70-14,002

CUNNINGHAM* Louis Morris, 1931- APPROACHES TO COUNSELING/PSYCHOTHERAPY: A SELECTED EXAMINATION FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS. The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1969 Education, guidance and counseling

University Microfilms. Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

© Copyright by

Louis Morris Cunningham

1970 |

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED APPROACHES TO COUNSELING/PSYCHOTHERAPY: A

SELECTED EXAMINATION FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Louis Morris Cunningham, B.A., M.A.

The Ohio State University 1969

Approved by

ucation ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with a profound sense of respect that I wish to acknowledge the contributions of the writers whose theories were reviewed in this thesis. Carl Rogers, Donald

Blocher, Rollo May, E. G. Williamson, and others have shared their sensitivity, clinical skill, and insight with us so we could benefit by their successes and failures.

Appreciation need also be expressed to my adviser and friend, Professor Herman J. Peters, who provided, in large measure, the inspiration for the work which culmi­ nated with this dissertation.

A special thanks is also extended to Professor

Arthur Wills of Muskingum College for his invaluable assis­ tance in editing the text of this thesis.

A final debt of gratitude is paid to the J. S. Mack

Foundation for their kind award of a research grant during the summer of 1968, and to Mrs. Gary Littick and to Miss

Elizabeth Newlon for their careful typing of the manu­ script . VITA

January 3, 1931.. . . Born - Charleston, West Virginia

1949...... Graduated East High School, Columbus, Ohio

1953-1955 ...... Laboratory Assistant, Department of Psychology, Capital University, Columbus, Ohio

1955 ...... B.A., Capital University, Columbus , Ohio

1955-1957 ...... Active duty, U. S. Navy

1957-1965 ...... Teacher, School Counselor, Columbus Public Schools, Columbus, Ohio

1960 ...... M.A., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1963-1965 ...... Practicum Supervisor, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1965-1967 ...... Consultant, North American Aviation, Columbus, Ohio

1965- ...... Assistant Professor of Psychology, Director, Counseling and Testing, Muskingum College, New Concord, Ohio PUBLICATIONS

"The Iowa Algebra Aptitude Test as a Predictor," Guidepost, Fall, 1960.

A Study of Basic Requirements for Exterior Lighting with G. Godfrey, Columbus, Ohio: ' North American Aviation, Publication NA-6 5H-786, September, 1965.

Exterior Lighting Requirements for Aircraft with J. Bartelt and G . Godfrey, Washington, D. C.: Bureau of Naval Weapons, 1965.

A Simulation Study of Exterior Lighting for Naval Aircraft with J . Conrad, Columbus, Ohio: North American Aviation Publication NA-66H-515, August, 1966.

Exterior Lighting Simulation Study with J. Conrad and J. Bartelt, Washington, D"! CT1 Naval Air Systems Command, 1966 .

Operational Study of Pilots' Visual Requirements with J . Burnett, Columbus, Ohio: North American Aviation Publication NA-6 7H-497, June, 1967.

Pilots1 Visual Requirements with J./Burnett and J. Lazo, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Aerospace Crew Equipment Laboratory, 1967.

Readings in Human Growth and Development. New York: Selected Academic Readings, Simon and Schuster, 1968.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Guidance

Studies in Guidance. Professors John Broedel, Herman Peters, and William Mueller

Studies in Counseling Psychology. Professors John Kinzer, Dorothia Smith, Francis Robinson, and Julian Rotter

Studies in Higher Education. Professors Earl Anderson and Everett Kircher

Studies in School Psychology. Professors Viola Cassidy, Donald Smith, and Wilda Rosebrook.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii

VITA ...... iii

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION...... 1

Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Method of Study

II. THEORY...... 18

Nature of Theory Function of Theory Adequacy of Theory Theory and Counseling/Psychotherapy The Counselor, Theory, and Research

III. CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY ...... 37

Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary

IV. DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING...... 6 2

Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary

V. EXISTENTIAL THERAPY ...... 87

Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary

v Page VI. BEHAVIORAL THERAPY...... Ill

Introduction Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary

VII. TRAIT-FACTOR COUNSELING...... 134

Introduct ion Biographical Information Philosophy and Concepts Theory of Therapy Summary

VIII. SUMMARY: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES . . 159

Biographical Comparisons The Nature of Man Personality Theory Conditions of Therapy Process of Therapy Techniques of Therapy Goals of Therapy Theory and System Other Comparisons Concluding Remarks

APPENDIX ...... 191

BIBLIOGRAPHY 200 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Some systematic organization of concepts into mean­ ingful and useful paradigms is essential in the area of counseling. Fortunately, these paradigms do exist. They are referred to as theories or systems of therapy.

Delineation of a system of therapy does not, how­ ever, guarantee effectiveness or even usefulness. Utility does not always have a basic theory, and theory may be but a distant cousin to utility. Systems of counseling or psychotherapy do not appear to be well understood by most students pursuing a program of counselor education.

The importance of teaching counseling theory to students in counselor education programs is granted. The

"Standards for the Preparation of Secondary School Coun^ selors"-*- has been one in a series of standards published by the American Personnel and Guidance Association, the

Association for Counselor Education and Supervision and the

-^-Association for Counselor Education and Supers vision, "Standards for the Preparation of Secondary School Counselors-1967," Personnel and Guidance Journal> XLVI (September, 1967), 96-106.

1 American School Counselor Association. In many ways these policy statements are but elaborations of Wrenn's2 seven basic recommendations regarding counselor education. All of these standards state explicitly or strongly allude to the need for a course in• counseling « theory. Arbuckle0*3 u and others share a concern for the teaching of counseling.

Dinkmeyer has said "counselor educators should be concerned with presenting varied theoretical approaches to school counseling.

Systems of therapy or counseling do then demand some attention. If it were that just neophyte counselors had trouble with the various schools of therapy, the prob­ lem would have been long ago resolved. The problem goes deeper as exemplified by Rogers’ dissatisfaction with a group of counselors from different psychotherapeutic

2C. Gilbert Wrenn, The Counselor in A Changing World (Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962), p. 161.

^Dugald S. Arbuckle, "The Education of the School Counselor," Journal of Counseling Psychology, V (Spring, 1958), 58-62.

^Dugald S. Arbuckle, "The Learning of Counseling: Process, Not Product," Journal of Counseling Psychology, X (Summer, 1963), 163-168.

^Don Dinkmeyer, "Contributions of Teleoanalytic Theory and Techniques to School Counseling," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (May, 19 68), 898-90 2. 3 schools. Each counselor1 did counseling under observation of other counselors. Rogers comments:

But then came the jolt. The very portions of those interviews which seemed obviously moments of real therapy, were experienced by other members as non- therapeutic or even anti-therapeutic. And the moments which some others regard as clearly of a healing nature, I experienced as meaningless or ineffectual, or worse. At the time it was a hard blow to assimi­ late. It meant that our differences ran far deeper than I had presumed. I had supposed that we were all talking about the same experiences, but attaching dif­ ferent words, labels and descriptions tOgthese experi­ ences. This was clearly not true . . .

One can easily appreciate the problems beginning counselors have in trying to understand theory, but if the

"experts" can communicate with one another with only mini­ mal effectiveness, the problem must be acute. Unfortu­ nately for students the neologistic tendencies of theore­ ticians only compound the confusion.

Our key counseling words are ambiguous and mis­ leading. There are a number of possible meanings that could be supplied for each. The words do not have identifiable agreed-upon relationship to significant events in real life.^

Colby states this dilemma another way: "Holders of different paradigms often talk right past one another be­ cause in experiencing the same events they actually observe

®Carl R. Rogers, "Psychotherapy Today or Where Do We Go From Here?" American Journal of Psychotherapy, XVII (1963), 5-16.

^Josiah S. Dilley, "Out-thinking About Not-Words," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (January, 1966), 460- 463. Q different things." He adds that "In the domain of psycho­ therapy there is no single shared paradigm commanding con­ sensus . "9

Rogers' reflections are tinged with both despair and hope. He has stated therapists are not in agreement as to the therapeutic model, aims, or even-what constitutes success or failure. Every counselor is free to think his own thoughts, formulate his own views and develop his own hypothesis.-'-9 C o l b y H , Matarazzo^ and Segal"-8 view psychotherapeutic research to solve these differences as very slow. Two turtles stopping to catch their breath as a result of the torrid pace seems descriptive.

All scholars do not believe that psychotherapy as a discipline is moving at a snail's pace. In his review of psychotherapy Seeman1^ views the research as having great

8Kenneth M. Colby, "Psychotherapeutic Processes," Annual Review of Psychology, XV (1964), 348,

9Ibid., p. 347.

"-^Rogers, "Psychotherapy Today, pp. 5-16.

"-"-Colby, "Psychotherapeutic Processes," pp. 347r- 370 .

Joseph D. Matarazzo, "Psychoterapeutic Pro­ cesses," Annual Review of Psychology, XIX (1968), 497-508.

•^Julius Seeman, "Psychotherapy," Annual Review of Psychology, XII (1961), 157-194. promise. The same view is shared by other authors.16

Zucker has stated that ’’Work in the area of personality change ranges not from the easy to the difficult but rather from the difficult to the impossible.”16

When one examines the known about theory, resea ch and practice and attempts to integrate these with the re­ sults , disparities are evident. Psychotherapy has been oversold to the public as it is currently practiced.17

Clearly better understanding and more appropriate research are needed.

One problem of those in counseling has been to dis­ cover how to define counseling. Is it the same as psycho­ therapy? Attempts to distinguish counseling from psycho­ therapy have not met with general approval. There have been nearly as many authors who hold that counseling and psychotherapy are the same as there are those who hold that the two are different.

16Lyle D. Schmidt and Harold B. Pepinsky, ’’Counsel­ ing Research in 1963," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XII (Winter, 1965), 418-427.

16Herbert Zucker, Problems of Psychotherapy (New York: Free Press, 1967), p. 3. 1 7 William Schofield, Psychotherapy: The Purchase of Friendship, Spectrum Book (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964). Brammer and Shostrom-*-® and Leona Tyler-*-^ hold that counseling and psychotherapy are different. They maintain that counseling is concerned essentially with psychia- trically normal personalities on a conscious level, while psychotherapy involves abnormal personalities on an uncon­ scious level. English and English see counseling as usually applied to helping n o r m a l s 2 0 and psychotherapy as a term reserved for "a professionally trained person-i.e., by clinical psychologist, psychiatrist, or psychiatric social w o r k e r . " 21 Steffire writes that counselor educators argue that a distinction must be made between counseling and psychotherapy. If no distinction were possible between the two, a distinction must be f o u n d . 2 2 Steffire chooses

Hahn's article to support his point.

I know of few counselors or psychologists who are completely satisfied that clear distinctions (between

Lawrence M. Brammer and Everett L. Shostrom, Therapeutic Psychology: Fundamentals of Counseling and Psychotherapy (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1960).

■^Leona E. Tyler, The Work of the Counselor (2nd ed.; New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961).

2^Horace B. English and Ava Champney English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psycho­ analytical Terms (New York: David McKay, Inc., 1958) , p. 127.

21Ibid., p. 42 9.

22Buford Steffire, Theories of Counseling (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965), p . 15. 7

counseling and psychotherapy) have been made . . . Per­ haps the most complete agreements are: 1-that counsel­ ing and psychotherapy cannot be distinguished clearly, 2-that counselors practice what psychotherapists con­ sider psychotherapy, 3-that psychotherapists practice what counselors consider to be counseling, and >4-that despite the above they are different.2 3

A number of equally impressive experts opposes the position that counseling and psychotherapy are separate disciplines. Rogers has treated counseling and psycho­ therapy as one and the same.24 Another has suggested that the difference is not one of quality but probably one of quantity, if a distinction can be made.25 Evraiff states that the problem is one of semantics.2 6 Patterson justi­

fies his position that the terms are synonymous by stating:

The difficulty in, or impossibility of, separating counseling and psychotherapy is apparent when one con­ siders the definitions of each offered by various authors. The definitions of counseling would in most cases be acceptable as definitions of psychotherapy, and vice versa. There seems to be agreement that both counseling and psychotherapy are processes involving a special kind of relationship between a person who asks for help with a psychological problem (the client or the patient) and a person who is trained to provide that help (the counselor or the therapist). The nature

Milton E. Hahn, "Conceptual Trends in Counsel­ ing," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXI (January, 1953), 231-235.

24Carl R. Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951).

2^Edward S. Bordin, Psychological Counseling (2nd ed.; New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968), p. 18.

26W. Evraiff, Helping Counselors Grow Profession­ ally (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 196 3), p . 8. of the relationship is essentially the same, if not identical, in both counseling, and psychotherapy. The process that occurs also does not seem to differ from one to the other. Nor do there seem to be any distinct techniques or group of techniques that separate counseling and psychotherapy.27

Blocher2*3 generally shares this view. Albert has stated "if counseling is necessarily a form of psycho­ therapy, however specialized, present training methods for counselor candidates are seriously inadequate."29 "Such terms as 'reduction,' 'helping process' and 'guidance' are merely descriptive of what happens in the course of treat­ ment and do not really disguise the therapeutic nature of the process."^ It is noteworthy that Gilbert's summary some years ago seems as appropriate today as it was then.

His survey of the research shows that guidance, counseling and therapy do not represent separate disciplines but rather somewhat arbitrary points along a continuum.3-1-

27C . H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (New York: Harper S Row, Publishers, T966), p . 1. no Donald H. Blocher, Developmental Counseling (New York: Ronald Press, Company, 196 6), pp . 10-11.

29Gerald Albert, "If Counseling Is Psychotherapy, What Then?" Personnel and Guidance Journal, VL (October, 1966), 124.

39Lewis R. Wolberg, The Technique of Psychotherapy (2nd ed.; Part One; New York! Grune £ Stratton, Inc. , 1967), p. 3.

31W. M. Gilbert, "Counseling: Therapy and Diag­ nosis," Annual Review of Psychology, III (1952), 351-380. For other discussions of counseling/psychotherapy see

Patterson.32

In this study counseling and psychotherapy are used

interchangeably as it is impossible to make any clear dis­ tinction between them.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Any person who undertakes analysis of another's writing is presumptuous in that he must feel he can add to or clarify the original material. Such a presumption on the part of any writer should be justified. The following underlying justifications and purposes are offered.

As a graduate student I found little concise and understandable data available to assist me in understanding the paradigms of psychotherapy. No set of readings, no textbook or lecture material seemed entirely to fill this gap in the counselor education program. Brammer and

Shostrom have summed up part of this dilemma:

We feel that counseling and psychotherapy are often practiced too soon by the counselor without enough understanding either of the fundamentals, historical or practical, or the special adoptions necessary for counseling different types of clients.33

32C. H. Patterson, Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice (New York: Harper £ Brothers, Pub- lishers, 1951). Chapter I.

33Brammer and Shostrom, Therapeutic Psychology, p . 1. 10

Albert has gone even farther:

It is suggested here that every counselor should should be required to take courses in personality theory (already provided by many programs), but also in abnormal psychology (including the major approaches to psychotherapy) and in diagnostics.34

Albert’s ideas are logical even though some have

found that counselors in training have an aversion to the theoretical content of counselor education programs.33

Certainly most would agree, however, that a broader under­

standing of the systems of psychotherapy would be of great use to beginning counselors.

Second, as a practicing counselor for the last ten years the need for some basis of evaluation of counseling has become evident. Experimentation with various thera­ peutic techniques has been difficult due to lack of under­

standing. If such experimentation is to bear fruit, much more must be known about the similarities and differences between theories. As a professional counselor I have been operating within the rubrics of a number of theories only to find that insufficient knowledge about the various counseling systems frustrating. As a result one tends to choose his theory or technique, first, by personal experi­ ence or what seems most reasonable at the time; second,

31+Albert, "If Counseling is Psychotherapy," p. 7.

35James L. Lister, "Theory Aversion in Counselor Education," Counselor Education and Supervision, VI (Winter, 1967), 91-96. 11 what the experts say one should do; third, which system has the most local prestige; fourth, whether the theory is supported by public and a verified body of k n o w l e d g e . 36 jf a counselor is not careful he becomes what Nichaus calls;

"the kickster"-a type of spasmodic eclectic who varies from week to week in his approaches to counseling. The need seems to be for more concise understandable theoretical data upon which to build germane decisions.

A third purpose for this study results from my problems as an instructor of beginning counselors. During three years as a practicum supervisor and three years as an instructor in counseling psychology, it has become increas­ ingly evident that the same problems encountered as a grad­ uate student are encountered by many beginning counselors.

One cannot be anything but impressed with the difficulties beginning counselors have had in understanding various psychotherapeutic theories and making systematic compari­ sons among theories. The language of these various theories tends to be idiosyncratic in referring to a counseling event. Different theories may describe the

3®Donald H. Ford and Hugh Urban, Systems of Psycho­ therapy : A Comparative Study (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), pp. 17-18.

Stanley W. Niehaus, "The Counselor Menagerie, or What to Avoid in Counselors," The School Counselor, XIII (October, 1965), 43. 12 event using entirely different vocabularies and unique sets of parameters. This tends to make comparisons difficult at best and impossible at worst. Some of the vocabulary of the theories seems supernumerary while other too austere to be readily assimilated by students. A student needs to be in a position to be able to examine critically some of the theories.

The field of school counseling is growing at an un- precedently fast rate. There is a danger that many practices will perpetuate themselves simply because no one has had the time to examine their worth. That theories will be accepted without rigorous examination of their assumptions.^8

The purpose of this thesis has been to clarify my thoughts concerning the systems of counseling, to describe the systems in a concise and understandable manner and to provide for students in counselor education programs a source for broader systematic understanding of the various psychotherapeutic systems. Any counselor thus grounded in theory could have a basis for greater effectiveness.

Hopefully this thesis will extend the present fund of information about some theories of treatment and put them into a usable form so other counselors may have a source of concise, understandable and comparable data with which to work. If the ultimate goal of counseling is to

38Paul Nash, "Some Notes Toward a Philosophy of School Counseling," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (November, 1964), 243. 13 maximize human effectiveness,^ then it must be reasonable to assume counselors need to understand themselves and the parameters within which they find themselves involved with other human beings.

METHOD OF STUDY

A review of selected current theories of counseling psychotherapy was undertaken. The goal of such a review was to gather information on various counseling theories and record them in some uniform way so comparisons between facets of these theories could be made at a later time. No attempt at evaluation was made in gathering the information on any theory. No attempt was made in evaluating con­ temporary research appropriate to the theory. But when theories as numerous and complex as those of therapy are examined, there are many possible points of comparison, though theories of counseling have great diversity. Some theories have facets which are not comparable to other systems. Much of the problem of comparison is due to the neologistic language of the system; however, some of the problem rests in the very fiber of the theory itself. Some theories contain ideas which are not within the constructs of other theories.

^Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 5. 14 The selection of theories for evaluation was a

difficult problem, for two reasons. First, I have prefer­

ences as to which theories seem most appropriate to me as

a counselor. Second, there is no single source of informa­

tion from which one can gain insight into recommended sys­ tems for school counselors. A book edited by SteffIre4^

is the only work on counseling theories clearly written for

school counselors. This volume presents only four theo­ ries, and one of these is seriously criticized for its in­ appropriateness for school counselors.^ In spite of the criticism, however, "Graduate students in counseling psy­ chology and their teachers will welcome this book as a much-needed resource in counselor education." il 2

In order to choose the theories with some degree of objectivity it was decided to survey the two journals sub­ scribed to by school counselors: Personnel' and' Guidance

Journal and School Counselor and the two journals sub­ scribed to by counselor educators: Counselor Education and

Supervision and Journal of Counseling Psychology in order to determine which psychotherapeutic systems are most

4(^Stefflre, Theories of Counseling.

4-*-Irene C. Cooperman, "Theories of Counseling," review of Theories of Counseling, by Buford SteffIre, in the Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (May, 1966), 9 8 2-4.

42Ibid., p. 982. pi A p« •d $ CD (0 JJ* CO 3 rt 0 0 H 0 ft ft $ < ft ID a t CO H CD 0 (D 0 01 C ft 1 H 3 3* Hi P* ft ft ft 3 p* S3 p. a ft CO CO CO 1 to 3 a y rt ft P* ft ft 0 (0 3 P*OQ H rt < 0 3 to ft ft ft u* y P* ft (0 ft 3 < rt ft to P* rt ft c ft Ch a H* it 3 ft 0 ft 3 1 (0 Hi 3 (0 ft y rt 3 0 ft 0 a 1 ft 3 3* rt a ft y ftO rt 0 ft 1 (0 1 C 0 H 0 to Hi 3 rt Hi I 0 ft H* H 4 p* ft 0 < pi 0 ft 0 (l) 0 0 > y ft ft 1 * ft 1 | j n Ct ft a 3 t a > • £ ft < H) 0 0 ft rt 1 Hi *< a a ft 3 rt 3 p* ft rt rt ft 0 ft Hft to ft H) y 0 7 p. ft ft ft ft 0 c 1 (OH 2 a ft 1 C ft p* H ft 0 0 rt a 3 oxo p* ft 0 H Hi * X ft 1 P* ft ft a ft C 1 3 0>- H ft 1 ft a H H» ft I CO 3 3 3 V pi ft rt ft ft 3 ft y (0 to ft ft rt 3ft 0 a 3* a if « ft 0 1 pi a e 3* H| sr ft ft ft M i y 4 0 1 3 If y pj p» 1 3 ft ft 0 ft ft o ft ft Q3 0 ft 0 0 c pi £ ft 3 p 3 H p« ft ft ft 1 3 ft 0 0 0 0 i u« a « a 0 ft rt < #t rt a ft ft 1 c 3 3 C *1 ft p« a p* pi pi ft p. pi p. ft a 3 0 0 * ft H *1 0 ft 7 • rt 3 to p» p» ft 3 0 I < c h» ft ft 0 i 13 1 3 I ft £1 ft p* ft c rt 0 (0 •» 3 0 ft p* 1 0 M pi p . c rt 1 09h 5 N Pi • ft • 3 3 ft rt Hi ft pi i ^ rt 0 5 ft ft O' S 7 P* to rt * 0 3 j p* rt it ft rt 0 - < 0 «t M $ pi pi c ft C H>4 rt I n H 0 a k,.A p i *% 0 *•% I) i y 3 ^ ft 3 f"" rt 1 7 p. ft * 3 p 3 t § I 7 n i ft ft ft 1 7 A jjf * a H P» 0 1 ^ ft, N i rt V I 3 ft 0 *3 m 3 ft •r M 7 p» rt c V ft 1 1$ i ft 0 a i 1 1 w 8 y 0 thS ft 'f? *1i it M W* ft < ft p* 1 1 0 t ♦ 0 p* I ft rt 1 t ft 3 1 r ft 1 i f 1 H ft S 1 0 ft i 1 •■5 **• .1 p* I 1 1 * ! ** S > A M W. i $ Hi +■* m k i i 14 The selection of theories for evaluation was a difficult problem, for two reasons. First, I have prefer­ ences as to which theories seem most appropriate to me as a counselor. Second, there is no single source of informa­ tion from which one can gain insight into recommended sys­ tems for school counselors. A book edited by Stefflra*4*"* is the only work on counseling theories clearly written for school counselors. This volume presents only four theo­ ries, and one of these is seriously criticized for its in- appropriateness for school counselors.14'*' In spite of the criticism, however, "Graduate students in counseling psy­ chology and their teachers will welcome this book as a U 2 much-needed resource in counselor education."

In order to choose the theories with some degree of objectivity it was decided to survey the two journals sub-' scribed to by school counselors; Personnel and' Guidance

Journal and School Counselor and the two journals sub­ scribed to by counselor educators: Counselor Education' and

Supervision and Journal of Counseling Psychology in order to determine which psychotherapeutic systems are most

^Stefflre, Theories of Counseling.

l4lIrene C. Cooperman, "Theories of Counseling," review of Theories of Counseling, by Buford Steffire, in the Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (May, 1966), 982-4.

42Ibid., p. 982. discussed in the literature. Foreman's study over an eleven-year period rates the Personnel and Guidance Journal and the Journal of Counseling Psychology as the most rele­ vant for counseling. Counselor Education and Supervision U 3 is listed as secondarily important. The School Counselor was selected because it is the official publication re­ ceived by members of the American School Counselor Associa­ tion. After the journals were selected, a tally was made of articles referring to the various systems of therapy.

The theories chosen for inclusion in this thesis are the ones most discussed in these journals. The theories are client-centered, developmental, existential, behavioral and trait-factor.

Once the theories had been chosen, an effective method of examination had to be determined. Any attempt at subjectively arriving at criteria for objective judgment had many difficulties. If the rubrics were too narrow, some of the theoretical considerations of individual systems would not fit. If, on the other hand, the rubrics were too broad, no sufficient basis for comparison would be possible.

After reading the theories under consideration, it was decided to organize them into a five-part outline. The

^Milton Foreman, "Publication Trends in Counsel­ ing Journals," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XITT (Winter, 1966), ^81-H85. 16 following outline was used in reporting each of the theo­ retical positions covered by this thesis:

I. Introduction A. Introductory remarks B. Works stating theoretical position

II. Biographical data A . Author B. Influences

III. Philosophy and concepts A. Conception of man B. Related theory of personality

IV. Theory of Therapy A. Process B. Techniques C. Goals

V . Summary

No evaluation of the systems of psychotherapy was attempted at this time. The outline provided only a framework within which to objectively report data.

The secondary concern of gathering these data was that of sufficiency. When was enough information assem­ bled? It would have been possible to examine literally hundreds of references on some of the older, more estab­ lished theories. It became evident that some means had to be established to determine when enough data was collected.

In a sense this point in the data search had to be beyond

"threshold” and below saturation. The criterion for suf­ ficiency of data was established by me. The guidelines were:

1. When enough data were assimilated to lead to clear explanation. 17

2. When more than the main authors' views were exam­ ined . 3. When the more recent writings of the theory were examined along with the earlier theoretical offer­ ings .

When the above guidelines had been met, bibliographical

research was terminated.

The choice of one method of evaluating a theory

over another, even though seemingly objective, is still

idiosyncratic and possibly could never be completely de­

fended. As Koch wrote in defending his selection of theo­ ries and evaluative techniques :

If many significant lines of work have been omitted, the ones included are also significant-and sufficiently varied to suggest a generous range of problems and tasks that systematists face.4^

All efforts within this thesis have been designed with three purposes in mind:

1. So succeeding researchers could use these criteria to arrive at comparative results. 2. So readers of this thesis could readily compare any of the five criteria of one theory with the same criteria in another theory to see similarities or differences that exist between theories. 3. So a clearer and more concise summary of various theories may be available to those interested.

1+4Sigmund Koch, ed. Psychology: A Study of A Science, Vol. Ill (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc . , 1959 ) , p . M-. CHAPTER II

THEORY

THE NATURE OF THEORY

The purpose of this chapter is to gather together pertinent information concerning theory. It is hoped that the reader will be able to understand counseling and psychotherapy more fully after having studied the nature of theory in general.

The scientist, physical or behavioral, assumes that there is some semblance of order in nature. Were this not the case, no purpose would have been achieved in the search for uniformities. "The term 'science1 denotes both a cer­ tain type of activity and the results of it. Science could be, therefore, either method or resultant system.

"The scientific search for truth, the research, and the re­ sulting scientific system evidently deal with a certain O kind of truth and seek it in a certain manner." The goals of science are homogeneous by nature; it is the methods

•^-Benjamin B. Wolman, Contemporary Theories and Systems in Psychology (New York: Harper S Brothers, Fub- lishers, I960), p. 49"7.

2Ibid.

18 o

19 that are heterogeneous. "The aims of science are descrip­ tion, explanation,, and prediction."3 Pratt has stated that the subject matter of psychology is the same, in kind, as all other sciences; any differentiation among the sciences is only a matter of convenience.1* Science then is a multi­ faceted enterprise. Some will emphasize that it is a way of thinking as in the "scientific attitude." For others, science is primarily a way of working: the "scientific method." Still others prefer to emphasize the product of the method: the "body of knowledge." Hone of these facets can be accepted to the exclusion of the others.3

The safest procedure is to accept them all and con­ sider science as the total enterprise: men thinking with a certain attitude, using scientific methods to produce facts and theories that are ordered descrip­ tions and explanations of the world.6

Those in the field of psychology, one area of sci­ ence, must see that psychological theorists ground them­ selves in theoretical concepts before attempting to syste­ matize the world of human behavior. The methods employed

3Herbert Feigl, "The Scientific Outlook: Naturalism and Humanism," in Readings in the Philosophy of Science, ed. by Herbert Feigl and May Brodbeck, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953), p. 10.

^C. C. Pratt, The Logic of Modern Psychology (New York: MacMillan Company, 1939).

3Melvin H. Marx and William A. Hillix, Systems and Theories in Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963),p . 3.

6Ibid. 20 by science are indispensable to psychology. "The scien­ tific method, . . . is the most assured technique man has yet devised for controlling the flux of things and estab­ lishing stable beliefs.”^

What is theory? Marx defines theory as "In a gen­ eral sense, any more or less formalized conceptualization of the relationship of variables. Any generalized explana­ tory principle.”8 English and English stated it another way: ”A general principle, supported by considerable data, proposed as an explanation of a group of phenomena.”9 They amplify the definition by suggesting that theory is more solidly supported than hypothesis and less firmly supported— than law. Nagel defines theory by contrasting it with an experimental law. He states three characteristics of theory: (1) each descriptive (i.e., nonlogical) constant is not matched with an overt procedure for predicting the term, (2) inductive generalizations based on relations found to hold in observed data are not at its base, and

n Morris R. Cohen and Ernest Nagel, An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method (New York: Harcourt, Brace S World , Inc . , 19 34-) , p^ 391. O Melvin H. Marx, ”The General Nature of Theory Con­ struction,” in Theories in Contemporary Psychology, ed. by Melvin H. Marx, (New York: Macmillan Company, 1963), p. 43 . 9 Horace B. English and Ava Champney English, A Com- prehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalyti­ cal Terms (New York: David McKay Co., 1958), p. 551. 21

(3) almost without exception it is a system of related statements.-^ Nagel in another work states the case for psychological theory. "The study of individuals as com­ plete wholes are never matters of direct observation but are patterns of action that can be identified only by means of theory. Natural sciences are analytic while the social sciences are compositive or synthetic.

It can be readily seen that the common conception that theory exists in opposition to fact is incorrect. The very fact that a theory is not completely verified does not make it diametric to fact. "A theory is an unsubstantiated hypothesis or a speculation concerning reality which is not yet definitely known to be so.’1^ Nagel in his analysis of theory finds it useful to break theory into three dis­ tinguishable components. This breakdown gets right to the very fiber of theory:

1. an abstract calculus that is the logical skeleton of the explanatory system;

2. a set of rules that in effect assign an empirical content to the abstract calculus by relating it to the concrete materials of observation and experi­ ment ;

•^Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science ' (New York: Harcourt, Brace S World, Inc., 1961), pp. 83-9.

■^Ernest Nagel, Logic Without Metaphysics (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1956), p"T 36 3. ~

■ ^ C a l v i n s. Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957), p . 10 . 22

3. an interpretation or model for the abstract calcu­ lus, which supplies some flesh for the skeletal structure in terms of more or less familiar con­ ceptual or visualizable materials.^3

To understand theory one needs to understand re­ lated philosophical concepts. The first of these concepts is law. "A scientific law is most often defined as a statement of regular, predictable relationship among empirical variables . "l‘+ Or to look at it another way: "A verbal statement, supported by such ample evidence as not to be open to doubt unless much further evidence is ob­ tained . . ."-*-5 a law is thus depicted as reality as near as man can define it.

It is also necessary to examine the concept of hypothesis. "An hypothesis is a tentative and provisional thesis put forward upon the basis of accumulated knowledge for the guidance of further investigation and research."-*-®

Marx's definition is more painted: "Loosely defined, an hypothesis is any conjecture or surmise that states a re­ lationship among variables."-*-^ The hypothesis can be seen

-*-®Nagel, Structure of Science, p. 90.

-*"1+Marx, Theories in Contemporary Psychology, p. 7.

-*-®English £ English, Dictionary, p. 288 .

l®Herbert L. Searles, Logic and the Scientific Methods (2nd ed.; New York: Ronald Press Company, 1956), p. 231. 1 n Marx, Theories in Contemporary Psychology, p. 7. 23 to be a very useful tool to the systemizer of counseling theories. "There are no scientific restrictions on the source of hypothesis. These may arise from uncontrolled observations - such as clinical insights - or controlled observations - such as scientific experiments.

One other definition, concept of system, needs establishing in order to understand the psychotherapeutic theories under consideration. Chaplin and Krawiec tend to use the term system and theory as synonymous. English and English define system as "the set of orderly and per­ sisting interrelations between parts of the whole."20 To this definition Ford and Urban would add the facet of classification.21 Probably the most germane explanation for purposes of this discussion comes from Marx. He states a system is "an organization and interpretation of the data and theories of a subject matter with emphasis upon a par- ticular methodology and working assumptions."• 9 9

-^Melvin H. Marx, "Sources of Confusion in Atti­ tudes Toward Clinical Theory," Journal of General Psy­ chology , LV (July, 1956), p. 19.

■^J. P. Chaplin and T. S. Krawiec, Theories and Systems of Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960).

^English 6 English, Dictionary, p. 541.

2"^Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, Systems of Psychotherapy: A Comparative Study (New York: John Wiley and Sons , Inc., 1963) , p^ 20 . 9 9 Marx, Theories in Contemporary Psychology, p. 43. 24

In general, then, psychological theory can be seen as but another facet of science. Psychotherapeutic theory differs from the general subject matter of science only as a matter of convenience and not as a difference in kind.

Any science has as its base attitude, method, and body of knowledge, and upon these three foundations science is con­ structed .

Theory is a conveyance of science in that it is a more or less formalized conceptualization of observations, and one of its fundamental properties is testability. A theory probably grows from a hypothesis or conjecture which is also testable. Sometimes more organized theories or collections of theories are called systems. The term sys­ tem, however, in many respects, differs little from theory.

When verification is established for a theory, it is said to be law, that is, a predictable relationship between variables has been established.

One could postulate that theories of counseling start as conjectures or hypothesis of therapists which grow into theories and systems. When verification procedures become more acute, these systems often become law.

Wise men have long known that the business of science is the induction of generalities from observed par­ ticulars, and these generalities form the theories and laws which constitute the body of scientific fact.^3

^^Edward G. Boring, History, Psychology, and Science: Selected Papers (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), p. 9. 25

In spite of the methodological difficulties in systemizing

behaviors in human beings, there remains a scheme, the

scheme of science, by which a framework of knowledge may be constructed. Mill shares this optimism:

But, after all has been said which can be said, it remains incontestable that there exist uniformities of succession among states of mind and that these can be ascertained by observation and experiment.2i*

FUNCTION OF THEORY

Functions of theory as used in contemporary psy­ chology are apparent.

Both contemporary psychology and contemporary science in general are an admixture of fact and theory, and since theory attempts to bridge gaps in factual knowl­ edge, or go beyond what is known, it is necessarily someone's point of v i e w . 25

Hall and Lindzey26 describes three functions of theory. The first is that a theory is a "set of convic­ tions." This implies that theories are not given or some way predetermined by nature, but are created by the theo­ rist. The second function of theory is that it should permit "incorporation of known empirical findings" within some consistent framework. The theory is a means of organizing all that is known about an event or series of

2l+John Stuart Mill, John Stuart Mill * s Philosophy of Scientific Method, ed. by Ernest Nagel (New York: Hafner Publishing Co., Inc., 1950), p. 315.

25Chaplin and Krawiec, Systems of Psychology, p. 3.

26Hall and Lindzey, Personality, pp. 10-15. related events. The third function of theory is to "pre­ vent the observer from being dazzled by the full-blown com­ plexity of natural or concrete events." In other words a theory is a limiter, delineating the necessary from the superfluous.

In a cogent discussion of theory, Marx says that

"Several distinct functions are subsumed by theory. Most of these may be summarized by the statement that all theory tends to be both a tool and a goal."27 Marx seems to view theory as having both a mechanistic as well as a value function. The tool function allows an investigator to use theory as a guide in investigations to generate insights not otherwise possible. The goal function is in evidence when one considers the utility theories have in the codi­ fication and systematic storage of data.

Theory, then, has a highly utilitarian function for the investigator of counseling theory. Without theory little would be possible in the way of systematic investi­ gation or description. Theory tends to focus rather than diffuse attention on the problem at hand. Much of that which superficially passes for theory in human relations is nothing other than "cracker barrel" speculation.

27j^arx, Theories of Contemporary Psychology, p. 5. 27

Some psychologists substitute, often quite uncon­ sciously, phenomenological introspection and anthropomorphic thinking for theorizing. There is, of course, nothing wrong with such introspection: it has often served as a means of formulating inter­ esting and valuable experiments. In such instances, however, the credit should not be given to theory.28

THE ADEQUACY OF THEORY

A theory is more than good or bad, adequate or in­ adequate, or as Hall and Lindzey have said, "only useful or not useful."29 a theory must meet certain overall criteria of formal adequacy if it is to be generally considered im­ portant. Salvatore Maddi has listed six such criteria for judging the adequacy of theory. His principles all indi­ cate that a theory should be "important, operational, parsimonious, stimulating, usable and empirically valid."88

1. "A theory should be important." Usually theo­ ries are not evaluated on a triviality to importance con­ tinuum. Essentially no evaluation is made on this basis because of lack of agreement within the academic community.

"The polemic use of terms such as 'inconsequential,' 'lim­ ited,' 'far from reality,' and so on when applied to

28Kenneth W. Spence, "The Nature of Theory Con­ struction in Contemporary Psychology," Psychological Review, LI (January, 1944), 47-68.

28Hall and Lindzey, Personality, p. 11.

88Salvatore R. Maddi, Personality Theories: A Com- parative Analysis (Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1968), p. 451. 28 theories of behavior misses the fact that science has no dead-end markers."^

2. "A theory should be operational." To state this another way, the meaning of a concept is determined by the measurements associated with that concept. The princi­ ple of operationalism puts a heavy burden upon concept definition as a part of theory. If concepts are not de­ fined adequately, the measurements of these concepts will produce misleading results.

3. "A theory should be parsimonious." Over gen­ eralization and hypothesizing can be the death to any theory. Theories should add details and exceptions after the data warrants, not before the data is available. Marx stressed the same point.

Since most of our hypotheses turn out to be wrong, especially in the early phases of investigation, adding more hypothetical parts without sufficient data invites trouble. The principle of parsimony should thus be more widely recognized as a safeguard in the applica­ tion of science as well as a stimulant in its pur­ suit .32

M-. "A theory should be precise." This criteria is nearly self-evident. A theory must consist of precise, ex­ plicit language, language that can be understood by those

SlGeorge Mandler and William Kessen, The Language of Psychology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959), p. 253.

32Marx, Theories of Contemporary Psychology, p. 21. 29 working with the theory. Obscure, clandestine, and neo- logistic vocabulary should be avoided.

5. "A theory should be empirically valid." The theory should be constructed in such a way as to allow for critically empirical tests. The acid test for empirical validity is prediction. Pratt's warning of twenty years ago is still valid. Of psychologists he said: "They can be most useful to society by staying in their laboratories and libraries , there to remain until they can come forth with reliable predictions and well-tested applications."33

6. "A theory should be stimulating." Certainly an excitement generated by a new theory is useful to the scientific community, but too many theories have only novelty in their favor. If a theory is to persist, it will need more than excitement as tissue for its constructs.

Psychological theorists appear to be free to de­ velop theoretical models of unlimited scope based upon observation of human behavior.

Psychology may describe the facts of certain types of mental activity and formulate the laws of its behavior, but it is not especially concerned with the problem of truth or falsity of propositions, or the logical validity of arguments as such.31*

33Pratt, The Logic of Psychology, p. 17 9.

3I+Searles , Logic and Scientific Methods, p. 14. 3 0

THEORY AND COUNSELING/PSYCHOTHERAPY

Some attempt at a meaningful synthesis of theory,

counseling, and psychotherapy is contiguous. "It is clear

that the practice of psychotherapy is an applied field. A

therapist's primary purpose is not to establish principles

of behavior, but rather to apply established principles to

achieve behavioral change.Herein lies one of the most

difficult problems for the counselor. Though Hobbs36 sees

the complete counselor as diagnostician, therapist, and re­

searcher, the role is more Herculean. "One of the toughest

of the ethical questions in relation to the study of psy­

chotherapeutic process arises from the fact that research

and clinical goals often are in direct conflict.3?

The primary role of the counselor is to help

clients, not conduct research and build theory. Yet, if the therapists do not attempt to verify some of the theo­ retical statements and procedures in use, theories of counseling would cease to exist. Without some systematic point of view, therapists are likely to be ineffective and haphazard in working with their clients.

^^Ford and Urban, Systems of Psychotherapy, p. 9.

^Nicholas Hobbs, "The Complete Counselor," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI (April, 1958), 594- 602 .

^Rosalind Dymond Cartwright, "Psychotherapeutic Processes," Annual Review of Psychology, IXX (19 68), p. 400. 31

All forms of individual psychotherapy have in common the aim of assisting the individual to lead a more effective life and to reduce the ravages or impair­ ment caused by psychopathology.^8

Assisting and research, both responsibilities of counselors and counselor educators, create a special compe­ tition. The counseling interview is not broad enough at its psychological base to allow any serious research on be­ havioral theory even for the most dedicated counselor. The psychological behaviors within the confines of the counsel­ ing interview are too narrow. Counselors require an ade­ quate set of propositions on which to base their efforts of assistance with clients. A much wider range of behavior must be woven in the fabric of a counseling theory than just the behavior exhibited in the counseling situation.

"Those who argue that psychotherapy represents a special condition, sufficiently different from other behavioral situations (and that) it requires a psychology of its own"^^ are incorrect. Theories of counseling and psycho­ therapy are like other behaviorally-oriented theories. The subject matter may differ slightly, but the human psycho­ logical base must remain the same.

Max L. Hutt, Robert L. Isaacson, and Milton L. Blum, Psychology: The Science of Interpersonal Behavior (New York: Harper S Row, Publishers, 1966), p. 3 00. q q Ford £ Urban, Systems of Psychotherapy, p. 9. 32

Since it is the kind of question being raised by a given problem which determines the type of method appropriate for the answering of the question, it fol­ lows that there will be as many different scientific methods as there are fundamentally different kinds of problems.^

The method may vary because the question varies, but the source of knowledge to answer the question does not vary.

Theories of counseling are essentially theories, in the philosophical sense, based on psychological understand­ ing of a broad spectrum of human behavior. These theories differ only in emphasis, not in kind, from other psycho­ logical theories. It is probably true that the experi­ mentalist with his rigorous empiricism may never come to accept the psychotherapist with his more philosophically- oriented theory. The counselor, on the other hand, may look in dismay at subhuman experimentation with its attempts at understanding human behavior. No doubt both positions are necessary if psychological theory is to

The counselor's first concern is the client and he dare not lose sight of this concern no matter what the fascination with research in counseling. "In the long run, psychologi­ cal theories of therapy must come to a point where they will make it possible to select the therapy which is good

11 °F. S. C. Northrop, The Logic of the Sciences and the Humanities (New York: Macmillan Company, 19M-7), p^ T9. 33 for a patient and not the patient who is good for the therapy.

THE COUNSELOR, THEORY, AND RESEARCH

The assumption that counseling is good cannot be accepted on faith just as the theoretical positions of psychotherapy cannot be accepted without some corrobora­ tion. "The idea that every professional school counselor

• • Ll 0 spends part of his time in research activities"4" is an important one if counseling research is to improve. Re­ search paradigms vary but "it appears that ’outcome' re­ mains the piece de resistance for research in counsel­ ing. The need for adequate and appropriate research study is well accepted by any profession or science. It is no different in the field of counseling. One fact that needs to be noted, however, is the importance of theory in the whole scheme of research and practice.

It is my contention that only through possessing a sound theoretical background to guide techniques will educators be able to call themselves professionals. With a well-formulated frame of reference educators

^D. Rapaport, "The Structure of Psychoanalytic Theory: A Systematizing Attempt," Psychological Issues, II (1960) , 115.

^Herman J. Peters and James C. Hansen, "The School Counselor as a Researcher,” School Counselor, XI (March, 1964), 165-170.

^^Thomas W. Allen, "Task Group Report One," in Research in Counseling, ed. by John M. Whiteley, (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1967), p. 234. 34

will be better equipped to handle old data, and better able to make adjustments in their thinking for han­ dling new data. Without thorough grounding in theory we are technicians.

A philosophical examination of the same point shows remark­ able similarity.

As a first generalization, then, we may say that, in effect, all ethicists and psychotherapists cannot be­ gin to think about health and ill-health, good and bad living, without some frame of reference or ideal to guide them, as they go to work ajudging and analyz­ ing.115

Allport,^® in his work on psychological models, has said that our theories of growth, learning, and motivation must be revised if we are to achieve a more realistic image of man. Clearly the implication for us in the counseling pro­ fession is a revision of theories that we need so desper­ ately if our profession is to grow. But "adherence to a particular point of view can have real utility. It may focus effort and provide a framework within which to inter­ pret findings."14^ Another caution on the need for theory comes from Kline.

^Milton R. Cudney, "Theory Aversion," in the Reader Reacts column School Counselor, X (December, 1962), 55 .

^Peter A. Bertocci and Richard M. Millard, Person­ ality and the Good; Psychological and Ethical Perspectives (New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1963) , p . 45 .

^G. W. Allport, "Psychological Models for Guid­ ance," Harvard Educational Review, XXXII (Fall, 1962), 37 8- 381.

^Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, "Psychother­ apy," Annual Review of Psychology, XVIII (19 67), p. 338. 35

Unless the clinician has a therapeutic plan, his pro­ cedure is apt to be an ad hoc response to symptoms or a product of impulsive improvisation. Planful pro­ cedure calls for adequate conceptualization of the nature of the problem to be s o l v e d .

Many exciting theories have come into counseling in the last twenty years. A counselor with a firm theoretical background is in a position to examine and profit from these positions. Behaviorism and existentialism have be­ come dynamic forces which need to be reckoned within our young profession.1*^ 50 There is much yet to be done to understand effectiveness of psychotherapy,^ as well as the adequacy of our methods to study this effectiveness.52 53

B. Klein, "Abnormal Psychology," in Theoreti­ cal Foundations of Psychology ed. by Harry Hilson, (Princeton, New Jersey: IA Von Nostrand Co., Inc., 1951), p. 732.

^Robert R. Carkhuff, "Counseling Research, Theory and Practice-19 6 5," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIII (Winter, 1966), 467.

50t)onald H. Blocher, "Issues in Counseling: Elusive and Illusional," Personnel and Guidance Journal., XLIII (April, 1965), 796-800.

5lBernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Be­ havior: Shorter Edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace S World, Inc., 1967).

^Donald J. Kiesler, "Some Myths of Psychotherapy Research," Psychological Bulletin, LXV (February, 1966), 110-136.

^William B. Chmeron, "A Paradigm of Psychologic Theories," American Journal of Psychotherapy, XV (April, 1961), 205-211. 36

"What appears to be differences in counseling systems may be but differences in counselors.

Without adequate hypothesis to develop theory, and adequate theory supported by research, the practicing counselor is little more than a charlatan abusing his fel­ low man. With much to be done few can afford the luxury of theoretical indifference.

^Dugald S. Arbuckle, "Kinds of Counseling: Mean­ ingful or Meaningless," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIV (May, 1967), 219-225. CHAPTER III

CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY

INTRODUCTION

Nondirective or client-centered counseling was the first systematic position in psychotherapy of American psychological origin to achieve widespread prominence.

Other systems had grown from either medical or European antecedents. The originator and outstanding exponent of the nondirective, or in current terminology, client- centered therapy, is Carl Rogers.

Carl Rogers has tremendous empathy for mankind.

"This deep concern for the welfare of man is the reason he has confined the major part of his psychological effort to the practice of psychotherapy."^ Rogers has, through the research and development of his theory, allowed motion pic­ tures and taped interviews to become available to the psychological community. This has opened the door to those who would seek to evaluate therapeutic relationships.

The client-centeredness of the Rogerian position is nonauthoritarian. It is an approach in which the subject

1Ledford J. Bischof, Interpreting Personality Theories (New York: Harper £ Row, Publishers, 119 64), p. 424. 38 is referred to as a "client," hence an equal, and the therapy session is known as an interview. Today client- centered therapy seems very attractive, if one can judge from the amount of favorable material written.

Rogers’ ideas have, however, not always been popu­ lar. During the period from 19 46 to 19 50 many speakers and writers attacked the nondirective point of view.2 In spite of the early unpopular reception, his work has attracted many followers and has generated much in the way of useful research which has had a healthful influence in the general field of psychotherapy.3 The ideas elaborated by Rogers have been given not as statements of fact, but as postu­ lates. He has stressed the tentative status of his formu­ lations, the necessity for their revision and improvement, and the desirability of submitting them to empirical and experimental test.1*

"Rogers’ conceptions have been characterized by constant change and revision."5 Through the change and revision he has more and more attempted to develop a

2Ibid.

3Robert A. Harper, Psychoanalysis and Psycho­ therapy: 3 6 Systems, Spectrum Book (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19 59), p. 95.

^Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, Systems of Psychotherapy; A Comparative Study (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), p. 39 7.

5Ibid., p . 396. 39 cohesive psychological theory of psychotherapy, a theory which has grown out of his experience as a therapist in trying to order those things that seem to be important.3

In a study of Rogerian throught, Dallis establishes the following periods: the eclectic 19 33-19 39, the nondirec- tivist 1940-1948, the client-centered therapist 1949-1956, n and the existential phenomenologist 1957— . In spite of the shifts, one element has remained constant in all of the client-centered writings: man has the capacity to cope with his concerns when provided with the freedom and safety to do so.® Much of what Rogers discovered in his research comes from personal values and convictions. He has called these convictions, "significant learnings." These learnings 9 are:3

1. In my relationship with persons I have found that it does not help, in the long run, to act as though I were something that I am not.

2. I find I am more effective when I can listen accep- tantly to myself, and can be myself.

3Carl R. Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in the Client-Centered Framework," in Psychology: A Study of a Science, Vol. Ill ed. by Sigmund Koch (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 59), pp. 184-256. 7 Constantine A. Dallis, "The Development of Rogerian Thought and Its Implications for Counselor Educa­ tion" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1965).

8Ibid.

9Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming A Person (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 61), pp. 15-27. 40

3. I have found it of enormous value when I can permit myself to'understand another person.

4. I have found it enriching to open channels whereby others can communicate their feelings, their private perceptual worlds , to m e .

5. I have found it highly rewarding when I can accept another person.

6. The more I am open to the realities in me and in the other person, the less do I find myself wishing to rush in to "fix things."

7. I can trust my experience.

8. Evaluation by others is not a guide for me.

9. Experience is, for me, the highest authority.

10. I enjoy the discovering of order in experience.

11. The facts are friendly.

12. What is most personal is most general.

13. It has been my experience that persons have a basically positive direction.

14. Life, at its best, is a flowing, changing process in which nothing is fixed.

Reflections of these attitudes can be seen in all of Rogers’ writing. It is difficult to say whether his theory has grown from these convictions, gained from his psychotherapeutic practice, or whether the convictions have grown from the theory. Possibly the theory and the atti­ tudes expressed evolved in unison rather than individually.

The core of the client-centered theory can be found in a number of books or chapters in books written by

Rogers. Scores of articles have been published stating 41 parts of the theoretical position, but the major works of

Rogers remain the best source of the client-centered frame­ work. His theory'can be traced through these works start­ ing in 19 39 when Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child was published. Other works were Counseling and Psycho­ therapy: Newer Concepts in Practice (1942), Client-

Centered Therapy (1951), "A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in the

Client-Centered Framework" (19 59), On Becoming a Person

(1961), "Nondirective Counseling: Client-Centered Therapy"

(1969), and his latest book Freedom to Learn (1969).

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION10> 11’ 12

Carl Ransom Rogers began his life in a large, closely knit family in the state of Illinois two years after the turn of the century. His home was very strict and uncompromising in religious and ethical matters. He was the fourth of six children. When his family moved to a farm, Carl was twelve years old and became deeply inter­ ested in scientific agriculture. This interest persisted when he entered the University of Wisconsin in the field of

10Ibid., pp. 4-15.

•^Carl R. Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling: Client-Centered Therapy," in Psychotherapy and Counseling, ed. by William S. Sahakian (Chicago: Rand McNally S Company, 1969), pp. 169-209.

•^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," pp. 18 5-18 8. 42 agriculture. During the first two years of college his interests changed from agriculture to the ministry. In

19 24 he was graduated from Wisconsin, married, and entered

Union Theological Seminary, to prepare for the ministry.

The dogma of religion was less than appealing to Rogers so in 19 2 6 he transferred across the street to Columbia Uni­ versity. It was here he was exposed to the sensitive, practical clinical work with children under Leta Holling- worth. He shifted from work in the philosophy of education to child guidance. While in a master’s program he was granted an internship at a new child guidance clinic where he was exposed to the strongly Freudian views of the staff.

Rogers found their views in great conflict with the scien­ tific, coldly objective views prevalent at Columbia.

Columbia awarded the M.A. degree to Rogers in 19 2 8 and the

Ph.D. in 1931.

Rogers was employed at the Child Study Department of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in

Rochester, New York, in 1928 as a psychologist. In 1931 he became director of the clinic. It was here that he began to examine his ideas concerning counseling. The financial press of his growing family dictated this move, even though his graduate work was incomplete.

The directorship pf the clinic was left in 19 40 when he went to Ohio State University to become professor of Clinical Psychology until 19 45. It was during these 43 years at O.S.U. that much of his current thought origin­ ated. The contact with critical and.stimulating graduate students forced Rogers to bring his concepts into sharper focus. In 19 45 he became professor of Psychology and

Executive Secretary of the Counseling Center at the Uni­ versity of Chicago. In 19 5 7 he returned to the University of Wisconsin to become professor of Psychology and Psychia­ try. In 19 6 2 he was a Fellow at the Center of Advanced

Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford, leaving in

19 6 3 to accept the position as a Resident Fellow at the

Western Behavioral Sciences Institute at La Jolla,

California, a position he still holds.

PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

Some years ago, Rogers wrote of newer concepts in counseling practice.^ He still holds to these ideas.

The concepts are-*-^ the belief that the individual and not the problem should be the focus of counsling; that more emphasis should be given the emotional, feeling aspects of the situation rather than the intellectual; that more emphasis must be placed on the immediate situation in an

-^Carl R. Rogers, Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1942), pp. 28-45.

■j h Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," pp. 179-180.

■^Rogers, Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 28-45. <44 interview than on the past; and finally the belief that the therapeutic interview itself is a growth experience.

An understanding of Rogers’ special vocabulary is important in assessing his theory, particularly an under­ standing of the definitions of constructs, forty of crucial importance.« They are summarized • from Rogers.-LD 1 fi

1. ’’Actualizing tendency. " Inherent tendency of an organism to develop its capacities to maintain or enhance the organism.

2. ’’Tendency toward self-actualization." The actual­ ization of that portion of the experience of the organism which is symbolized in the self.

3. "Experience" (noun). All that is going on within the organism at any moment which is potentially available to awareness.

4. "Experience" (verb). To receive within the organ­ ism the impact of sensory and/or psychological events.

5. "Feeling, experiencing a feeling." Emotional tinged experience together with its personal mean­ ing.

6. "Awareness, symbolization, consciousness." The detection of a stimulus.

7. "Availability to awareness." When experience symbolized without distortion.

8. "Accurate symbolization." Ability to correctly distinguish symbols.

9. "Perceive, perception." A hypothesis for action which comes into awareness.

10. "Subceive, subception." An ability to discrimin­ ate an experience without symbolization in aware­ ness .

•^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," pp. 19 5-211. 45

11. "Self-experience." Any event discriminated by the individual which is also discriminated as "self," "me" or "I."

12. "Self, concept of self, self-structure." Percep­ tions characteristic of "I" or "me."

13. "Ideal self." The self concept an individual would like to possess.

14. "Incongruence between self and experience." A dissimilarity between what a person perceives and his actual experience with himself.

15. "Vulnerability." A state of incongruence between the self and experience.

16 . "Anxiety." A state of uneasiness whose cause is unknown.

17. "Threat." A state which exists when an experience is perceived or subceived as incongruent with the structure of the self.

18. "Psychological maladjustment." When the organism denies or distorts significant experiences which creates an incongruence between self and experi­ ence .

19 . "Defense, defensiveness." Perceptual distortion of experience in awareness to maintain current self structure.

20 . "Distortion in awareness, Denial to awareness." The blocking of the admission to awareness of material which is inconsistent.

21. "Intensionality." The characteristic of behavior of the individual who is in a defensive state.

22. "Congruence, congruence of self and experience." The integration of the concept of self and experi­ ence .

23 . "Openness to experience." When an individual is in no way threatened.

24. "Psychological adjustment." All experiences may be assimilated on a symbolic level into the self­ structure . 46

25. "Extensionality." The seeing of experience in limited, differentiated terms, awareness of dif­ ferent levels of abstraction.

26. "Mature maturity." To perceive realistically in an extensional manner.

27. "Contact." When two people sense each other they are in contact.

28. "Positive regard." When the perception of some self-experience in another makes a positive dif­ ference in one's experiential field.

29 . "Need for positive regard." A learned need com­ monly developed in early infancy, love.

30 . "Unconditional positive regard." To "prize" an­ other.

31. "Regard complex." All self-experiences together with their interrelationships.

32 . "Positive self-regard." A positive regard satis­ faction associated with the self. The individual is his own significant other.

33. "Need for self-regard." A learned need related to the satisfaction of the need for positive regard by others.

34. "Unconditional self-regard." An individual's per­ ception that no self-experience can be discrimin­ ated as more or less worthy of positive regard than any other.

35 . "Conditions of worth." When the positive regard of a significant other is conditional.

36 . "Locus of evaluation." The source of evidence as to values.

37 . "Organismic valuing process." An ongoing process in which values are never fixed or rigid.

38 . "Internal frame of reference." All of the realm of experience which is available to awareness.

39 . "Empathy." The perception of the internal frame of reference of another with emotional components but always in an "as if" condition. 47

40. "External frame of reference." To perceive only from one’s own internal frame of reference.

Conception of Man

The nature of man as postulated under the client- centered framework is somewhat different from that commonly conceived by psychologists. Man is seen as basically 17 rational, self-actualizing and realistic. Man has the capacity to experience his psychological maladjustment, organize his self-concept and experience regard and empathy for another.-*-9 These views of man evolve from Rogers’ experience in therapy rather than the experience of therapy evolving from the concepts. Coulson’s study of client- centered philosophy states that Rogers has a Rousseauist view of human nature and feels that the core of man's nature is positive.Psychotherapy then becomes the re­ leasing of an already existing capacity in a potentially competent person.^ This may well be the central contribu­ tion of Rogers. "If I have made a contribution, it is around the central theme that the potential of the individ­ ual can be released providing the proper psychological

■^Rogers, "On Becoming a Person," pp. 90-92, 194-195.

18Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," p. 177.

■L9William R. Coulson, "Client-Centered Therapy and the Nature of Man" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Uni­ versity of Notre Dame, 19 54). 9 n Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," p. 17 7. 48 climate is created."2^ Philosophically Rogers admits he is an optimistic existentialist. 9 9

Related Theory of Personality

Carl Rogers made an early attempt to delineate a theory of personality in 1947 . This effort was loosely organized and based, as his theory of therapy, upon experi­ ence as a counselor. Rogers has said of his theory of personality: "It may be well to repeat the warning pre­ viously given, and to note that the initial propositions of this theory are those furthest from the matrix of our ex- 9 U- perience and hence are most suspect." Whatever theory of personality has evolved, Rogers feels, has been stated in 9 R his chapter in Koch’s Psychology: A Study of A Science.

His theory of personality seems to represent a synthesis of phenomenology as presented by Syngg and Combs, of holistic and organismic theory as developed in the writings of

Goldstein, Maslow, and Angyal, and of Sullivan's

2-*-Mary Harrington Hall, "A Conversation with Carl Rogers," Psychology Today, I (December, 1967), 65.

22Ibid., p. 62. 2 3 Carl R. Rogers, "Some Observations on the Organi­ zation of Personality," American Psychologist, II (September, 1947), 358-368.

2^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," pp. 221-222.

2 5 Rogers, On Becoming a Person, see footnote p. x. 49 interpersonal theory.2^ Other writers evaluate Rogers' theory as primarily organismic2^ or phenomeonlogical2® or self-theory.2^ One recent personality text, of 85 9 pages, fails to mention Rogers1 theory.^0

Rogers' theory of personality contains ten ele- on ments and are summarized from Rogers: °-L

1. "Characteristics of the Human Infant." An in­ fant perceives his experience as reality and as a conse­ quence has greater 'awareness' of what reality is for him.

He has a predisposition toward actualizing his organism; thus, his behavior is goal directed in an attempt to sat­ isfy his needs for actualizing in the reality perceived.

He behaves as an organized whole. The infant engaged in an organismic valuing process using his actualizing tendency

2®Calvin S. Hall and Gardner Lindsey, Theories of Personality (New York: John Wiley 8 Sons, IncTj 19^57 p. 478.

2 "^Salvatore R. Maddi, Personality Theories: A Comparative Analysis (Homewood"i Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1968), p p . 65-80.

2® Albert Mehrabian, An Analysis of Personality Theories (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968), pp. 33-52.

2^Bischof, Interpreting Personality, pp. 422-449.

^°Irving L. Janis, et al, Personality: Dynamics, Development, and Assessment (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, I n c . , 1969).

^Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," pp. 201-209. 50

to value experience. His behavior moves toward positively

valued experiences and away from those negatively valued.

2. "Development of the Self." The tendency toward

differentiations--part of the actualizing tendency becomes

differentiated and symbolized in awareness. This awareness

is described as self-experience. The representation of

awareness becomes elaborated, through interaction with the

environment, into a concept of self.

3. "Need for Positive Regard." The need for posi­

tive regard, universal in human beings, develops from the

awareness of self. The satisfaction of this need is based

on inferences regarding the experimental field of another.

It is reciprocal in that when an individual discriminates himself as satisfying another's positive-regard need, he experiences satisfaction of his own need for positive re­ gard. It is, therefore, associated with a very wide range of individual experiences. The need for positive regard of any social other is communicated to the total-regard com­ plex which the individual associates with anotherj conse­ quently, the expression of positive regard by a signifi­ cant other can become more compelling than the organismic valuing process.

. "Development of the Need for Self-Regard."

Positive-regard transactions associated with particular self-experience independent of the transactions of social others is called self-regard. The need for self-regard is 51 a learned need developing out of self-experience and the need for positive regard. The individual thus experiences positive regard independently of social others. All of these are communicated to the total self-regard complex.

5. "Development of Conditions of Worth." Self- regard increases in selectivity as significant others dis­ tinguish the self-experiences of the individual as worthy of positive regard. If the individual should experience only unconditional positive regard, no conditions of worth would develop. Self-regard would be unconditional, hence, at no variance with organismic evaluation. The person would be hypothetically fully functioning.

6. "Development of Incongruence Between Self and

Experience." The need for self-regard causes the individ­ ual to perceive his experience selectively in terms of the conditions of worth. Experience in accord with his condi­ tions of worth are accurately symbolized in awareness.

Those not in accord are denied awareness. Consequently, some experiences now occur which are not recognized as self-experience and incongruence between self and experi­ ence, psychological maladjustment and vulnerability exist to some degree.

7. "Development of Discrepancies in Behavior."

Incongruence between self and experience leads to the in­ congruence in behavior. Some behavior maintains the self- concept by being consistent with it. Other behaviors are 52 distorted in a selective fashion, or unrecognized, in such a way as to be consistent with the self.

8. "Experience of Threat and the Process of De­ fense," When an organism continues to experience an expe­ rience which is incongruent with the self-structure, this is subceived as threatening. The nature of threat is that if the experience were accurately symbolized in awareness, the self-concept would no longer be consistent; hence, the conditions of worth would be violated and the need for self-regard frustrated. Anxiety would exist. The process of defense prevents these events from occurring by selec­ tive perception or distortion of experience. Rigidity, distortion and inaccuracy of perception of reality result due to omission of data and intensionality.

9. "Process of Breakdown and Disorganization."

When an individual has a large degree of incongruence be­ tween self and experience that occurred suddenly or with a high degree of obviousness, then his organisms defense can­ not operate successfully. As a result, incongruence is subceived and anxiety experienced. The process of defense being unsuccessful, a state of disorganization results.

The organism at times behaves in ways consistent with the experiences which have been distorted and at times consis­ tent with the concept of self with its distorted experi­ ences . 53

10. "Process of Reintegration." In order for the process of defense to be reversed there must be a decrease in the conditions of worth and an increase in unconditional self-regard. The communicated unconditional positive re­ gard of a significant other is a way of achieving these conditions. In order for unconditional positive regard to be communicated, it must exist in a context of empathic understanding. When an individual perceives unconditional positive regard, conditions of worth are weakened and his unconditional positive self-regard increases.

THEORY OF THERAPY

Rogers1 theory of therapy is an independent var­ iable, dependent/independent variable, dependent variable theory. This type of theory is sometimes called if-then, if this then that. His theory of therapy has three parts; conditions of the therapeutic process, the process of therapy and the outcomes in personality and behavior. If the conditions are met, then the process can take place.

If the process takes place, the outcomes will follow.

Process

The complete theory of therapy is found in two ources. The following discussion is only slightly modi­ fied from these.^ ^ "Conditions of the Therapeutic

^^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," pp. 212-2 20.

3^Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," pp. 17 0-17 6. 54

Process." For therapy to occur the following conditions must be met:

1. two people are in contact.

2. one of the people (client is in a state of in­ congruence, being vulnerable, or anxious.

3. one of the people (therapist) is congruent in the relationship.

4. the therapist experiences unconditional posi­ tive regard with the client.

5. the therapist experiences empathic understand­ ing of the client's internal frame of reference.

6. at least to a small degree the client perceives

4 and 5 above.

"Process of Therapy." If the above conditions are met, a

on 05 process with the following characteristics may occur.

1. The client becomes free to express his feelings through verbal and motor channels.

2. The client’s expressed feelings increasingly have reference to the self, rather than the non-self.

3. The client increasingly differentiates and dis­ criminates the objects of his feelings and perceptions.

His experiences are better symbolized.

^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," pp. 212-220.

^^Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," pp. 17 0-176. 55

4. The client's expressed feelings increasingly have reference to the incongruity between certain of his experiences and his concept of self.

5. The client comes to experience in awareness the threat of such incongruence.

6. The client expresses fully, in awareness, feel­ ings which have in the past been denied to or distorted in awareness.

7. The client's self-concept becomes reorganized to assimilate and include these experiences which have been previously distorted or denied in awareness.

8. As the client's reorganization of the self- structure continues, his concept of self becomes increas­ ingly congruent with his experiences.

9. The client is increasingly able to experience the therapist's unconditional positive regard.

10. The client increasingly feels unconditional positive self-regard.

11. The client begins to experience himself as the focus of evaluation.

12. The client begins to experience less in terms of his conditions of worth and more in terms of organismic valuing process.

Techniques

Rogers has shifted his emphasis away from tech­ nique: "Our concern has shifted from counselor technique 56 attitude and philosophy, with a new recognition of the im­ portance of technique from a more sophisticated l e vel."36

Techniques become ways to facilitate philosophy and atti­ tudes ; hence they grow out of the relationship rather than the relationship growing out of a series of techniques.

The relationship which the counselee provides now becomes the crux of the technique. For the counselor this relationship should have at its base a set of characteris­ tics which apply to him, the counselor. These characteris- q 7 tics are:

1. "Acceptance." The counselor must accept the client without evaluation of judgment either positively or negatively. The client is prized and accepted uncondi­ tionally.

2. "Congruence." The counselor is congruent in that there is no contradiction between what he does and what he says.

3. "Understanding." The counselor is able to see the client in an accurate empathic way. Connotative as well as cognitive understanding is accurately perceived by the counselor,-

^Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy, p. 14.

37C . H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1966), p. 421. 4. "Communicating These Characteristics." The counselor must be able to communicate acceptance, con­ gruence and understanding to the client in such a way as to make it clear to the client the counselor’s feelings.

5. "The Resulting Relationship." A supportive relationship free from threat and secure will occur from the above techniques.

Goals

"Outcomes in Personality and Behavior." The process of

o q o q therapy leads to these outcomes:

1. The client is less defensive and more congruent and open to his experience.

2. The client is more realistic, objective and extensional in his perceptions.

3. He is more effective at problem solving.

4. His psychological adjustment is closer to opti­ mum.

5. His vulnerability to threat is reduced because of the increased congruence of self and experience.

6. As a consequence of (2) above, his perception of his ideal self is more achievable and more realistic.

7. The self becomes more congruent with the ideal self as a result of the changes in (4) and (5).

^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," pp. 212-220.

^Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling," pp. 17 0-17 6. 58

8. As a result of (*4) and (7) all tension is re­ duced .

9. The client has an increased degree of positive self-regard.

10 . The client perceives the locus of evaluation and the locus of choice within himself. He feels more confident, and self-directing. His values now are de­ termined by his organisms valuing process.

11. The client perceives others more realistically and accurately as a result of (1) and (2) above.

12. The client experiences more acceptance of others.

13 . The client accepts more behaviors as belonging to the self and conversely behaviors disowned as self­ experience are decreased. r. ft 14-. The client’s behavior is evaluated by others as more socialized and mature.

15. As a consequence of (1), (2) and (3) behavior is more creative, adaptive and fully expressive of his own purposes and values.

SUMMARY

An underlying assumption of client-centered coun­ seling is that man is rational, constructive and forward 59 moving.1*^ ^ He has within him the capacity for positive development. The theory is based on a phenomenological conception of human behavior; i.e. each person has a phenomenal field which determines his behavior. Values which become part of the individual’s phenomenal field may be derived from direct experience or taken from others.

Emphasis by the therapist is therefore placed on the counseling relationship rather than some past event. "In­ stead of focusing on the diagnostic or causative elements of behavior I have always been more concerned with the dynamics of interaction."^^ Constructive personality change is based upon the therapist's attitudes as well as those of the client.^ ^

Client-centered therapy is a process There re­ organization of the self takes place so the client can more accurately symbolize his feelings, reduce vulnerability to threat and attain a more positive self-regard. "If I have made a contribution it is around the central theme that the

^Dallis , "Development of Rogerian Thought."

^Rogers, On Becoming a Person, pp. 90-92, 194-195. U 9 Hall, "Conversation with Rogers," p. 65.

^Carl R. Rogers, "The Therapeutic Relationship: Recent Theory and Research," Australian Journal of Psy­ chology , XVII (August, 1965) 95-108.

^Carl R. Rogers, "The Interpersonal Relationship: Core of Guidance," Harvard Educational Review XXXII, 4, (1962) , pp. 416-429 . 60 potential of the individual can be released providing the proper psychological climate is created.

Rogers' theoretical contributions have grown from his client-therapist interactions. His theory of therapy preceded the development of his theory of personality.

Later theoretical applications have grown out of a neces­ sity to order and apply that knowledge which had been gained in the psychotherapeutic relationship.^ Rogers has constructed, in addition to a theory of therapy a theory of the fully functioning person, a theory of interpersonal relationships, and a theory of personality. In addition he has attempted to apply these ideas to education.^

Rogers and many of his followers have offered their ideas as tentative and open to revision. The theory is constantly changing and developing. These changes have, however, clarified or added detail to the original point of view.1+9 The theory has been one of the most detailed, integrated and consistent theories of therapy currently existing,1+9 and is supported‘by a greater amount of

^Hall, "Conversation with Rogers," p. 65.

^Rogers, "A Theory of Therapy," p. 18 8.

^ C a r l R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969).

^Patterson, Theories, p. 4-37.

If9Ibid. 61 research than any other approach to psychotherapy.50

Studies have been done with psychotics as well as nor­ mals.5-^- 5^ Snyder summed up the theory when he said:

The major factor which differentiates the non-directive method from others is that it is client-centered. By this expression we mean that the direction of the therapy process is essentially in the hands of the client rather than in those of the counselor.55

50Ibid.

k^Carl R. Rogers (ed.), The Therapeutic Relation­ ship and Its Impacts: A Study of Psychotherapy with Schizophrenics (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wis- c onsm Press, 196 7).

^E. T. Gendlin, "Client-Centered Developments and Work with Schizophrenics," Journal of Counseling Psy­ chology, IX (Fall, 1962), 205-212.

^William U. Snyder (ed.), Casebook of Non- Directive Counseling (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 47 ) , p. 2. CHAPTER IV

DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING

INTRODUCTION

Developmental counseling is an essentially new approach in the structure and organization of the field of theory. It could be, at least minimally characterized, as an approach with strong interdisciplinary undergirdings.

It is not entirely unlike the eclectic approach of some authors, ^ This new approach, or new emphasis, has created much interest in the field of counseling and guid­ ance .

"In the last few years, more specific kinds of counseling have been described in the literature, but by far the major impact has been related to words 'develop­ mental ’ and 'behavioral,' and this has reasonably come about as a result of the marked effect of the behavioral sciences in the whole area of learning and learning

-^Lawrence M. Brammer and Everett L. Shostrom, Therapeutic Psychology: Fundamentals of Counseling and Psychotherapy (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1960).

^Everett L. Shostrom and Lawrence M. Brammer, The Dynamics of The Counseling Process (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1952).

62 63 theory."3 In spite of this interest little organization has yet to come into the developmental counseling area.

Zaccaria states that:

Developmental guidance has had a very brief history. Its entire past is limited to a few dozen books and journal articles which describe the various aspects of a process which has been largely theoretical, rather than actual.^

Many writers have attempted to define developmental counseling and some use the terms counseling and guidance synonymously.

The authors believe that developmental guidance, and in particular developmental counseling, is primarily con^ cerned with enhancing individuality within a framework of the larger social dimensions of behavior.^

A somewhat similar view is held by Blocher:

One basic assumption of developmental counseling is that human personality unfolds in terms of a largely healthy interaction between the growing organism and the culture or environment.3

A slightly different approach is that "In the broadest sense, developmental guidance represents a change from

3Dugald S. Arbuckle, "Kinds of Counseling: Mean­ ingful or Meaningless," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIV (May, 1967), 219.

^J. S. Zaccaria, "Developmental Guidance: A Con~ cept in Transition," School Counseling, XIII (May, 1966), 229 .

3Bruce Shertzer and Herman J. Peters, Guidance; Techniques for Individual Appraisal and Development (New York: Macmillan Company, 1965), p. 37.

^Donald H. Blocher, Developmental Counseling (New York: Ronald Press Company, "’196 6) ," P- *+• 64

crisis guidance toward a preventive and positive approach

for helping pupils.Blocher shares the same view when he

states that "Developmental counseling is concerned with

developmental-educative-preventive goals, not remediative-

adjustive-therapeutic outcomes.

The antecedents of developmental counseling would

be difficult to trace. Many writers who have not concerned

themselves with a strictly developmental framework have written in general developmental terms. Some years ago

Miller wrote of the interdisciplinary and developmental

constructs of guidance and counseling.9 At about the same time Leona Tyler wrote "that the psychological purpose of

counseling is to facilitate development,"1° Mathewson listed one of the major strategies of guidance as develop­ mental. He characterized it as a process of pupil educa­ tion through individual and group counseling and curricular experience for the purpose of preparing individuals to deal more capably with "self-situational relations."-^ Other

^Zaccaria, "Developmental Guidance," p. 22 6.

^Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 10.

9Carroll H. Miller, Foundations of Guidance (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1961). “

-*-9Leona Tyler, The Work of the Counselor (2nd ed. ; New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 19 61) , p~. 17*.

11Robert Hendry Mathewson, Guidance Policy and Practice (3rd ed.; New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1962) , p. 116. 65

writers, possibly eclectic, sound very much like develop­

mental theorists. "The primary goal of counseling is to

help the counselee grow toward maturity. "One unique

contribution of this volume is the emphasis upon this de­

velopmental or process approach to counseling."^ Lister's

article on the eclectic counselor sounds very much like a

description of a developmental counselor.^

Developmental theory is a wine of recent vintage

which takes grapes from many vines. Tyler has written how

developmental theory borrows from theoretical sources.

Two other authors confess their indebtedness. "The reader

will note considerable ’borrowing' from other theories

which have made unique and rich contributions,"16

There is no one author of the developmental theory.

The best single work is Blocher's Developmental' Counseling,

a study book, along with three of his other shorter

■^Donald G. Mortensen and Allen M. SchmullerGuid- dance in Today's Schools, (2nd ed.; New York: John Wiley S Sons, Inc., 1966), p. 337.

-1-3Shostrom and Brammer, Dynamics of Counseling, p . 5 .

14James L. Lister, "The Eclectic Counselor: An Ex­ plorer," School Counselor, XIV (May, 1967), 287-294.

■^Leona E. Tyler, "Theoretical Principles Underly­ ing the Counseling Process," in Couns eling and Psycho- therapy ed. by Ben N. Ard, Jr. (Palo Alto, California; Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 19 66), pp. 32-41,

^6Brammer and Shostrom, Therapeutic' Psychology, p . 53 . 66 writings, which covers the developmental concepts rather well. Other works which have made contributions are

Shertzer and Peters’ Guidance; Techniques for Individual

Appraisal and Development, Peters £ Farwell's Guidance; A

Developmental Approach, and Tyler's The Work of the

Counselor.

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION17 18

The principal author of the developmental theory of counseling is Donald Hugh Blocher. Blocher was born

August 7, 19 28. He received his baccalaureate degree in

19 5 0 and his Master's of Arts degree in 195 4 from Ball

State Teachers College. In 19 5 9 he was graduated from the

University of Minnesota with a Ph.D. He worked as a teacher and psychologist in various public school systems and was a rehabilitation counselor in a hospital. He is currently in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Minnesota. Other contributors to this theory have had somewhat similar backgrounds. Peters,

Farwell, Shertzer and Zaccaria have all had experience in public education at the elementary or secondary levels.

17American Psychological Association 1966 Directory (Washington^ D~[ C . : American Psychological Association, Inc., 1966). 18 Blocher, Developmental Counseling. 67

The influence upon the writers appears to be educa­ tional philosophy rather than clinical or abnormal psy­ chology .

PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

In describing Developmental Counseling Blocher has said:

It is possible within this point of view to conceive of an underlying discipline for counseling based upon the study of human effectiveness and organized around dimensions such as social roles, coping behavior, and developmental tasks.13

Developmental counseling has as its first goal maximizing human freedom,23 its second goal maximizing human effectiveness.21 Both goals share the premise that, while it may be true humans have very little freedom, it may equally be true that few of them are prepared to exer­ cize the freedom they do have.22 Another scholar rein­ forces this opinion: "Behind the application of techniques is an objective - a positive goal of helping the individual to achieve maximum development in all aspects of his life."23 Shertzer and Peters see a slightly different goal

■^Donald H. Blocher, "Wanted: A Science of Human Effectiveness," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (March, 1966), 732.

23Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 5.

21Ibid., p. 6.

22Ibid., p. 5.

23Zaccaria, "Developmental Guidance," p. 226. 68 when they write that "The fundamental goal of developmental

counseling is the enhancement of an already adequately

O J. functioning person to new heights of achievement." H

A number of basic assumptions concerning the nature of clients and counselors is important to the developmental

counseling framework. These assumptions are summarized

from B l o c h e r :25

1. The clients are not to be thought of as mentally ill as the illness concept is largely inappro­ priate and irrelevant to a process focused on changing be­ havior .

2. The focus of counseling is on the present and future. Counselors are concerned with where the client is going, not where he has been.

3. The subject in the counseling interview is a client, not a patient. The counselor is essentially a teacher and partner of the client as they progress toward mutually acceptable goals.

4. The counselor has values, standards and feel­ ings but does not necessarily impose them on his client.

5. The counselor focuses on the change of behavior not just the enhancement of client insight.

2^Shertzer and Peters, Guidance, p. 38.

^^Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 11. 69

It is necessary to understand the developmental model for conceptualizing the relationship between develop­ mental counseling and its goal of maximizing human effec­ tiveness. The model, adapted from Blocher, has four parts:

1. "Roles and Relationships." Individuals from birth to death are constantly in the process of entering new roles. "At each moment of life, any person is in pro­ cess of changing into something a little different from what he now is."2? There are great differences among indi­ viduals as to how well they handle these role changes.

Serious discontinuities can occur between developmental and environmental demands. When these discontinuities do occur counseling is necessary.

2. "Coping Behaviors." The counselor needs to be able to understand the wide range of coping behavior avail­ able to the client. The counselor must help his client acquire new coping behavior if the ones he has are in­ appropriate .

3. "Developmental Tasks." The facilitation of human development is largely dependent upon the individ­ ual's ability to master tasks that will equip him with the necessary coping behaviors. The developmental counselor

26Ibid., pp. 6-9.

22Tyler, "Theoretical Principles," p. 37. 70 must be an expert in helping the individual understand and master the appropriate developmental tasks.

M-. "Identity Formation: A Central Developmental

Task." The construct of identity, as used in the develop­ mental framework, goes beyond the usual meaning of "self- concept." Identity formation implies the development of multiple self-concepts. It is the sense of belonging to, and of caring about other individuals, groups and ideals.

Identity formation is an active ongoing process of inter­ action with the environment.

The growth of human effectiveness is emphasized by developmental counseling. Because of the positive emphasis of developmental counseling it becomes more important for a counselor to know the stages of normal development than the stages of abnormal development.

Dinkmeyer cites much in child-development research that implies the need for developmental counseling with normal children.^ ^9 Peters and Farwell3^ and others33-

^3Don Dinkmeyer, "Developmental Counseling in the Elementary School," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLV (November, 1966), 262-266.

^3Don Dinkmeyer, Child Development: The Emerging Self (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965) . q n Herman J. Peters and Gail F. Farwell, Guidance: A Developmental Approach (Chicago: Rand McNally 6 Company, 19 59 ) , pp. 215-224.

33-Brammer and Shostrom, Therapeutic Psychology, pp. 63-88. 71 also support the need to understand the developmental se­ quence. Five developmental stages are listed by Blocher:

1. "The Organization Stage” is characterized by the physiological unfolding of the organism. This stage is broken down into four substages: infancy (1-3), early childhood (3-6), later childhood (6-12), and early adoles­ cence (12-14).

2. ”The Exploration Stage" is characterized by a reaching out for new values, ideals, motivations and pur­ poses . This stage is broken down into two substages: later adolescence (15-19) and young adulthood (20-30).

3. "The Realization Stage" is characterized by a culmination of effective human development. Maturation physically and psychologically are set. This stage starts at age thirty and runs to age fifty.

4. "The Stabilization Stage" is characterized by refinement of a high level of functioning. This stage starts at age fifty and runs to or beyond age sixty-five.

5. "Examination Stage" is characterized by reflec­ tion and active disengagement from events. The role of observer replaces participant and mentor replaces actor.

This stage starts around sixty-five.

The development of human effectiveness is crucial to developmental theorists. Shertzer and Peters see this

^2Blocher, Developmental Counseling, pp. 49-68. 72

goal being met if the counselor accepts his responsibility

1. to assist each individual to understand and accept his potentials for living;

2. to assist the counselee to appraise periodically his developmental progress; and

3. to work with the counselee in planning his next phase of living.^3

Tyler sees the issue in a broader framework: "As I have

considered this matter, the orientation I have found most

helpful is to consider the whole developmental process as

the actualization of potentialities."^^ Blocher attempts

to synthesize six models of human effectiveness into one model appropriate for developmental counseling. The model q c has five parts: °

1. "Consistency." The effective person is reason­

ably consistent in his social and individual behavior.

2. "Commitment." The effective person is able to

commit himself to selected goals and purposes reasonably without taking unnecessary risks.

3. "Control." The effective person is able to

control his emotional responses. He is able to cope with

frustration, ambiguity and hostility.

3 3shertzer and Peters, Guidance, p. 39.

^Tyler, "Theoretical Principles," p. 39. q c Blocher, Developmental Counseling, pp. 80-83. 73

4. "Competence." The effective person is an ef­

fective problem solver. He possesses a wide repertory of

coping behaviors.

5. "Creativity." The effective person is able to think in divergent and original ways.

Conception of Man

The nature of man as postulated under the develop­ mental framework is not clearly delineated. Blocher states that building a personality philosophy of counseling is a central task for the developmental counselor.36 Many of the traditional philosophical positions are given in his book but none of these positions receives any recommenda­ tions. Shertzer and Peters statements leads one to believe their position is closely allied to trait-factor theory:

Nondirectivism, listening, cartharsis, rapport- building, reassurance, and permissiveness may be mis­ interpreted by the nonpathological pupil as resounding approval for a mode of behavior far below what might reasonably be expected of him,37

On the other hand, a behaviorist note is sounded: "Rein­ forcement is the sine qua non factor in developmental counseling."88 Blocher attempts to synthesize the various philosophical systems by using a set of philosophical

36Ibid., p. 16.

Shertzer and Peters, Guidance, p. 40.

38Ibid., p. 41 74 assumptions from Beck^® that offer a useful basis for de­ velopment counseling:1^

1. Man is responsible for his own actions. He must make choices himself.

2. Man must regard his fellow men as worthwhile.

He must be concerned with individuals as well as society.

3. Man must exist in a world, much of which he cannot change, but this is reality.

4. Man’s life, to be meaningful, must be free from threat.

5. Man has his own unique experience and heredity.

6. Man acts in terms of his own subjective view of reality.

7. Man cannot be classified as either good or evil by nature as these terms more aptly apply to patterns of behavior.

8. Man reacts as a total organism.

Obviously, what Blocher judges as appropriate for a basic philosophy of developmental counseling is strongly exis­ tential.

Related Theory of Personality

Developmental counselors do not emphasize person­ ality theory.

39C . E. Beck, Philosophical Foundations of' Guidance (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963).

^Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 20. 75

Personality theory, that romantic if ephemeral will-O- the-wisp, which has succeeded only in translating the speculations of philosophy into the jargon of psychol­ ogy, has been viewed as the fountainhead of psycho­ logical wisdom.41

Blocher argues that personality theory is unbeneficial to

counseling, and maintains that the psychology of learning h O and social psychology have much more to offer counselors.^

Rather than emphasis on theory of personality, Blocher

feels that what is needed for counselor education is an organized body of knowledge concerning the development of human effectiveness.1*^

Brammer and Shostrom have a broader view. "Al­ though there is no theory of personality which is suitable to frame the practice of counseling and psychotherapy, each position has unique implications for practice.

There is no reason to believe that all the major developmental writers would not borrow those elements from any theory of personality which would fit their personal inclination and need.

41Donald H. Blocher> "Counselor Education: Facili­ tating the Development of a Helping Person," in Counseling Theories and Counselor Education, ed. by Clyde A. Parker (Boston! Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968), pp. 13 5.

42Ibid.

^Blocher, "Wanted a Science," p. 73 2.

^Brammer and Shostrom, Therapeutic Psychology, p . 62 . THEORY OF THERAPY

There are essentially two types of treatment appro­ priate to developmental counseling - "Direct Intervention" in which there is a direct relationship between the coun­ selor and the client and "Indirect Intervention" in which the counselor attempts to utilize elements in the client’s environment which can facilitate growth.Both types of intervention accommodate the theory of therapy as proposed by the developmental writer.

Process

The "Characteristics of a Developmental Relation­ ship: are important to understanding the total theory.

These characteristics are summarized as follows

1. "Congruence." This characteristic is concerned with the quality of being one's self. The opposite of this would be "phony" artificial or the playing of some assumed role.

2. "Unconditional Positive Regard." This charac­ teristic essentially means that the counselor has an inter­ est in and concern for the client. He does not engage in moral judgments concerning the client.

4^Donald Blocher, "What Can Counseling Offer Clients? Implications for Selection," in Research in Counseling, ed. by John Whiteley (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 19 67), p. 10.

^6Blocher, Developmental Counseling, pp. 1*43-153 . 77

3. "Emphathic Understanding.” This characteristic

involves two components. One is a cognitive element that

facilitates psychological understanding. The other is an

affective element that involves feeling with the client.

4. "Trust." This dimension is based on an indi­

vidual’s feeling of certainty that he can predict another’s behavior under a given set of circumstances.

5. "Limits." Every counseling relationship must have limits for both the counselee and the client. Time, the nature of interaction, ethics and so forth.

6. "Dependency." A characteristic that counselors must accept in clients without acceding to their demands

for it. The counselor must help the client face and work through this need.

7. "Transference." This characteristic is another relationship phenomenon. At times within the counseling relationship either the counselor or the client may develop irrational feelings of either a position or negative nature toward one another. These feelings must be exposed and worked through.

8. ’’Resistance.’’ Resistance is the hindering of progress in the counseling process by the client. This re­ lationship phenomenon can be either conscious or uncon­

scious .

Diagnosis is important in developmental counseling.

It is based on a process by which the counselor is able to 78 understand the client, his world and the meaning that this

interaction has for him.11 7 Diagnosis is attached to the degrees of control the client can exert over his environ­ ment rather than the cause of a disorder as in a disease

so familiar to the medical profession. Diagnosis is based on the client's ability to function at one of the five levels of human effectiveness. These five levels are listed as summarized from Blocher

1. "Panic,M Panic is the loss of control over affective responses in the immediate or short term environ­ ment. The individual may have intense feelings of being out of control. He is usually institutionalized in this state.

2. "Inertia." At this level of effectiveness there is some control over short-term immediate aspects of the environment, but little or no control over long-term aspects of the environment. He is unable to carry through plans that require organized controlled behavior. He is not likely to be self-sufficient either economically or socially.

47Ibid., p. 130.

48Ibid., pp. 128-130. 79

3. "Striving." The individual has some control over long-range aspects of his environment and is actively seeking more control. He is likely to alternate between feelings of hope and despair.

4. "Coping." The individual has control over large segments of his environment. His behavior is con­ trolled and largely goal-oriented. Anxiety does not ex­ tinguish appropriate risk-taking behavior.

5. "Mastery." Mastery is the highest level of human effectiveness. The individual is characteristically able to enter into planful interaction with his environ­ ment. He has a sense of adequacy and mastery in most roles. He is involved with a commitment to values that may transcend his own existence.

Techniques

Techniques are as important to developmental coun­ seling as process orientation. These techniques are des­ cribed by Shertzer and Peters as well as by Blocher. Both descriptions give a rounded picture of the interview and the technique employed. First will be a summary of the eleven techniques which may be used in developmental coun­ seling :49

2+9Shertzer and Peters, Guidance, pp. 42-49. 80

1. "Appraising." The counselor uses all the methods at his disposal to assist the student in appraising himself. These methods include: the give and take of the counseling interview, questioning, test results and dia­ grams . Diagnosis here is used as a focusing on the center of developmental action.

2. Tl Informat ion-Giving . " This involves the inter­ jecting of information when the counselee needs it.

3. "Encouraging." The counselor’s wise use of encouragement becomes a significant factor in the client’s

"like space." The need for ego strength, it is postulated, can be enhanced from significant others.

4. "Planning." Planning is based on the coun­ selor’s knowledge of development, appraising, information- giving and encouraging.

5. "Researching." The counselee must be an active participant in researching himself. He must become aware of his abilities, adequacies and attitudes.

6. "Analyzing." The self-analyzation on the part of the counselee is the crux of developmental counseling.

The counselor assists in this search but it is the coun­ selee who must adequately perceive himself.

7. "Interpreting.” Interpretation is the explana­ tion of meanings gained from researching and analyzing.

8. "Clarifying." Clarification is used to pin­ point an exact meaning or to reorganize concepts. It is 81 part of the interpreting process and may be used by either the counselee or the counselor.

9. "Approving." Responsible approval is used in developmental counseling to reinforce counselee choices toward positive action.

10. "Evaluating." Evaluation may be necessary when the counselee attempts to examine discrepancies between potential and performance or between inner needs and en­ vironmental pressures.

11. "Reinforcing." The developmental counselor re­ inforces strengths and successes in the counselee.

Blocher writes of techniques of interviewing rather than techniques of counseling to stress the importance of the communication between counselor and client. He empha­ sizes three techniques in particular:50

1. "Formulation of Goals." The formulation of goals in developmental interviewing is a two-sided coin.

On the one side is the counselor’s own personal theory and philosophy and on the obverse, the client’s self­ perceptions. With the mutual formulation of goals comes the process of "structuring." The communicating and shar­ ing of mutual expectations.

50Blocher, Developmental Counseling, pp. 156-164. 82

2. "Dimensions of the Counseling Process." There

are three possible dimensions along which the counseling

process may be structured.

a. "Division of Responsibility." This is the

mutual division of responsibility between the

client and the counselor for the ongoing process of

the interview.

b. "Ambiguity." The degree of openness or uncer­

tainty that exists in the minds of the client

and/or counselor as to what is going to happen or

be said next.

c. "Affective-Intellectual Dimension." This

dimension represents the purely emotional responses

from the purely cognitive or intellectual re­

sponses .

3. "Perceptual Skills." The most basic skill for

the developmental counselor is not what to say but to

listen. Listening is a form of perception which the coun­

selor must carefully develop. He must be a total listener,

not a selective listener.

Goals

The processes and techniques of developmental coun­

seling, or developmental interviewing lead to the goals which are explicitly formulated: 83

1. "The fundamental goal of developmental counsel­ ing is the enhancement of an already adequately functioning person to new heights of achievement."^-^

2. Developmental counseling has the goal of maxi­ mizing human f r e e d o m . 5^

3. Developmental counseling has the goal of maxi­ mizing human effectiveness.53

4. Developmental counseling has the goal of con- gruence with the human effectiveness modes.0R u

SUMMARY

Developmental counseling is an essentially new ap­ proach to counseling and is not totally unlike the eclectic emphasis of a few years ago. Although developmental coun­ seling has excited interest, to date only a few dozen books and journal articles have been published.55 5® An even 5 7 more limited amount of research has been done.

5-*-Shertzer and Peters, Guidance, pp. 38-39.

r O Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 5.

53Ibid., p. 6.

54Ibid., pp. 80-83.

^Arbuckle, "Kinds of Counseling," p. 219. c c Zaccaria, "Developmental Guidance," p. 229.

^Ronald L. Benson and Donald H. Blocher, "Evalua­ tion of Developmental Counseling with Groups of Low Achievers in a High School Setting," School Counselor, XIV (March, 1967), 215-220. 84

Developmental counselors emphasize educational set­ ting more than do many other counselors.

The psychological purpose of counseling is to facili­ tate development. Thus it can be considered as part of the whole broad educational process that extends from the earliest months of infancy to the declining years of old age.88

Shertzer and Peters show this emphasis when they define the interests of the counselor in developmental counseling:

He has a strong commitment in elementary and secondary education. He participates actively in elementary- secondary education professional circles . . . He com­ municates with professional school colleagues in a way that is consistent with the total educational program and the developmental concept - for example he says 'counselee’ in place of ’client’ the clinical term. His professional interest is primarily concerned with the guidance function with the vast majority of pupils in the school setting.89

In the broadest sense this view represents a shift from crisis counseling toward a preventive and positive approach for helping pupils.80 Blocher holds a somewhat similar view when he writes that developmental counseling is concerned with developmental-educative and preventive goals rather than remediative-adjustive and therapeutic outcomes.^

Oetting has even reconsidered the definition of counseling

88Tyler, The Work of the Counselor, p. 17.

^Shertzer and Peters, Guidance, pp. 49-50.

^Zaccaria, "Developmental Counseling," p. 10. 61 Blocher, Developmental Counseling, p. 10. 85 psychology. "Counseling psychology is the study of the mental health of individuals engaged in developmental pro- fi 9 cesses."

Shertzer and Peters characterize the developmental e q approach as follows.

1. "Counselees." The concern with those function­ ing normally as well as those who have problems.

2. "Counselor Initiative." The counselor should use his initiative in arranging interviews.

3. "Focus on Strengths." The positive rather than negative focus in interviews.

4-. "Purposeful Stimulation." The purposeful injection of appropriate stimuli into the pupil’s stream of behavior.

5. "Exploration for Action." The concern for examining possibilities for using one's potential.

6. "Analysis." The mutual examination of choices and possible choices.

7. "Implementation." The putting of choices into action.

8. "Reinforcement." The selective emphasis of counselee ideas.

R. Oetting, "Developmental Definition of Coun­ seling Psychology," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIV (July, 1967), 382.

^Shertzer and Peters, Guidance, pp. 40-4-1. 86

9. "Integration." The placement of all elements together into a cohesive relationship.

As a system, developmental counseling is tolerant of other theories and philosophies. ’’Each counselor must formulate a personal philosophy and theory of counseling if he is to really know himself."®1* Blocher and Shertzer and

Peters have "borrowed" widely from other theories. Peters and Farwell's book further emphasizes this integrative approach.6 ®

Whether the theory is really distinct or whether, as Arbuckle says, what appear to be differences in counsel­ ing are but differences in counselors only time will tell.®6 "But while developmental guidance is not a panacea, it constitutes an approach which is positive in its orien­ tation in a time filled with neutralism and uncertainty."67

6l*John Hippie, "Development of a Personal Philos­ ophy and Theory of Counseling," School CounselorXVI (November, 19 6 8), 86.

®^Peters and Farwell, Guidance: A Developmental Approach.

®®Arbuckle, "Kinds of Counseling," pp. 219-225.

®^Zaccaria, "Developmental Guidance," p. 22 9. CHAPTER V

EXISTENTIAL THERAPY

INTRODUCTION

Existentialism, as it relates to counseling in the-

United States, is primarily a European product and is philosophical rather than psychological in its orienta­ tion. -1- "Not too long ago existentialism was considered an atheistic philosophy. Today many disciplines are consider- o ing the philosophy for its positive attributes." Although there is no one existential theory, the term "existential psychotherapy" has been applied to approaches that are pri­ marily concerned with understanding the client as he exists in his w o r l d . 3 Neither the existential philosophers nor psychotherapists has achieved unanimity of thought. In a sense, existentialism is then a term applied to a loosely organized series of approaches rather than a single

"school." Friedman has written: "Existentialism is not a

1Dugald S. Arbuckle, Counseling: Philosophy, The- ry and Practice (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965), p . 37.

^Ben Strickland, "Kierkegaard and Counseling for Individuality," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (January, 1966), 470.

3C. H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling' and Psy­ chotherapy (New York: Harper 6 Row, Publishers, 1966).

87 88 philosophy but a mood embracing a number of disparate philosophies, the differences between which are more basic than the temper which unites them.1,l+ And Strickland avers that:

Existentialism is a school of thought that is concerned with the individual and his attempt to retain his identity, make his own choices, and provide his own self-direction. The reason for this very general definition is that there is no single philosophy of existentialism.6

The existential philosophers, upon which one psy­

chotherapy rests, have had a great impact upon the world of thought. Sartre,6 Heidegger,? Kierkegaard,8 Jaspers,9 and

Tillich^9 are existential philosophers, whether atheist or theist; their central beliefs have similarities and dif­

ferences. Sartre holds that existentialism is a doctrine

^Maurice Friedman, "Existential Psychotherapy and the Image of Man," Journal of Humanistic Psychology, IV (Fall, 196*0, 104.

^Strickland, "Kierkegaard and Counseling," p. 471.

9Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Human Emo­ tions (New York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 19 57) .

^M. Heidegger, Being and Time (London: S. C. M. Press, 1962) .

8Soren Kierkegaard, Philosophical Fragments (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1962).

9Karl Jaspers, "Communication Through Trans- cedence," in Existential Philosophers: Kierkegaard to Merleau-Ponty ed. by George Alfred Schrader, Jr. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19 67).

l9Paul Tillich, The Courage To Be (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952). 89 which makes human life possible and declares every truth and action implies a human setting in a human subjectiv­ ity. H "There can be no other truth to take off from than this: I think, therefore I exist. "-*-2 Jaspers writes that:

Because existence is consciousness and I exist as con­ sciousness , things exist for me only as objects of con­ sciousness . Anything which exists for me must enter into consciousness. Consciousness as existence is the medium of everything.13

Heidegger's writings are concerned primarily with the con­ cept of being, which is the central concept in his philo­ sophical position.

The being that exists is man. Man alone exists. Rocks are, but they do not exist. Trees are, but they do not exist . . . The existential nature of man is the reason why man can be conscious of them.!1*

From these and other philosophical existential positions practicing counselors have become involved in the existentialist movement. In this country the major ex­ ponents of this movement are May, van Kaam, Moustakes and

Frankl, although the latter spends much time in Vienna and could be classified as a European therapist. The

USartre, Existentialism, p. 10.

12Ibid., p. 15.

Jaspers, "Communication," p. 115.

I1* Mart in Heidegger, "The Way Back into the Ground of Metaphysics," in Existentialism from Dostoyersky to Sartre, ed. by Walter Kaufma'nn (New York: Meridian Books, Inc . , 19 56) , p . 215. 90

individual therapists exhibit the same disparity of views

as do the philosophers. None of the present existential

psychotherapeutic approaches are as yet very systematic but

there are some common aspects basic to all existential ap­ proaches to psychotherapy. These embrace the following themes.

1. Humans have as a distinctive characteristic

Dasein (the being who is there). In addition humans have the capacity of being conscious of themselves as well as being conscious of the events in the past and present that

influence them. The conception of the future is another uniquely human characteristic. Man can thus make choices and decisions based upon these data as he sees them. Hav­ ing the freedom to make these decisions he is responsible for the decisions and the actions that these decisions pro­ duce .

2. The subject and the world are inseparable. Man lives not in the world of the self but in three worlds con­ currently: the Umwelt or biological world, the Mitwelt or the world of other persons with whom he shares mutual con­ sciousness or awareness, and the Eigenwelt or the world of self-identity.

l^Rollo May, "The Origins and Significance of the Existential Movement in Psychology," in Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, ed. by Rollo May, Ernest Angel and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 19 58), pp. 3-36. 91

3. A human is thus being. He is not fixed but is

becoming or in a state of continual transition. Man is

fulfilling his potentialities by participating with others.

It is at this point that the significance of therapy can be

seen as therapy in an encounter with an other to facilitate

becoming. Being is therefore not static but always in a

state of transition.

4. Being also implies nonbeing. Existentialists

hold that nonbeing (death) is what gives life reality since

along with being it is the one absolute fact of life. The

same is true of existence and nonexistence. Man is con­

scious of the confrontation with nothingness and emptiness.

5. The threat of nonbeing is the source of exis­

tential anxiety and is concerned of as being present in all

individuals. This anxiety can strike at the very core of

an individual since it threatens the security and even dis­

solution of the self into nonexistence.

6. Each individual is unique and irreplaceable.

He lives in Eigenwelt (his own world) in his self-identity.

Each person is thus of ultimate significance.

7. Other than the limits of being, man has the

capacity to transcend himself. To rise above the past and

the present in a unique freedom to choose and become.

8. Man is characterized by alienation from the world. Loneliness and isolation are part of his existence. 92

Rollo May's works provide the best source for a discussion of existential therapy. Moustakes, Frankl,

Benswanger and Ellenberger are additional authorities. The major works of these writers are May’s Existence, Psy­ chology and the Human Dilemma, Love and Will, Meaning of

Anxiety; Moustakes' Loneliness, Existential Child Therapy,

Psychotherapy with Children, The Authentic Teacher; van

Kaam’s Existential Foundations of Psychology; Benswanger's

Being in the World; Ellenberger's Existence; and Frankl's

Man's Search for Meaning.

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION16 17 18

Rollo May was born in Ada, Ohio,'in April, 19 09.

He earned a baccalaureate degree at Oberlin College in

19 30. From Oberlin he went to the American College in

Saloniki, Greece, to teach for three years. He then re­ turned to Michigan State College in 19 34 as a counselor, a position he held for two years until entering Union Theo­ logical Seminary. He was graduated from Union, cum laude in 19 38. The Ph.D. degree, in psychology, was earned at

16Patterson, Theories of Counseling, pp. 445-446.

17William S. Sahakian, ed., Psychotherapy and Coun­ seling: Studies in Technique (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 19 6 9) , p p . 249-2 50.

18Mary Harrington H a l l !1 Ah Interview with 'Mr. Humanist,' Rollo May," Psychology Today, I (September, 1967) , 25-29 , 72-73. 93

Columbia University in 19M-9. May has served in private practice much of his adult life. While in private practice as a psychoanalyst he served on a number of faculties.

Notable among these were the William White Institute of

Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychoanalysis (from 19H8 to

1955 and from 1958 to present), the New School of Social

Research, 19 55 to 1960, and New York University, 19 60 to present. In addition he has had short tenures at Harvard,

Yale, and Princeton. Currently he is Supervisory and

Training Analyst at the White Institute as well as Adjunct

Professor at New York University. He is a fellow of the

American Psychological Association.

May studied with Alfred Adler in Vienna each summer during his years in Greece. This experience led him in­ directly into psychology. Later, while ill, he discovered the book that changed his life — Kierkegaard's The Concept of Anxiety. This led him to a degree in theology and ulti­ mately a doctorate in psychology.

PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

Existential therapy has as a linguistic base the root ex-sistere, which means, literally, to stand out or emerge.

-*-^May, "Origins and Significance," p. 12. 94

Existentialism, in short, is the endeavor to understand man by cutting below the cleavage between subject and object which has bedeviled Western thought and science since shortly after the Renaissance. 20

As Johnson has said: "By stressing existence, existentialism undercuts the dichatomy between subject and object. Man is not a subject who perceives an object, but exists with his o b j e c t s . " 21

Bates and Johnson in attempting to summarize exis­ tential concepts have organized their thoughts around six essentials:22

1. "Man's existence precedes essence." Man comes into the world from the unknown (birth) on the way to an­ other unknown (death). The only thing that he knows is that he is.

2. "Man is condemned to freedom." Man is forced to make choices himself and having made these choices ac­ cept the full responsibility for them.

3. "When man chooses, he chooses for all men."

Man in his lonely freedom is the only representative of mankind he will ever know.

20Ibid., p. 11.

2lErnest L. Johnson, "Existentialism, Self-Theory and the Existential Self," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (September, 1967), 54.

2 2Marilyn Bates and Charles D. Johnson, "The Existentialist Counselor at Work," School Counselor, XVI (March, 1969), 245, 249. 4. "Man defines himself only through his actions.

In man only action is relevant. Good intentions, what he says he will do or what he intends to do are irrelevant.

5. "The encounter -- the 'I-Thou' relationship de fines counseling process and content." This bridge or con nection between I to Thou forms the basis for the counsel­ ing relationship.

6. "Two worlds exist — the world of objective reality and the world of subjective reality." Man's world of objective reality is knowable. Subjective reality is only tentatively knowable.

Another way of examining the theory would be to look at the forces acting against existentialism. By look ing at the counterindications the indications emerge with added clarity. May lists three sources of resistance to the existential movement:23

1. All the important discoveries about psycho­ therapy have been made. We need only to fill in a few voids, not create a new system.

2. Existential thought is but an encroachment of philosophy into psychotherapy.

3. The pre-occupation in this country with tech­ niques rather than understanding.

2 3>iay, "Origins and Significance," pp. 7-9. 96

The third criticism, or source of resistance, seems based on one of van Kaam's most important points: "Exis­ tential psychology demands that my potential data be ob­

served as they exist before I attempt to interpret them."^

Ellenberger lists three concepts especially worthy of attention in understanding existentialist psycho­ therapy . 25

1. Existential neurosis arises from an individ­ ual's inability to grasp the meaning of life.

2. Existential therapists view the counseling re­ lationship as an "encounter." The encounter is a decisive inner experience for one or both of the individuals in­ volved .

3. Many existential therapists use the concept of kairos as the critical point when the patient is ready for therapy.

Moustakas has been particularly cognizant of the third point: . . . "there is a time for crisis and a time

214Adrian van Kaam, Existential Foundations of Psy­ chology (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Duquesne University Press, 1966), p. 295.

2 5Henri F. Ellenberger, "A Clinical Introduction to Psychiatric Phenomenology and Existential Analysis," in Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, ed. by Rollo May, Ernest Angel and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1958), pp. 119- 120. 97 for tranquility, a time of confrontation, and a time of encounter.

To these points Benswanger adds the caution of

"overcoming our passionate need to draw conclusions, to form an opinion, or to pass judgment."2^ The caution is meant to let the event or relationship speak for itself.

To these general philosophical concepts of exis­ tentialism Frankl supplies a few others:

1. The primary force in man's life is his search for meaning.

2. The meaning of man's existence is not invented by ourselves but detected.29

3. Pleasure is a side effect of experience, not its goal.39

The third of Frankl's points is more aptly stated by

Kierkegaard: "The essence of pleasure does not lie in the

2®Clark Moustakas, "The Existential Movement," in Existential Child Therapy: The Child's Discovery of Him­ self , ed. by Clark Moustakas (New York: Basic Books^ Inc., Publishers, 1966), p. 5.

2^Ludwig Binswanger, "The Existential Analysis School of Thought," in Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, ed. by Rollo May, Ernest Angel and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1958), p. 19 2.

23Viktor E. Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy (New York: Washington Square Press, Inc., 1959), p^ 154.

29Ibid., p. 157.

30Ibid., p. 194. 98 thing enjoyed, but in the accompanying consciousness,"^

One other* point basic to the understanding of exis­ tentialism has been stressed by both May^ and Moustakas:33

The world attempts to put pressure on man to fit in and be significant in some group. This group significance is gained at the price of man’s individual significance.

Conception of Man

May has proposed six essential characteristics which constitute the nature of an existing person:3^

1. Man is centered in himself. Neurosis is only one method the individual uses to protect his own center or existence.

2. Man has the character of self-affirmation, or the need to preserve his centeredness. The preservation of this centeredness takes will.

3 3-Louis H. Mackey, "Soren Kierkegaard: The Poetry - of Inwardness," in Existential Philosophers: Kierkegaard to Merleau-Ponty, ecL by George Alfred Schrader (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), p. 51.

32Rollo May, Psychology and the Human Dilemma (Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1967).

33Clark Moustakas, The Authentic Teacher (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Howard A. Doyle Publishing Company, 1966).

3^Rollo May, "Existential Bases of Psychotherapy," in Existential Psychology, ed. by Rollo May (New York: Random House, 19 61), p p . 7 5-84. 99

3. Man has the possibility of moving from center­ edness to participation with other beings. The moving from centeredness to paricipation involves risk.

4. Man has on the subjective side of his centered­ ness awareness. He is able to be subjectively aware of that with which he is in contact.

5. Man has a unique form of awareness called self- consciousness. Awareness means knowledge of external dan­ gers and threats and consciousness has to do with one's experience with himself as the subject who has a world.

6. Man has the characteristic of anxiety. Anxiety is that feeling of man who is in a struggle against that which would destroy his being.

To these six characteristics Frankl would add a seventh.

7. The primary force in man's life is his search for meaning. Each man must have a unique and specific meaning. One that can be fulfilled by him alone. Man's q c striving toward existence takes will.

In an article on the new trend of existentialism some years ago Pervin wrote that "The existential view of man, his uniqueness, his freedom, his responsibility, his

^Frankl, Man's Search, pp. 154-171. 100 own frame of reference, and will-to-meaning are worthy of

serious attention and investigation."38

Related Theory of Personality

The existentialist writers do not write of person­ ality theory. Their lack of consideration of personality heory can only be taken as a conscious omission rather than an oversight. This oversight has not gone unnoticed in the literature. More than one writer has criticized existentialists for their lack of theory, rigor and method­ o l o g y . ^ 38

To the existentialist writers the conception of man seems to take on the role of personality theory. The exis­ tentialist will make only statements.concerning man which seem relevant in understanding man's travel from the un­ known of birth to the unknown of death. They have fought the tendency to preface understanding with technique and

q q have relied upon the opposite approach. Maslow has

36L. A. Pervin, "Existentialism, Psychology, and Psychotherapy," American Psychologist, XV (19 60), 309.

3^Ted Landsman, "Existentialism in Counseling: The Scientific View," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 19 65), p. 568.

38Pervin, "Existentialism," pp. 304-309.

3^Rollo May, "Contributions of Existential Psycho­ therapy ," in Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, ecL by Rollo May, Ernest Angel and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1958), p. 77. 101 examined the existentialist movement and found it very enriching for psychology, even if it does not deal with a theory of personality.^^ His statements on existentialism are even more useful to a careful evaluator. He starts by saying: "I am not an existentialist, nor am I even a care­ ful and thorough student of this movement."^

For most psychologists, the productivity of person­ ality theory is irrelevant to existentialists. They view man, at the present time, in a philosophical rather than a psychological light. Man in his existence is the only con­ struct that holds relevance for them.

THEORY OF THERAPY

The existential approach to psychotherapy is not a system or a set of techniques, but is a concern with under­ standing man and his experience. ^2 "Those who read works on existential analysis as handbooks of technique are bound to be disappointed. They will not find specifically developed practical methods .

^A. H. Maslow, "Existential Psychology -- What’s In It For Us?" in Existential Psychology, ed. by Rollo May (New York: Random House, 19 61), pp. 5 2-60.

41Ibid., p. 52.

^Rollo May, "Dangers in the Relation of Existen­ tialism to Psychotherapy," in Psychoanalysis and Existen­ tial Philosophy, ed. by H. M. Ruitenbeck (New York: Dutton & Company, Inc., 1962), pp. 17 9-184.

^May, "Contributions," p. 76. In spite of this warning by May, existential psy­ chotherapists do have some commonalities when it comes to the process, techniques and goals of therapy.

Process

Various ideas from, existentialist writers that re­ late to the process of therapy deserve attention.

1. Existentialism is an attitude, in approaching other human beings. Like philosophy, it has to do with presuppositions underlying techniques.1*'^'

2. "The central task and responsibility of the therapist is to seek to understand the patient as a being and as a being in his world.

3. The therapist is committed to the: "spontan­ eous, flowing, human processes and potentialities that are engendered and sparked in a communion of significant re­ lationship."1*'®

4. "The process (of therapy) may enable the patient to create a world of meaning which is more con­ gruent with his actual experience."1*^

^May, "Dangers," pp. 179-184.

L*5May, "Contributions," pp. 7 6-77.

**®Clark Moustakas, ed., Existential Child Therapy: The Child's Discovery of Himself (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1966), p . 4"!

van Kaam, Existential Foundations, p. 106. 103

5. Diagnosis. This varies in importance between

the existentialist writers. May and Moustakas do not

stress it while Frankl and Benswanger do.

6. The "encounter," or the therapy session, is .

that which gives new meanings to life.• 4 8

7. There are no preconditions placed upon the

clients by their therapists for entering into the "en­

counter . "

8. Therapy focuses on the future rather than the

past.^

Techniques

Concepts of techniques can be abstracted from exis­ tentialist writers. May discusses six of crucial thera­ peutic importance:^

1. Existential therapists evidence a wide varia­ tion in techniques employed. They vary from patient to patient and from phase to phase within treatment of an

individual patient. Existential therapists sharply ques­ tion the use of techniques simply because of custom. Exis­

tential techniques have flexibility and versatility.

^^Ellenberger, "A Clinical Introduction," p. 93.

^Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning, p. 15 2.

^ May, "Contributions," pp. 78-91. 104

2. Existential therapists realize that psychologi­ cal forces take their meaning from the existential situa­ tion of the patient's immediate life. Each patient's be­ havior is seen and understood in the light of the existence of the patient as a human being.

3. Existential therapists emphasize "presence."

The word "presence" means the relationship of the patient and the therapist is taken as a real one. The therapist is not one who just reflects but understands and experiences the patient.

4. Existential therapists will attempt to "analyze out" their ways of behaving that destroy presence. The therapist must not rely on technique to avoid confronta­ tion.

5. Existential therapists aim therapy so that the patient will experience his existence as real. The patient must become aware of his potentialities and be able to act on them. Therapy is concerned with helping the person experience his existence.

6. Existential therapists attach a great deal of importance to commitment. Patients cannot permit them­ selves to get insight until they are ready to decide. A decisive attitude toward existence is an attitude of com­ mitment. Knowledge and insight necessarily follow commit­ ment . 105

To these techniques Frankl adds two others.51

. 1. "Paradoxical intention." This technique re­ quires the patient to intend that which he anticipates with fear. With this technique the patient can experience, at least for a short time, that which he has been fearing.

2. "De-reflection." This technique requires the patient to ignore the trouble and focus his attention on something else.

Goals

The goals of therapy in the existentialist tradi­ tion are few and not handled in any great detail:

1. The patient should become more aware of his existence.5 ^

2. "The goal of counseling is the elucidation of

r n this client's uniqueness."00

3. To foster freedom in the client.5^

4. To improve his encounter with others.5^

5lFrankl, Man's Search for Meaning, pp. 193-204.

5^May, "Contributions," p. 85.

55Edward A. Dreyfus, "The Counselor and Existen­ tialism," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (October, 1964), 117.

51*Richard P. Vaughan, "Existentialism in Counsel­ ing: A Religious View," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 1965), 553-557.

55Ibid. 106

5. To foster responsibility on the part of the client.56

6. To help the patient establish his will to meaning.57

To these six goals a seventh should be added.

The individual no longer gets in the way of himself; he knows what he wants; he is aware. It is this moment of awareness and discovery and presence that I call the existential moment; it is the moment when a person recognizes his own existence in the world and the unique and incomparable nature of that existence.5 8

SUMMARY

Existentialism has been a relatively new psycho­ therapeutic development in the United States and remains inchoate. It is not a system, and, with its strongly

European philosophical flavor, has been slow to achieve psychological respectability. One reason has surely been its lack of methodological and experimental rigor, traits which are highly valued in this country.

Existentialism has grown from work by the Danish philosopher Kierkegaard,®5 and the German work Seinund Zeit

56May, "Contributions,” p. 87.

®^Frankl, Man's Search, p. 154.

r p Moustakas, Existential Child Therapy, pp. 1-2.

®®Strickland, "Kierkegaard," p. 47 0. 107 by H e i d e g g e r . 6 0 European and American psychoanalysts have been the first to incorporate existentialist thought into the therapeutic relationship. More recently, other coun­ selors have begun to embrace these concepts.

The philosophy of existentialism has been viewed both widely and divergently by those in the counseling pro­ fession. "The philosophy of existentialism argues the value inherent in the right and the obligation of choosing while living."61 Or as Arbuckle has written: "Freedom of the individual is considered to be the basic thread which permeates all views of existentialism."62 Other writers see the emphasis on freedom.

The emphasis on freedom with accountability and the focus on man as the creator of his culture and the master of his destiny make existentialism an attractive and dynamic philosophical force in counseling.03C Q

6 0j. Lyons, "Existential Psychotherapy: Fact, Hope, Fiction," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXII (March, 1961), 2^2-249.

6^David V. Tiedeman, "A Symposium on Existentialism in Counseling: Prologue," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 1965), 551-552. R 9 Donald S. Arbuckle, "Existentialism in Counsel­ ing: The Humanist View," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 1965), 55 8.

6 6Gerald J. Pine, "Existential Counseling in the Schools," School Counselor, XVI (January, 1969), 178. 108

Or the focus on understanding man's limitations:

One of the greatest contributions of existential phi­ losophy has been its acceptance of the place of anxiety, guilt, and other limiting factors, death included, as a part of the existence of man.^

Central to the practice of existential counseling

are the following concepts. Humans have as a distinctive

character Dasein. Man and his worlds are inseparable.

These worlds are Umwelt (biological), Mitwelt (others), and

Eigenwelt (self). Man's character of Dasein, or loosely being also involves nonbeing (death). It is this threat of nonbeing that produces anxiety, loneliness, and non-will to meaning. Each human is unique and irreplaceable and has the capacity to transcend himself within the limits of his being.

The "encounter” is the mutual involvement of the counseling relationship. The I-Thou bridge in this rela­ tionship enables man to move toward understanding and mean­ ing.

Man is viewed by most existentialists as neutral, that is neither inherently good or bad. Without being

saintly or evil, man is, however, to be highly prized as he

is a unique irreplaceable entity.

Existentialism gives little attention to tech­ niques. Existentialists generally believe that

64M. Emmanuel Fontes, Existentialism and Its Impli­ cations for Counseling, Synthesis Series (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 196 5), p. 33. 109

understanding must emerge before technique. These thera­ pists seem to feel that the emphasis on technique is an

emphasis away from the encounter and therefore should be avoided. Maslow has commented upon this same preface.

What we need is a system of thought -- there are others working for the same end. Gordon Allport was making it. Rollo May and Carl Rogers and Warren Bennis and Chris Argyris are making it.®^

Maybe we can develop a new image of man that rejects the physical, chemical, technological view of man. We've tech- nologized everything.66

Existentialism has great promise in contemporary counseling.

Perhaps its greatest promise is the increasing emphasis upon the self of the counselor and his enrichment in training rather than upon the mechanics of his tech­ nique . 67

In his critique, Friedman observes that

Existential psychotherapy is faced, in the last analysis, with the same issue that faces all schools of psychotherapy: whether the starting point of therapy is to be found in the analytical category or the unique person in the construct of man or image of man.

Existential therapists deal in the philosophical concepts of man’s existence. Their terms are not like

65^ary Marrington Hall, "A Conversation with Abraham H. Maslow," Psychology Today, II (July, 19 6 8 ), 55.

6 6 Ibid.

^^Landsman, "Existentialism," p. 571.

^Friedman, "Existential Psychotherapy," p. 117. 110 those customarily found in psychotherapy. At times their writings sound almost poetic. "If the existential termin­ ology appears poetic, it may well be due to the poetic nature of man's being.Moustakas' work Loneliness

*1 PI represents both the theory and poetry of existentialism. u

^ D r e y f u s , "Counselor and Existentialism," p. 117.

^^Clark E. Moustakas, Loneliness, Spectrum Book (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961). CHAPTER VI

BEHAVIORAL THERAPY -

INTRODUCTION

Like existential therapy, behavioral therapy is an essentially new approach to counseling. The antecedents of the procedures used, however, are not new. The therapy is based on a learning-theory approach to psychotherapy.

Even though the procedures and theories used are not new, an intensified interest in this learning theory, called behaviorism, has come about in recent years.

In the last few years, more specific kinds of counsel­ ing have been described in the literature, but by far the major impact has been related to words 'develop­ mental' and ’behavioral,' and this has reasonably come about as a result of the marked effect of the behav­ ioral sciences in the whole area of learning and learn­ ing theory.^

"Behavior therapy is based on applying fundamental discoveries gained in the laboratory to practical prob­ lems. Michael and Meyerson identified the concept even further:

^Dugald S. Arbuckle, "Kinds of Counseling: Mean­ ingful or Meaningless," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIV (May, 1967), 219.

^Hans J. Eysenck, "New Ways in Psychotherapy," Psychology Today, I (June, 1967), 4-7.

Ill 112

A behavioral approach to counseling and guidance does not consist of a bag of tricks to be applied mechan­ ically for the purpose of coercing unwilling people. It is part of a highly technical system, based on laboratory investigations of the phenomena of condi­ tioning, for describing behavior and specifying the conditions under which it is acquired, maintained, and eliminated.5

The influence of learning theory can easily be seen in the above description of behavioral counseling. "It is unfortunate that the techniques used by the behavior- therapy group have so quickly become encapsulated in a dog­ matic ’school' but this seems to be the case. This en­ capsulation may not be instructive, however, since it does not allow for any clearer understanding of the concepts of behavioral counseling. "It should be noted in this context that there is no single behavior-theoretical view of coun­ seling or psychotherapy but rather there are a number of such views."5 Writers have had great difficulty in even distinguishing in any meaningful way those theorists who have written in behavioral terms. This problem was exem­ plified in the following discussion:

5Jack Michael and Lee Myerson, "A Behavioral Ap­ proach to Counseling and Guidance," Harvard Educational Re­ view, XXXII (Fall, 1962), 382.

^Louis Breger and James L. McGaugh, "Critique and Reformulation of 1Learning-Theory' Approaches to Psycho­ therapy and Neurosis," Psychological Bulletin, LXIII (May, 1965), 338.

5Leonard D. Goodstein, "Behavior Theoretical Views of Counseling," in Theories of Counseling, ed. by Buford Stefflre (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 15 3. 113

One group of these behavior theorists (Shoben, Dollard and Miller, Murray) has advocated the use of procedures and techniques typically used in rather traditional, psychoanalytical oriented approaches to counseling and psychotherapy.6

Another group (Wolpe, Eysenck and Bandura) has advocated

direct intervention in manipulating the client’s behavior.

Murray divides the theorists into the classical condition­

ing group (Biotropic), which included Eysneck, Salter, Shaw

and Wolpe; and the social learning group (Sociotropic) with

Mower, Shoben, Murray, Dollard and Miller.** Breger and

McGaugh identified three positions associated with be­ haviorism or learning theory: 1) Dollard and Miller, 2)

Eysenck and Wolpe, and 3) Skinner.** Two more educationally oriented writers lump behavioral counselors into but one group.-*-*-1 This group included Krumboltz, Thorsen, Bijou,

Michael and Meyerson. There are even differences among the theorists themselves as to their methods and

6Ibid., p. 154.

7Ibid.

^Edward J. Murray, "The Empirical Emphasis in Psychotherapy: A Symposium. Learning Theory and Psycho­ therapy: Biotropic versus Sociotropic Approaches," Journal of Counseling Psychology, X (Fall, 1963), 250-255.

9Brefer and McGaugh, "Critique,” pp. 33 8-35 8 .

10Bruce Shertzer and Shelley C. Stone, Fundamentals of Counseling (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company^ 1968), p . 26 5 . 114- interpretations.11 "Complete unanimity of approach to theory and technique is not to be found in any school of psychotherapy, and behavior therapists are no exception."12

The major proponents of the behavioral counseling theory and their major works are H. J. Eysenck's Behavior

Therapy and Neuroses; John D. Krumboltz's Revolution in

Counseling ; Halmuth H. Schaefer and Patrick L. Martin's

Behavioral Therapy; B. F. Skinner's Science and Human Be­ havior; Joseph Wolpe and Arnold A. Lazarus' Behavior

Therapy Techniques.

BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION13 14

The writers selected for examination were diverse in many ways. Three of them were educated out of the

United States. One of them is a medical doctor, one a counselor educator and the rest are psychologists. They have a commonality in that they are all interested in con­ ditioning and behavioral modification in the classical

11Marjorie H. Klein, Allen T. Dittmann and Morris B. Parloff, "Behavior Therapy: Observations and Reflec­ tions," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, XXXIII (June, 1969) , 259-266.

12Ibid., p. 260.

1 q American Psychological Association, 1966 Direc­ tory (Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Associa- tion, Inc., 1966).

14American Psychological Association, 196 9 Member­ ship Register (Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association, Inc., 1969). 115 conditioning tradition exemplified by the work of Mary

Cover Jones,^ working under J. B. Watson, in 19 2 4-. A brief sketch of each of the major contributors of behav­ ioral therapy follows.

Hans Jurgen Eysenck was born 1916 in England. He was granted the Ph.D. in 194-0 at the University of London.

His interests in behavioral modification and therapy have persisted since this graduation. He is currently employed in the Institute of Psychiatry at Maudsley Hospital in

London.

John Dwight Krumboltz, born in 1928, earned his

Ph.D. in 19 55 at the University of Minnesota. His inter­ ests are counseling behavior and research. He is in the

School of Education, Stanford University.

Halmuth Hans Schaefer was also born in 19 2 8 and received his Ph.D. thirty years later at the University of

Chicago. He is currently employed as Research Psychologist at Patton State Hospital in Highland, California. His interests are research in behavioral counseling.

Patrick L. Martin, Ph.D., is a staff psychologist associated with the Patton State Hospital.

•^Mary Cover Jones, "A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter," in Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses, ed. by H. J. Eysenck (London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960) , pp. 4-5-51. 16 H. J. Eysenck, ed., Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses (London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960). 116

Burrhus Frederick Skinner, with Eysenck, has been

the most prolific writer among.the behavioral therapists.

He was born in 1904. His undergraduate work in English

prompted him to try his ability as a writer in Greenwich

Village. After failing as a fiction writer he went to

Harvard where he was graduated with a Ph.D. in 19 31 in psychology.-*-^ Skinner is currently professor of psychology at Harvard University.

Joseph Wolpe was born (1915) and educated in the

Union of South Africa. He was graduated in psychiatry from the University of Witwateosrand with an M.D. degree. Today he is Professor of Psychiatry at Temple University.

Arnold A. Lazarus, Ph.D., also a South African,

collaborated with Wolpe in his most recent book while em­ ployed at the Pennsylvania Psychological Institute in

Philadelphia.

All of these selected writers have had experience working as a psychologist and all of them have expressed interests in behavioral conditioning and research.

-*-^Mary Harrington Hall, "An Interview with 'Mr. Behaviorist' B. F. Skinner," Psychology Today, I (Septem­ ber, 1967), 21-23, 68-71. 117

PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

"The word behavior has become such common coin that

like all common coins it is' shiny but faceless."-'-9 Be­

havior is simply what an organism does and therapy is any

set of procedures which produce a beneficial change in a

person.Behavioral therapy then becomes simply proced­

ures which produce beneficial changes in the organism.

"Behaviorism is not the scientific study of behavior but a

philosophy of science concerned with the subject matter and 9 n methods of psychology." Krumboltz modified a definition

of counseling to fit behavioral therapy. "Counseling con­

sists of whatever ethical activities a counselor undertakes

in an effort to help the client engage in those types of

behavior which will lead to a resolution of the client's problems.

The deterministic instrumental aspects of behav­

ioral therapy can be seen in many of the writers. Kanfer writes that some day psychotherapists may be able to offer

two types of service: 1. "Behavioral therapy," for those

•^Halmuth H. Schaefer and Patrick L. Martin, Be­ havioral Therapy (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1969), p. 3.

^~9Ibid. , pp. 3-4.

^°B. F. Skinner, "Behaviorism at Fifty," in Behav­ iorism and Phenomenology, ed. by T. W. Wann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books, 196 4), p. 79.

^Ijohn D. Krumboltz, "Behavioral Counseling: Rationale and Research," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (December, 1964), 384. 118

socially crippling disorders and, 2. "Friendship therapy"

for the guidance of confused but generally socially ade- quate people. 9 9 ^

Instead of conceiving of the counselor as a reflector of feelings, or an explorer of resources, or a habit changer, or a remediator of self-concepts and values, or a releaser of repressions, we might come to think of him as a behavioral engineer - one whose■function it is to arrange and rearrange the environment in order to bring about desired changes in b e h a v i o r . ^ 3

In addition to Bijou both Kanf e r ^ 1* and Shoben2® use the concept of behavioral engineering.

The diversity of approaches of behavioral coun­ selors make any summary of ideas difficult. Thoresen's award-winning research did, in spite of the difficulties, produce a five-part characterization of behavioral counsel­ ing. The following points are paraphrased and summarized from his work:2®

22Frederick H. Kanfer, "Implications of Condition­ ing Techniques for Interview Therapy," Journal of Counsel­ ing Psychology , XIII (Summer, 1966), 173.

2®Sidney W. Bijou, "Implications of Behavioral Sci­ ence for Counseling and Guidance," in Revolution in Coun­ seling , ed. by John D. Krumboltz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966), p. 44.

^Kanfer, "Implications of Conditioning," p. 176.

2®Edward Joseph Shoben, Jr., "Personal Worth in Education and Counseling," in Revolution in Counseling, ed. by John D. Krumboltz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966) , p. 75.

2®Carl E. Thoresen, "Behavioral Counseling: An Introduction," School Counselor, XIV (September, 1966), 13-21. 119

1. Most human behavior is learned. The individ­ ual’s environment is very influential in this learning.

Since behavior is learned it is subject to change.

2. With the change in environment may come a

change in relevant behavior. Counseling procedures there­

fore attempt to change behavior by changing the client’s

environment.

3. Behavioral counseling does not rely on any

single set of procedures, but social modeling and rein­

forcement usually play a major part in the process.

4. Only changes in client behavior outside the

counseling interview is important in judging success or outcome.

5. Counseling procedures are designed to help a

client solve the particular problem he brings to the inter­ view. Techniques vary with the problem.

Behavioral therapists have developed many terms

not wholly familiar to the psychotherapeutic community.

Their vocabulary has been based, for the most part, on

varous learning theories. An examination of some of the more common terms may be instructive. The terms defined

are those most used by the behavioral theorists under con­

sideration. Definition of a term by a particular writer

then means - the term is private to that writer though these

terms have almost universal use among the behavioral 120 therapists. The choice of definitions is based on this paradox, their privacy and ubiquity.

"Aversion Therapy." The link between the condi­ tioned stimulus and the pleasant response is broken by linking the response to an unpleasant experience.^

"Classical Conditioning." A new stimulus is asso­ ciated or connected with a response which is normally pre­ cipitated by another stimulus.

"Counterconditioning." Strong responses which are incompatible with anxiety reaction can be made to happen in the presence of cues which evoke this anxiety, the incom­ patible responses will become attached to these cues and weaken the anxiety response.

"Deprivation." Deprivation is the time a rein­ forcer is held from the organism. An example would be de- priving a rat of food pellets.2 9

"Desensitization Therapy." The link between the conditional stimulus and the u-Bpleasant conditional re­ sponse is replaced by a new link between the conditional

“^Eysenck, "New Ways in Psychotherapy," p. 4-6 . 2 8 Albert Bandura, "Psychotherapy as a Learning Pro­ cess," in Psychotherapy Research, ed. by Gary E. Stollak, Bernard G. Guerney, Jr. and Meyer Rothbery (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966), 97. 29 Schaefer and Martin, Behavioral Therapy, p. 30. 121 stimulus and a pleasant response. Desensitization therapy 3 0 is the opposite of Aversion therapy.

"Discrimination." Discrimination is the ability of

q i the organism to select stimuli for response.

"Experimental Extinction." This is the lessening or weakening of a habit through repeated non-reinforcement q o of the responses that manifest it.

"Operant Conditioning." Spontaneous behavior is strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by negative rein­ forcement .

"Reciprocal Inhibition." Wolpe’s 33 term, the definition of which parallels the concept of countercondi­ tioning .

"Reinforcement." A stimulus that carries a be­ havior to be; more likely to occur under similar conditions in the future (positive reinforcement), or less likely to occur under similar conditions in the future (negative re­ inforcement) . 3L|-

3 Q Eysenck, "New Ways in Psychotherapy," p. 46.

q l Schaefer and Martin, Behavioral Therapy, p. 41.

Joseph Wolpe and Arnold A. Lazarus, Behavior Therapy Techniques (London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1966), p . 14. 3 3 Joseph Wolpe, Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibi- tion (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 71. qn Michael and Meyerson, "A Behavioral Approach," p. 384. 12 2

"Shaping." The selection reinforcement of a de-

35 sired trait or action.

Some other general concepts held by behavioral therapists are worthy of consideration. "Behavior thera- q £ pists agree that neurotic symptoms are learned." Accord­ ingly there are no neuroses which cause symptoms. There q 7 are only symptoms. "Ged rid of the symptoms and you have

OO eliminated the neurosis." Skinner is even more emphatic:

"A psychotic patient is psychotic because of his behavior.

You don’t institutionalize a person because of his feel­ ings. "39

The behavior therapists have been concerned with how the patient learns. ^ The why has not been as impor­ tant. This concern has been helpful in minimizing the number of constructs with which the therapist must deal as

3 5Ibid. , p. 387 . 3 6 Eysenck, "New Ways in Psychotherapy," p. *+5.

37Ibid. q q H. J. Eysenck, "Learning Theory and Behaviour Therapy," in Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses, ed. by H. J. Eysenck (London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960), p. 9.

33Richard Evans, B . F . Skinner: The Man and His Ideas, Dutton Paperback (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., 1968), p. 42. 40 Robert R. Carkhuff and Bernard G. Berenson, Be­ yond Counseling and Therapy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston , Inc., 1967), p . 89\ 123 well as simplifying research. The "vital message is that

there is no significant learning without action."43-

Conception of Man

To behavioral counselors and in general learning theorists man is neither good nor bad. He is essentially neutral at birth. "The behavioral technique is not tied to

any assumption about the basic nature of man. From this

view man has equal potential for good and evil."

Wrenn has written:

For Skinner (or any behaviorist, I suppose) a man operates in computer fashion in which the output of results is determined by the input of signals. Life may design the program, or parts of it may be designed by a knowing operator in the life of man. But the com­ puter has no autonomy - Skinner said this clearly at Duluth. Rogers (or any perceptual psychologist) would add the construct of a self which may also provide signals that will determine output. There is an inter­ vening variable between receptor and effector and this has form and consistency. To Rogers this construct is essential to an understanding of at least adult behav­ ior. To Skinner such a construct is a temporary ex­ pedient for those who find it necessary, but he finds it wholly unnecessary.43

Learning theorists as a group make no judgments as to man's

41Ibid., p. 93.

lf2Ibid. , p. 1 0 0 . L 3 C. Gilbert Wrenn, "Two Psychological Worlds: An Attempted Rapprochment," in Revolution in Counseling, ed. by John D. Krumboltz (Boston! Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966) , pp. 101-102. inherent goodness. "Man is at the beginning an unwritten

slate.

Related Theory of Personality

Behavioral therapy has been based on learning theory.^ ^ Unfortunately for the evaluation of behav­ ioral therapy, there is no single theory of learning. The problem is even more confounded because few of the writers

in the group mention a specific learning theory. Krumboltz states a preference for Sholen's theory, U 7 but Sholen favors ". . . a two-factor learning theory of the type most recently developed by Mower. f,1+® Two other writers said 49 that Murray's and Mower's theories are most appropriate.

^Carkhuff and Berenson, Beyond Counseling and Therapy, p. 100.

Lakin Phillips and Salah El-Batrawi, "Learning Theory and Psychotherapy: With Notes and Illustrative Cases," Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, I (Fall, 1964), 145-150. ~

46G. T. Wilson, Alma E. Hannon and W. I. M. Evans, "Behavior Therapy and the Therapist-Patient Relationship," Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, XXXII (April, 1968), 103-109. 47 John D. Krumboltz, "Promoting Adaptive Behavior: New Answers to Familiar Questions," in Revolution in Coun­ seling, ed. by John D. Krumboltz (Boston! Houghton Mifflin Compay, 1966), p. 5. h O Edward Joseph Shoben, Jr., "Psychotherapy as a Problem in Learning Theory," in Behaviour Therapy' and the Neuroses, ed. by H. J. Eysenck (London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960), p. 75.

^Carkhuff and Berenson, "Beyond Counseling and Therapy," p. 89. 125

After examination of the behavioral therapy writers a two-factor learning theory appears to describe the re­ quirements of all of the theorists from the more biogropic

(Eysenck-Wolpe-Skinner) to the sociotropic (Shoben-

Krumboltz). Skinner's learning theory is also a two-factor t heory.^

Mower's two-factor theory essentially reveals this 51 theory's appropriateness to behavioral counseling. The two factors of the theory are punishment and reward. Mower calls punishment "incremental reinforcement" and reward

"decremental reinforcement."

Primary and secondary reinforcement are part of both incremental and decremental reinforcement. Secondary reinforcement is considered by Mower to be like the general term incentive or hope. Primary reinforcement remains, as in other theories, direct strengthening of a response whether positive or negative.

A basic outline of the present version of Mower's 5 2 two-factor theory may be helpful:

5 0 Ernest R. Hilgard and Gordon H. Bower, Theories of Learning (3rd ed.; New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966), p. 64.

510. Hobart Mower, Learning Theory and Behavior (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 19 60), pp"! 212-2 52.

52Ibid., p. 213. 126

Incremental reinforcement Decremental reinforcement (punishment) (reward) A. Primary reinforcement A. Primary reinforcement B. Secondary reinforcement B. Secondary reinforcement (incentive) (incentive) C. Danger signal on C. Danger signal off (fear) (relief) D. Safety signal off D. Safety signal on (disappointment) (hope)

. . . revised two-factor theory assumes that so-called habit formation involves a strengthening of synopses between the neurones connecting stimuli produced by some behavioral act and the emotion of hope and that punishment involves a similar condition of f e a r . 5 3

This discussion is not intended to be a complete statement of Mower's theory, but only a summary of the salient points as they relate to behavioral therapy.

THEORY OF THERAPY

Behavioral counseling is not a single theoretical view of psychotherapy. It is a number of such views.51+

Writers tend to describe behavioral counseling in their individual ways, like blind men describing an elephant; but a whole animal can be created from the separate ele­ ments .

Process

Krumboltz lists three conditions to the counseling process.55 These conditions have to do with the limitations

55Ibid., p. 220 .

5IfGoodstein, "Behavior Theoretical Views," p. 15 3.

55Krumboltz, "Behavioral Counseling," p. 38 5. 127 counselors might apply to their relationship with clients.

The first condition has to do with the "interests" of the counselor. It is the counselor who must decide just what types of problems he is interested in helping to solve.

The second limitation or condition has to do with "compe­ tency." The counselor must make clear to his client the limits of his competency. The counselor, as a third con­ dition, must also evaluate the client's requests in terms of his own ethical standards.

The following processes seem to be essential to behavioral writers.

1. There is a "lifting of repression and develop­ ment of insight through the symbolic reinstating of the 56 stimuli for anxiety."

2. There is a "diminution of anxiety by counter­ conditioning through the attachment of the stimuli for anxiety to the comfort reaction made to the therapeutic relationship. "^7

• 3. There is a "process of re-education through the therapists helping the patient formulate goals and behav- r o ioral methods for attaining them.1,0°

^Shoben, "Psychotherapy as a Problem," p. 75.

57Ibid.

58Ibid. 128

4. Diagnosis should pertain only to the functions of the client, not his traits.

5. Symptoms have no underlying illnesses. There are only symptoms. Remove the symptom and you eliminate ,, ,. , 6 0 61 the disorder.

6 . "Most human behavior is learned and is there- fore subject to change." 6 2

7. "The behavior therapist must be willing to die- fi 3 tate the procedures and direction of therapy." 6 4 8 . The counseling process is a learning process.

Techniques

The processes of counseling are implemented by be­ havioral techniques. The techniques of counseling in the behavioral model are essentially based upon learning theory. Their techniques, as in the processes, are from many different sources:

^Bijou, "Implications of Behavioral Science," p. 44. 6 0 Eysenck, "New Ways in Psychotherapy," p. 45.

^ ■'"Evans , B. F. Skinner, p. 42. fi 9 Thoresen, "Behavioral Counseling," p. 17. 6 3 Carkhuff and Berenson, Beyond Counseling and Therapy, p. 91. fi u Krumboltz, "Promoting Adaptive Behavior," pp. 6-8. 129

1. Experimental extinction. The progressive weak- 6 5 ening of a habit.

2. Counterconditioning or reciprocal inhibition.

The pairing of a nonanxiety producing stimulus with an fi fi anxiety producing one to weaken the latter.

3. Positive reconditioning. The conditioning of new motor habits or ways of thinking.®7

4. Desensitization. The suppression of anxiety fi 8 producing stimuli (similar to counterconditioning).

5. Social modeling. The use of others as behav­

ioral models.®^-

6 . Contingency management. "The likelihood that behavior will take place depends on its consequences. If consequences can be . . . controlled some behaviors can be 7 0 encouraged . . . while others discouraged or eliminated."

7. Cognitive learning. The simple telling of a 71 client the information he needs.

^Wolpe and Lazarus, Behavioral Therapy Techniques, pp. 14-15.

66Ibid., p. 1 2 .

67Ibid., p. 13. 6 8 Schaefer and Martin, Behavioral Therapy, p. 53.

^Thoresen, "Behavioral Counseling," p. 17.

70Carl E. Thoresen, "The Counselor as an Applied Behavioral Scientist," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVII (May, 1969), 846.

7^Krumboltz, "Promoting Adaptive Behavior," p. 16. 130

8 . Aversive stimulation. An aversive outcome is

an unpleasant outcome. This is similar to negative rein- 7 9 forcement and punishment.

Goals

The process of therapy is implemented by the tech­

niques of therapy in movement toward the therapeutic goals.

The various goals of behavioral therapy, like the processes

and techniques, come from many sources:

1. The alteration of maladaptive behavior in the

client under therapy. 7 3

2. The learning of a more efficient decision- 7 4 making process. 7 5 3. The prevention of future problems.

4-. The solution of the specific behavioral problem

stated by^6 the client. Counseling is based upon the re- 77 quests of the client.

7 2 Schaefer and Martin, Behavioral Therapy, pp. 32-33. 7 *3 Krumboltz, "Promoting Adaptive Behavior," p. 10. 74 Ibid., p. 11.

^ •> P • 1 2 . 7 6 John D. Krumboltz, "Behavioral Goals for Counsel­ ing," Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIII (Summer, 1966), 153. 7 7 John D. Krumboltz, "Behavioral Counseling: Ra­ tionale and Research," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (December, 1965), 383. 131

5. Therapy must translate itself into action in life to be worthwhile.7®

6 . The specific and systematic base of therapy re- 7 9 duces ambiguity.

The goals of counseling are capable of being stated 80 differently for each client.

SUMMARY

Behavioral therapy has been freely discussed by many writers, particularly in the last decade. Theoret­ ically this therapy is based on the work of learning theorists. "The recent emergence of behavior therapy has been an implementation of learning-theory based on didactic

0*1 or interventionist approach." Skinner, Dollard and

Miller, Murray and Mower are mentioned most often; Mower is generally cited for his two-factor learning theory model. As there has been no single learning theory, there likewise has been no single theory of behavioral therapy.

There are, however, many commonalities among the behavioral writers. This chapter has been constructed with these

7 8 Carkhuff and Berenson, Beyond Counseling and Therapy, p. 87.

79 Ibid., p. 1 0 1 . 8 0 Krumboltz, "Behavioral Goals for Counseling," p . 5 3. 8l Charles B. Truax, "Some Implications of Behavior Therapy for Psychotherapy," Journal of Counseling Psychol­ ogy , XIII (Summer, 1966), 160. 132 commonalities in mind in hopes that a general behavioral therapeutic system might grow out of these divergent views.

The progress toward broader applications cf learning principles in psychotherapy and toward construction of a technology of behavior therapy has been seriously impeded by the failure to combine interview and con­ ditioning techniques.8^

Bringing together divergent trainings is difficult.

"Despite their (behavioral counselors) present enthusiasm for behavior therapy the fact remains that previously acquired skills still form an integral part of their repertoire."83 Along with a relatively pessimistic note were a few optimistic simplications. "To oversimplify, the revolution (behavioral counseling) has overthrown 'um-hmm' and 'you-feel' replacing them with 'that's good' and 'try this '."811

. . . behavioral counseling is, thus far, restricted essentially to verbal conditioning. The counselor, to do behavioral counseling, needs only to be able to recognize types or classes of response and behavior made by the client, and to control his own responses so that he gives reinforcement solely for the types of client responses that are to be reinforced.

^Kanfer, "Implications of Conditioning," p. 174,

^Klein, Dittman and Parloff, "Behavior Therapy," p . 265 . 84 H. B. McDaniel, "Counseling Perspectives," in Revolution in Counseling, ed. by John D. Krumboltz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966), p. 81. 8 5 Robert H. Woody, "Preparation in Behavioral Coun­ seling," Counselor Education and Supervision, VII (Summer, 1968), 360. 133

Whether viewed with a jaundiced eye or in a euphoric state, behavioral therapy deserves the attention

Q C of the therapeutic community. Woody has stressed its use for school counselors. Weitz has written about the appli­ cation of techniques to produce new patterns of re­ sponses,^ and Lazarus8® has described its theoretical ad­ vantages. Only time and the test of therapeutic practice and research will uncover the real strengths or weaknesses of behavioral therapy.

O C Robert H. Woody, "Reinforcement in School Coun­ seling," School Counselor, XV (March, 1968), 253-258. 8 7 Henry Weitz, Behavior Change Through Guidance (New York: John Wiley and Sons , Inc. , 1964) , p .

A. Lazarus, "New Methods in Psychotherapy: A Case Study," in Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses, ed. by H. J. Eysenck (London: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1960), pp. 144-152. CHAPTER VII

TRAIT-FACTOR COUNSELING

INTRODUCTION

Trait-factor counseling was first called vocational guidance, then vocational counseling and now its present nomenclature.

In this theory it is assumed that one of man’s charac­ teristics is that he is an organized pattern of varied capacities which may be identified through . . . psy­ chological tests.^

This "school" of counseling has also been called the

"Minnesota point of view" because its primary purveyors have been from the University of Minnesota.

The trait-factor approach to counseling addresses itself to the idea that man spends the greater part of his time attempting to bring order and reason into the major decisions in life.3 Williamson defines counseling in this context:

•^E. G. Williamson, Vocational Counseling: Some Historical, Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965 ) , p . 90 .

2Ibid.

3Robert R. Carkhuff and Bernard G. Berenson, Beyond Counseling and Therapy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969), p. 105.

134 135

Counseling has been defined as a face-to-face situation in which, by reason of training, skill or confidence vested in him by the other, one person helps the second person to face, perceive, clarify, solve, and resolve adjustment problems.11' The careful reader will have noted the similarity of this definition with previous definitions in client-centered and, developmental counseling.

The Minnesota point of view is heavily committed to

students and youth, primarily in the college setting, and

focuses much attention on the dilemmas faced by each youth.

These dilemmas are "1) which purposes or life objectives to

choose in a thoughtful manner; 2 ) to be or not to be in quest of immediate satisfaction; and 3) to strive to become 5 6 or not to become one’s highest and best potentiality."

Williamson's vihws of the dilemma of youth and his assump- •j tions concerning the "nature of human nature" probably

**E. G. Williamson and J. D. Foley, Counseling and Discipline (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 49) , p. 192.

5E. G. Williamson, "Youth's Dilemma: To Be or To Become," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (October, 1967), 176~:

^Frank Parsons had similar views when he described the vocational guidance of youth; "1 ) a clear understanding of yourself, your aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambi­ tions, resources, limitations, and their causes; 2 ) a knowledge of the"requirements and conditions of success, advantages, compensations, opportunities and prospects in different lines of work; 3) true reasoning on the relations of these two groups of facts." Choosing a Vocation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 09), p . 5"7

^E. G. Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait- Factor Theory," in Theories of Counseling, ed. by Buford Stefflre (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965), p. 193. 136 best Siam up the major assumptional bases for trait-factor counseling. His eight assumptions regarding personality, work and society are®

1. "Each person is an organized, unique pattern of capabilities and potentialities. Capabilities are identi­ fiable by objective tests statistically designed and vali­ dated. For most individuals their capabilities are stable at maturity.

2. "These capacities are differently correlated with different work tasks, so that different capacities are significantly involved in different tasks or behavior."

These characteristics, between-work performances, interest and personality, should be verified by research so that successful workers in different tasks may be statistically identified as a stable basis upon which to build models of comparison.

3. "The task of succeeding in school curricula may be studied by research designs comparable to those used by industrial psychologists for differentiating occupations."

Different curricula may require different capacities or interests.

4. "The diagnosis . . . of potential should pre­ cede choice of or assignment to or placement in work tasks or in curricular."

8Ibid., pp. 194-195. 137

5. "Diagnoses of capabilities and interests before instruction facilitate learning . . ."

6 . "There is some degree of homogeneity . . . within each occupational criterion group ..."

7. The best predirctor of success in these fields is obtained by a battery of trait tests.

8 . Each individual is capable of and seeks to identify and utilize his capabilities.

Transparently, a heavy emphasis is placed on personality and interest assessments and other psycholog­ ical devices. An equal emphasis is devoted to the use of external and objective criteria against which continuous research validation and refinement may be applied.

The foundation of the trait-factor "system" has been laid upon the shoulders of various men. D. G.

Paterson has written that the "... approach dates back to the pioneer work of Frank Parsons."9 Another writer has said: "The foundation was laid by D. G. Paterson in his studies of individual differences and test development."^9

Williamson, on the one hand, traces trait-factor vocational counseling to early German and French concepts of

^Donald G. Paterson, "Introduction" in Student Personnel Work by E. G. Williamson and J. G. Darley (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1937), p. vii.

10C . H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling and Psy- chotherapy (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1966) , p. 17. 138 personality,11 but in another work gives credit to Parsons,

Harper and Witmer.1^ Parsons’ work with early vocational planning and the Breadwinners’ College has been known for many years.13 The work of William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago, has been ignored until rather recently. It was Harper who advocated the scientific study of the student, individualized education faculty advising and a whole host of services which today are part of college student personnel programs.1^ Witmer is noted for his contributions via the psychological clinic.1^

Of all the writers concerned with trait-factor counseling, the most known is E. G. Williamson. It has been the work of Williamson which has added substance, form and order to this type of counseling. Williamson's major contributions have been: Student Personnel Work: An Out­ line of Clinical Procedures 19 37, with Darley; How to

Counsel Students: A Manual of Techniques for Clinical

Counselors 19 39; Counseling Adolescents 19 50; "Vocational

Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory: 1965, in Theories of

11Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory," p. 19 3.

12Williamson, Vocational Counseling, pp. 72-89.

13Ibid., p. 76.

14Ibid., pp. 81-86 .

^Ibid. , pp. 88-89. 139

Counseling by Steffire; Vocational Counseling: Some His­

torical Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives 1965;

and The American Students Freedom of Expression 1966, with

Cowan.

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA1 6 5 179 18

Edmund Griffith Williamson was born August 14,

1900. He earned his baccalaureate degree at the University of Illinois in 1925, his doctorate from the University of

Minnesota in 19 31. As a graduate student at the University of Minnesota Williamson worked under Donald G. Paterson.

Paterson so influenced Williamson's life that he has never forgotten his early mentor. Williamson’s books nearly all

speak of Paterson, and his latest theoretical offering is dedicated to Paterson: "To Donald G. Paterson, Pioneering innovator in adapting industrial research design and mili­ tary classification techniques in the counseling of college student clientele." 19

In 19 32 Williamson became the first Director of the

16American Psychological Association, 1966 Direc­ tory (Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Asso­ ciation, Inc., 1966).

17 American Psychological Association, 196 9 Member­ ship Register (Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association, Inc., 1969).

18C. H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling, p. 16,

-^Williamson , Vocational Counseling, book dedica­ tion. 140

University of Minnesota Testing Bureau. In 19 39 he became

Coordinator of Student Personnel Services at the same uni­

versity. Since 1941 he has been Dean of Students at

Minnesota; a position he still holds.

Williamson is a Diplomate in Counseling Psychology

of the American Board of Examiners in Professional Psy­

chology and a past president of the American Personnel and

Guidance Association (1967).

PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

The trait-factor, or the Minnesota, approach to

counseling is related to education, particularly at the

college and university level. The first chapter of Coun- 9 0 seling Adolescents is titled "Counseling as Education."

Student Personnel Work, with Darley, has "American Educa­

tion" as a first chapter.How to Counsel Students: A

Manual of Techniques for Clinical Counselors starts with

"The Role of Student Personnel in Education."22 This view

is even more closely related to education by the assert

in that

^E. G. Williamson, Counseling Adolescents (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950). 21 E. G. Williamson and J. G. Darley, Student Personnel Work: An Outline of Clinical Procedures (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 37).

2^E. g . Williamson, How to Counsel Students: A Manual of Techniques for Clinical Counselors (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 39). 141

The basic purpose of education is not only to train the intellect but also to assist students to achieve those levels of social, civic, and emotional maturity which are within the range of their potentialities. 23

And further by the emphasis:

Counseling is as fundamental a technique of assisting the individual to achieve a style of living satisfying to him and congruent with his status as a citizen in a democracy as are the instructional techniques used by the teacher . . . to achieve stipulated academic or educational goals . . .24

This emphasis has not changed throughout Williamson's writ­ ings; a key chapter in one of his newest books is "Dis­ covering the Individual Student in Education."2^

"Fundamental to trait and factor counseling is the assumption that man seeks to use self-understanding and knowledge of his abilities as a means of developing person- 9 fi ality." Williamson has noted that

The foundation of modern concepts of counseling rests upon the assumption of the unique individuality of each child and also upon the identificator of that unique­ ness through objective measurement as contrasted with techniques of subjective estimation and appraisal.27

9 fiWilliamson, Counseling Adolescents, p. 38.

24Ibid., p. 3. 9 fi Williamson, Vocational Counseling, chapter 4. 9 fi Bruce Shertzer and Shelley C. Stone, Fundamentals of Counseling (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company^ 1968) , p. 247. 9 7 Williamson, Vocational Counseling, p. 56. 14 2

"There is a strong deterministic base to the trait- and-factor approach . . .1,28 This base can be seen in much

o q of Williamson's writings. 3

I am suggesting, of course, that the counselor has available techniques for helping the student to employ rational and cognitive efforts to control the nature and direction and rate of change in himself;30

And most important of all presuppositions is the point that counselors should openly enter into the counseling relationship with a 'normative bias. ' And our bias is the source of our eternal optimism that our students will aspire to the 'good' life of truth beauty, rationality, and 'full humanity'."8!

Counseling itself has been referred to in many ways by the trait-factor counselors. Some of the definitions seem more like the eclectic counselor: "The counselor is ready to advise with the student as to a program of action consistent with, and growing out of, the diagnosis";82 and others have a client-centered ring; "counseling . . . (is) a face-to-face situation in which . . . one person helps

29Robert R. Carkhuff and Bernard G. Berenson, Be­ yond Counseling and Therapy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 196 7), p . 106. -

29Dugald S. Arbuckle, Counseling: Philosophy, Theory and Practice (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 19 65), p . 269.

q n . E. G. Williamson, "Counseling as Preparation for Directed Change," Teacher College Record, LXV (April, 1964), 615.

^E. G. Williamson, "Value Options and the Counsel­ ing Relationship," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (February, 19 66), 623.

92Williamson, Counseling Adolescents, p. 23 3. 143 the second person to face, perceive, clarify, solve and re­

solve adjustment problems,"33

There is even a touch of behaviorism in some definitions:

But I feel certain that a counselor can play a sig­ nificant role in helping the individual to perceive, and to accept emotionally, the ^inevitability of authority in some form or another acting as a re­ strictive agency upon the individual’s free play of self-directed freedom. 31+

Williamson prefers not to use the term guidance but the term counseling to refer to the relationship between counselor and client. Occasionally the term interview has been used and even seminar: ’’But in the continuing sem­ inar, which we call counseling, the 'becoming opportunity' is one experience in which alternative value commitments are identified as available for choice."33 The word client, used in most therapies, is replaced by the term individual or, more commonly, student in trait-factor writ­ ings. This use of the word student is but another indica­ tion of the educational emphasis of this theory.

The role of the counselor in this system centers

33Williamson and Foley, Counseling and Discipline, p. 192.

3it-E. G. Williamson, "The Fusion of Discipline and Counseling in the Educative Process," in Counseling and Psychotherapy, ed. by Ben N. Ard, Jr. (Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966), p. 213.

33Williamson, "Youths Dilemma." 144 around diagnosis and information giving. "In a very sub­ stantial way, counseling involves information giving and collecting, but it is information of a profound sort having

q c to do with the development of a human being."00 In a sense, the counselor brings external information to help

q 7 the individual 'measure' himself." The general concepts of the trait-factor theory essentially deal with the coun­ selor and the student. Another important facet of this theory is Williamson's conception of man.

Conception of Man

Williamson has said that he feels comfortable with the philosophy that . . man is born with the potential for both good and evil and that the meaning of life is to

q q seek good and reject— or at least control— evil." In addition to this, he lists five basic questions, concerning the nature and conception of man, which counselors must answer. These questions must not only be answered, but the answers must be continually evaluated and sharpened.

1. "What is the nature of human nature? What is the nature of man?"99 The counselor should believe that

33Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory," p. 20 0.

3^Ibid., p . 199.

33Williamson, Vocational Counselor, p. 18 3.

39Ibid., p. 182. 145 man is capable of learning to solve his problems. Coun­

selors must maintain an optimistic hopefulness. "Man is

born with the potential for both good and evil and that the meaning-of life is to seek good and reject— or at least

control--evil.^ "Man is a rational being."43-

2. "What is the nature of human development?"142

There are widely divergent views concerning human develop­ ment which may be best handled by an eclectic approach.

3. "What is the nature of the ’good life’ and 'the

good'?"4^ Each counselee must think provisionally and tentatively about this concept. He must carry on his private intellectual search in his own seminar by contin­ uously evaluating his provisional answers.

4. "What is the nature of the determination of the

good life?"44 The problem here has been who would deter­ mine what is good. Counseling must aid students in search­

ing for themselves the determination of the good life.

5. "What is the nature of the universe, and what

is man's relationship to that universe?"4® The verve with

40Ibid. p . 18 3.

41Ibid. p. 201.

42Ibid. p . 183.

43Ibid. p . 185.

44Ibid. p . 188.

45Ibid. p. 189. 14-6 which the counselor counsels "will be determined by his

attitude of hopefulness and anticipation that man’s efforts to become will be ’determinative' in the outcome of the human enterprise."146

An additional assumption raised by Williamson con­

cerns the "Value of the Human Enterprise."11'7 He states that the attainment of success and satisfaction is, at

least in part, a function of the similarity between an

individual's talents and the requirements of the life for which he is striving, be it vocational, academic or personal.

Related Theory of Personality

The Minnesota School of Counseling "embraces a theory of personality discussed under the rubric ’trait-

factors'." U 8 In another work it is written that "The

learning theory underlying the trait-factor type of coun­

seling embraces the development of human personality from n q infancy to adulthood." It has been assumed that there is a developmental pattern from infancy to adulthood.66 "A

46Ibid.

47Ibid., p. 203.

t48Ibid. , p. 90.

^Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory," p. 196.

50Ibid. second aspect of learning theory . . . concerns man's

cognitive capacity as applied to the task of controlling 51 himself, profoundly and comprehensively."

Williamson adds to this information on personality

theory and trait-factor counseling seven assumptions which

he traces from their origin. These assumptions are care- 5 2 fully elaborated in his test. They are summarized here:

1. Human capabilities are unique in their indi­

vidualized configuration. Aptitudes and abilities are

capable of being trained, at least partically, into people.

2. Aptitudes and abilities are psychometrically

measurable.

3. It is possible to■compare human characteristics when they are evaluated or measured in the same units.

4. Men and their vocational capability and apti­

tude can be measured and standardized so as to establish

occupational criterion groups. There is an age where men

become more stable in these capacities and aptitudes.

5. As in number 4, the same holds true for inter­

ests .

6 . Understanding of the personality maturation of

a normal pattern is important to the counselor,

51Ibid., p. 197.

^Williamson, Vocational Counseling, pp. 204-205. 148

7. The necessity of therapy is to help students

feel better, develop normally and think clearly.

THEORY OF THERAPY

Like some of the other psychotherapeutic writers

trait-factor counselors impose conditions on the counseling

process. Conditions precede process, which is implemented

by techniques on the way toward goals. Williamson's condi­

tions , seventeen of them, are "only as illustrative of the 5 3 many." ’ The assumptions concerning necessary conditions 54 for counseling are summarized as follows:

1. The purpose of counseling and the techniques

employed by the counselor will help .the student develop in

all aspects of his personality.

2. There is a precious uniqueness to the individ­

ual human which comes into full development only within the

context of relationship with others.

3. The counseling relationship need not be

strictly voluntary to be mutually productive.

4. Counseling should not be entirely centered upon

students who exhibit problems.

5. Counselors need to deal clearly with the

53Ibid., p. 205.

5UIbid., pp. 205-214.

if 149 concept of counselor influence in the interview. It is doubtful that complete neutrality is possible.

6 . Counselors have a responsibility to society, either "macro" or "micro." The counselor must do more than exhibit unconditional acceptance.

7. The interdependence and totality of human growth and development must be considered in counseling.

8 . The student must be understood to be progress­ ing through a series of life stages of development.

9. The counselor must deal with the whole student, not become focused just on the parts.

10. The balance between man's thinking and feeling must be understood. Either may at times be distorted.

11. The concept of "insight" deserves reexamina­ tion. It may be overemphasized.

12. Counseling about self-development is not re­ stricted to any group or class. It is open to everyone.

13. The reinforcements for a good life must be understood in the light of the breadth or narrowness of individuality and society.

14. Counseling, like education, must be organized around the idea that students develop their own potential and help others to develop at the same time.

15. Counselors need to help the student understand that development has a non-linear curve. There are periods 150 of acceleration, regression and even changes to new direc­ tions .

16. Concepts of excellence may serve as guidelines for human striving.

17. Counselors must have a profound respect for what man was, is, and may become.

Process

The trait-factor counselor seeks openly and frankly to influence the direction of development because the in­ dividual's freedom to become includes self-destructive and 5 5 anti-social as well as positive forms of individuality.

Counselors of the Minnesota point of view do not advise sitting in offices and waiting for students to seek help but suggest devising roundabout ways to get people in for4; 1,help. n 56

Diagnosis is "the cooperative interpretation and identification of potentialities, as well as aspirations 5 7 and motivations." Diagnosis, in this sense, takes the form of a series of hypotheses , based on conversation and

55E. G. Williamson, "Some Issues Underlying Coun­ seling Theory and Practice," in Counseling Points of View, ed. by Willis E. Dugan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959), p. 3.

56Ibid., p. 1 0 . c 7 Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory," p. 2 00. 151 r o psychometrics, which are tested by the student. "For

Williamson, diagnosis is the effort to decide whether or not a person is operating on misinformation as he proceeds in his decision making."59

The counselor can influence students but is not to 6 0 determine the value commitments adopted by students.

Williamson and Dailey list six steps in the clini- 61 6 2 cal process for trait-factor counselors:

1. "Analysis." The counselor must select those techniques which will best apply to the student. Tests, records and experiences are all part of the data for analy­ sis .

2. "Clinical synthesis." This is the orderly assembling of the extensive facts gathered in analysis.

3. "Clinical diagnosis." Diagnosis is aimed at describing the problems or problem complexes into one of

58Ibid.

59Edward S. Bordin, Psychological Counseling, second edition (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1958), p. 1 1 2 .

59E. G. Williamson, "Value Commitments and Counsel­ ing," Teachers College Record, LXII (May, 1961), 602-608. R1 Williamson and Darley, Student Personnel Work, pp. 168-178. 6 2 The same list appeared in Williamson's 19 39 text: How to Counsel Students and in his 19 50 text Counseling Adolescents, but in slightly different forms. 152 six classifications: "financial; educational; vocational; social-emotional-person; family; and finally, health or 6 3 physical-disability problems."

4. "Prognosis." The prognosis is based upon alternative recommendations given to the student. The prognosis then becomes the counselor’s prediction concern­ ing the student's use of the recommendations.

5. "Treatment." Treatment is whatever is done by the institution, counselor or student to put into operation the recommendations selected by the student.

6 . "Follow-up." Follow-up is the procedure of checking back on the case to see what happened. These are ch. four purposes of follow-up: The first would be to com­ plete the clinical analysis; the second would be to check on the treatment provided; third would be designed to see if any additional problem has arisen after the first diag­ nosis; and fourth to evaluate the effectiveness of counsel­ ing.

Techniques

The most obvious technique used by trait-factor counselors is their reliance on psychometry. Froehlich and

Darley emphasize this when they write: "... Tests should

®^Williamson and Darley, Student Personnel Work, p. 173.

64Ibid., p. 178. 153 C C be used with supplementary "techniques." The suppl’emen- tary techniques referred to are interview techniques. With this view tests are more important than interview data.

Techniques are modifiable for each student . . .

"The counselor adopts his specific techniques to the indi­ viduality and problem pattern of the student, making the necessary modification to produce the desired result for a C C particular student."

In one of Williamson's earlier books he lists five 6 7 additional techniques for counseling:

1. "Establishing rapport." This is accomplished with the personal, concerned atmosphere the counselor creates with the student.

2. "Cultivating self-understanding." The coun­ selor attempts to do this based upon his diagnosis and the student's own understanding.

3. "Advising." Advising must begin at the student C O level of understanding. The counselor uses the student's own point of view, goals and abilities as a basis of his

^Clifford P. Froehlich and John G. Darley, Study­ ing Students (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1952), p. 3.

6^Williamson, Counseling Adolescents, p. 22 0.

®^Williamson, How to Counsel Students, pp. 130-1M-5.

^This point was handled in Williamson's 19 50 text Counseling Adolescents, p. 23 3 in a different way. 154 advice. The three methods of advising are direct, per- 6 q suasive, and explanatory.

4. "Carrying out the plan." The counselor may directly help the student augment the procedures arrived at in counseling.

5. "Referral." If the counselor is not able, or unwilling, to help the student carry out plans made he should refer the student to the appropriately trained person or agency to implement the plan.

Williamson has arrived at another technique which is more subtle. "I believe that there are desirable char­ acteristics of the counselor as a human being which may be 70 intimately related with the effectiveness of counseling."

The counselor himself thus becomes a potent technique in the counseling interview.

Goals

The goals of trait-factor counseling are not as detailed as the conditions, processes or techniques.

Some of the goals seem to be:

1. Counselors should be used by students for good purposes in seeking the good life. 71

®^Williamson, How to Counsel Students, p. 13 9. 7 0 E. G. Williamson, "The Counselor as Technique," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLI (October, 19 62), 10 9.

"^Williamson, "Value Options," p. 617. 155

2. Counselors should "aid the individual in suc­ cessive approximations of self-understanding and self- management ..."7 2

3. Counselors should help students "... choose goals which will yield maximum satisfaction within the limits of those compromises necessitated by . . . society itself."73

SUMMARY

The "Minnesota school" of counseling has had as its primary advocate E. G. Williamson. He has served the

University of Minnesota in various capacities continuously since 1931. To be sure there have been other contributors to the theory: D. G. Paterson, J. G. Darley, C. P.

Froehlich and others. To these names Williamson would add

"Super [who] would probably classify himself along with

Parsons as a trait-factor theorist." 7 4 Nevertheless the major theorizing has been done almost entirely by

Williamson.

The trait-factor point of view relies heavily on psychometrics and prediction. In general the conditions of

72 Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory," p. 198. 7 3 Williamson, Counseling Adolescents, p. 221.

74Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory," p. 197. 156 therapy are conditions for the counselor. The process consists mainly of gathering data, synthesizing it, forming a diagnosis and planning a program for the student. The techniques used by the counselor evolve around establish­ ing rapport, cultivating self-understanding, advising and carrying out the advice. The goals have to do with self- understanding, choice of appropriate goals and the striving for the "good life." Williamson has become immersed in the informational aspects of decisions and the counselor’s role 7 5 in helping people make decisions.

"There is a strong deterministic base to the trait- 7 fi and-factor approach ..." Some of Williamson's writing illustrates this: "Rather is counseling . . .- value- oriented and not open-ended both regarding goals sought through aspirations and strivings of both counselor and 77 student within their relationship." Williamson is more direct than many counselors probably because he has more faith in the counselor’s ability to gather and analyze facts than he does in the student’s. He has recognized the stu­ dent’s propensity to make irrational, cognitive as well as

7 B Bordin, Psychological Counseling, p. 112.

^^Rober.t R. Carkhuff and Bernard 6 . Berenson, Be­ yond Counseling and Therapy (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 196 7), p . T06.

^E. G. Williamson, "Value Orientation in Counsel­ ing," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI (April, 19 58), 520-528. 157 emotional decisions. He has therefore taken a firmer hand in the interview so as not to reinforce the wrong behavior.

"My point is that the psychotherapist's concept of per­ missiveness may indeed, prove to be too much freedom pre- 7 8 requisite to becoming one's full human potentiality."

In his more recent writings, Williamson has dealt with the affective aspects of counseling; nevertheless the trait-factor approach remains essentially a rational, problem-solving approach. He has attempted to vary the diagnostic procedures with each individual but this variance involves primarily a change in the psychometric schedule of the student rather than a different approach.

To study Williamson's position one must search diligently for ideas. These concepts regarding his theory are not found in one, two or even three sources. His books are primary, but little cohesiveness of theoretical stance can be formulated without his journal contributions. Even 7 9 8 0 his most recent summaries (196 5) of the theory lack the order necessary easy outlining.

78Williamson, "Youths Dilemma," p. 17 5.

7^Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory."

80E. G. Williamson, "The Place of Counseling Theory in College Programs," in Theories of Counseling, e d . by Buford Steffire (New York! McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965), pp. 242-256. 158

Research is a strong emphasis of the theory.

Williamson's most recent book is an excellent example of the detailed, well organized type of research trait-factor pi theorists have done. Much of the psychometric research done by Strong and Kuder has also been incorporated by the proponents of the Minnesota point of view. Psychological testing in the best tradition of the psychological labora­ tory has been highly valued by Williamson. It is of par­ ticular importance to these theorists to establish common or normative behavior whether it be academic, vocational or personal-social. This normative bias is essential to appropriate diagnosis. Williamson sums up this view when he writes:

Let me make explicit my personal belief, or hypothesis, that the counseling relationship does add significantly to human development. But I also hypothesize that research, rather than tribal dogma, will be productive in establishing whatever that relationship does, in actuality, contribute to human development.82

^ E . 6 . Williamson and John L. Cowan, The American Student's Freedom of Expression (Minneapolis: Universxty of Minnesota Press, 1966).

E. G. Williamson, "An Historical Perspective of the Vocational Guidance Movement," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII (May, 1964), 859. CHAPTER VIII

SUMMARY: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

In the preceding chapters five major systems of verbal psychotherapy/counseling have been examined. What may appear to be differences in the detail of these exam­ inations is but a reflection of the varying degrees of organization within the theories. Each theory was at a different stage of development and therefore at a different stage of organization. The more organized theories appear as more comprehensive.

The theories selected for examination derive from a count of references to them in the major journals most appropriate to counselors."'' Many other theories might have been selected but few theories, other than the ones exam­ ined, are even mentioned in the chosen journals. How many additional counseling theories there are would be difficult to estimate, and selection would depend upon the criteria 2 applied by the investigator. Harper counts thirty-six.

1See Chapter I for details on choice of journals used. o Robert A. Harper, Psychoanalysis and Psycho­ therapy: 3 6 Systems. Spectrum Book (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959).

159 160

Some are not very well organized and seem to have no cur­

rent following; some are also essentially group psycho­

therapies, none of which are considered here. As part of a

general search for theoretical material, I came across

forty-two distinct, fairly well organized therapies. Each

of these therapies seems to-have at least a small follow­

ing. These forty-two therapies are all individual thera­ pies. There are no group therapies among them.

There is no great significance to these forty-two therapies as far as this study is concerned. I saw a need to read over a wide range of psychotherapeutic theory in order to discuss in detail the five theories chosen for this dissertation. Enough was read on each of the theories

for brief summarizations. These summaries are found in

Appendix I. I entertain no illusion that the summary

statements will receive universal acceptance by the com­ munity of therapists.

In the summarization of these theories the name commonly given to the theory is stated along with the principal writer associated with the therapy. The general

approach of the theory is rated along a two-part scale, objective or subjective. The subjective therapies are

focused more on man's inner reality. Objective therapies tend to be more instrumental and outer-reality centered.

Related theories of personality are also listed to give the reader a more complete picture of the theory. The "central 161

ideas" are based on my interpretation rather than on some

single statement from the theoretical writer. The central-

idea statements are admittedly brief but hopefully

germaine. I tried to compress, a practice foreign to many

theorists.

The forty-two systems listed should be considered

as a minimum number of possible theories as each counseling

therapist, in a sense, has something different to say about

a theory. Even writers in the same theoretical camp can

not agree. In addition, many of Harper's theorists are not

included in the list as I did not consider them appropriate

or relevant for one reason or another. One look at these

theories and the reader can appreciate Ungersma's comment:

"The present situation in psychotherapy is not unlike that

of the man who mounted his horse and rode off in all direc­

tions."^ In a sense each writer in the field of counseling

is riding off on a horse in a different direction. Many of these riders may pass through the same canyon and hence

gain some common identification as to direction, but the

riders are still individual in their horsemanship.

Certainly the picture is one of diversity, a

3A. J. Ungersma, The Search for Meaning (Phila­ delphia: Westminster Press, 1961), p. 55. 162 diversity that has led many a reviewer to despair.^ The need, or hope for order, led me to attempt organizing the selected theories along the same outline and suggesting some meaningful comparisons.

The organization presented problems. Roger’s theory fits the selected outline rather well. In addition he has written a great deal of original material concerning his theory. But with the other four theories the problems were more intense.

Williamson’s writings are diverse and sketchy as far as theory is concerned. There is no single work or even series of works that gives enough material about his theory for my purposes. His theory has to be constructed by bits and pieces from many sources. Even Williamson's own current summary of his theory is not complete in this respect.^

With behaviorism the problem was different. Be-' haviorism has been written about more, and organized less, than almost any of the theories. It is even difficult to discern just who the behaviorists are, since they are all

^The 196 9 Annual Review of Psychology did not pub­ lish a section on counseling/psychotherapy this year be­ cause the reviewer could not get the material organized for publication. C E. G. Williamson, "Vocational Counseling: Trait- Factor Theory," in Theories of Counseling, ed. by Buford Steffire (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19 65). 163 in the learning theory family. It also was difficult to choose the spokesman for the family. Other writers attempting to evaluate theory either talked in such gener­ alities that any learning theorist would fit6 or they chose an individual theorist• and wrote about him. 7 8° 9 I attempted to read all the theorists identified in any writing as behaviorists and group together those theorists who held what seemed to be cohesive, common views. The behaviorist view was constructed from this commonality.

In a sense, the evaluation of the existentialists was similar in complexity to the behaviorists'. The existentialist theory is either completely avoided in the

1 r\ writings of those who attempt to summarize theories, or one existentialist writer is chosen and the rest ignored. H-

6Leonard D. Goodstein, "Behavioral Theoretical Views of Counseling," in Theories of Counseling, ed. by Buford Steffire (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965).

?C. H. Patterson, Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1966).

8Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, Systems of Psychotherapy: A Comparative Study (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963).

9William S. Sahakian (ed.), Psychotherapy and Counseling: Studies in Techniques (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 19 6 9X!

^°Stefflre, Theories of Counseling.

-^Patterson, Theories of Counseling. 164

Sahakian1^ includes an article by Frankl and three articles from May's book.-*-^ The May work and the Frankl work are handled separately. Other writers base their work mainly on the May work.^14 I attempted to read the existential therapists in order to group them on common theoretical grounds without diluting their individual ideas.

No phrase has seemed to catch on in the literature of guidance and counseling like developmental guidance or developmental counseling. The phrase has not caught on, however, in the literature of theorists or those who deal in the comparison of theory. None of the books which handle theoretical approaches even mention the idea of developmental counseling. It is a theory which has to be pieced together from a number of different authors and is a relatively new conceptualization and loosely organized.

I believe that the unique organization and syn­ thesis of these five theories of counseling will aid the reader in his understanding of counseling theory in general and these five theories in particular. A clear attempt has been made to present each theory along a common outline. An effort is also made to present the theoretical essentials

l^Sahakian (ed.), Psychotherapy and Counseling.

Rollo May, Ernest Angel and Henri F. Ellenberger, (eds.), Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psy­ chology (New York: Basic Books, 1958).

14Ford and Urban, Systems of Psychotherapy. 165

of each theory devoid of excessive verbiage, illustrations

or case materials. By this strategy the reader can easily

compare elements of an individual theory with like elements

in another theory. Some of the theoretical writers have

ancillary parts to their theories. Others attempt to

illustrate their theory with interview transcripts. None

of these elements are included in this thesis. The only

elements chosen for inclusion are those that fulfill the

rubrics of the theoretical outline. Readers having a par­

ticular interest in one of the theories may wish to consult

the bibliography for more extensive and supplementary read­

ing. Since each theory is forced into my outline, some of the theoristic embellishments and case materials do not

appear in this discussion. Many of the writers also have

supplementary and complementary positions that do not deal

directly with their theory of therapy but are nevertheless helpful, at times, in understanding the total impact of the theory.

Evaluating these theories by accenting similarities or differences would probably rest on how one views theory.

Neither of these myopic views satisfies my inclination.

Both similarities and differences are examined in a number of areas. The first area is related to the background of the principal writers in each of the theories. BIOGRAPHICAL COMPARISONS

Nearly all of the theorists concerned with these five systems represent the traditional Anglo-Saxon back­ ground. Most of the writers were trained in this country.

Of those trained in the United States Rogers, Blocher,

Williamson, May, Moustakes, Van Kaam, Krumboltz, Schaefer, and Martin were trained primarily as clinical psycholo­ gists. Peters, Farwell, Shertzer and Zaccaria were pri­ marily trained in counseling and guidance. The remaining

U. S. trained psychologist is Skinner who is primarily an experimentalist. Eysenck was tained in clinical psychology in the United Kingdom. Frankl, Benswanger and Ellenberger were all medically trained in Vienna, Switzerland and the

Union of South Africa. Wolpe and Lazarus also received training in South Africa, the former in medicine and the latter in psychology.

The developmental writers have the commonality of work in public education at either the elementary or secon­ dary level. Williamson's work has also been influenced by education but at the college student personnel level.

Most of the client-centered therapists were trained and worked in clinical psychology. The behaviorists, for the most part, are also practicing therapists. Skinner would be the exception.

The widest range of experience is found within the 167 ranks of the existential therapists. Three are practicing psychiatrists, one a psychoanalyst and two practicing clinical psychologists.

Since none of the therapists represented cultures very different from traditional Western culture, it is interesting to speculate how much more dissimilar the sys­ tem would have been had an Eastern, or some other culture, been represented. One could also speculate as to the in­ fluence on the systems of a Greco-Judeao-Christian tradi­ tion, which seems to underlie much of Western culture.

Finally there seem to be some restrictions placed on the kinds of people treated by these theorists. The trait-factor counselors write primarily about college popu­ lations. Developmentalists seem primarily interested in adolescents. With the exception of Schaefer and Martin the behaviorists prefer to deal with non-hospitalized patients, though Eysenck handles both hospitalized as well as non-hospitalized patients. Most of the existentialists see patients in clinics rather than residential settings.

With the exception of Moustakes, who primarily treated with young children, the existentialists work with adults.

Essentially the emphasis of nearly all the theo­ rists seems to be on normal individuals in some varying degree of psychological discomfort. The terms normal or neurotic accommodate the theoretical population better than the term psychotic. 168

THE NATURE OF MAN

Man’s essential nature has been described by all of the theorists covered in this examination. These descrip­ tions vary in length, emphasis and organization. Some

"schools" emphasize man's nature considerably more than do others. The existentialists write much more to this inter­ est than do the behaviorists. The developmental writers seem to give most of their views by implication rather than direct discussion, although Blocher15 accepts Beck's views he states none of his own. Williamson’s text-*-® has a lengthy discussion about the nature of man but his own views are not complex. Client-centered therapists have a positive view of man that is unique among the five theo- * 1 7 ries. Rogers’ writings reflect a Rousseauist view of man1 which conceives him as being basically good. To this

Rogers adds rational and self-actualizing.• • 1° ft

15Donald H. Blocher, Developmental Counseling (New York: Ronald Press Company, 196 6 ) , p . 20 .

-*-®E. G. Williamson, Vocational Counseling: Some Historical, Philosophical, and Theoretical Perspectives (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), Chapter IX. 1 n William R. Coulson, "Client-Centered Therapy and the Nature of Man," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Uni­ versity of Notre Dame, 196M-). 18 Carl R. Rogers, "Nondirective Counseling: Client-Centered Therapy," in Psychotherapy and Counseling, ed. by William S. Sahakian (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1969), p. 177. 169

The other four theorists all write of man as essen­ tially neutral, that is, he has the equal potential for good or evil. All of the theorists studied, other than

Rogers, accept this view. The theorists do have some sup­ plementing views to go along with the essential position of neutrality. Williamson agrees with Rogers' conception of man's rationality but is not as inclined to accept self- actualization. The trait-factorist sees himself as a strong influence in self-actualization. The existen­ tialists more or less agreed with the self-actualization or, as they would say, freedom to become, but may question rationality, as they write of man in strongly subjective terms. The behaviorists, after accepting the neutrality of man’s nature, concern themselves with man's behavior as being, rather than self-actualizing, a result of reinforce­ ments acting upon him from his envirionment. The develop­ mental writers accept the neutrality of man's nature but the rest of the views concerning man are as diverse as the individual writers.

There is a great deal of similarity within the

"schools" of counseling/psychotherapy represented in this study. Whether this similarity stems from the Judea-

Christian ethic fundamental to the writers or is a reflec­ tion of some fragment of truth which seems common to. counselors is unclear. 170

Whether man is, at birth, essentially good (Rogers) or neutral, neither good nor bad (existentialists, trait- factorists, behaviorists or developmentalists) is not an easy question to answer. Whether man is essentially in control of his own life (Rogers, and existentialists) or controlled by his life (Williamson and behaviorists) or somewhere inbetween (developmental view) is an equally difficult question. These two concerns about man's nature have been the Gordian knot for both psychologists and philosophers since the beginning of time. As essential as it is for man to hold such views about himself, since they reflect on his whole system of life, it must be accepted that resolution of these views may well be impossible. The simplest problem of life remains its most complex.

PERSONALITY THEORY

The theories of therapy examined varied consider­ ably as to their dependence on or association with person­ ality theory. Rogers places considerable emphasis on personality while the existentialists and the developmental counselors give no emphasis at all. Existentialists use their philosophic view of man in a way not unlike the way other theorists use personality theory. Developmental counselors do not write of personality theory but seem to emphasize an orderly developmental sequence. These se­ quences are nearly identical with the maturational 171 developmental concepts found in nearly all personality theories and particularly to ones found in developmental psychology. Even though the developmentalists do not write of personality theory they seem to base many of their ideas of counseling on maturational, developmental personality theory.

Rogers* theory of personality is a well organized theory. It is a synthesis of phenomenology as presented by

Snygg and Combs, holism and organismic theory as developed by Goldstein, Maslow and Angyal, and of Rogers’ own self- theory.-*-^ Nearly all of Rogers' recent summaries of his theory illustrate the importance of this theory of person­ ality.

Between Rogers' emphasis on personality and the developmentalists' and existentialists* non-emphasis are the positions of the behaviorists and the trait-factor counselors.

The behaviorists rely on learning theory as a personality basis for their theory. Behaviorists stress the importance of learning theory but which learning theory stressed depends upon the writer. Skinner's, Shoben's,

Murray’s and Maslow's theories are mentioned for considera­ tion as basic theories of personality. Careful reading of

-^Calvin S. Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957), p. 4 78. 172 the behaviorist theorists uncovers even more theoretical possibilities. Of all the learning theories Mower's two- factor theory seems to fit most appropriately.

The trait-factor theorists have an emphasis very similar to the learning theorists. The most appropriate personality theory, however, seems to be one of the trait-

• 9 fi factor personality theorists, u the theories of Eysenck and Cattell. To these ideas Williamson adds many of his on own. The added ideas appear to be built upon the earlier offerings of Eysenck and Cattell.

The trait-factor counselors and the client-centered therapists apparently formulated their theory of person­ ality out of their counseling experience. Their theories are modifications of existing personality theories. The behaviorists, on the other hand, appear to have started with a theory of behavior, personality, and developed therapy from it.

The existentialists, for the most part, seem to have absorbed philosophical existentialism congruently with therapy practice. As yet they, and the developmentalists,

^ Ibid. , chapter 10.

^E. G. Williamson, Vocational Counseling: Some Historical, Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives (New York.* McGraw-Hill Book Company , Inc. , 1965), pp . 204-205 . 173 have no developed theory of personality. Landsman has

criticized therapists for this theoretical neglect.22

CONDITIONS OF THERAPY

Not all of the therapeutic systems examined men­ tion any conditions of therapy. The developmentalists and the existentialists avoid writing about any necessary con­ ditions for counseling. However, it is inconceivable that counselors from either of these schools would impose no limits or conditions on the therapeutic exchange. In essence the conditions of therapy are but assumptions

stated in advance about the counselor, client or the re­ lationship. All theories have some assumptions, but only three of the theories covered in this examination seem to put emphasis on the conditions.

Client-centered therapists list six conditions which are "necessary and sufficient" if the process of therapy is to take place. These conditions deal with the counselor, client and the relationship. Behavioral coun­

selors stress three responsibilities for the counselee in the relationship. These responsibilities or conditions precede the counseling process, as is the case with the client-centered view.

22Ted Landsman, "Personality Theory and Counseling" in Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Overview, ed. by Dugald S. Arbuckle (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1967), pp. 164-173. 174

Williamson's list of conditions is by far the most elaborate. He lists seventeen conditions, with the comment that there are probably many more. Williamson's conditions for the interview deal with the relationship between coun­ selor and student, the purposes of counseling and the coun­ selor himself.

The conditions of therapy seem to be related to the theory itself. Much of the fiber of the theory is woven within those ideas each of the writers identified as condi­ tions. The number of conditions listed, however, seems to have no direct relationship to the complexity of the theory. Existentialism lists none, trait-factor lists seventeen. It would be dangerous to judge the adequacy of heory solely of the listing of conditions of therapy.

These listings give only some indication of the compre­ hensiveness and order in the therapeutic system.

PROCESS OF THERAPY

The process of therapy is covered in relative de­ tail by all of the theorists. Process is, however, a classification of events, feelings, thoughts, and assump­ tions that has different meanings among the various sys­ tems. The developmentalists, for instance, who have no conditions of therapy, list a process of "limits” which encompasses the same set of ideas as the behaviorists' three conditions of therapy. Therapists do not appear to 175 be very consistent in their process-condition listings.

This is probably due to the interdependence of the two ele­ ments as they impinge on what goes on in counseling. I Each of the theories has at least eight steps in the process. Rogers has twelve. His twelve processes all deal with what the client is doing or experiencing. There is no emphasis, as such, on the counselor or the relation­ ship. The relationship is considered only as the back­ ground which allows the client to think or act in a par­ ticular way.

The trait-factor processes are, on the other hand, mostly directed toward the counselor rather than the stu­ dent. The implementive emphasis of the theory is seen in this focus. The counselor does this and that. There is little to indicate student strivings as is seen in the client-centered viewpoint. Trait-factor writers list ten process variables.

Behaviorists have a listing of eight processes.

These items are strongly related to learning theory and reinforcement. Even though the list of processes is rather short, many elements are covered. Client changes, thera­ pists directions and relationship elements are all covered.

Developmental counselors also list eight elements which have to do with the counselor, the client, and the relationship. The eclectic or borrowing elements of the developmental writers is seen in their process list. 176

Existentialist writers vary somewhat in their emphasis on process. Eight elements are found which seem to be held in common by most of the writers. Although the content of the process as seen from the existentialist point of view is quite different from the other views, it does include the same category of elements, that is, re- lationship-variables, client-variables and variables of the therapist.

Diagnosis is discussed, as a process, in four of the five theoretical positions. Rogers' position is the exception. Diagnosis is not an important element to the

Rogerians. For the other theorists it has varying degrees of importance. The existentialists are seemingly split on the practice elements of diagnosis. Frankl and Benswager stress it as their treatments are more categorical. May and Moustakas, on the other hand, do not appear to use diagnosis at all as part of the counseling process. The behaviorists use the term only when it describes a client’s functions. Diagnosis as a trait description is totally re- j ected.

For Williamson diagnosis is an extremely important element. As important as it is to his counseling process, however, it is very simply described as cooperative inter­ pretation. Both the counselor and the student must put effort into diagnosis in Williamson's view. The 177 developmentalists have five levels within their diagnostic system. This may sound like an uncommon complexity but.it must be remembered that most of the European existential­ ists have a diagnostic category for each classification of disorder. The developmentalist's classification has to do with the level of functioning of the individual. These levels range from "panic," no control at all, to "mastery," complete control.

Diagnosis is important to the theoreticians who vary the counseling process according to the diagnostic category. It is unimportant for those therapists who use essentially the same process, with possibly different emphasis, on all clients.

TECHNIQUES OF THERAPY

The issue of techniques in counseling has been an interesting one indeed. Existentialists and client- centered therapists have not stressed techniques as they seem to view them as manipulative. Within these views is the strong conviction that the client should express his own feelings and striving to become. If the counselor would apply techniques to him how could he become anything but what the counselor wanted him to become? But, once again, the penedulum seems to swing back toward a recogni­ tion of techniques within these two schools. Both 178

C. H. Patterson, client-centered, and May, existentialist, have recently written about techniques.

Techniques seem either to have been highly manipu­ lative or highly philosophical and non-manipulative. These vary with the system. The techniques of the existen­ tialists and the client-centered therapists in the main would be generally considered non-manipulative. Behav­ iorists list eight techniques which would be considered by most as very manipulative or reinforcing. The techniques also seem to vary as to their specificity. Client-centered techniques are very general while the developmentalistic and the trait-factor writers are quite explicit. The sys­ tems ' veiw of how behavior works or how the relationship is built seems to influence the choice of technique. Behav­ iorists, for example, place emphasis on learning princi­ ples, hence their techniques reflect this interest.

Rogerians stress self-actualization, hence their techniques reflect this emphasis. The trait-factor counselors prob­ ably have as their most important technique the use of psychometric devices, a technique very important to one who is interested in the objective quantification of data and the nomathetic approach.

Each "school" has its techniques. Client-centered therapists have only five and the developmentalists have fourteen. All others evaluated have some number in be­ tween. 179

Technique is not an idle position of the counselor but a way of life within the interview. It would be inter­ esting to speculate of a relationship where one person comes to another for assistance and the former had no technique with which to work.

GOALS OF THERAPY

There are a number of ways to look at goals and each writer has his own preferences. Rogers lists fifteen goals. Each goal of counseling states what the client would or should become. These goals closely follow the processes of therapy. A very similar approach is demon­ strated by the existentialists. Although they have only seven goals listed, these goals also deal with potential or becoming behavior.

Behavioral goals, six of them, have to do with more learning and manipulative matters. Alteration of behavior, learning solutions to probems are key elements in the goals as stated. Somewhat realted to this approach is the method used by Williamson in stating his goals. The role of the counselor here is also somewhat instrumental. Counselors are to help students choose goals and gain self- understanding. Counselors are to be used by students in seeking the "good life."

All of the developmental goals are stated in terms of what developmental counseling could do for clients. 180

What is stated as the second part of each goal, the first part being developmental counseling, has the goal of, re­ sembled both existential and behavioral models.

There seem to be about three general opinions among these therapists as to who selects goals. The behaviorists tend generally to select the goals of therapy or treatment with their patients. These therapists allow the patient choice to be sure, but the counselor determines which be­ havior patterns are disordered and which need to be modi­ fied .

Another general opinion seems to be that the client himself must take the responsibility for selecting goals.

Client-centered and existential therapists seem to share this view. The subjective self-actualizing emphasis of these theories are consistent with such a type of goal selection.

The third way of looking at goal selection is one where there is a great deal of mutual participation in the selection of goals. Close to this view is the trait-factor theorists and the developmentalists. The trait-factor counselor would let the student and the counselor mutually decide on a goal but from then on the counselor would take much of the responsibility. Much the same view is held by

Blocher as goal selection is seen as a meeting of the counselor’s philosophy and the client’s self-perceptions. 181

The goals of counseling tend to be stated in high- level abstractions that, when traced to specifics, often produce confusion. How do we know if the student is seek­ ing the good life? Or what is the good life? How do we know when a client is self-actualizing? The goals or ideals of man do appear, however, to be the ultimate ab­ stractions. This is the way man has always looked at the ideal. Counseling theory should be no different in spite of the evaluative difficulties.

THEORY AND SYSTEM

Philosophers and scientists argue endlessly about the appropriateness of psychotherapeutic theory. Whether counseling deserves the word theory or art is a question as well as an admonition of many writers. One problem of classification has been that some writers are content to consider theory only in the sense of natural sciences.

Chenault states: "With the exception of Pepinskys* con­ tribution (1954), there is really no such thing as counsel-

n q ing theory." Nagel, on the other hand, has identified the theory difference between natural science and social science. He states that theory, as it related to social science, is compositive or synthetic rather than

23Joanne Chenault, "Counseling Theory: The Problem of Definition," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVII (October, 1968), 110. 182 analytic.^ A theory is "any more or less formalized conceptualization of the relationship of variables."2^

Using these concepts of theory all of the writings covered within this examination could be classified as theory. The theories even fulfill the criteria for a sys­ tem since a system is "an organization and interpretation of the data and theories of subject matter with emphasis upon a particular methodology and working assumptions."26

The question of theory or system alone is not enough. It is necessary to consider the adequacy of the theories. Maddi has suggested six overall criteria for evaluating the adequacy of theory.27 Many positions may fulfill the criteria for theory and yet not be adequate.

The ideas of theory and adequacy are related but separate.

The first criteria is that of importance. There could be little argument as to the importance of psycho­ therapeutic theory. The second point is that a theory should be operational. Operational simply means that the

24Ernest Nagel, Logic Without Metaphysics (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 195 6 ), p. 363.

^^Helvin H. Marx, "The General Nature of Theory Construction," in Theories in Contemporary Psychology, ed. by Melvin H . Marx (New York: MacMillan Company, 1963), p. 43.

26Ibid.

27Salvatore R. Maddi, Personality Theories A Com- parative Analysis (Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1968), pp. 451-459. 183 meaning of a concept is determined by the measurement operations associated with it. Here there has been some disparity among the systems. The client-centered counse­ lors have pains-takingly operationally defined and re­ searched many of their concepts. The behaviorists with their learning background have done the same even though from a different vantage point. Trait-factor theorists have had many of their assumptions tied to assumptions in­ herent in psychological measurement and therefore have at least marginally been operational. Neither the existen­ tialists, who have not stressed operationism, nor the de­ velopmentalists, whose theory is just beginning to grow, would fulfill the criteria for formal operational adequacy.

The third element of theoretical adequacy is pre­ cision. None of the theories has yet attained clear and precise use of concepts and terms. These counseling theories are filled with figurative, metaphorical and ambiguous terms. The client-centered and the behavioral therapists are probably less guilty than the other theo­ rists on this point. Both theoretical positions have made efforts to clearly state their terms and operations.

Related to the above considerations is the idea that a theory should be empirically valid. Empirical validity has been, and may continue to be, the most diffi­ cult area of evaluation in counseling theory. 184

So complex is the behavior of a living thing, so intertwined the reacton of subject and investigator that one wonders whether the behavioral scientist can ever achieve the precision, the validity . . . or the replication . . . available to the physical sciences.2®

The empirical test of any theory is the predictability of outcome. At this point in the development of counseling theory empirical observations are probably more effective than empirical tests.

The last of Maddi*s overall criteria for judging

the adequacy of theory has to do with the usability and parsimoniousness of theory. Counseling theories are very usable, particularly to the originator of the theory. They

have been useful in ordering and evaluating behavior even

if they are imprecise. As to parsimoniousness-theories

do not measure up very well. Many counseling theories are uncommonly complex, a complex beyond the ability to eval­

uate. Over-simplication is the danger in the other direc­

tion. The only real judge as to whether a theory is over­

simplified or parsimonious is time and empirical valida­

tion.

As imprecise as counseling theory is it still re­

mains the only logical device by which a counselor can

investigate and test assumptions. Without some theory

there would be no framework within which to interpret

2®Grace Rubin-Rabson, "Behavioral Science Versus Intelligence," Wall Street Journal, XLIX (July 1, 1969), 12 . 185 findings. Counseling would become a set of ad hoc re­

sponses and impulsive improvisations. Clearly these theo­ ries need a great deal of research and refinement but without them there is no place to go.

OTHER COMPARISONS

There are many other ways in which one could com­ pare theories. These ways are grouped together in this

section because the comparisions are not as detailed. Some of the comparisons are quite subtle and inferential.

Theories could be judged on a realist, phenomenal-

ist objective continuum. In a phenomenalist counseling theory the assumption is that valid knowledge of the extra­ mental world is impossible to agree on (client-centered, existentialist). In a realist counseling theory the assumption is that valid knowledge of the extramental world was possible (trait-factor, behaviorists). At this time

in the organization of developmental theory it is difficult to place the theory at either end of this realist- phenomenalist scale. Developmentalists express statements which are sometimes realistic and sometimes phenomenal-

istic. The phenomenalist counselor tends to help deepen the client's unique perceptions while the realist counselor 186 generally helps his clients to see how the world really is and how it appears to o t h e r s . 33

Judging the theories as to internal consistency is another method for comparison. 30 Existentialists, client- centered and behavioral counseling theories are internally consistent. The Rogerians and existentialists use inde- terministic goals and methods while the behaviorists use deterministic goals and methods. Developmental and trait- factor counselors are internally inconsistent. The de­ velopmentalists have indeterministic goals and determinis­ tic methods. The trait-factor counselors have determinis­ tic methods and goals but state them in indeterministic terms.31

The theories considered are also divided on the

"Protestant Ethic" (individual concern) versus the "Social

Ethic" (group concern) scale. The existentialist, develop- mentalist and client-centered views are reflections of the

"Protestant Ethic" while trait-factor and behavioral coun- Q o seling reflects the "Social Ethic."

3^Edith Schell and Edward Daubner, "Epistemology and School Counseling," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVII (February, 1969), 506-513.

^°Willie Hester Romines, "An Examination of Four Positions in Counseling in terms of Selected Educational and Sociological Variables," (unpublished Ph.D. disserta­ tion, University of Alabama, 1967).

31Ibid.

3^See discussion of the Protestant Ethic and Social Ethic in Romines* dissertation. 187

Theories also differ in their use of termonology.

The object of counseling or therapy is called client

(client-centered), student (trait-factor), or patient

(existential). Some of the behavioral counselors use the word patient and some use client. Developmental counse­ lors use the words client and counselee. With the excep­ tion of the existentialists and behaviorists, the person working with the client is called a-counselor. Existen­ tialists use the term therapist as do some of the behav­ ioral counselors. Other behavioral counselors also use counselor.

The word, interview, is usually applied to the re­ lationship between the principals of counseling (Rogers and developmental). At times trait-factor counselors use seminar to describe the interplay between counselor and student. The behaviorists and existentialists not using the term interview preferred therapy session.

These uses of termonology add possibly more than subtle differences to the theorists. A client is essen­ tially an equal where a patient is one who has come for help generally in the form of diagnosis and treatment. The use of counselee is semantically a normal progression of the process of counseling but it is also seen as a kind of revolt against the clinic-oriented vocabularly of some counselors. Williamson's use of student is an obvious ex­ tension of his student-personnel-work orientation. The 188 terra therapist has a stronger deterministic ring than counselor. Counseling may be most any kind of relationship but therapy has the connotation of direct help and manipu­ lation .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

I hope that readers of this dissertation can easily identify the theoretical elements among these systems which stimulate their interest. Each of the theories has been forced into a common outline. Some of the theories resist the force but all are finally placed. The choice of the theories, although theoretically justified in the early part of this work, is, in the final analysis, idiosyndatic.

The choice of outline is another element that reflects the individuality of the investigation.

Any writer would be a bit egocentric to undertake an evaluation of someone else’s work feeling he could add to the author’s meaning. I saw a need for a clear com­ parison of the most-written-about theories in the field of counseling and guidance. The words behaviorist, develop- mentalist, as well as some others, are bandied about with great relish by writers in our field. It appeared obvious to me that some of these writers discuss theories which have yet to be very well formulated. Writers in our field have not undertaken organization of the existentialist position, only the position of individual existentialists. 189

The developmental counseling or guidance movement is a movement without an organized theory. No one has organized the theory from the various developmental writers. As old as the psychological field of behaviorism is there is no organization of the behavioral counseling model. Individ­ ual learning theorists are occasionally evaluated.

Occasionally someone labels one of these learning theorists a behaviorist and writes a summary of his views. An effort was made here to give form and organization to the develop­ mental, behavioral, and existential views.

For the purposes of this evaluation it was even necessary to reorganize the trait-factor theory. This theory, even though it has been around for thirty years, is still difficult to organize. The elements of the theory appear hither and yon. Even after found they are difficult to identify because Williamson does not organize his ideas systematically. Rogers' theory remains the best organized for this research. It fits well into the outline.

Some readers may feel.that too much was attempted in this review and comparison. Others may feel that the comparisons lack objectivity or even subjectivity. In the end my value judgments dictated all evaluations. These value judgments are stated in Chapter I as well as identi­ fied throughout this dissertation where they were relevant to the discussion. 190

It was with respect and admiration that I undertook an organization and evaluation such as this. Writers of counseling theory and practice have shared their dedica­ tion, sensitivity, and clinical skill so as to help push back the darkness. These men have made contributions to society as well as to the smaller world of counseling. The fact that they have fallen short of the ideal theory does not mean they have failed. In the last analysis some com­ bination of hard-headed empiricists and starry-eyed specu­ lators will discover the ideal rubrics for theory. Those theoretical offerings that have preceded us deserve our attention and respect, attention when we attempt to examine detail and respect for the theorists' organization and views of what is ultimately an extension of his person­ ality. Tribal acceptance is as fruitless as complete denial. Dogma-eat-dogma is great sport as a spectacle but intellectually profitless. APPENDIX I

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Behavioral Counseling John Krumboltz Objec. Learning Importance of selective reinforcement in the re­ education of clients. The highly implementative role of the counselor.

Behavior Therapy Hans Eysenck Objec. Learning Importance of reinforce­ ments in the determination of behavior.

Character Analysis Karen Horney Subjec. Modified Underlying principle of psycho­ human behavior is the need analytic for security.

Client-Centered Carl Rogers Subjec. Rogerian Human behavior is deter­ mined by man's perception of himself and his environ­ ment .

Communications Frank Robinson Objec. None Importance of counselor Theory Counseling remarks and techniques on client responses.

Conditional Reflex Andrew Salter Objec. Learning Stress on reconditioning. Therapy The therapist stresses excitation, the basis of life and helps the patient 191 overcome inhibition. Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Constructive George Kelley Objec. Learning Man has many workable alter­ Alternativism native ways in which to con­ Psychotherapy struct his world.

Direct John Rosen Obj ec . Psycho­ A psychoanalytic deviation Psychoanalysis analytic which stresses role playing and even physical contact with patients.

Developmental Donald Blocher Objec./ Maturational The maximizing of human Counseling Subjec. Develop­ freedom and effectiveness mental in all men.

Ego-Analysis He in z Hartmann, Obj ec. Freudian The emphasis on human David Rapaport instrumental behaviors and Anne Freud (ego-functions).

Ego £ Milieu J ohn and Objec. Psycho­ Emphasis upon how a person Therapy Elaine analytic meets situations (ego) in Cummings his environment (milieu).

Existential Analysis Henri F. Subjec. None Man strives to find meaning Ellenberger in life.

Existential Analysis Ludwig Subjec. None Man must realize the full­ and Psychotherapy Binswanger ness of his humanity.

H fOCO Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Existential Psycho­ Rollo May Subj ec . None Man must recognize and therapy experience his own exis­ tence .

Experiential or Non- Carl Whitaker Subjec. None Therapeutic emphasis upon rational Psycho­ and Thomas feeling, rather than intel­ therapy Malone lect (non-rational) and upon the feeling experience (experiental) between therapist and patient.

Gestalt Psycho­ Frederick Subjec. Lewin's Emphasis on the organism- therapy Peris, Ralph Gestalt as-a-whole. Organism- Hefferline and Theory environment unity must be Paul Goodman maintained.

Hypnotherapy Lewis Wolberg Obj ec. None A patient and therapist may gain understanding into anxiety with the use of hypnosis.

Individual Alfred Adler Objec. Adlerian Importance of patient's Psychology life style. Stress on life goals and social interest.

H t o CO Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Interference Theory: E. Lakin Objec, •Learning Man selected behavior con­ Assertion-Structured Philips sciously. Behavior patterns Therapy of man can be understood by his choices (assertions).

Interpersonal Therapy Harry Stack Subjec. Modified Importance of interpersonal Sullivan Psycho­ relations and significant analytic others in one’s life.

Implosive Therapy Robert Hogan Obj ec. Learning Therapist stresses maximum anxiety experiences so patient can become used to handling them.

Learning Theory John Dollard Obj ec. Learning Man must be taught new con­ Psychotherapy & Neal Miller ditions of life if his higher mental processes can not solve emotional and environmental problems.

Logotherapy Viktor Frankl Subjec. None Man suffers from loss of ultimate meaning to his existence that would make life worthwhile.

H CO -p Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Milieu Therapy Maxwell Jones Objec. None Emphasis on psychothera­ S Robert peutic value of all members

Rapoport of a hospital staff.

Minimum Change Leona Tyler Objec. None A relatively minor change Theory in the psychological direc­ tion in a client’s life will produce considerable change over a long period of time.

Personality Frederick Objec. None Emphasis on a comprehensive Counseling* Thorne integration of scientific data to form an eclectic *Also called system for handling client directive counsel­ problems. ing or eclectic counseling.

Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Objec. Psycho­ Importance of unconscious analytic and early childhood as de­ terminant of behavior.

Psychoanalytic Franz Alexander Objec. Psycho­ A more flexible applica­ Therapy analytic tion of Freudian techniques.

H1 C O cn Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Psychobiologic Adolf Meyer Objec. None It Is impossible to separate Theory the mind and the body whether they are functioning adequately (well) or in­ adequately (sick).

Psychological Edward Bordin Objec. Psycho­ The responsibility of the Counseling analytic counselor to contribute positively to the client's emotions and motivations by removing the underlying obstacles to psychological growth.

Rational-Emotive Albert Ellis Objec. Learning Human emotions do not exist Psychotherapy as a thing in themself. Emotion is controllable by rational thinking processes.

Reality Therapy William Objec. None Clients who are in diffi­ Glasser culty are unwilling to take the responsibility for their behavior.

H CO CD Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF- NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Reciprocal Inhibition Joseph Wolpe Objec. Learning To eliminate an unwanted Psychotherapy response, such as anxiety pair the anxiety producing stimulus with another stimulus not having anxiety producing tendencies to systematically desensitize patient.

Reinforcement Harold and Objec. Learning The counselor must be both Counseling Pauline a practitioner and a scien­ Pepinshy tist. These roles are com­ bined with a client by con­ tinuous use of observation, inference and assessment of client behavior.

Semantic Therapy Wendell Obj ec. None A disturbed person talks Johnson and thinks himself into conflicts, The patients use and understanding of language is of prime im^ portance.

H CD • o Appendix I— Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Social Learning Julian Rotter Obj ec. Learning Emphasis of importance of Theory Counseling social learning and a sys­ tem of constructs that will provide maximum pre­ diction and control of behavior.

Social-Psychological Erich Fromm Subjec. Psycho­ Man's needs are based on Analysis analytic his existence as a social animal.

Therapeutic Lawrence Obj ec./ Psycho­ Importance of using ideas Psychology Brammer £ Subj ec. analytic/ that are useful no matter Everett develop­ where they may be found. Shostrom ments

Transactional Eric Berne Objec. Psycho­ Importance of understand­ Analysis analytic ing an individual’s be­ havior in groups.

Transactional Roy Grinkr Objec. Psycho­ In the transaction between Approach analytic therapist and patient neither person exists as a Separate individual but each acts in relation to the other. Appendix I--Continued

RELATED PRINCIPAL GENERAL THEORY OF NAME OF THEORY WRITER APPROACH PERSONALITY CENTRAL IDEA

Trait-Factor E. G. Obj ec. Learning The importance of psycho­ Counseling Williamson metrics In helping a stu­ dent understand himself and his environment.

Will Therapy Otto Rank Subjec. Initially The will is an expression Psycho­ of positive, unifying and analytic creative aspects of an individual's striving toward independence. 199 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albert, Gerald. "If Counseling Is Psychotherapy, What Then?" Personnel and Guidance Journal, VL (0 ctober, 1966), 124-129".

Allen, Thomas W. "Task Group Report One." Research in Counseling. Edited by John M. Whiteley, Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 19 67.

Allers, Rudolf. Existentialism and Psychiatry. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, Pub­ lisher, 1961.

Allport, G. W. "Psychological Models for Guidance." Harvard Educational Review, XXXII (Fall, 1962), 378-381.

American Psychological Association, 196 6 Directory. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Associa­ tion, Inc., 1966.

American Psychological Association, 19 6 9 Membership Register. Washington, D. C.: American Psychologi­ cal Association, Inc., 19 69.

Arbuckle, Dugald S., ed. Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Overview. New YoriTi McGraw-Hill Book Companyj Inc., 196 7.

______. Counseling: Philosophy, Theory and- Practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965.

______. "The Education of the School Counselor." Journal of Counseling Psychology, V (Spring, 1958), 58-62. / ______. "Existentialism in Counseling: The Humanist View." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February^ 1965), 558-567 .

______. "Kinds of Counseling: Meaningful or Meaning­ less." Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIV (May, 1967), 219-225.

200 201

Arbuckle, Dugald S. "The Learning of Counseling: Process, Not Product." Journal of Counseling Psychology, X (Summer, 1963), 163-168.

Ard, Ben N. Jr., ed. Counseling and Psychotherapy. Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, I nc., 1966.

Association for Counselor Education and Supervision. "Standards for the Preparation of Secondary School Counselors-1967." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (September, 1967), 96-106.

Bandura, Albert. "Psychotherapy as a Learning Process." Psychotherapy Research. Edited by Gary E. Stollak; Bernard G. Guerney, Jr.; and Meyer Rothbery. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966.

Bates, Marilyn, and Johnson, Charles D. "The Existentialist Counselor at Work." School Counselor, XVI (March, 1969), 245-250 .-

Beck, C. E. Philosophical Foundations of Guidance. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963 .

Benson, Ronald L., and Blocher, Donald H. "Evaluation of Developmental Counseling with Groups of Low Achievers in a High School Setting." School Counselor, XIV (March, 1967), 215-220.

Berelson, Bernard, and Steiner, Gary A. Human Behavior: Shorter Edition. New York: Harcourt, Brace £ World, Inc., 196 7.

Berger, Louis, and McGaugh, James L. "Critique and Reformation of Learning-Theory Approaches to Psychotherapy and Neurosis." Psychological Bulle­ tin, LXIII (May, 1965), 338-358.

Bertocci, Peter A., and Millard, Richard M. Personality and the Good: Psychological and Ethical Perspec­ tives . New York: David McKay Co. , Inc., 1963.

Bijou, Sidney W. "Implications of Behavioral Science for Counseling and Guidance." Revolution in Counsel­ ing. Edited by John D. Krumboltz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 66. 202

Bingham, Walter Van Dyke, and Moore, Bruce Victor. How to Interview. 3rd ed. New York: Harper 8 Brothers Publishers, 1941.

Binswanger, Ludwig. "The Existential Analysis School of Thought." Existence: A New Dimension in Psychia­ try and Psychology. Edited by Rollo May, et. al. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 19 58.

Bischof, Ledford J, Interpreting Personality Theories. New York: Harper £ Row, Publishers, 1964.

Blocher, Donald H. "Counselor Education: Facilitating the Development of a Helping Person." Counseling Theories and Counselor Education. Edited by Clyde A. Parker. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 6 8 .

______. Developmental Counseling. New York: Ronald Press, Company, 1966.

______. "Issues in Counseling: Elusive and Illusional." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (April, 1965) , 796-800.

______. "Wanted: A Science of Human Effectiveness." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (March, 1966), 729-733.

"What Can Counseling Offer Clients? Implica­ tions for Selection." Research in Counseling. Edited by John Whiteley” Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 196 7.

Bordin, Edward S. Psychological Counseling. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968.

Boring, Edward G . History Psychology and Science: Selected Papers. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 196 3.

Brammer, Lawrence M., and Shostrom, Everett L. Therapeutic Psychology: Fundamentals of Counseling and Psycho­ therapy . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1960.

Breisach, Ernst. Introduction to Modern Existentialism. New York: Grove Press, Inc., 196 2. 203

Carkhuff, Robert R., and Berenson, Bernard G. ' Beyond Counseling and Therapy. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc7, 19 6 9 .

Carkhuff, Robert R. "Counseling Research, Theory and Practice-1965." Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIII (Winter, 1966), 467-480".

Cartwright, Rosalind Dymond. "Psychotherapeutic Pro­ cesses." Annual Review of Psychology, IXX (1968), 387-416.

Chaplin, J. P., and Kraurec, T. S. Systems and Theories' of Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and WinstonV Inc., 1960.

Chenault, Joann. "Counseling Theory: The Problem of Definition." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVII (October, 1968), 110-114.

Chmeron, William B. "A Paradigm of Psychologic Theories." American Journal of Psychotherapy, XV (April, 1961), 205-211.

Cohen, Morris R., and Nagel, Ernest. An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method. New York: Harcourt Brace S World, Inc., 19 34.

Colby, Kenneth M. "Psychotherapeutic Processes." Annual Review of Psychology, XV (1964), 347-370.

Cooperman, Irene C. "Theories of Counseling." Review of Theories of Counseling, by Buford Stefflere. Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (May, 1966), 982-984.

Coulson, William .R. "Client-Centered Therapy and the Nature of Man." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Notre Dame, 1964.

Cudney, Milton R. "Theory Aversion." School Counselor, Reader Reacts Column, X (December, 1962) , 55-56.

Dallis, Constantine A. "The Development of Rogerian Thought and Its Implications for Counselor Educa­ tion." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1965. 2 04

Dilley, Josiah S. "Out-thinking About Not-Words." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (January, 1966), 460-463.

Dinkmeyer, Don. Child Development: The Emerging Self. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pre nt i c e-Hal1 , Inc., .1965.

______. "Contributions of Teleoanalytic Theory and , Techniques to School Counseling." Personnel' and Guidance Journal, XLVI (May, 1968), 898-902.

______. "Developmental Counseling in the Elementary School." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLV (November, 1966), 26 2-266.

Dreyfus, Edward A. "The Counselor and Existentialism." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (October, 1964), 114-117.

Dugan, Willis E., ed. Counseling Points of View. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 19 59.

Dunlop, Richard S., ed. Professional Problems in School Counseling Practice. Scranton, Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company, 196 8 .

Ellenberger, Henri F. "A Clinical Introduction to Psychiatric Phenomenology and Existential Analysis." Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology! Edited by Rollo May; Ernest Angel; and Henri P. Ellenberger. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 19 58.

English, Horace B., and English, Ava Champney. A Compre­ hensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psycho­ analytical Terms. New York: David McKay, Inc. , 1958.

Euraiff, W. Helping Counselors Grow Professionally. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963.

Evans, Richard. B. F. Skinner: The Man and His Ideas. Paperback. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., 1968.

Eysenck, H. J., ed. Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses. London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960. 205

Eysenck, H. J. "Learning Theory and Behavior Therapy." Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses. Edited by H. J. Eysenck. London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960.

"New Ways in Psychotherapy." Psychology Today, I (June, 1967), 39-47.

______. The Structure of Human Personality. London: Methuen S Co. Ltd., 195 3.

Feigl, Herbert. "The Scientific Outlook: Humanism." Readings in the Philosophy of Science. Edited by Herbert Feigl, and May Brodbeck. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 19 5 3 .

Fontes, M. Emmanuel. Existentialism and Its' Implications for Counseling" Synthesis Series. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1965.

Ford, Donald H., and Urban, Hugh B. "Psychotherapy." Annual Review of Psychology, XVIII (1967), 333-372.

______. Systems of Psychotherapy: A Comparative Study. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963.

Foreman, Melton. "Publication Trends in Counseling Jour­ nals." Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIII (Winter, 1966), 481-485.

Frankl, Viktor E. Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduc­ tion to LogotherapyT New York: Washington Square Press, Inc., 19 59.

Friedman, Maurice. "Existential Psychotherapy and the Image of Man." Journal of Humanistic Psychology, IV (Fall, 1964), 104-117.

Froehlich, Clifford P., and Darley, John D. Studying Students. Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 195 2.

Gendlin, E. T. "Client-Centered Developments and Work with Schizophrenics." Journal of Counseling Psychology, IX (Fall, 1962), 205-212.

Gilbert, W. M. "Counseling: Therapy and Diagnosis." Annual Review of Psychology, III (1952), 351-380. 206

Goodstein, Leonard D. "Behavior Theoretical Views of Counseling."- Theories of Counseling. Edited by- Buford Stefflere. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 196 5.

Hahn, Milton E. "Conceptual Trends in Counseling." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXI (January, 1953), 231-235.

Hall, Calvin S., and Lindzey, Gardner. Theories of Person­ ality . New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957.

Hall, Mary Harrington. "A Conversation with Abraham H. Maslow." Psychology Today, II (July, 1968), 35-37, 54-5 7.

"A Conversation with Carl Rogers." Psychology Today, I (December, 1967), 19-21, 62-66

"An Interview with 'Mr. Behaviorist' B. F. "Skinner." Psychology Today, I (September, 1967), 21-23 , 68-71":

"An Interview with 'Mr. Humanist' Rollo May." Psychology Today, I (September, 1967), 25-29, 72-73 .

Harper, Robert A. Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy: 36 Systems. Spectrom Book. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959.

Heidegger, Martin. "The Way Back into the Ground of Meta­ physics." Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre. Edited by Walter Kaufmann. New York: Meridian Books, Inc., 19 56.

Hilgard, Ernest R., and Bower, Gordon H. Theories of Learning. 3rd ed. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1966.

Hippie, John. "Development of a Personal Philosophy and Theory of Counseling." School Counselor, XVI (November, 1968), 86-89.

Hobbs, Nicholas. "The Complete Counselor." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI (April, 1958), 594-602.

Hutt, Max L.; Isaacson, Robert L.; and Blum, Milton L. Psychology: The Science of Interpersonal Behavior. New York: Harper 5 Row, Publishers, 196 6 . 207

Janis, Irving L., et. al. Personality: Dynamics, Develop­ ment , and Assessment. New York: Harcourt, Brace £ World, Inc., 1969.

Jaspers, Karl. "Communication Through Transcedence." Existential Philosophers: Kierkegaard to Merleau- Ponty. Edited by George Alfred Schrader, Jr. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.

Johnson, Ernest L. "Existentialism, Self-Theory and the Existential Self." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (September, 1967) , 5 3-58 .

Jones, Mary Cover. "A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Care of Peter." Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses. Edited by H. J. Eysenck. London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960.

Kanfer, Frederick H. "Implications of Conditioning Tech­ niques for Interview Therapy." Journal of Counsel­ ing Psychology, XIII (Summer, 1966 ), 171-177.

Kelly, George A. A Theory of Personality: - The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: Norton 6 Company, Inc., 1963.

Kierkegaard, Soren. Philosophical Fragments. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 19 62.

Kiesler, Donald J. "Some Myths of Psychotherapy Research." Psychological Bulletin, LXV (February, 1966), 110- 136.

Klein, Marjorie H.; Dittmann, Allen T.; and Parloff, Morris B. "Behavior Therapy: Observations and Reflections." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, XXXIII (June, 1969), 259-266.

Klein, 0. B. "Abnormal Psychology." Theoretical Founda­ tions of Psychology. Edited by Harry Hilson. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1951.

Koch, Sigmund, ed. Psychology: A Study of A Science, Volume III. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 59 .

Krech, David, and Klein, George S. Theoretical Models and Personality Theory. New York: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1968. 208

Krumboltz, John D. "Behavioral Counseling: Rationale and Research." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (December, 1965), 383-387.

______. "Behavioral Goals for Counseling." Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIII (Summer, 1966) , 153- 159.

"Promoting Adaptive Behavior: New Answers to Familiar Questions." Revolution in Counseling. Edited by John D. Krumboltz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 196 6 .

Revolution in Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966.

Landsman, Ted. "Existentialism in Counseling: The Scien­ tific View." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 19 65), 56 8-57 3.

"Personality Theory and Counseling." Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Overview. Edited by Dugald S. Arbuckle. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 67.

Lazarus, A. A. "New Methods in Psychotherapy: A Case Study." Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses. Edited by H. J. Eysenck. London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 196 0 .

Lee, Edward N., and Mandelbaum, Maurice. Phenomenology and Existentialism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1967.

Lister, James L. "The Eclectic Counselor: An Explorer." School Coxmselor, XIV (May, 1967), 287-294.

______. "Theory Aversion in Counselor Education." Counselor Education and Supervision, VI (Winter, 1967), 91-96.

Lyons, J. "Existential Psychotherapy; Fact, Hope, Fic­ tion." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXII (March, 1961), 242-249.

Mackey, Louis H. "Soren Kierkegaard: The Poetry of Inwardness." Existential Philosophers: Kierkegaard to Merleau-Ponty. Edited by George Alfred Schrader. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 196 7. 209

Maddi, Salvatore R. Personality Theories,' A' Comparative Analysis . Homewood, Illinois : Dorsey Press , 19”6 8.

Mandler, George, and Kessen, William. The Language of Psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959 .

Marx, Melvin H. "The General Nature of Theory Construc­ tion." Theories in Contemporary Psychology. Edited by Melvin H. Marx. New York: Macmillan Company, 196 3.

______. "Sources of Confusion in Attitudes Toward Clini­ cal Theory." Journal of General Psychology, LV (July, 1956), 19-30.

Marx, Melvin H., and Hillix, William A. Systems' and Theories in Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 196 3.

Maslow, A. H. "Existential Psychology-WhatTs In It For Us?" Existential Psychology. Edited by Rollo May. New York: Random House, 1961.

Matarazzo, Joseph D. "Psychotherapeutic Processes." Annual Review of Psychology, XVI (1965), 181-224.

Mathewson, Robert Hendry. Guidance Policy and Practice. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 196 2.

May, Rollo. "Contributions of Existential Psychotherapy." Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology. Edited by Rollo May; Ernest Angel; and Henri F . Ellenberger. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1958.

______. "Dangers in the Relation of Existentialism to Psychotherapy." Psychoanalysis and Existential Philosophy. Edited by H. M. Ruitenbeck. New York: E. P. Dutton S Company, Inc., 1962.

______. "Existential Bases of Psychotherapy." Existen­ tial Psychology. Edited by Rollo May. New York: Random House, 1961.

May, Rollo, ed. Existential Psychology. New York: Random House, Inc., 1961. 210

May, Rollo. "The Origins and Significance of the Existen­ tial Movement in Psychology. Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry. Edited by Rollo May, Ernest Angel and Henri F. Ellenberger. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 195 8 .

______. Psychology and the Human Dilemma. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1967.

May, Rollo; Angel, Ernest; and Ellenberger, Henri F., eds. Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Pub­ lishers , 1958 .

Mehrabian, Albert. An Analysis of Personality Theories. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hail^ Inc., 1968 .

Michael, Jack, and Myerson, Lee. "A Behavioral Approach to Counseling and Guidance." Harvard Educational Review, XXXII (Fall, 1968), 382-401.

Mill, John Stuart. John Stuart Mill's Philosophy of Scien­ tific Method‘s Edited by Ernest Nagel. New York: Hafner Publishing Co., Inc., 19 50.

Miller, Carroll H. Foundations of Guidance. New York: Harper S Row"^ Publishers^ 1961.

Mortensen, Donald G., and Schmuller, Allen M. Guidance in Today*s Schools. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley 6 Sons, Inc., 196 6 .

Moustakas, Clark E. The Authentic Teacher. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Howard A. Doyle Publishing Company, 1966 .

Moustakas, Clark, ed. Existential Child Therapy: The Child's Discovery of Himself. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 19 6 6 .

Moustakas, Clark E. "The Existential Movement." Existen­ tial Child Therapy: The Child's Discovery of Him­ self. Edited by Clark Moustakas. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 19 66.

______. Loneliness. Spectrum Book. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961.

Mower, 0. Hobart. Learning Theory and Behavior. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1960. 211

Murray, Edward J. "The Empirical Emphasis in Psycho­ therapy: A Symposium. Learning Theory and Psychotherapy: Biotropic Versus Sociotropic Approaches." Journal of Counseling Psychology, X (Fall, 1963), 250-255.

McDaniel, H. B. "Counseling Perspectives." Revolution in Counseling. Edited by John D. Krumboltz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 66 .

Nagel, Ernest. Logic Without Metaphysics. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1956.

Nagel, Ernest. The Structure of Science. New York: Harcourt, Brace S World, Inc., 1961.

Nash, Paul. "Some Notes Toward a Philosophy of School Counseling." Personnel and Guidance Journal. XLIII (November, 19 6 5) , 243.

Niehaus, Stanley W. "The Counselor Menagerie, or What to Avoid in Counselors." The School Counselor, XIII (October, 1965), 43.

Northrop, F. S. C. The Logic of the Sciences and the Humanities. New York: Macmillan Company, 1947.

Oetting, E. R. "Developmental Definition of Counseling Psychology." Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIV (July, 1967), 382-385.

Parker, Clyde A., ed. Counseling Theories and Counselor Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968 .

Parsons, Frank. Choosing a Vocation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1909.

Paterson, Donald G. "Introduction." Student Personnel Work. E. G. Williamson and J. G. Dauley. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 37 .

Patterson, C. H. Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theory and Practice. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publish­ ers, 1951.

. Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy. New "York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1966 . 212

Pepinsky, Harold B., and Pepinsky, Pauline Nichols. Counseling Theory and Practice. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 19 54-.

Pervin, L. A. "Existentialism, Psychology, and Psycho­ therapy." American Psychologist, XV (1960), 305- 309 .

Peters, Herman J., and Farwell, Gail F. Guidance: A Developmental Approach. Chicago: Rand McNally S Company, 195 9.

Peters, Herman J., and Hansen, James.. C. "The School Counselor as a Researcher." The School Counselor, XI (March, 1964), 165-170.

Phillips, E. Lakin, and El-Batrawl, Salah. "Learning Theory and Psychotherapy: With Notes and Illus­ trative Cases." Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, I (Fall, 1964), 145-150.

Phillips, E. Lakin, and Wiener, Daniel N. Short-term Psychotherapy and Structured Behavior Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966.

Pine, Gerald J. "Existential Counseling in the Schools." School Counselor, XVI (January, 1969), 174-178.

Pratt, C . C. The Logic of Modern Psychology. New York: Macmillan Company, 19 39.

Rapaport, D. "The Structure of Psychoanalytic Theory: A Systematizing Attempt." Psychological Issues, II (1960), 1-158.

Rogers, Carl R. Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951.

______. Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1942.

______. Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969.

______. "The Interpersonal Relationship: The Core of Guidance." Harvard Educational Review, XXXII (1962), 416-429. 213

Rogers, Carl ,R. "Nondirective Counseling: Client-Centered Therapy." Psychotherapy and Counseling. Edited by William S. Sahakian. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1969.

______. On Becoming a Person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1961.

"Psychotherapy Today or Where Do We Go From "Here?" American Journal of Psychotherapy, XVII (1963), 5-16.

"Some Observations on the Organization of "Personality." American Psychologist, II (September, 194-7 ) , 35 8-36 8 .

"A Theory of Therapy, Personality, and Inter­ personal Relationships, as Developed in The Client- Centered Framework." Psychology: A Study of a Science, Vol. III. Edited by Sigmund Koch. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 59.

Rogers, Carl R., ed. The Therapeutic Relationship and Its Impact: A Study of Psychotherapy with Schizo^ phrenics. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967.

Rogers, Carl R. "The Therapeutic Relationship: Recent Theory and Research." Australian Journal of Psychology, XVII (August, 1964), 95-108.

Romines, Willie Hester. "An Examination of Four Positions in Counseling in Terms of Selected Educational and Sociological Variables." Unpublished Ph.D. dis­ sertation. University of Alabama, 19 67.

Rubin-Rabsow, Grace. "Behavioral Science Versus Intelli­ gence." Wall Street Journal, VLIX (July 1, 1969), 12 .

Sahakian, William S., ed. History of Psychology. Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 196 8 .

______. Psychotherapy and Counseling: Studies in Tech­ nique . Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 19 69.

Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism and Human Emotion. New York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 1957. 214

Schaefer, Halmuth H, , and Martin, Patrick L. Behavioral Therapy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. , 1969.

Schell, Edith, and Daubner, Edward. "Epistemology and School Counseling." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVII (February^ 1969 ) , 506-513.

Schmidt, Lyle D., and Pepinsky, Harold B. "Counseling Research in 1963." Journal of Counseling Psychol­ o g y , XII (Winter, 1965 ) , 418-427.

Schofield, William. Psychotherapy: The Purchase of Friendship. Spectrum Book. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.

Schrader, George Alfred, Jr., ed. Existential Philoso­ phers: Kierkegaard to Merleau-Ponty. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1967.

Searles, Herbert L. Logic and the Scientific Methods. 2nd e d . New York: Ronald Press Company, 195 6 .

Seeman, Julius. "Psychotherapy." Annual Review of Psychology, XII (1961), 157-194.

Segal, Stanley J. "Student Development and Counseling." Annual Review of Psychology, XIX (1968), 497-508.

Shertzer, Bruce, and Peters, Herman J. Guidance: Tech­ niques for Individual Appraisal and Development. New York: Macmillan Company, 196 5.

Shertzer, Bruce, and Stone, Shelley C. Fundamentals of Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968 .

Shoben, Edward Joseph, Jr. "Personal Worth in Education and Counseling." Revolution in Counseling. Edited by John D. Krumboltz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 196 6,

______. "Psychotherapy as a Problem in Learning Theory." Behaviour Therapy and the Neuroses. Edited by H. J. Eysenck. London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1960.

Shostrom, Everett L., and Brammer, Lawrence M. The Dynamics of the Counseling Process. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 52 . 215

Singer, Erwin. Key Concepts in Psychotherapy. New York: Random House, 1965.

Skinner, B. F. "Behaviorism at Fifty." Behaviorism and Phenomenology. Edited by T. W. Wann. Chicago: Phoenix Books, University of Chicago Press, 1964.

Snyder, William U., ed. Casebook of Non-Directive Counsel­ ing . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 194 7.

Spence, Kenneth W. "The Nature of Theory Construction in Contemporary Psychology." Psychological Review, LI (January, 1944), 47-68.

Steffire, Buford, ed. Theories of Counseling. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965.

Stollak, Gary E.; Guerney, Bernard G., Jr.; and Rothbery, Meyer, eds. Psychotherapy Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966.

Strickland, Ben. "Kierkegaard and Counseling for Individuality." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (January, 1966), 470-474.

Thoresen, Carl E. "Behavioral Counseling: An Introduc­ tion." School Counselor, XIV (September, 1966), 13-21.

"The Counselor as an Applied Behavioral Scien­ tist." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVII (May, 1969), 841-848.

Tiedeman, David V. "A Symposium on Existentialism in Counseling: Prologue." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 1965), 551-552.

Tillich, Paul. The Courage to Be. New Haven: Yale Uni­ versity Press, 1952.

Truax, Charles B. "Some Implications of Behavior Therapy for Psychotherapy." Journal of Counseling Psychology, XIII (Summer, 1966), 160-170.'

Tyler, Leona E. "Theoretical Principles Underlying the Counseling Process." Counseling and Psychotherapy. Edited by Ben N. Ard, Jr. Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966.

Tyler, Leona E. The Work of the Counselor. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961. 216

Tyler, Leona A. The Work of the Counselor. 3rd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1969.

Ungersma, A. J. The Search for Meaning. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1961. van Kaam, Adrian. Existential Foundations of Psychology. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Duquesne University Press, 1966.

Vaughan, Richard P. "Existentialism in Counseling: A Religious View." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIII (February, 1965), 553-557.

Weitz, Henry. Behavior Change Through Guidance. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964.

Williamson, E. G. "An Historical Perspective of the Voca­ tional Guidance Movement." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII (May, 1964), 854-859.

______. Counseling Adolescents. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 195 0.

______. "Counseling as Preparation for Directed Change." Teachers College Record, LXV (April, 1964), 613- 622 .

______. How to Counsel Students. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 39.

______. "Some Issues Underlying Counseling Theory and Practice." Counseling Points of View. Edited by Willis E. Dugan. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1959.

______. "The Counselor as Technique." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLI (October, 1962), 108-111.

______. "The Fusion of Discipline and Counseling in the Educative Process." Counseling and Psychotherapy. Edited by Ben N. Ard, Jr. Palo Alto, California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966.

______. "The Places of Counseling Theory in College Pro­ grams." Theories of Counseling. Edited by Buford Steffire. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965.

"Value Commitments and Counseling." Teachers 'College Record, LXII (May, 1961), 602-608. 217

Williamson, E. G. "Value Options and the Counseling Rela­ tionship.” Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLIV (February, 1966), 617-623.

______. "Value Orientation in Counseling." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXVI (April, 1958), 520-528.

______. Vocational Counseling: Some Historical, Philo­ sophical and Theoretical Perspectives. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1965.

______. "Vocational Counseling: Trait-Factor Theory." Theories of Counseling. Edited by Buford Stefflre. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 196 5.

______. "Youth’s Dilemma: To Be or to Become." Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVI (October, 1967), 173-177.

Williamson, E. G., and Cowan, Johnh. The American Stu­ dent * s Freedom of Expression. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1966.

Williamson, E. G., and Darley, J. G. Student Personnel Work: An Outline of Clinical Procedures. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19 39 .

Williamson, E. G., and Foley, J. D. Counseling and Disci- pline. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949 .

Wilson, G. T.; Hannon, Alma E.; and Evans, W. I. M. "Be­ havior Therapy and the Therapist-Patient Relation­ ship." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychol-- o g y , XXXII (April, 1968), 103-109.

Wolberg, Lewis R. The Technique of Psychotherapy. 2nd e d . Part One. New York: Grune 6 Stratton, Inc., 1967.

Wolman, Benjamin B. Contemporary Theories and Systems in Psychology. New York: Harper 6 Brothers, Pub­ lishers, 1960.

Wolpe, Joseph. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Stanford^ California: Stanford University Press , 1958 .

Wolpe, Joseph, and Lazarus, Arnold A. Behavior Therapy Techniques. London: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1966. 218

Woody, Robert H. "Preparation in Behavioral Counseling." Counselor Education and Supervision, VII (Summer, 1968), 357-362.

______. "Reinforcement in School Counseling." School Counselor, XV (March, 1968), 253-258.

Wrenn, C. Gilbert. The Counselor in A Changing World. Washington, D. C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962.

______. "Two Psychological Worlds : An Attempted Rapprochment." Revolution in Counseling. Edited by John D. Krumboltz. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 6 6.

Zaccaria, J. S. "Developmental Guidance: A Concept in Transition." School Counselor, XIII (May, 1966), 226-229.

Zucker*, Herber>t. Problems of Psychotherapy. New York: Free Press, 196 7 .