969:151) As the Harvard both teacher and students: thatis.the particular conference date approached. he was confronted with educational experienceissignificanttothetotal the obligation he had accepted. personal experience of each person. Rogers did not In the past he had occasionally started class try to "teach" the conference members anything.He discussions by stating some very personal opinion of did not have a precise goal. A belief, or a set of faets, his own. then spending the rest of the session trying as an educational terminus was notRogers' plan. He to understand and accept the variousreactions and did not feel threatened as others expressed feelings of the students. Such sessions sometimes divergent views. He did not try to mold thought resulted in deep "meaningful" experiences for the patterns. In no way did he accept responsibilityfor participants. A similar session seemed to be one what the other members chose to believe. He tried to possible way of handling the Harvard assignment. be himself as honestly as possible, while holding the Accordingly. he sat down and wrote the feelings he identical possibility for each of the other conference had at the moment about teaching and learning. The participants. The experience was personally oriented. result was only three brief pages. He explains. "I and it contained many personal interactions between simply put down what Ifelt. with assurance that .if individuals. This. for Rogers, is education. had not got it correctly, the discussion would help to Several years after its presentation at the set me on the right track." (Rogers. 1.461:27-1) Harvard conference, the brief paper was published. At the conference. Rogers used a few moments ( Rogets.1957b)Ithas been included in two of to present his views, almost immediately opening the Rogers' books. (Rogers. 1%1: 1969) In spite of its meeting for discussion. He had notrealizedthe brevity, this paper contains both his fundamental inflamatory nature of the brief paper. The meeting tenets andthepossible implications of his educational exploded with spontaneous. individual reactions to theory. His opening statement is profoundly revealing the presentation. Some felt Rogers was threatening of his entire theoretical attitude. Here it is: "I wish to their jobs: some felt he was saying things he did not present some very brief remarks in the hope thatif reall mean. Rogers refused to defend himself' from they bring forth any reaction from you.I may get the numerous attacks. He tried to accept and some new light on my ownideas." (Rogers. empathise with the frustration beingfeltby the 1961:275) He does not pretend toimpart knowledge: etL.ators. He tried to point out that he had only rather.his desire isto share experience and to stated sonic personal views. He had neither asked compare ideas. He finds it troubling to"think"about nor expected others to agree. During the stormof his experiences and then try to present them logically discussion. members of the group expressed a variety to others because so often these experiencesonly of significant feelings about teaching.It was a very have meaning for him alone: they may seem absurd thought-provoking session." (Rogers. 1%1:27.1) to others. Yet he is willing to share someof his own During the day of Rogers' presentation. possibly personal "meanings." holding them. even for few of the conference members remembered that this himself. on a very tentative basis. He does not argue meeting had beenbilledasademonstratiot.of that these tenets are logically presented. only that student-centered teaching. Some. looking back. may they are important and meaningful. as presented. to have realized that they had indeed lived an Rogers himself. (Rogers. 1961:275) experience of the student-centered educational In the process of interweaving Rogers' psycho- approach. The morning afterthe conference,as logical theory with his educational suggestions. one Rogers was preparing to leave. one of the partici- remembersthat the phenomenological view holds , 24 changing of perceptions, or learning, as a function of are of little or no significanceprobably not the needs of the learner. External manipulation of the "learned" at all within Rogers' definition of learning. environment might modify behavior:it might not. The following statements summarize some of the Such external manipulation of the environment does fundamental ideas of his educational theory:(cf. not, from the individual's view. "cause" his Rogers. 1961:276-277) response. In the learner's mind, his acts are chosen as the best way tosatisfyhis immediate need. (1) One pc -son cannot teach another person how to According to Rogers' theory. underlying all conscious teach. and immediate needs is the maintenance and 121 Anything that can be "taught" to another is in- enhancement of self. In Rogers' view it is important consequential. to realize that although a student may appear to the (3) The only learning thatsignificantly influences teacher to be "learning" to improve his performance behavior is that which is self-discovered and self- on a school lesson. he may really be maintaining a appropriated. stable self-image by appearing to be interested and (4) Such self-discovered "truth" cannot be directly thus keeping himself out of trouble. Any observable communicated to another. evidence of the "learning" may disappear quickly (5)With effort. one may. on occasion. succeed in and completely as soon as the student feels freed "teaching" another something. but if this hap- from teacher manipulation. The analysis of learning pens it is damaging, not helpful. The person who must always include an appraisal from the student's has been "taught" begins to distrust his own point of view. experience.if one's own experience is not A key notion is that the individual's perception of trusted. "significant" learning is stifled. the behaviors which lead to self-actualization is the basis fin- his action. A distorted perception. therefore. As a result of his experiences in therapeutic situ- may lead the individual toward destruction rather ations. Rogers has lost interest in "being a teacher,'' than to valid self-actualization. An implied tenet is As he puts it. "1 realize that I am only interested in that man tries to be 'good." This position contrasts being alearner.preferablylearningthingsthat ith Freud's concepts of the licentious id and the matter. that have sonic significant influence on my trannical superego:the position also clearly con- own behavior." (Rogers. 1961:276) He feels that one trasts with Skinner's belief in the need for certain of the best ways to learn is to drop one's defensive- kinds of control. Rogers believes if man can perceive ness and try to understand the °the. person's point of clearly.or be giventhe opportunitytomodify view. Such practice opens up alto hative perceptions. distorted perceptions. his goe!-directed activity will Educationisthe process thatfacilitatespersonal lead to greater. positive self-actualization. Within this "understanding.""Teaching." which emphasizes context. the educator should not provide conclusions: almost exclusively the teacher's contribution to the he should provide only the opportunity for reducing learning process. is rejected by Rogers. The central distorted perception. Given the opportunity. the theme of facilitation is found in the teacher being an individual will select goals which arc self-actualizing. effective, fully functioning person who is capable of Further, the individual himself is in the best position aiding the learner in sharpening his own perceptions. to determine which goals and methods meet this Throughout a study of Rogers' theory. evecially criterion. as one focuses upon the teacher's role, one must take For Rogers. teaching is the facilitation of caretoavoid aneasilymade misinterpretation. perceptual differentiation. or changes inmeaning. Rogers is not concerned with a licentious experience Teaching isnota directact. One cannot hand a in which the learner responds to superficial psycho- perception to another person or cause a perception to logical stimulation. Letting the student "do his own occur. In Rogers' view the problem of teaching is not thing." if that is an unexamined commitment, is not "How do I present the subject matter?" but rather, the teacher's role. Helping the learner in a personal- "How can I help students perceive personal meaning social definition of problems with personally relevant in the subject matter?" That is, how can the teacher resolutions is the primary concern of the instructor. help the students relate the subject directly to their Examples of teaching that are commended by Rogers lives? For Rogers. learning is a function of need: support this point. (Rogers. 1961:297-314: 1969: need is what the individual perceives as maintaining 11 -57) and enhancing to his self. Therefore. those elements If the teacher is aware of his own experiencing of "education" that are not perceived as self - relates' process. and if he accepts his own uncertainties.then 25 the meaning of personal experience may be clarified involved and second, the subject is difficult to learn for both teacher and student. The Rogerian educator and easytoforget.Rogers believesthatlarge believes both teacher and student (as persons) portions of the present curriculum are of this nature. behave, or learn,in terms of what is real to the The second type of learning. at the other extreme of individual, what is related to the self at the moment a meaning continuum, is described as significant. of action. What is actually "out there" (something meaningful, and centered in personal experience. In termed "reality." "factual knowledge." or "empiri- the moment-by-moment experiencing of his life the cally substantiated material") is not of central individual discovers "things" (not objects. or facts, importance. Rather. it is the students' interpretation but units of meaning) in a way which involves both ofrealityanditsperceivedeffectonhis own his thoughts and his feelings. This kind of learning scl-system that motivates all of his learning and progresses from a natural curiosity, not from action. drudgery: such learning is relatively easily retained Although the student's needs arc all self-related. because of the close personal connections to the the sel -conceptis linked inseparably topersonal experience of the individual involved. (Rogers. precepis of the physical and social world in which Illy individual lives. Maintenance of motivation. always a This secondtypeRogerslabels"significant paramount problem of any prescriptixe approach to learning." He writes: education.isno problemintheRogerian%iew. Selfmotixationisintrinsicinthe process.Rogers By significantlearning I mean learning xiews motixation as a transactive process in which which is more than an accumulation of facts. interpretations Of the environment define problems to Itis learning which makes a differencein which the student chooses to respond. These inter- the individual's benavior, in the course of pretations and definitions, in turn. alter the student's action he chooses in the future. in his atti- perceptions of both self and environment. The tudes and in his personality. tRogers. 1%1:2801 student is always illOtiVated by being involvedin the process of definitions.solutions.redetintions. and The kinds of changes Rogers believes result from this resolutions of self in relation to the perceived kind of learning are: en% ironment. Rogers sees the learning-living experience as a (I) The person comes to sec himself differ- process which. under optimum conditions, will carr ently. itself forward toward goals which are dimly defined. (2) He accepts himself and his feelings more if designated at all: the individual's effort is focused fully. upon understanding the current meaning of that 131 He becomes moreself-confidentand process. This processis characterized by an ex er self-directing. changing complexity. The individual within this kind 14) He becomes more the person he would of educational process can he fascinated.. because like to be. 151 He becomes more flexible. less rigid, in personal relexance and participation are guaranteed. his perceptions. He can also become frightened since he is risking his (6) He adopts more realistic goals for himself. Not only are the parameters of the experience self. without careful definition; the method, or process. of (7) He behaves in a more mature fashion. getting whrrexer itis that one is going also lacks (8) He changes his maladjustive behaviors. specific delineation. tel. Rogers. 1461:276-2-1 II- the even suchalong-established one as indidual has been socialized to select goals and plan chronic alcoholism. carefully to reach them. he may experience difficult (9) He becomes more acceptant of others. in accepting Rogers' formulations. 110) He becomes more open to the evidence. Rogers thinks learning can be dix nled into iwo both to what is going on outside of himself. and to what is going on inside of general types. These types represent the extreme himself. ends of a continuum of meaning. At one end is the III) He changes in his basic personality char- kind of task which has no meaning for the individual. acteristics,in constructiveways. He could be forced to memorize nonsense syllables or 1Rogers. 1%1:280-2811. the presidents of the United States. Whatever the subject, nonsense learning is characterized by these These points are taken directly from. and arc importantfactors:first.no personal meaningis completelyconsistentwith.Rogers'psychological 26 theory of behavior as formulated from his experience' significance in the same experience, are the inpsychotherapy. Heisdescribinga pervasive assumptions. Second, readings. problems, and exper- learning which is not just an accretion of knowledge. iences designed by one person (the teacher) are not butitis a learning which interpenetrates every necessarily "real" for the student:indeed, they portion of the individual's existence. (Rogers. usually are not real, according to Rogers. Third, the 1961:279.296. esp. 280) responsibility for planning resides in the teacher's Rogers' educational focus does not stand alone. hands and little opportunity for student planning is The thinking of some other educational theorists allowed. The implication goes beyond the suggestion seems in close proximity. Jerome Bruner (1961) pro- of meaningless content: the procedure itself stifles poses that learning by discovery brings about a the individual student's growth toward unique condition in which the solution to the problem (rather potentials. than teacher approval or approval of other social Rogers. like Skinner, realizes how formidable is agents) is rewarding. Traditional procedures of listen, the task of implementing his own educational theory. recite, and reinforce with a grade are exchanged for a To follow his suggestions,inthe strictest sense, climate allowing the individual student to hypothe- would result in shocking consequences. Rogers seems size. question. search. discover. verify. and master. to be feeling the impact of this fact when he writes, Learning by discovery should. theoretically. result in "It is when I realize the implications that I shudder a intrinsic motivation. An assumption underlying this bit at the distance I have come from the common position is that a large part of human behavior is sense world that everyone knows is right." (Rogers, controlled by a desire for competence. Anyone who 1961:277) These are the consequences which Rogers has ever been exposed to children has heard them himself believes his theory implies: say. "I want to do it myself." Every child. every developing person in fact. once he believes himself (1) Such experience would imply that we do capable of attempting something, wants to tryit away with teaching. People would get to- without help. The individual takes pleasure in gether if They wished to learn. whatever he doessuccessfully:he increaseshis (2) We would do away with examinations. feeling of confidence because he has proven his They measure only the inconsequential type of learning. competence to himself. Such experience reinforces for (3) The implication would be that we would the person a sense of his own worth. Discovery do away with grades and credits for the learning assumes that an individual.if given the same reason. opportunity, will exploit his tendencies to learn more (4) We would do away with degrees as a about himself and his environment. measure of competence partly for the An element of optimism pervades Rogers' same reason. Another reason is that a psychological theory of behavior and carries over degree marks an end or a conclusion of consistently into his educational formulations. He something, and a learner is only inter- implies a positive regard for the student's growth ested in the continuing porcess of potential and his possibilities of self-direction. The learning. theory. focusing upon self-discovered and self-appro- (5) It would imply doing away with the ex- priated learning as the only significant influence upon position of conclusions, for we realize that no one learns significantly from con- behavior, envisions an educational setting which is to clusions. (Rogers, 1961:277-278) be contrasted sharply with many current classroom environments. Traditionally, the school day has been broken into five to eight segments with a particular The most explicit criteria for determining the subject assigned to each segment.Within each effectiveness of teaching, in Rogers' view, would not segment the teacher might have prepared a number be how active the teacher is. nor how "active" the of readings and assigned problems which are. for one student is, nor what particular technique the teacher reason or another, significant for the teachernot is using. Both teacher and student are "learners." necessarily significant for the students. Rogers' evaluation of the educational situation would From Rogers' frame of reference, what is wrong be based on the amount of personal involvement that with this arrangement? First, the procedure lumps all isbeing experienced by thelearners.Rogerian students together. That all students are ready to work "involvement" must be carefully distinguished from on the same thing at the same time. can finish in the "active" in the Skinnerian sense. same length of time, and can find personal Within each theory,the behaving individual 27 possesses a central importance. Yet, equation of the the greatest personal "meaning." The process of two approaches on the basis that both stress such behavior is what is to be learned. Educational individual behavior is characteristic of critically suggestions made by Rogers are consistent with his inaccurate interpretation of one or both theories. theory of behavior, as further analysis reveals. Skinnner wishes the individual to be steadily active, Theoretically. individual teachers and students participating smoothly. within a carefully designed. are not expected to be copies of Rogers himself. He manipulator!, syndrome. Rogers' desire for individual writes. "Every effective educator has his own style of involvement. on the other hand, concerns internally facilitiating the learning of his students." (Rogers, initiated behaviot thatis chosen inrelation to an 1969:57) He seems to advocate the modification of his internal frame of reference he has labeled the self. theoretical suggestions. especially in the examples of The opposing assumptions each psychologist makes student-centered teaching which he offers. The concerning the individual and the individual's following examples illustrate Rogers' approach within potential for behaving in certain ways. forms the the context of variety: various types of teachers. basis for an irreconcilable antagonism. various experience levels, and various types of Such antagonism is the salient characteristic of desired learning experience. the relationship between the two theories. An The firstillustrative case comes from an analysis of the relationship reveals numerous points elementary school. Barbara Shiel was a sixth grade of unrelenting conflict.In the preceding paragraph teacher who experimented with the student centered the role of the individual participation. as seen by the approach. (Rogers. 1969:11-27). A successful teacher two views. was discussed in terms of involvement and with thirteen years of experience, Miss Shiel activity. Another example of deep and uncompro- encountered a "problem group" with whom she felta mising opposition centers in the divergent views of new approach was needed. While working within the individual responsibility. For Skinner responsibility is structure of the curriculum and the specified units of a term denoting physical reaction to stimuli:for study. she found that most students could assume Rogers it denotes an awareness of ability toact in much responsibility for planning their own work and alternative modes. Contrast, also, the two attitudes carrying out their plans. While some students could toward the word "meaning.** Rogers' entire theory not handles the new freedom at first and needed to focuses upon meaning.Itisdiscovered by the revert to a teacher-directed group. all but four were individual (or individuals. in a Buber I-Thou sense) in ultimately able to participate in the self-directed the particular situation.All behavior is contingent program. Through the school year the teacher upon the meaning for the behaving individual. To the constantly changed procedures. giving her pupils contrary. Skinner thinks an analysis of behavior which freedom only so far as she felt comfortable in doing does not use "mental concepts suchas meaning is a so; in the truest sense of the word, the class was step in the right direction." (Evans. 1968:15) involvedinan "experiment."According to the Individual involvement, individual responsibility. account given. parents. students, and the teacher and individual meaning possibly arcsome of the most concluded that the self-directed approachwas obvious examples of terms which reveal the relation- successful. ship between these two psychological adversaries. A second example came froma college. Volney The basis of the difference in perspectives is formed Faw. of Lewis and Clark College, has experimented by their initial assumptions concerning thenature of with his own modification of the student-centered man. and the essential antagonism is carried forward approach in his psychology class. Professor Faw's step by step as each develops his theory of behavior. classes have much more structure than dosome of Culmination of the conflict which has been developing the other examples. Rogers commentson the great for more than twenty yearscan be seen as each man range of freedom possible within his theory. He feels ends his career with a focus upon education. A.S.Neill,in his Summerhill School. would As always. Skinner and Rogers areindirect represent one extreme and Professor Faw the other opposition to each other. In the preceding chapter extreme. Skinner's approach was discussed. His "technology As one instructor teachinga required course in of teaching" should be used to prescribe theway introductory psychology with a prescribed textbook teachers and students behave: precisely what isto be and curriculum and the same examinations for all learned would also be prescribed. All is determined. sections.Professor Faw isstillable to give his Rogers. on the other hand. expects each teacher and students a number of choices ofways to approach the student to choose modes of behavior which contribute course content and make it meaningful to tl-,?n,;n 28 terms of their own needs and goals. Among the Tenenbaum was so impressed that he experimented suggested options are: review of journal articles and with the theory and then wrote a second article presentation in writing, individual experiments, group entitled. "A Personal Teaching Experience." projects,demonstrations. library-type study,field (Rogers, 1961:310-313) trips, programmed learning. etc. No one activity is The frustrations, excitement, failures. and suc- required, but it is made clear to the student that he cesses are described by Tenenbaum. With "no must participate actively if he is to learn. Evaluation direction" from Rogers. a band of individuals, each for the necessary grades is in terms of the quality going spontaneously in his own way, evolved into a and quantity or work produced. Faw actually uses cohesive, efficient.study group. alive with deep some concepts from Skinner's theory. personal involvement and commitment. Tenenbaum The example Rogers gives of his own teaching testifies concerning this experience as follows: comes from the graduate level. (Rogers, 1969:57-97) He declares, "I am sure I would have followed the As you may know. Rogers believes that if a same principles. and many of the same procedures, person is accepted, fully accepted, and in whether it had been an elementary, high school, or this acceptance there is no judgment, only college course, though I might not have been able to compassion and sympathy, the individual is follow such an unorthodox schedule." (Rogers. able to come to grips with himself, to devel- meeting Rogers suggested op the courage to give up his defenses and 1969:57) At thefirst face his true self.1 saw this process work. possible topics and readings but left both completely (Rogers, 1961:305) open for individual additions. The class met for "long hours" on several weekends. The requirements were According to Tenenbaum's account, most of the as follows: (Rogers. 1969:61-62) students were enthusiastic before the end of the 1. A list of reading done by each student. The course. Three or four of the group found the entire student should indicate how each item was read. experience distasteful. These few dissatisfied stu- i.e.. "skimmed," "read carefully three times." dents were ones who wanted to be presented with a set of facts which they could memorize and give back etc. 2. A paper of any length about the student's most oil an examination. For the student who defines his significant personal values and the ways they were educational experience within this "factual" frame- changed or not changed by the course. work, Rogers' approach will undoubtedly result in a 3. A statement of self-evaluation including criteria of completely unsatisfactory experience. The student evaluation, description of ways in which criteria who demands "answers" from the instructor, rather were met or not met, and the grade the student than look for them inside his own world of meaning. feels appropriate. will experience little but frustration within the 4. Personal evaluation of the course in a sealed enve- Rogerian approach. The entire process is geared to a lope with student's name on outside. 'ack of closure.Tenenbaum elaborates: As Rogers himself points out. there is no fi- These four requirements were mandatory for receiv- nality in the process. He himself never sum- ing a grade in the course. Rogers' description of this marizes (against every conventional law of course centers primarily upon reactions of various teaching). The issues are left unresolved; students. The overall impression is almost identical the problems raised in class are always in a with that obtained from reading accounts of his state of flux, ongoing. In their need to know, encounter groups. (Rogers, 1970) He concludes. "It to come to some agreement, the students had been a course which seemed to me and to the gather together. wanting understanding. students to have been very .,uccessful." (Rogers. seeking closure. A grade means an end; 1969:57) but Rogers does not give the grade; it is the student who suggests the grade; and since The following illustration of Rogers' approach is he does so, even this sign of completion is included because it comes from a mature scholar. a ieft unresolved, without an end, unclosed. philosopher of education, Samuel Tenenbaum. Also, since the course is unstructured, each Tenenbaum was in one of Rogers' classes offered at has staked his person in the course; he has Brandies University. He wrote an article describing spoken, not with the textbook as the gauge. this experience entitled. "Carl R. Rogers and but with his person, and thus as a self he Non-DirectiveTeaching."(Rogers, 1961:299-310) has communicated with others, and because 29

of this, in contradistinction to the impersonal wanted to sit in the class. Best of all, the subject matter that comprises the normal students at the end of the course wrote Dean course, there develops this closeness and Benjamin Fine a letter in which they said warmth. (Rogers. 1961:308) the nicest things about me. And the Dean in turn wrote me to that effect. To say I am At the time he penned the above description. overwhelmed by what happened only faintly Tenenbaum was writing and thinking from the reflects my feelings. (Rogers, 1961:312-313) students' point of view. a number of months later he The foregoing illustrations each contain various composed the ecstatic reaction. mentioned earlier, to aspects of Rogers' thought: in a way they corroborate this type of educational experience, from the elements of Rogers' educational theory offered. teacher's point of view. (Rogers, 1961:310-313) explicitly and implicitly. earlier in the present The strongest previous educational influence on section. A summary of this theorymay be worded as Tenenbaum had been that of Kilpatrick and Dewey. follows. Most educators would not classify the thought of Rogers sees education in terms of individual these two men as tending toward the narrowor exploration and discovery, individual understanding, provincial. Tenenbaum thought that he had always individually significant meaning. Though both welcomed thewidestpossiblediscussion. inhis Skinner and Rogers focusupon the individual, the classes. Yet. teaching had become more andmore essence of their definitions and the resulting difficult for him. He had come to feel that his classes implications for education are completely different. were listless. that he was simply standing in front of Rogers' theory upholds the individual's abilityto a group "yammering." (Rogers. 1961:310) He had select his own behavior. The learner initiatesthe not taught for ten years prior to his experience in process, is self-reliant. and evaluates himself and the Rogers' class. After that experience he realized that process. Only he, the learner, can know if his needs although he had "encouraged" discussion, he always are being met, if the process has helped him toward wanted it to come out according to his own way of his own goals. The prime element of thisprocess, thinking. None of the "discussions" in his class had according to Rogers, is its personal meaningto the been real discussions. All his questions had been individual. (Rogers, 1969:5) "loaded." After his experience with Rogers he was In Rogers' view, the factor which makes not only more aware of what he was doing. but he education effective (successful) is not the technique of tried to relinquish control. He was not completely manipulation, as advocated by Skinner. but trust. successfulinthiseffort. He stillexpressed his (Rogers. 1969:75) The teacher cannot fakea feeling of opinions and lectured to the students occasionally. He trust. If teacher and student are each true to personal did, however. succeed to an extent that was feelings, each increases his ability to trust himself extremely rewarding to both himself and the and the other. As trust grows, each becomes students. His personal conclusion follows, as com- increasingly free to modify hisown knowledge municated in a letter to Carl Rogers: boundaries, to explore, discover, "learn," andto I cannot say I followed you all the way. Dr. change toward what he wants to be. Both teacher and Rogers. since I would express opinions and student are freed from feeling compelled to keepup a at times. unfortunately. lecture; and that I facade. or a pretense of fitting certain prescribed believe is bad, since Audents, once authori- patterns. tative opinions are expressed, tend not to Rogers feels "teaching" is a vastly overrated think. but try to guess what is in the instruc- function. He has no desire to "make" anyone know tor's head and provide him with what he anything. He is not sure that anyone knows exactly might like. so as to find favor in his eyes. If what should be taught. He feels the imposition ofa I had it to do over again, I would have less static way of knowing might make some sense ina of that. But I did try and I believe I suc- static. primitive society. but it makes nosense in our ceeded in large measure to give to each student a sense of dignity. respect and accept- modern. constantly changing society. (Rogers. ance: farthest from my mind was to check on 1969:103) He believes the goal of education inour them or evaluate and mark them.... That rapidly changing society should be the facilitation of the foregoing was not "biased perception" changehelping the individual learn how to change. was evidenced from reports I got outside the One recognizes this position to be in opposition to classroom. The students had said such nice that of Skinner, the intrinsic nature of the latter things about me that faculty members necessarily locking the organism into a pattern. The 30 nucleus of Rogers' approach ixcontained in his avoided, and if a trust relationshipisto be following statement: established. If the facilitator is congruent andwilling to risk, methods and patterns areeliminated. The only man who is educated is the man (Rogers, 1969:129-144) The facilitatorwho has who has learned how to learn; the manwho established a trust relationship is the catalystwho has realized that no knowledge is secure. makes learning possible. (Rogers,1969:151-166) that only the process of seekingknowledge The criterion of significance in assessingeduca- gives a basis for security. Changingness, a tional procedures is the size of the contributionthat reliance on process rather than static knowl- the edge. is the only thing that makes sense as the curriculum, in any of its forms, makes to a goal for educationin the modern world. cause of individual fulfillment.A culture necessarily (Rogers. 1969:104) transmits, and man necessarily adapts as socialization is experienced; yet, both processes remainrather Two characteristics are essential for the onewho pedestrian and insignificant, in Rogers' view. unless would facilitate learning. He must begenuine. they contributedirectly and substantiallyto the honest, congruent: he must be himself.Second, he ultimate of total personality development, asevalu- must be willing to risk. both hisself and the process ated by the perceptual stance of the involved involved in the actual situation. Both of thesecharac- ndividual. teristicsare necessaryif manipulationisto be

SKINNER'S ThEORY IN SOCIAL CONTEXT

The writer's effort to anticipate the results if (Skinner's theory of behavior).Furthermore. the Skinner's theory were applied to education in a large mode oflifeengendered by suchprinciplesis society, for example that of the United States.is, revealed through glimpses offeredBurrisas he necessarily and almost completely speculatory. No observes the people who live in Walden Two. evidence is available which would indicate what a Because the present study is primarily concerned total culture based upon Skinner's assumptions would with the ways in which psychological theories apply actually be like. Historians do not tell of any nation, to education. the discussionwill be limited to a few and anthropologists do not describe any culture. to illustrationstaken from chapters twelve through which one could attribute Skinner's guidelines. If an sixteen of Walden Two. In these chapters.Skinner attempt were made to translate the theory into social reveals educational aspects of the community.The practice. what kinds of conditions and issues might reader, along with Burris, is permitted to catchbrief ensue? Two illustrations will be used. One contains scenes that are, presumably,typical of life from birth descriptions of control from Skinner's own imagina- to parenthood. tion. The other focuses upon an actual society, the One day Burris is conducted through the description of which closely parallels much of communal nursery in whichallthe babieslive. Skinner's thought, especially in the kind and degree (Skinner, 1948:96-99) Their environment and care of control being experienced by the individual. closely resembles that of Deborah Skinner, B.F. Skinner has provided some speculative material Skinner's own daughter. (Skinner. 1945:30) Aircribs in the novel, Walden Two (Skinner. 1948). The story are used; they control temperatureand humidity. around is.essentially,a description of a smallutopian They also facilitate sanitation. Parents come community that has been created according to every day or so, for at least afew minutes, to play Skinner's theoretical principles. Throughout the book, with their baby. From birth the infants are Skinner presents his arguments and explicates his conditioned to behave in ways prescribed by Frazier ideas through the speeches of his alter ego. Frazier and his assistants. For example, "annoyances" are (the community's founder and leader). The story slowly introduced "much like inoculations" as the progresses as a college professor, Burris. and afew babies are conditioned to tolerate greater and greater other observers are conducted on a tour of the amounts of adverse conditions. So completeis this community. Events covering each day of the tour are conditioning that many of the conceptualizations with selected so that Frazier can explain to Burris the which we traditionally explain, understand, and principles upon which the community was founded describe our emotional reactions arc never used in 31 Walden Two. To illustrate the thoroughness of such couraged to examine theirreaction. The conditioning Skinner describes the following incident. value of the distraction is generally obvious. One day an observer was talking to a young lady Well, need I go on? When the experiment is who was in charge of a group of children. Apparently repeated a day or so later, the children all some of the children were going on a picnic: they run with the lollipops to their lockers...." were excitedly preparing for the outing. The (Skinner, 1948:107-108) remainder of'the children were working contentedly Skinner's account of how self'control is taught at at their usual activities. (Skinner. 1948:100.103) No Walden Two is incomplete. He does not describe the reason was apparent for some children to go and methods used to endow three and fouryear old some to stay. The young lady was asked about the children with the ability to internalize abstract problem of jealousy on the part of the slighted conceptualizations such as "gains in happiness." children. She was completely bewildered. She could "reductions in tension." and "the value of distrac- not understand the question.(Skinner,1948:101) tions." In order for the reader to understand the Frazier later explained that although she had been methods Skinner is advocating, other kinds of twelve years old when Walden Two was founded. additional information must be supplied. Exactly what such emotions as jealousy had been conditioned behavior is observed (in Skinner's theory all behavior completely from her behavior. Naturally, the younger is overt, physically observable) as thetot "examines children, who had been conditioned from birth, could his own behavior while he comtemplatesa lollipop?" experience no such emotion. How does staring at a piece of candy "help recognize As Skinner describes his vision of the socializa- the need for self-control?" (The tendencyto eat, tion process, he sometimes uses words (as has been according to Skinner's own theory. is relatedto the noted in his scientific writing) the meaning of which organism's state of deprivation). What methodsare must be changed from that of ordinary usage to that used at Walden Two should a child decideto eat the particular meaning which fits the behaviorist's candy immediately? Skinner abhors punishment; theory. Also, the pictures Skinner offers, through therefore, in Walden Two no aversiveconsequences Frazier, raise certain questions in the reader's mind. could follow such behavior on the child'spart. but leaves these questions unanswered. The following Presumably, by age four. the child has beenso is a case in point. conditioned that he is physically unable to make such The issue under considerationisthat of decisions. Yet, if such is thecase, why bother with self-control. (cf. Skinner, 1948:104-115; 1953:227.241) the lollipop experience? Such "embarrassing prob- Frazier explains how children are taught self-control lems" may be those Skinnersays should be at Walden Two. At three or four years of age each "ignored." (Skinner.1971:12)Inanycase,the childis given a lollipop that has been dipped in children in Walden Two are exceedingly rapid powdered sugar so that a single touch of the tongue learners if measured by "normal" standards usedin can be detected. The child is then told that he may traditional societies. eat the candy later in the day, provided it hasn't While walking through an outdoor setting. already been licked. Frazier explains that all ethical complete with flower beds and picnic tables. Burris training at Walden Two is completed by the age of observed a group of "learners." His view of the six. Self-control (in Skinner's theory, self-manipula- scene follows: tion of external factors) centers in the simple principle of putting temptation out of sight,a Large sheets of paper were thumbtacked to principle acquired by Walden children before theage the tables, and several students, most of of four. The following is Frazier's explanation of how them ten or twelve years old but two or such control is accomplished. three certainly no older than eight, were drawing what looked like Euclidian construc- First of all, the children are urged to exam- tions with heavy block pencils. Other ine their own behavior while looking at the children were driving pegs into the ground lollipops. This helps them to recognize the and running strings from one peg toan- need for self-control. Then the lollipops are other. Two surveyor's transits anda steel concealed. and the children are asked to no- measuring tape were in use. So far as I tice any gain in happiness or any reduction could see. Euclid was getting a first hand in tension. Then a strong distraction is ar- experimental check. (Skinner, 1948:95) rangedsay. an interesting game. Later the From the descriptions Skinner offers in Walden children are reminded of the candy and en- Two. one may surmise that he expects his methods 32

would result in precocious social, as well as mental, central issue in the Skinner-Rogers controversy, as development. The following scene illustrates such well as that of the present study. concerns control of expectations. behavior. Certainly the fictitious Walden Two is an example of absolute control. Yet, could such a degree Just south of the flower gardens. on a of control be accomplished? Could such a scheme blanket spread out upon the warm grass. lay become socialreality?Skinner maintains that an a naked baby nine or ten months old.A boy and girl were trying to make her crawl essential element, in the realization of his theory. is toward a rubber doll. We stopped for a mo- an unquestioning assumption of the determined ment on our way to the common rooms to nature of man's behavior. (Skinner, 1953:9) Notions enjoy her grotesquely unavailing efforts. of personal freedom are inimical to his theory, Such When we resumed our walk, Frazier said unquestioning acceptance of a dogmatic principle has casually, "Their first child." essentially the same effect upon an individual's "Good heavens!" I cried. "Do you mean behavior as does his acceptance of a religious faith to say those children are the parents of that that demands obedience. baby?" Techniques of religious indoctrination, indeed. "Why., of course. And a very fine baby it offer valuable material to the student of the control of is. too." human behavior. To the extent that religious (sacred) "But they can't be more than sixteen or seventeen years old!" behavior is defined synonymously with unquestioning "Probably not." behavior, any socialization process or any socially "But isn't that rather remarkable?It's prescribed behavior can be labeled religiousexactly not the usual thing.I hope." My voice to the degree conformityismandatoryforthe trailed off doubtfully. individual's cultural viability. A society based upon "It's not at all unusual with us," Frazier strict religious conformity can be experienced as said. "The average age of the Walden Two social reality. Such a society can actually maintain a mother is eighteen at the birth of her first degree of control close to that desired by B.F. child. and we hope to bring the figure down Skinner. the following example is offered not as an still ferther....1 believe the girl you saw example of Walden Two in socialreality but to was sixteen when her baby wasborn." illustrate the possibilities of extinguishing self-aware- ( Skinner. 1948:129) ness and personal freedom. The exercise of personal choice is denied by unquestioned (religious) assump- The phenomenon illustrated by Skinner's young tions. The followingdiscussiondealswithsuch couple is certainly plausible. biologically, although assumptions as it focuses upon the Hutterite culture. not recommended from a medical point of view. The (Hostetler and Huntington, 1967) example is remarkable only from certain social The Hutterites compose a society which offers perspectives.InthetraditionalWesterncultural empirical evidence of possibilities of experiencing life setting. a degree of freedom and responsibility is within a degree of control similar to that described by assumed that is not known in Walden Two. In a Skinner. In the example of the Hutterite culture we traditional Western society the teenage parents find a small society of people who are locked into would, undoubtedly. experience hardships and frus- modes of behavior which can be labeled "doing trations in an attempt to survive economically and good." (cf. Skinner. 1971:67) If one measures socially.InSkinner's planned society.the young "efficiency of socialization" (degree of control) in parents, and their baby, are integrated units within terms of escape percentage. the Hutterite socializa- the carefully designed social movement. Each tion process has a remarkable record. During approxi- individual is totally cared for within the master plan; mately ninety years of history. alittle over 100 for this security the individual has exchanged his individuals have voluntarily "escaped" ultimate notions of freedom. The young parents, for example, socialization by thegroup. The group numbers do not have to find a job. set up a home. and arrange around 20.000 at present. How isthis degree of their lives within the confines of a self-imposed control realized? budget: neither are they free to make such personal The Hutterite "religion" permeates every aspect decisions. From Frazier's view, there was nothing of the culture. Within this religio-cultural schema one "remarkable" in the scene. can study some of the techniques which most The examples from Walden Two are provided to effectively permit. and aid. the group to extinguish give the reader some idea of how Skinner envisions individual prerogative. Religious indoctrination and his theory being translated into cultural reality. The socialization into the community are the same 33

process.Within such a culturalsettingthe supportive of the absolution of the authority "religious" -aspects of achieving behavioral control patterns." (Hostetler and Huntington.1967:12-14) may be more clearly visible than would be the case if From the pattern of dress alone an individual can be control were discussed onlyinthepsychological distinguished as an adult. female, Christian. terminology of B. F. Skinner. Hutterite. humble toward the oppositesex. and The Hutterite proclaims a dualistic world view; whether she is going to work, evening church, or he experiences situations in which the "mystical" Sunday church. Regulatory time schedules are used knowledge system touches the "practical" events in to organize every activity and social relationship, t he his everyday life. and these contact points demand minutes of the day, seven, days a week, are so some kind of explanation if the individual is to avoid patterned that the individual has no "private time." cognitive dissonance. Points of ambiguity and contra- He has a prescribed place. dress, activity.compan- diction produce anxiety and fragmentation as the ion, and attitude for every moment of every day. the 'individual struggles to match his personal experience fanatical following of patterns is of central importance with the imposed explanation of reality. In exchange relative to the control of the individual's behavior. for the kind of psychological security offered by the The essential element in establishing such imposed pattern the individual trades his assumption control over individual behavior. in the Hutterite of individual awareness and personal knowledge. society and in Skinner's theory. isidentical. The Therefore, rather than the God of the mystical system individual in each case must accept religiously he verbally claims tofollow,he actually follows (unquestionably) the fundamental assumptions of the (worships) Order as patterned by the group. The system. The individual Hutterite who does not accept interpersonal social pressure that controls the the asuniptions of the particular religious dogma is individual within the Hutterite culture isidentical declared "ungodly" by their leaders. The individual with the implicit interpersonal control of Skinner's who does not accept the assumptions of his particular plan. Experiencing such total interpersonal control is "technology." Skinner declares "prescientific." dependent upon a religious acceptance of funda- (Skinner, 1953:447) In each controlling scheme the mental assumptions. (cf. Skinner. 1953:9, 447) The method used to translate the assumption into action Hutterite leader insists that the individual should centers in a type of self-denial which can be labeled accept patterns of behavior imposed by the particular religious. Skinner. in his theory, denies the validity of religious dogma as "the Will of God." Skinner insists all personal interpretations, meaning. introspection, that the individual should accept as "scientific fact" understanding and so forth. Such concepts are the externally determined character with invariable relegated to "mentalistic" explanations which do not patterns of all behavior. Neither assumption can be enhance prediction and controlof behavior. The questioned if control is to be maintained. Hutterites also make every effort to negate private Within Hutterite society. "Hutterite Order" is interpretations and personal meaning as the individ- Supreme. and because group pressureis equated ual contemplates his daily experience. Consider how with "the Will of God," Divine sanction is easily the Hutterites arrange the contingencies of reinforce- translated into space-time relationships of everyday ment to mold individual behavior into a precisely life. Within this perspective, personal interpretations designed, and almost completely predictable, society. of experience becomes rebellion against God. Every Compare the similarities which indeed form the possible element of existence is utilized to keep the essential factors in each technique. pressure of Group Scrutiny bearing directly upon the Careful comparison of such similarities indicate behavior of the individual. Constant interpersonal that those living in the. Hutterite culturemay be as observationismaintainedinorder to keep the close to realizing the degree of control advocated by individual behaving and viewing hisown experience Skinner as can be found in the history ofany society. within the confines of interpretations acceptable to Basic assumptions are essential to both the Hutterites the group. Within such constant surveillance and and to Skinner. Carefully planned techniquesare impositionallthe existence of the individualis mandatory in translating theoretical assumptions into patterned. human behavior. The Hutterites use sacred ritual in Space patterns of isolation from other cultural the process of eradicating any glimmers of personal contact, local colony construction and planning, and awareness. Time is "set aside" each day (as well as even the architecture of buildings, conform precisely "set apart" from patterned schedules of eating, to that prescribed by the dogma. Moreover, "the working and sleeping). Such denial of timeseems to rigid character of the German sentence structure is be part of the processin negating personal 34 experience. The practice seems to include more than dogma of the sect. The goal is precisely controlled the theological term "sanctification" implies. A individual behavior which fits the society designed by psychological anesthetic is used to paralyze individual the manipulators. Obviously, the schemes are not sensitivity. Long sermons are slowly read; long songs identical. The identical element, which is the most arc sung slowly and withoutfeeling;long ritual critical single element in each scheme. is a kind of prayers are recited. Much of thisritual has been religiously accepted denial of personal experience. memorized: some is read: none is spontaneous. Any The attention of the individual to his own personal. personal meaning that could have seeped into an present experienceto his private, currentfeelings individual's existence during the day is mortified by has been diverted by inducing him to subscribe to suspending time and using ritualto deaden the certain theoretical assumptions. if the individual can senses. The design seems to preclude any savoring or be induced to accept. unreservedly, the psychological enjoyment of the present. All behavior is designed on or theological assumptions he may indeed be content a basis of .future expectations. The essential pattern to have his behavior manipulated by external agents. structure for Hutterite life was formulated in the To gain such control. then, from a Skinnerian distant past.in1540. (Hostetler and Huntington. perception. hinges upon the possibilities of inducing 1967:6) Through a technique of focusing the individuals to renounce privateinterpretations of individual's attention upon past and future "experi- experience and accept Skinner's basic assumptions. ence" (neither of which can correspond to the actual That individuals may be influenced, upon occasion, is ongoing experience of the individual) the individual is undeniable.Skinner'splan.however, concerns a made less aware of his own personal feelings designed society. The size and origin of the social concerning whatisactuallyhappening.Imposed group is of great importance in the analysis of such patterns and explanations can seem more and more group control. The fictitious nature ofWalden Two acceptable as the individual denies his self in favor of limits its significance. The Hutterite society is the authority. The authority comes to be accepted as relatively small. 20.000. and this population is Truth. The explanations and patterns of behavior separated into much smaller colonies. The society designated by the authority take precedence over the grew toitspresent size from a small group of individual's own private interpretations and choices of religious zealots and. through the years. infants were action. His behavior has been controlled. (cf. Rogers. totally socialized to accept the religious dogma of 1951:481-533. especially 498.499) their parents. Skinner envisions a similar birth to Clearly, a consideration of the influence of past death indoctrination in Walden Two. yet. he does not experience and of future expectations is important in seem tobesatisfiedwith such small-scaleand any study of behavior. Yet the closest one can come long-term adoption of his theory. (cf. Skinner, 1971) toactualexperienceisinthepresent.Mental Skinner would apply his scheme to the United States. projection into thepast or futureisalways For the United States to become such a planned accompanied by some degree offantasy. Some society, millions of adults must be induced to accept deviation from whatactuallyhappened or what Skinner's assumptions. (cf. Skinner, 1953:447) More- actually will happen is inevitable. An over-emphasis over, great numbers of these adults have a long upon such psychological time journeying can negate heritage of belief in the possibilities of personal present experience to a degree which inhibits choice. Many, as Skinner himself admits (Skinner, personal choice of alternative actions. Such emphasis 1971:26-59) cling to philosophies which have been may facilitate the manipulatory syndrome an outside developedin order to maximize theindividual's observer sees inboth the Skinner and Hutterite choice of action. Can such large numbers of adults be schemes for control. induced to accept a doctrinaire scheme and a mode of The Skinnerian effort is designed to induce the behavior opposite from those for which they long individual to concentrate upon external causes of his have struggled? own behav:lr. to assume that he has no choice. to Analytical critique of Skinner's ideas may be accept asscientificfactthatheisnotfreeto developed on two levels:theoretical and practical. experience arbitrary or spontaneous actions. The goal The theoretical validity of Skinner's thought is is precisely controlled individual behavior which fits questionable. To offer illustrations in which individ- the society designed by the manipulators. The uals are, in some ways. influenced, is an insufficient Hutterite effort is designed to induce the individual to premise upon whichtobuild the conclusion he concentrate upon future heavenly reward. to assume desires. The validity of Skinner's theory rests upon that he has no choice. to accept as God's will the the argument that if you can control some people. in 35 some ways. some of the time, thenit necessarily can be leveled at his social plan from the current follows that you can control all people, in all ways, political bias called democracy. all of the time. Analyzed logically, the argument is Various degrees of control, indeed, are accepted found to contain the "fallacy of composition." The by individuals in their personal lives, as well as simplest type of this fallacy is committed when one collectively in societies. An analysis of social influ- infers that a whole population has a certain property ence upon individual psychology. and its consequent from the premise that some constituent part of that action, demands careful examination and accurate whole possesses the property (in the present case, defintion of commonly used terms and of commonly the vulnerability to behavioral manipulation).(cf. desired goals. Education is a case in point. If most of Copi, 1953:74 -75) Skinner's argument is analogous to the individuals within a society define education as contending that if some people can be hypnotized on the imposition of a closed knowledge system upon the occasion, then all people can be hypnotized for all person being socialized, thus conforming his behavior time. to a pattern chosen by that society. then in actual A practical criticism isclosely related to the experience individuals will tend to expect and to theoretical weakness. Examples of advertising, preci- followbehavioral dictates from socialinfluences. sion teaching, behavior modification of autistic Parallels of such socialization may be drawn from the children, and police activity testify to the actuality of Hutterite society. from Walden Two, and from certain various controlling influences on some behavior. The aspects of public education in the United States. For presence of government is witness to a general social any society to continue, such socialization (cultural acceptance of some degree of behavioral control. To transmission) may notfall below some minimum suggest. however, that an entire nation of adults, amount. If the culture is not handed down, clearly the most of whom have always assumed some kinds of society will disintegrate. Some continuity and stability personal prerogative, can be induced to assume the is essential for social cohesion. inevitability of absolute control is to ignore reason- If. on the other hand. education is defined as the able probabilities. The present discussion does not process of liberating the individual to inquire and to imply that Skinner's technology will not work in question his own personal experience in the effort to specific instances of behavior control. Rather, the construct his own private definition of reality, then contention is that such situations are limited both in individual control by socialization will be at a size and social context. Skinner has provided no minimum, and individual prerogative will be great. evidence which reveals inducement on the grand For any society to continue. such individual preroga- scale required by his plan. tive may not rise above some maximum amount. If Skinner's suggestions for the control of behavior private interpretations are allowed to eradicate can be questioned by combining both theoretical and cultural perceptions, again no cohesive quality will be practical weaknesses of his theory. Skinner implies an experienced and the society will disintegrate. elite group of planner.or manipulators. experts In their controversy. Skinner and Rogers belabor whom the rest of the people obey without question. the range between the maximum and minimum levels These rulers are called "Managers" in Walden Two. of behavioral control with social possibility. In the and concerning their decisions the regular members present chapter. the argument contends that neither have a voice nor do they desire it. (Skinner, Skinner's theory cannot be applied directly to a large 1948:55) To these men Skinner seems to attribute a society such as that of the United States. In the next rationality he denies mankind in general. Somehow section. Rogers' theory will be placedinsocial the leaders are able to make the kinds of decisions context. Where Skinner exaggerates the upper limits which a physical determinism makes impossible for of possible socialization. possibly Rogers exaggerates ordinary people. From a theoretical point of view, no the lower limits. scientific evidence has been offered to substantiate the assumption of such a"rationality gap"in cognitive ability. Practically. great odds are against any possibility of inducing citizens of the United States, long indoctrinated with notions of equality. to accept the idea of absolute rule by an elite. The spontaneous question of many would be, "Who is going to control the controllers?" This question may be leveled at his theory from a logical base, and it 36

ROGERS' THEORY IN SOCIAL CONTEXT

Rogers' ideas cannot be extrapolated into a total The overlooking of an experiential fact, such as social setting as easily as were Skinner's ideas in the the social influences upon cognition, must be preceding chapter. Rogers has not written his considered a basic weakness if found in any equivalent of Walden Two; therefore, one has no philosophical position. Such an oversight is common specific example, from the non-directive approach, of to some existentialists, who may have influenced what his ideal society would be like. He could not. Rogers' thinking. The essence of the existentialist from his theoretical position, describe the society position is that the individual can create his own which would result from his suggestions. First, he world of meaning, "existence precedes essence." focuses on a process, not a product; the end product (Sartre. 1956) Yet, the philosophical efforts of leading is never known in the Rogers' scheme. Second. existentialists may not only be influenced covertly by intrinsicin any concept of society are ways of cultural' factors.but they are also most clearly knowing and behaving. congruent with that particular couched within cognitive frameworksparadigms cer- society's cultural framework. Implicit within the tainly not original to the philosopher. One may ask concept of society are "rules" and "control." The with Frederick Penis, epitome of Skinner's thoughtiscontrol;that of Rogers is absence of control. To project Skinner's What is Tillich without his Protestantism, desire for maximum control, one has only to increase Buber without his Chassidism. Marcel with- social controls -that have been out Catholicism? Can you imagine Sartre and intensify 'the without support from his Communist ideas, imagined and experienced. One can imagine a "1984 Heidegger without support from language. situation," if only as a horror novel. (Orwell. 1949) or Benswanger without psychoanalysis? To project Rogers' desire for lack of control, one must (Per ls. 1969:60) envision a cultural vacuum. An effort to think of a society in which the individual is completely free from Within his theoretical formulations, Rogers the coercion of socialization boggles the imagination. implies that the individual can function outside a Some minimum of cultural, cohesive factors must social, cognitive framework. B. F. Skinner, although be present for a society to exist. Culture enables he did not refer to existentialism, attacked Rogers' interpersonal relationships to evolve and to function thought precisely at the weak point being discussed. in the lives of individuals. Culture. the "social glue" Skinner's wording does not obscure anidentical which holds a grout of people together in a society. argument: may be labeledculturaltradition.socialmores, politically formulated laws, manners, and so forth. MI When you turn the delinquent over to him- such concepts imply rules of behavior, the essence of self, as some psychologists end psychiatrists which is control. The mind simply cannot handle the feel you can do, you will be successful only notion of a group of people functioning within the if society has in some way implanted the kinds of control which are essential. This is dynamics of everyday life while oblivious to any rules a point on which I argue with Carl Rogers, of conduct. who claims that somehow or other you are The intensity of culturaldictates varies with going to find within the client himself the different situations. Within the isolation of the controlling forces that will solve his problem. therapeutic room, Rogers may indeed help his client His methods work with clients who have feel a decrease of cultural restraint. His label of such emerged from a tradition such as the Judeo- experience as "pure culture" has already been Christian, which gives them reasonsfor questioned. If the client's behavior became "pure" or behaving well, but if a client suddenly an- absolutely culturally unpredictable, Rogers himself nounces, "Ah, yes! I see it now. I should would declare the client insane. Other than physical murder my boss!" you don't just let him reflex. activity is based upon knowledge. Essential for walk out of the office. (Evans, 1968:31) such action is the possession and use of knowledge defined as the total cognitive framework. The The essence of the above argument against cognitive framework used by any individual is Rogers' theory is applicable also to his educational supplied by his particular society. (cf. Berger and views.Although he seems to be influenced by Luckmann. 1967) existentialist thought in some respects, his thought 37

must be distinguished in other respects. For example. Thus while the establishment of values by many people identify existentialist philosophy with each individual may seem to suggesta com- the work of Jena Paul Sartre. Because of theextreme plete anarchy of values, experience indicates pessimism of Sartre's philosophy, existentialism is that quite the opposite is true. Since all indi- generally consideredto present a rather dismal viduals have basically the same needs, inclu- picture of man's 'existence. To the contrary, Rogers is ding the need for acceptance by others, it an incredible optimist. Nowhere is this prevailing appears that when each individual formu- optimism more evident than in one of hisassump- lates his own values, in terms of his own tions concerning the nature of man. direct experience, it is not anarchy which While discussing the social reality of Skinner's results, but a genuinely socializedsystem of values. (Rogers, 1951:524) thought it was noted that his reasoning containsa logical fallacy. He infers that if something is true ofa constituent part of the same must necessarily be true Precise delineation of Rogers' thoughton the of the whole. Rogers makesa variation of the same subject of socialization is difficult. Some ofhis state- logical error when he reasons that ifsome of his ments may appear ambiguous to those not orientedto clients seem to function betteras socialization his particular psychological view. Inthe above pressures are decreased, then all men would function quotation he indicates that a culturally. .framedsociali- harmoniously if socialization influences were mini- zation process is unnecessary because thenature of mized on them all. Such a utopian society doesnot man is such that social order is a natural result. Yet necessarily follow, either logically or in the real on occasion, Rogers is aware of the questions which world. Rogers, however, assumes thatan intrinsic permePit; he present discussion. Consider the issues characteristic of each individual is a tendency tomove 'I; tiuses: toward positive growth. toward "maturity." (Rogers, 1961:35) He further declares: Is social interaction necessary in order fora self to develop? Would the hypotheticalper- One of the most revolutionary concepts to son reared alone upon a desert island have a grow out of our clinical experience is the self? Is the self primarily a product of the growing recognition that the innermostcore process of symbolization? Is it the fact that of man's nature, the deepest layers of his experiences may be not only directly experi- personality. the base of his "animalna- enced, but symbolized and manipulated iii ture,"ispositive in natureis basically thought, that makes the self possible? Is the sociological, foward moving, rational and self simply the symbolized portion of experi- realistic. (Rogers, 1961:91) ence? These are some of the questions which shrewd research may be ableto answer. (Rogers, 1951:497) Rogers calls his assumption "revolutionary"because traditional notions held by dominant Western Rogers acknowledges the basic issue,how can religion, and by psychoanalysis, consider man'sbasic the self be anything independent of nature evil, anti-social. Rogers assumes the opposite, socialization? Yet, he never attends directlyto this issue. His that man's basic natureis good. when this theoretical assumption is applied to social dynamics the notion structure rests heavily on a kind of is "knowing" which seems almost outside seen to be analogous to an assumption mademany the cognitive domain. He constantly placesgreat importance upon years ago in economics. Adam Smith, in his a kind of "continuing organismic valuing argument': for a liberal approach to economic policy, process." As noted earlier, this notionmay be associated with assumed an "invisible hand" whichguarantees the the currently used term, "gut-feeling." random financial efforts of individuals, each seeking Here is a description of what Rogers believes his own good. to result in the takes place when greatest collective good. an individual begins to rely (Smith, 1961:166) Unfortunately, man'sexperience on tilt "gut-feeling," when he begins to behavecontrary to the patterns in has never supported the existence of sucha hand. which he has been socialized. Rogers seems to imply a similar handas he poses the assumption that each individual, seeking hisown In therapy, as the person explores his phe- values, will not precipitate anarchy, butwill nomenal field, he comes to examinethe automatically develop a harmonious society.He values which he has introjected and which writes: he has used as if they were. basedupon his 38

own experience. He isdissatisfiedwith open to all his experience, he has access to them, often expressing the attitude that he all of the available data in the situation, on has just been doing what others thought he which to base his behavior. He has knowl- should do.But what does he think hr edge of his own feelings and impulses, should do? There he is puzzled and lost. If which are complex and contradictory. He is one gives up the guidance of an introjected freely able to sense the social demands from system of values, what is to take its place? the relatively rigid social "laws" to the de- He often feels incompetent to discover or sires of friends and family. He has access to build any alternate system.If he cannot his memories of similar situations. and the longer accept the "ought" and "should," consequences of different behaviors in those the ":ight" and "wrong" of the introjected situations. He has a relatively accurate per- system. how can he know what values take ception of this external situation in all of its their place? Gradually he comes to experi- complexity. He is better able to permit his ence the fact that he is making value judg- total organism. his conscious thought partici- ments in a way that is new to him. and yet pating, to consider, weigh and balance each in a way that was also known to him in his stimulus. need, and demand. and its relative infancy.... He discovers that he does not .weight and intensity. Out of this complex need to knoiv what are the correct values: weighing and balancing he is able to dis- through data supplied by his own organism, cover that course of action which seems to he can experience what is satisfying end en- come closest to satisfying all his needs in hancing. He can put his confidence in a the situation. long range as well as immedi- valuing process, rather than in some rigid ate needs. (Rogers, 1961:118) system of values. (Rogers, 1951:522-523) The long quotation offers a picture of Rogers' Regardless of some of his statements, one must thought on an occasion when he balances some major assume that Rogers does not believepeople can live elements of his behavioral theory with some of the completely outside the influence of social demands. realities of social demands. In the description, one He. evidently, advocates the "pure culture" atmos- finds a socially mature person contemplating a phere of therapy to help the client become aware of situation and then deciding upon a rational course of his own potential. In case where the individual feels action. To a man from Mars, not limited by either his life being stifled by introjected social demands. a Skinnerian or Rogerian perceptual parameters. such realization that he is able to reject some of the action might appear to be identical to that observed if demands offers him a possibility of lightening his he were watching the behavior desired by Skinner in psychological burden. Such realization provides alter- a similar situation. (cf. Evans.1968:67-68; Wann, natives. for action, a freedom from the opinions of 1964:184) The critical distinction between the two others. and a growing respect for himself as a psychologists (resulting in an obvious difference of reliable source of data with which to evaluate daily methodology) is found in their assumptions concern- experience. In some manner (that may remain ing the nature of man. Skinner assumes the ordinary ambiguous to (hose who do not actually experience man is incapable of rationallyassessing a situation it),an "organismic valuing process" enables the and then choosing between alternative courses of individual to experience personal choice relative to action, thus the necessity for "expert managers" who socialization pressures. engineer a planned society. Skinner clearly states his Ten years after Rogers made the above anti-democratic bias. (Skinner. 1953:10-11, 447-448) statement, he wrote: Rogers, on the other hand, assumes that all people, if only permitted to be themselves, are rational, socially Perhaps it will help to understand my des- mature individuals capable of solving their complex cription if you think of the individual as personal problems within an automatically realized, faced with some existential choice: "Shall I harmonious society. Rogers' position is "ultra- go home to my family during vacation. or democratic." Such an ultra-democratic approach may strike out on my own?" "Shall I drink this work efficiently with certain segments of a society. third cocktail which is being offered?" Is (Rogers' educational experience is limited to college this person whom I would like to have as my partner in love and in life?" Thinking of students. graduates. and certain groups of adults). such situations, what seems to be true of the Can the notion be considered extreme when person who emerges from the therapeutic advocated for children and immature adults? process? To the extent that this person is How can such a democracy be applied to all 39 social situations? All persons in any given society do skills necessary for the work done by medical doctors not actually correspond to Rogers' assumption. If all and civil engineers. How does a twenty-three year old were socially mature adults.possessing cognitive become a professional if he has wasted his first frameworks well developed both culturally and nineteen years? The cumulative effects upon society's scholarly. a temporary respite called "pure culture" intellectual life could be catastrophic if the processes might indeed facilitate the gaining of fresh perspec- of socialization were abandoned. Much of the tive. How, one may ask of Rogers, is the educator to learning necessary for life in today's society is simply transmit those cultural and academic frameworks to a not intrinsically interesting to everyone who needs to child. using a process which is defined and designed learn it. Education. "schooling," can be considered. to eliminate precisely the influence of such socializa- legitimately. a form of coercion which introduces tion? One may sech in vain.- within current knowledge and reinforces habits. Later the adult, a educational efforts, for an example of such "democ- different person from the child in his insights and racy" being used to teach all that is nee& ; for life In ambitions. may be very grateful for such coercion the modern society. Today, educators are wallowing regardless of his feelings as a child. Such coercion in in a deluge of material focused upon "free schools" youth may greatly contribute to adult freedom, that and similar attempts to circumvent traditional public is. to greatly expanded personal choice of action. (cf. school curriculum. Such attempts represent a full Stanley. 1972:51) range of beliefs. from totalitarianism to anarchy. and One of the nationally known critics of traditional their methodologies vary in equal degree. (cf. Kozol, public school education. Jonathan Kozol, has recently 1972:51-52) The examples cited by Rogers himself. admitted failures within the "free school' experi- which were discussed earlier.illustrate such varia- ments. (Kozol. 1972) Worthwhile education simply tion. The example of Rogers' own "teaching" is does not take place when the teacher pretends to bea simply an encounter group of graduate students. "pedagogical neuter." Those teachers who do (Rogers,1969:57-97) The therapeutic atmosphere attempt such a charade should become aware that dominates Rogers' work. (Rogers. 1970) they are influencing students not only by the words The practice of encounter-group therapy is they say but by their entirelifestyle.(Kozol, incapable of adequately providing much essential 1972:51-52) Kozol now admits thatsome children knowledge. Essentially, Rogers arga:s that the literally cannot do anything. They need to be taught. learner must be guaranteed his freedom without not some back-to-nature fun skills like how to build guaranteeing to society what learning the individual an Iroquois log canoe, but how toliveinthe will acquire. Each individual is guaranteed a privacy American society of 1974. on the basis of an optimistic hope that he will assume Rogers' emphasis does not allow for learning the responsibility of helping others. and that all will such essentials. In his theory. the student's state- evolve into a harmonious society.Such extreme ments are accepted: he may say or do whatever he emphasis upon idiosyncratic development actually wishes. He searches in the directions he chooses. precludes the existence of society. According to one hoping to discover"meaning" for himself. The critic of such emphasis. teacher's function is to provide a setting that will encourage uninhibited expiession. and to honestly Community presupposes a certain continuity reflect the feelings of the student. In a generalsense, of tradition. moral insight and cogn;tive lit- the teacher's interest does not focus upon the content erary standards that setlimits upon the of what the student says: he is interested in using the range of uniqueness permitted each person. material to reflect the feelings of the student. to help Education has never meant simply learning him accept his own feelings and himself. Rogers for the sake of learning. (Stanley. 1972:51: assumes the student then will move on automatically cf. McCraken, 1970) to an adequate perception of the real world. through this "accepting process" the student will perceive Rogers' arguments do not meet the above himself and life as it is. be better able tocope with challenge. The salient characteristic of hissugges- his environment. be "a more fully functioning tions to the educator is an extreme emphasison person." freedom. such freedomas found in encounter-group Rogers' suggestions may indeed be relevant in therapy. This degree of emphasis simply doesnot facilitating psychological health. Therapeutic value is allow for cultural transmission.If adhered to not denied, even by B. F. Skinner. The critical flaw in completely, both individual and society would suffer. the Rogers theory comes t4 light when social Encounter groups do not teach the knowledgeand implementation is attempted. He does not adequately 40 account for cultural transmission. On the basis of his thought resides within humanistic. phenomenological prior assumptions concerning the nature of man. orientations are faced with a fundamental dilemma in Rogers assumes socialization to be a natural (as committing to paper that which. according to their opposed to humanly devised) process. Such sweeping views. should remain a dynamic interplay between assumptionsoverlook muchessentialeducation. person and person. From such a view theintegration Indeed.if itis to be usable. "education for of theory into a reasonable professionalpractice, serendipity" (Keen, 1970:38-82) must be balanced when it is done, is a highly individualized process with the control of socialization. (Bernstein, 1971) that cannot be dictated or imposed. possibly not even To be completely fair with Rogers, one must adequately described. realize that psychologists and educators whose

IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION

Direct application to educational practice is easily argument. another factor which is intrinsic toall developed within an analysis of the behavioral theory construction. The theorist necessarily desires theories of Skinner and Rogers. Such practical change in behavior. and his theory is his attempt to application is an important part of theoretical analysis control the change. giving it a certain direction (in because theories are useless until they affect action. Skinner's case. toward externally controlled behavior. As Skinner writes. in Rogers' case away from externally controlled behavior). If an observer of the human scene were If this were a theoretical issue only. we totally accepting of what he sees taking place (status would have no cause for alarm; but theories quo), he would feel no need to even describe it. affect practice A scientific conception of consider the case of an anthropologist writing a letter human behavior dictates one practice. a phi- home to his parents. He gives some "pure losophy of personal freedom another. Con- description" of the native culture in which he is fusion in theory means confusion in practice. living. Such action can only indicate he wishes to (Skinner. 1953:9) change his parent's perception. If change were not desired, no reason could be given for the description. In concluding the present study, therefore. major Evenif one could imagine a case where pure focus will be on practical suggestions for the description could be given with no desire for change. educator. to go an iota beyond descriptionis to provide Anyone studying the works of these two irrefutable evidence that in fact change is desired. psychologists soon realizes that the locus of differ- To desire change necessarily mandates some ence between Skinner andRogers isnot in minimum choice of direction. Such choice may be methodology alone. To argue that the difference is in broadly defined or it can be precisely indicated. Now methodology is either the result .of ignorance or of an if the preceding argument is logically valid. one may attempt at adroit deception. To focus attention upon state dogmatically that both Skinner andRogers are method is necessarily to divertit from more trying to distinguish between "what is" and "what fundamental differences. Consider the process each ought to be." as defined by the assumptions and psychologist must have followed in developing his goals of each theory. The methodology advocated by theory. He could not have possibly contemplated a each is merely an outline of how each man is trying choice of method earlier than the third step in the to control change as he desires it. To notethat there step,as these theoreticalformulation. The first is a difference between the Skinnerian and Rogerian theories were formed. concerned the nature of man. approaches to controlling human behavior is merely and certain assumptions were necessarily made by to recognize the obvious. This methodologicaldiffer- each theorist. The second step,intrinsic in the importance choice ence must be considered of secondary process of theory development, concerned the because it only reflects profoundly different opinions of purpose, or goal. The second step is sometimes so of what man is and what he should be.Their interrelated with the first that distinction becomes positions on the latter are of major importance. difficult. Yet. only after the "beginning" and The assumptions each psychologist uses in "ending" are designated, theoretically, can attempts describing man, also form the basis for his be made to chart an efficient route (methodology) explanation of man's behavior. Each endeavors to between the two points. Consider, as additional explanation to the above support his own description of man's nature by 41

overemphasizing an area of influence on behavior. reality! Man continually attempts to reconcile the Human behavior is actually a result of both social role results of his theoretical speculation with reality. The expectations and individual need-dispositions; human overemphasis, the "indefensible" parts of the two behavior is a function of both role and personality. theories are precisely those elements which call for Just as individuals have certain individual psychologi- attempts at reconciliation. cal needs, or need-dispositions, they also acquire Reality is unitary. Man's theories about reality social roles which are dictated by the positions they are the source of conflict between knowledge and achieve within social institutions. Such social roles behavior. The personal-social relativism of the Rogers are composed of expectations held by relevant groups interpretation, with its reliance upon "reality"as and individuals within the socialmilieu.Skinner perceivedatthe moment of experience by the advocates the use of a description which overempha- individual places his whole system apart from sizes external influence such as role expectations. Skinner's deterministic interpretation. An unbridge- Rogers advocates a description which overemphasizes able gap separates the adherence toan extreme personal needs and neglects the social expectations. relativism on the one hand and the adherence toan The propositions of neither Skinner nor Rogersare extreme, absolute determinism on the other. The adequately formulated to accommodate both major theories are contradictory from a philosophical view. influences on behavior. An adequate analysis of In actual experience they are also incompatible. behavior must consider social expectations and If one ignores the impossibility of putting either individual needs. As used here, the terms influence theory totally into social experience and focuses only and control are synonymous. on attempts to follow either theory, contradiction is Each psychologist has a distinctive orientation again experienced. Either theory will move its toward the concept of control. The position from followers in the opposite direction from that taken by which each views "control" of behavioristhe followers of the other theory.In no way do the essence of each theory. Change from status quo is theories comiilement each other. To choose Skinner's desired by each theorist; Skinner's desire is toward focus on maximized controlis necessarily to increased, more precise, external control, and undermine Rogers' focus on the minimization of Rogers' desire is toward decreased external control, control. To try to follow both is to undermine the resulting in increased internal control. Their desire vitality of both. To try to follow both, essentially, is to for a particular change causes eachman to abandon both. overemphasize one or the other of the two major Such basic, and irreconcilable incompatibility is components found in human behavior. Theover- seen clearly when one attempts to apply both theories emphasis, in each case. is of such enormity thatan simultaneously in the classroom. Howcan a teacher extreme position is created within each theoretical define precisely the educational goalsas Skinner argument. The overemphasis in each theory is the advocates while permitting each student to choose his nucleus. the spirit, the salient distinguishing quality own goals as Rogers advocates? How does a teacher of that theory. In addition, the overemphasis in each precisely arrange the learning environment in sucha theory is precisely the quality in that theory which way as to control and specify the exact terminal malws impossible the task of matching the theory behavior, while allowing the learner to discover his with actual social experience. Necessarily.any theory own ways of behaving as he progresses toward an is a reduction of reality. but such extreme positions unknown or unclearly defined goal? A single decision as characterize the thought of Skinner and Rogers of the teacher which allows studentprerogative must be considered carefully. impairs the precision of control advocated by Skinner. Michael Scriven clearly implies qualities of To manipulate thestudent toward aprescribed unreality in the theories when he speaks of " ...the behavior attacks Rogers' central focus. ways I think that one can carry through the program A specific example of conflict between thetwo of reconciliation of the defensible forms of phenome- approaches may be discussed within thearea of nology and behaviorism." (Scriven,1964:180) The testing and grading. Within the Skinner theory,the oversight of Scriven, and of others who contend that transmission of factual material and specified behav- "coexistence" of the two positions is possible. ior patterns is the primary business ofeducation; concerns theessenceof the theories. What is the testing the effectiveness of the tr nsmittal isa central center. the locus of vitalityin case?If by problem. The tests must be quantifiable. A largepor- "defensible" Scriven means t1,- I:ars of each man's tion of time is justifiably given to the construction thought that conforms to ItlI) ..! experience. no and validation of the measures and records used in reconciliationis needed. Onvoes notreconcile examining the student's progress toward the prede- 42 termined goals. Grades. or even candy or money. can adhere to a theory of behavior other than thatdevised be used as reinforcers. The evaluation ofthe by himself, either of the two basic directions can be student's progress is mandatory within the Rogerian given priority. If such choice is made, however, the frame of reference, it is not recognizable as the same educator should be aware that both he and his procedure. The question to be asked is not, "Where students will be in the process of becoming different has the student failed in his progress towardthe kinds of people than if the other extreme had been fixed goal?", but rather. "Where is the studentin chosen. The Skinner type teacher must wishto his own process of perceptual organization?"A control, and students who "do well" in such a setting "testing situation" would only be used if it tells the must wish to be controlled. The essenceof the student what he wants to know about his own educational experienceisthe observed behavior. performance. Success or failure of the experience is derived from If testing and grading is defined as procedure in the end product, which is usually available, at least which the performance of the student is measured temporarily. for measurement and evaluation. The quantitatively or ranked subjectively by the teacher cumulative record indicates what elements of behav- then. within the Rogerian scheme. it iscompletely ior were changed in terms of response data. The irrelevant. Any assessment other than that by the teacher necessarily assumes the major responsibility learner is not relevant because he "learns" what is for the entire process. significant with his own perceptions. Second. compar- On the other hand, the educator who would be a ison with other students has little significance Rogerian teacher must see the essence of educational because each of them is working with different back- experience in the dynamics of the process of learning. grounds. perceptual fields. and educational goals. Learning must be seen as an occurring event, not as Third. what does it really mean to the student to be an event that has occurred. Any"measurement" labeled "C" by someone else if the goal of the entire which might take place in such education is seen by educational procedure isto develop his own the behaviorist as extremely "messy" and far from independent evaluation and self-adequacy? conclusive. The Rogerian teacher must see the The Rogerian teacher would choose to completely relevant factors of education from a position with ignore the notion of grades. If, under the pressures of emphasizes qualitative rather than quantitative as- social reality (administrative command) grading were pects of life: he should tend to be subjective rather required of him. student participation would be a than objective. In the Rogerian scheme the teacher major portion of the effort. Rogers had his students rejects major responsibility for the entire process: the grade themselves. (Rogers. 1969:61-62) responsibility belongs to the student. When confronted with two such contradictory The advisability of exclusive adherence to either theories. each widely acclaimed. how can the class- of the theories may be questioned.If a singular room teacher avoid frustration andhopeless confu- theoretical framework must be borrowed by the sion? He should realize that all theoretical systems beginning teacher. theories more acceptable to total are imperfectinthat theyfailto desebe with social experience could be considered. Various absolute precision the realities of actual experience. teaching-learning models are available (Parkinson. Theories are useful not because they answer all the 1969) (Kapfer and Woodruff. 1972) which coincide questions. or indicate the correct procedure in more closely with present social andintellectual pre- managing all learning situations. but because they do scriptions than do either the Skinner or Rogers a more or less reasonable jobof organizing the vast models. Limitations of the present study precludes amount of data relevant to the learning process.They detailed descriptions of other models. Such models. provide frames of reference for an educator to use in however. might be saidtocontain "defensible" the assessment and development of consistency and elements from behaviorism and phenomenology. effectiveness in his own teaching. . variety of models may offer practical methods Both Skinner's and Rogers' models have their by which the teacher can focus upon a theoretical merits. but an educator cannot value both of them dimension alien to both Skinner and Rogers. equally without creating an inconsistency within his Skinner's overemphasis distorts the nomothetic professional practice. A reasonable approach might dimension, which refers to the goals of institutions be to consider either set of suggestions (Skinner. or and places total attention on "role"inbehavior. Rogers. on education) only in selected and limited Rogers' overemphasis distorts the idiographic dimen- social situations. In which case the work of both men sion, which refers to needs of individuals and places could be very valuable in actual practice. totalattention on "personality"in behavior. The If the beginning teacher feels compelled to American society of today needs a new dimension. 43

Margaret Mead (1959) states that an awareness of teaching. most teachers have deliberately made of the actual problems of learning would radically some attempt to answer two questions: "Have I change current conceptions of education. Tradition- something to teach?" (Do I know the subject ?), and ally. in a slowly changing society. the focus was upon "How can the teaching be done?" (How do I propose a vertical transmission of factual knowledge. The old. to present my subject?) Upon beginning to teach. a mature. experienced teacher handed down informa- change occurs. The door of a classroom opens and tion to young. immature, and inexperienced students. twenty of forty pairs of eyes are focused upon the A dramatic change in the rate of social change has new teacher. Thereisasilence laced with created a break between past and present educational expectancy.Self-examinationasto knowledge of needs. (cf. Toffler, 1970) All persons, of all ages, are content and method drops into insignificance before having to learn all their lives. Such a social condition the more immediate challenge: "Can I win and hold demands an entirely new dimension of learning. their attention? Will they follow me. like me. obey Mead calls this new dimension "lateral transmis- me? What sort of person could be successful in this sion." Each member of society is both learner and situation? What sort of person am 1? How does this teacher. The old function of education was primarily situationI am experiencing add up to something the dispensing of facts: the new function of education *labeled "education?" i4 the facilitation of "rapid and self-conscious In one fashion or another, for better of for worse. adaption to a changing world." Mead's "lateral that first day of teaching becomes past experience. If learning" seems much closer to Rogers' view than to the young teacher elects to continue inthe that of Skinner. profession, in the struggle to answer such "original" To be profitable. the "new dimension" must questions a certain conclusion is reached. The avoid. however, the cultural weakness of Rogers' beginning educator comes to realize that in order to theory. Provision must be made for a minimum of be an effective teacher one must be willing to cultural stability in order for the individual to escape examine his own basic beliefs about the nature of the despair of protean existence. (Lifton. 1967:37-63) man. society, and education. He must examine the Something more than a compromise between nomo- compatibility of his assumptions about the purposes thetic and idiographic emphasis is needed. Could a of education with the available information about how transactional dimension be formulated which would learning takes place in order to develop a workable indicate standards of behavior including both individ- approach to teaching. Without such personal analysis ual integration and institutional adjustment? Quite the professional educator can be doomed to founder possibly teaching-learning models may be found by in a mass of techniques and methods that may or the beginning teacher which, to him, are practical may notfithis own personality, the needs and attempts at such theoretical synthesis. The student of experiences of his students, or the demands of the teacher education or the beginning teacher might, particular social situation. At some point, the therefore. profitably examine a variety of theories and beginning teacher must lay aside his books on theory models. and philosophy and make a personal commitment in In concluding the discussion of practical implica- the process of translating theoryintopractical, tions of the study. one might consider the actual everyday action in the classroom. situation of a beginning teacher. Prior to the first day

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