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Approaches to Counseling/Psychotherapy: a Selected Examination for School Counselors

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Approaches to Counseling/Psychotherapy: a Selected Examination for School Counselors 70-14,002 CUNNINGHAM* Louis Morris, 1931- APPROACHES TO COUNSELING/PSYCHOTHERAPY: A SELECTED EXAMINATION FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1969 Education, guidance and counseling University Microfilms. Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan © Copyright by Louis Morris Cunningham 1970 | THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED APPROACHES TO COUNSELING/PSYCHOTHERAPY: A SELECTED EXAMINATION FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Louis Morris Cunningham, B.A., M.A. The Ohio State University 1969 Approved by ucation ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is with a profound sense of respect that I wish to acknowledge the contributions of the writers whose theories were reviewed in this thesis. Carl Rogers, Donald Blocher, Rollo May, E. G. Williamson, and others have shared their sensitivity, clinical skill, and insight with us so we could benefit by their successes and failures. Appreciation need also be expressed to my adviser and friend, Professor Herman J. Peters, who provided, in large measure, the inspiration for the work which culmi­ nated with this dissertation. A special thanks is also extended to Professor Arthur Wills of Muskingum College for his invaluable assis­ tance in editing the text of this thesis. A final debt of gratitude is paid to the J. S. Mack Foundation for their kind award of a research grant during the summer of 1968, and to Mrs. Gary Littick and to Miss Elizabeth Newlon for their careful typing of the manu­ script . VITA January 3, 1931.. Born - Charleston, West Virginia 1949................. Graduated East High School, Columbus, Ohio 1953-1955 ........... Laboratory Assistant, Department of Psychology, Capital University, Columbus, Ohio 1955 ................. B.A., Capital University, Columbus , Ohio 1955-1957 ........... Active duty, U. S. Navy 1957-1965 ........... Teacher, School Counselor, Columbus Public Schools, Columbus, Ohio 1960 ................. M.A., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1963-1965 ........... Practicum Supervisor, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1965-1967 ........... Consultant, North American Aviation, Columbus, Ohio 1965- ............... Assistant Professor of Psychology, Director, Counseling and Testing, Muskingum College, New Concord, Ohio PUBLICATIONS "The Iowa Algebra Aptitude Test as a Predictor," Guidepost, Fall, 1960. A Study of Basic Requirements for Exterior Lighting with G. Godfrey, Columbus, Ohio: ' North American Aviation, Publication NA-6 5H-786, September, 1965. Exterior Lighting Requirements for Aircraft with J. Bartelt and G . Godfrey, Washington, D. C.: Bureau of Naval Weapons, 1965. A Simulation Study of Exterior Lighting for Naval Aircraft with J . Conrad, Columbus, Ohio: North American Aviation Publication NA-66H-515, August, 1966. Exterior Lighting Simulation Study with J. Conrad and J. Bartelt, Washington, D"! CT1 Naval Air Systems Command, 1966 . Operational Study of Pilots' Visual Requirements with J . Burnett, Columbus, Ohio: North American Aviation Publication NA-6 7H-497, June, 1967. Pilots1 Visual Requirements with J./Burnett and J. Lazo, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Aerospace Crew Equipment Laboratory, 1967. Readings in Human Growth and Development. New York: Selected Academic Readings, Simon and Schuster, 1968. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Guidance Studies in Guidance. Professors John Broedel, Herman Peters, and William Mueller Studies in Counseling Psychology. Professors John Kinzer, Dorothia Smith, Francis Robinson, and Julian Rotter Studies in Higher Education. Professors Earl Anderson and Everett Kircher Studies in School Psychology. Professors Viola Cassidy, Donald Smith, and Wilda Rosebrook. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................... ii VITA ........................ iii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.................................. 1 Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Method of Study II. THEORY......................................... 18 Nature of Theory Function of Theory Adequacy of Theory Theory and Counseling/Psychotherapy The Counselor, Theory, and Research III. CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY ...................... 37 Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary IV. DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING...................... 6 2 Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary V. EXISTENTIAL THERAPY ................... 87 Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary v Page VI. BEHAVIORAL THERAPY............................ Ill Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary VII. TRAIT-FACTOR COUNSELING.................... 134 Introduct ion Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary VIII. SUMMARY: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES . 159 Biographical Comparisons The Nature of Man Personality Theory Conditions of Therapy Process of Therapy Techniques of Therapy Goals of Therapy Theory and System Other Comparisons Concluding Remarks APPENDIX ................. ....................... 191 BIBLIOGRAPHY 200 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Some systematic organization of concepts into mean­ ingful and useful paradigms is essential in the area of counseling. Fortunately, these paradigms do exist. They are referred to as theories or systems of therapy. Delineation of a system of therapy does not, how­ ever, guarantee effectiveness or even usefulness. Utility does not always have a basic theory, and theory may be but a distant cousin to utility. Systems of counseling or psychotherapy do not appear to be well understood by most students pursuing a program of counselor education. The importance of teaching counseling theory to students in counselor education programs is granted. The "Standards for the Preparation of Secondary School Coun^ selors"-*- has been one in a series of standards published by the American Personnel and Guidance Association, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision and the -^-Association for Counselor Education and Supers vision, "Standards for the Preparation of Secondary School Counselors-1967," Personnel and Guidance Journal> XLVI (September, 1967), 96-106. 1 American School Counselor Association. In many ways these policy statements are but elaborations of Wrenn's2 seven basic recommendations regarding counselor education. All of these standards state explicitly or strongly allude to the need for a course in• counseling« theory. Arbuckle0*3 u and others share a concern for the teaching of counseling. Dinkmeyer has said "counselor educators should be concerned with presenting varied theoretical approaches to school counseling. Systems of therapy or counseling do then demand some attention. If it were that just neophyte counselors had trouble with the various schools of therapy, the prob­ lem would have been long ago resolved. The problem goes deeper as exemplified by Rogers’ dissatisfaction with a group of counselors from different psychotherapeutic 2C. Gilbert Wrenn, The Counselor in A Changing World (Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962), p. 161. ^Dugald S. Arbuckle, "The Education of the School Counselor," Journal of Counseling Psychology, V (Spring, 1958), 58-62. ^Dugald S. Arbuckle, "The Learning of Counseling: Process, Not Product," Journal of Counseling Psychology, X (Summer, 1963), 163-168. ^Don Dinkmeyer, "Contributions of Teleoanalytic Theory and Techniques to School Counseling," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (May, 19 68), 898-90 2. 3 schools. Each counselor1 did counseling under observation of other counselors. Rogers comments: But then came the jolt. The very portions of those interviews which seemed obviously moments of real therapy, were experienced by other members as non- therapeutic or even anti-therapeutic. And the moments which some others regard as clearly of a healing nature, I experienced as meaningless or ineffectual, or worse. At the time it was a hard blow to assimi­ late. It meant that our differences ran far deeper than I had presumed. I had supposed that we were all talking about the same experiences, but attaching dif­ ferent words, labels and descriptions tOgthese experi­ ences. This was clearly not true . One can easily appreciate the problems beginning counselors have in trying to understand theory, but if the "experts" can communicate with one another with only mini­ mal effectiveness, the problem must be acute. Unfortu­ nately for students the neologistic tendencies of theore­ ticians only compound the confusion. Our key counseling words are ambiguous and mis­ leading. There are a number of possible meanings that could be supplied for each. The words do not have identifiable agreed-upon relationship to significant events in real life.^ Colby states this dilemma another way: "Holders of different paradigms often talk right past one another be­ cause in experiencing the same events they actually observe ®Carl R. Rogers, "Psychotherapy Today or Where Do We Go From Here?" American Journal of Psychotherapy, XVII (1963), 5-16. ^Josiah S. Dilley, "Out-thinking About Not-Words," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (January, 1966), 460- 463. Q different things." He adds that "In the domain of psycho­ therapy there is no single shared paradigm commanding con­ sensus . "9 Rogers' reflections are tinged with both despair and hope. He has stated therapists are not
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