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encyclopedia of the world’s endangered languages

christopher moseley

Europe and North Asia

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 Tapani Salminen Published online on: 01 Mar 2007

How to cite :- Tapani Salminen. 01 Mar 2007, Europe and North Asia from: encyclopedia of the world’s endangered languages Routledge Accessed on: 26 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203645659.ch3

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 olwn ito agaefmle,wihas evsa nidxt h subsequent the the to in index explained area: an are the as Asia. chapter of Southeast serves the diversity and and also of history East which contents linguistic North on families, overall of 5 on language the survey Chapter 1 as of in Chapter well list found in as Eskimo-Aleut following is with cases All Ainu dealt there. special on lan- are found The entry Mongolic are Siberia, the chapters in and and other spoken America, Turkic geo- of those and above-mentioned areas including here, the the languages, with inside within not. dealt spoken is languages however, guages Tibet are, Semitic while chapter boundaries and Turkestan this Ira- graphical in Eastern Indo-Iranian are countries. included they Asian of largely Central are as Enclaves the Mongolia instance, insofar languages of Inner for here one and means, Semitic represented is (Sinkiang) This not Tajikistan and chapters. though are adjacent even Indo-Iranian Tajikistan Mongolic nian, to in and while Turkic spoken belong chapter of languages regions areas that border this contiguous the the in on that (including spoken included so Europe drawn are in is ethnolinguistic languages line spoken certain border languages Siberia. exact with and Manchuria includes The Mongolia, geographically Asia, Central it Caucasia, defined Anatolia, Cyprus), terms, and is Malta broad chapter In this considerations. of coverage The chapter the of outline An the 1 the 2 h yro rbcadMleelnugso h rbcbac fthe of branch Arabic the of languages Maltese and Arabic Cypriot the 4 3the the 5 the 6 h oaiadLmve agae fteIdcsbrnha ela the however, as are, well subbranch as Iranian subbranch the chapter; of Indic this languages the in Tat included the of and languages language Lomavren Ossete and Romani the agaefml seCatr n o h te eii languages); Semitic other the for 7 and 4 Chapters (see family language Indo-European Basque Uralic Kartvelian Abkhaz-Adyge o in-gin agaefamily; language Finno-Ugrian) (or language; agaefamily; language agaefamily language agaefamily; language except uoeadNrhAsia North and Europe h noIainbac seCatr4); Chapter (see branch Indo-Iranian the a aiSalminen Tapani Semitic 3 211 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 AAISALMINEN TAPANI agae eogt h aelnug aiy ftesmlrte mn hm as them, among similarities the if family, language same in Watkins the by formulated to belong Languages h aeo od eiigfo rt-lac stealgdpoolnug,i valid, if proto-language, alleged be the as cannot Proto-Altaic, which 212 from lexicon, family deriving shared corpus single words Altaic of a of the differentiation to the in case material phonological corpus, restricted the the shallow remain Altaic Second, families. the fields only Altaic in shows semantic other the relevant parts in body the cognates several as without in are words such there Proto- basic concepts while from most fundamental First, inherited to missing. words conspicuously related cognate however, words are, represent the things her of Two to Altaic. supporter according firm which gosudarstv ‘ a comparisons the sosednih from on i entry comes the Federacii actually in explanation Dybo hypothesis. genetic genetic than rather be a areal establish only to can attempt 2005. Fortescue recent diverse, see Kamchatkan, a internally and For Chukotkan proto-language. between although single connection genetic a which, from Indo-European deriving as and families explained language Uralic established with markedly as areal contrast groups of such these that basis The languages. is material unrelated the here genetically extant issue between on the contacts basic features ancient and of shared affinity, idea genetic the the supports than explain rather rather to similarity typological plausible cases, and indeed these influence of and all possible In well. is as families it language as called such occasionally in combinations are other Yukagir Japanese and plus granted, Uralic and for taken Korean often incorporating is to family, Kamchatkan, ‘Chukotko-Kamchatkan’ con- and extending Chukotkan ‘Altaic’, a and in course, Furthermore, Tungusic, versions. of included extreme and is, more mark, Mongolic typically frequently Turkic, question macro-family, and a of alleged without comparisons sisting even Another long-range often handbooks. classifications, in overall involved general people in Caucasian’ by quoted ‘North propagated a such is although family Nakh-Daghestanian, and Abkhaz-Adyge between definitively been the 2003). has Notably, family, Nichols controversial. that language (see very languages, way Nakh-Daghestanian single Daghestanian demonstrated any as a the in regarded to and belonging being be languages their families Nakh is, can the the classification between of above connection none The defini- dis- genetic family. respect, this is this language meet Watkins in a must language’. firm called languages common be of prehistoric to group any single tion obviously, a but of Indo-European, continuation cussing the are they 3the 13 the 12 1the 11 the 10 4the 14 5the 15 ntepriua aeo lac h etrcn lbrto ftepasblt fthe of plausibility the of elaboration recent best the Altaic, of case particular the In affinity genetic the for presented been has evidence solid no hand, other the On the 8 the 7 the 9 hpe )adteSlradSrgYgrlnugs(e hpe 5); Chapter (see languages Yugur Saryg and Salar the and 4) Chapter h hr uu agaeadteMnurbac seCatr5); Chapter (see branch Monguor the and language Yugur Shira the Nakh-Daghestanian Yukagir Yeniseian Nivkh Tungusic Chukotkan Kamchatkan Mongolic Turkic language; agaefamily language agaefamily; language agaefamily language agaefamily; language agaefamily language agaefamily; language agaefamily. language h noErpa languages Indo-European The agaefamily; language 19:7–6 rsnsalrenme flexical of number large a presents 79–86) (1997: I except except except h acubac seCatr5); Chapter (see branch Manchu the h hljadKskylnugs(see languages Kashkay and Khalaj the h oo agae(e hpe )and 4) Chapter (see language Mogol the lasi jazyki altajskie 19:2) rqieu oassume to us ‘require 26), (1998: nthe in ’ ayiRossijskoj Jazyki Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 uthv oetruhadatcsre fcagsntol nmrhlg n lex- and morphology Scho in system. only sound not its changes of in series also drastic but a icon through gone have must in’in tions’ sadAet ae nAetadRsin sepandb ook nthe in Golovko by explained as Russian, and Aleut on languages and based Yeniseian Aleut, Nivkh, Island Kamchatkan, in family Chukotkan, larger for any to term belonging not cover languages Siberia. Kartvelian languages’ represent a Paleosiberian) simply the they as (or that because Yukagir, ‘Paleoasiatic used suggest Similarly, others. would only the one is to no related (South apparently was Kartvelian as family (North- the ‘Cau- languages, Nakh-Daghestanian including term Caucasian) the and group that east geographic Caucasian) consensus have a (Northwest of only Abkhaz-Adyge to matter that Caucasian), refers labels a only other is are languages’ it there instance, casian units, For areal meaning. factual conventional and a genetic presumed as both ersn h rt-omo ru fmdr agae,ntbyLtn n artificial and Latin, Volapu notably and languages, Esperanto modern as of such group languages a and of proto-form these the area. represent of the in most recorded on been lan- have studies the characterise to in to Case seem languages, presented difficult languages are endangered. second is languages it as similar as as other speakers used several presentation as of native this typically all extinct such in without are Since the discussed languages guages paragraph area. further or pidgin not this the peninsula, are from few in Taymyr they known A mentioned on also languages Spain. spoken are the in Pidgin, still Russian-Chinese or Quinqui is and (Cant) that and Russenorsk Shelta (Govorka) Isles, and Pidgin such Polari British languages Europe, Taymyr in-group the Central or in in secret Yeniche Yola rela- of and number closely Rotwelsch similarly a language Hantyrka, are is their extinct as there Caucasia, an but Furthermore, Lomavren, in Romani. extinct from Bosha, to influences be varieties. ted with to special Armenian, these appear on form Romani based to of serve dialects resources Greek lexical and those Iberian in Calo S Scandinavian, are including, and languages languages, languages, Hellenoromani, of Traveller local or Dortika of group Scandinavian grammar whole Angloromani, the A into 1997). Europe, Fri- incorporated Wurm West lexicon Town (see by Romani are influenced Uygur with heavily native Examples Dutch their language. of besides variety single A a as a and described from sian, be derives can which grammar 1. Frisian, their Chapter in although with icon, dealt is (13–33), volume same the in Bakker ag ilc otna a xs,te r nraiymc ae hni fe assumed often is than as rarer such much cases, lin- reality in borderline cases are while of they and majority purely exist, solution, overwhelming may a unambiguous the continua, on an dialect in dialect large to claims that lead and here repeated criteria maintained frequently language guistic is the between it to distinguishing basis, Contrary of linguistic presentation. impossibility this the in about included been rule, endangered. as them of some characterising for h n n nylnug nteae htcnb aldgnieymxd Copper mixed, genuinely called be can that area the in language only and one The literature in appear ‘Chukotko-Kamchatkan’ and ‘Altaic’ Caucasian’, ‘North While loecue rmti rsnainaesg agae,cascllnugsthat languages classical languages, sign are presentation this from excluded Also lex- their to regard with mixed called be can that languages other several are There oecuily ilcs repcieo hi nagretsau,hv o,a a as not, have status, endangerment their of irrespective dialects, crucially, More h oglclanguages Mongolic The 19:132) nismxdntr eodol oMci,dsrbdby described Michif, to only second nature mixed its in 113–21), (1994: ¨ n nSnin,wihi ni-ru agaewoesekr s it use speakers whose language in-group an is which Sinkiang, in ynu ˇ atrovac 20)dsusstemte further. matter the discusses (2003) ¨ ˇ ¨ i ntecatro TroMnoi rela- ‘Turko-Mongolic on chapter the in nig ii h eta akn.TeerirEnglish, earlier The Balkans. central the in ki ,dsietefc htteemyb grounds be may there that fact the despite k, ie languages Mixed UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ´ rHispanoromani, or 19) ocreole No (1994). Mixed 213 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 hoi n icrncciei.T aeafweape,teesol en ob at doubt syn- no be or parti- should sociolinguistic, a there examples, and of few 214 status linguistic a the name confusing that To that from said criteria. state immediately diachronic derive typically and be unclear chronic handbooks can is where it variety cases anticipation, the cular the In of of chapter. classification the majority this on the in discussion with following dealt the in languages from presented interference are unwanted cases language problematic without native population pre- the local this of the in their cultivation entries of authorities. of and specific support external recognition use no the full have the have they and about must that support decisions fact equal Crucially, the deserve sentation. of just and irrespective name need rights, to examples, language Belgium in and in other spoken Luxemburgian Aranese few Catalan and Alsatian, to a France as opposed in as such Franconian Valencian Rhenish sense or Catalonia, above, sociolinguistic quali- mentioned the thus Finnish in and Valley Torne languages boundaries administrative distinct and as political fying (Judeo- cultural, Yevanic by not demarcated and those varieties spoken extinct) the recently (Judeo-Provenc¸al; of notable extinct). Shuadit nearly most Greek; are traditions; described contrast below literary better probably in or but listed languages languages registers Jewish spoken as dialects, as to recognised as referred units often are distinct varieties Yiddish, markedly other five with and represent only they Krimchak, Also, of Juhur, respectively. because parts Judezmo, here, Finnish, and as function and Italkian, communities, to languages, Gascon language continue Jewish Alemannic, separate they units, while of Ara- sense, linguistic mediums Alsatian, sociolinguistic strictly mark the as of in boundaries Finnish varieties languages national Valley thus on Similarly, Torne exactly it. and more within single nese but group a tradi- Bosnian, on Serbo-Croat dialect literary only recognise as same not of based to the to separation are plausible referred traditions the these conventionally entirely following perspective language linguistic is entities a separate from it while as view, tions, divisions. Serbian of administrative and or point use Croatian historical literary sociolinguistic as to a such criteria From regard sociolinguistic with on based differently guage, reason- two function diglossia. represent or which boundaries bilingualism and language affairs, use- contacts, and of it areal dialect change, no rendering states own, shades, its be possible The distinct on all languages. should ably criterion in related occurs a there intelligibility closely as obviously, mutual less between while but, that a unintelligibility intelligible, is of mutual point dialects mutually total that extent be of the requirement of must to the intelligibility by process language mutual corroborated a dialect recurring of be single by criterion must the to divided cited boundaries through commonly opposed intergradating are Language more emerged dialects. related, of as transitional historically closely network of boundaries has when extinction contiguous language which even a languages, boundary, of typically separate unique nature corre- two is foundation a the while language The of language. varieties, in absence single a or defining lies A presence in boundaries. concept all the at and this role of cultivation, no of of plays concept level tradition does linguistic or literary and sponding status vernaculars, the or social Notably, varieties, their spoken anecdotal. on with typically concerned only is is language documentation their and SALMINEN TAPANI h eal fdsigihn ewe agaeaddaeti leel rfactually or allegedly in dialect and language between distinguishing of details The including communities, language minority all that understand to important is It lan- of concept different but legitimate equally another, is there say, to Needless not depend Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 xetta tmgtb osdrdaseicrgse ahrta ilc,btit but dialect, a Chinese than (in Tazy rather be register would specific example Another a nevertheless. considered case the be borderline to society, a is might Russian-speaking with remains languages, into it Russian integrated Yukagir of too that especially seems dialect examples extent it Siberian, a because several aboriginal here Neo-Chuvan, included and idea, from not a inevitable, an influences obviously give therefore lexical To is are notable mind. dialect to omissions outlying immediately an Some come as issue. counts relative what more about decision the suggest comprehensive, dialect’, here ‘isolated I lan- or which dialect’ of restrictive. for ‘diaspora context slightly label, be appear the could specific they in terms but a discussed possible require a other be also dialect’; to as known ‘outlying they Italy need Dolgan and in varieties Italy, Greek endangerment, such of in guage obviously, forms of enclaves ancient Quite dialects the Griko. Germanic Norman or as Yakut, other the of and variety Catalan, ethnolinguistic of Cimbrian distinct dialect Islands, environment. Algherese language Channel the different started the example, have their for and of include, them dialects, because They as from especially units detached independently, language clearly develop larger ethnologically to within or function presentation. geographically extent this are some of but to preparation still the which lan- have varieties in of solutions single fruitful current most as the the treated but be languages, to be related out closely basically turned of simply could groups Alutor) than rather (including guages Koryak and Oc all Circassian Oı (covering all Occitan (covering Permyak), French (including languages), Komi Mari, Germany, instance countries. to for both extends differentiating, of the dialect parts in Brabantish covers corre- border the area the not language of across Limburgian-Ripuarian form does spoken the the is Germany and in Saxon and Low Dutch coun- but while Netherlands those boundaries, Netherlands, not the in language any usually Franconian between to is simply border spond it or the while Franconian Similarly, Germany, Moselle tries. and than but France but rather Luxemburgian Luxembourg Belgium, traditions in countries, called literary only neighbouring not to spoken all referring is in terminology Luxemburgian instance, official For of languages. spoken level Turkey. the eastern follow south- on in not in except Azerbaijani do spoken and boundaries is Portugal, northern the Macedonian in but cases, Galician above-mentioned pairs, Bulgaria, the these boundary western in of language but, members shallow borders the Galician- a national between that Bulgarian-Macedonian, found is include be point could can languages The what Azerbaijani-Turkish. twin of varieties and pairs or related Such Portuguese closely co-languages languages. separate two called as between viewed be found generally are is nevertheless Estonian, intergradation that or Dargwa, transitionality Chuvash, some Romani. divergent Armenian, and highly Ossete Albanian, Frisian, unambiguous with North by instance, languages Nivkh, defined Nanay, many for Kryts, units Notably, languages, all languages. remain, recognise separate distinct dialects to but as seeks related boundaries which closely language presentation of this groups do as in Saami even understood and be Nenets only Mordvin, can Frisian, that all hl h ito itntlnugspeetdblwi upsdt ereasonably be to supposed is below presented languages distinct of list the While type special a exists there presentation, this from excluded are such over- as dialects is While classification present the cases of number a in that argued be can It boundaries language with correlate generally not do borders national course, Of where cases of number a in made been have concessions some hand, other the On ¨ agae) adna,Aka icuigAbaza), (including Abkhaz Sardinian, languages), l not osiuesnl agae but languages single constitute UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE 215 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ema,O-gin(as n hny,Ura HnainadO-gin,and, Ob-Ugrian), and (Hungarian 216 Finno- Ugrian Finno-Volgaic, Khanty), binary Mari), and the and (Mansi of (Mordvin Ob-Ugrian Permian, subgroups Volgaic Permian, Mari, intermediate Finno-Saami, Mordvin, The Finnic, including Samoyed. Saami, model, and branches: Khanty cohesive Mansi, and Hungarian, distinct nine of sists classification. of questions in least not comings, languages Uralic hks acuo atr lvk respectively. Slovak, Eastern or Manchu Khakas, eeeypolmtc hr r ols hntrercn adok ftefamily, the of handbooks recent three found than model binary less Indo-European the of no and classification are namely examined, the There of when critically problematic. conservativeness time and classifi- the same severely thoroughly the to binary been at due the has studies, simply maintaining languages Uralic is for of popularity basis field long-standing factual the its little that is and cation, there that clear increasingly fully-fledged become later are have and which Sibe which Kirghiz, but Manchurian Rusyn, dialect Mongol, Vojvodina Khamnigan outlying Kalmyk, an include for They to languages. below, tracked with be dealt wardly those Germa- Saxon’. other than ‘Transylvania or as aug- distinct Romania, known be in less collectively probably region varieties, no could (Bistritz) Bistrit¸a nic dialects are the qualify outlying in that yet of Luxemburgian not others list instance, does several the it Europe, centuries, by the In than in mented dialect. rather included decades outlying even for an is Chinese as Tazy Northern people. of 200 rest Rossii to the (Primor’ye) narodov 100 Maritime jazykov by in kniga Federation County Krasnaja Russian Ol’ga in the Mikhaylovka in of Region village the in mainly spoken 19) seilysneteciiu yHa by Ivanov and critique binary Gamkrelidze the by almost instance, since an for by or Especially to, languages binary referred Indo-European (1995). lan- a occasionally the for is still Finno-Ugrian) proposed and handbooks, (or classification Schleicher all the Uralic practically of the in reminiscent model, which found cast, into are scheme guages classificatory traditional The language. family single language a Uralic of by typical network popular witnessed cohesive in suggested as a occasionally form times, than to Southern distinct continue historical and less and of Western are early sources, state Basque of of a in languages dialects represents non-Indo-European The widespread families, simply Europe. attested large it more other of although and much couple anomaly, no a Etruscan an by was by of are dominated that kind families is con- a affairs language Europe as it small since appear words but and may world, isolates other Basque the Language in in own. isolate, rare its language means of best-known family world’s a the stitutes probably is Basque language Basque classification on Remarks pinyin SALMINEN TAPANI nissrcue rlci culyvr iia oteId-uoenfml.I con- It family. Indo-European the to similar very actually is Uralic structure, its In nteohrhn,teeaeanme flnugswoeoii a straightfor- can origin whose languages of number a are there hand, other the On Dazi h rlclanguages Uralic The ,adaeto otenCiee nune,i atclr yUee and Udege, by particular, in influenced, Chinese, Northern of dialect a ), 19) u hycnalb adt ufrfo ubro short- of number a from suffer to said be all can they but (1998), 18) the (1988), not aldhr uligdaet fOrt Buryat, Oyrat, of dialects outlying here called 19) u ic thsol enioae from isolated been only has it since but (1994), ayimr:ua’kejazyki ural’skie mira: Jazyki ¨ knn(94,hwvr thsbecome has it however, (1984), kkinen 19)and (1993) The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 u h eaieyfwcmo etrssae yte a erte aiyexplained easily rather be can them by branches, shared Mari features and common Mordvin few the relatively uniting subgroup, the Sal- intermediate but (cf. another language is This incipient gaic’. an called regional to be a similar also as language may more recognised it yet here necessarily 2003). Estonian; Vo˜ro-Seto is another, minen not to Finnish. one relation is (Eastern) in to to instance, language is for close to it Karelian, are Lude than and and Olonetsian languages clear, Olonetsian neighbouring are Karelian, of via boundaries the pair Finnish In from each ‘Karelian’. under chain Veps, administrative subsumed language to are Karelian, Finnic contrast Lude Ingrian, in northern and status, branch, Olonetsian language Finnic Karelian, granted the where be to of solutions ‘Finno- all view supposed must to consistent Lude synonymous a was and give thus Olonetsian ‘Finnic’ to closely and able of while ‘Ugrian’, be branch To except Finnish, the Permian’. languages of and ‘Finno-Ugrian’ sense all Estonian current cover the including in languages Finnic for related used on often Saami, were Kildin ‘Balto-Finnic’ and Saami Akkala shallow. Skolt and to relatively Saami hand, between also Lule one boundaries are via the other, The Saami on the transitionality. Pite Saami, from clear, some Akkala chain mostly admittedly and the are Saami is of languages is part there between the Saami Saami in boundaries family. North that the Indo-European except for but deep, the of, often chain, that of and language matches branches a easily Romance much branch very or Saami Slavonic the of the diversity instance, internal the The in extinct. Uralic languages become of forty-seven languages. number altogether living actual are than thus forty the higher are which notably anomaly, branch, of There an family, every assessments. almost as in conservative seen is, dialects. presentation in divergent be this highly must in with included concept languages groups languages clearly single latter view called the of are point Since languages synchronic related a closely from subgroups. are of intermediate that units alleged decisions, the administrative across extent are and there assum- kind crucially, by same and, explained Ugrian proto-languages, the better separate the of be positing or similarities can than Finnic, they contacts and but language are Saami Khanty, ing there and as that Mansi such major imply Hungarian, and branches not branches, a are diachronically between does both languages similarities is classification untrue important binary Finno-Ugric Finno-Ugric patently the no and therefore and of Samoyedic is rejection Samoyedic another’ The modern synchronically. into one the from Uralic ways different no 93– many of (1981: very deserves Comrie in division Samoyed of and statement respects, initial division, The other family. ‘the the in that much of but to classification 4) branches, the not or in other though Finnic, directly position innovative, and the started special lexically have Saami than is must as extent differentiation branch such greater their Samoyed model, that The binary distant Proto-Uralic. the so branches from in are starting- the Khanty, other even their particular, and each in Mansi as phonology, to historical closest Finnish of appear view with unreliable,that of yet point calculations meaningful, the From lexicostatistic only point. their Samoyed from but the innovations of derives shared those on justification except based languages not all are covering branch, one last the Finno-Ugrian, finally, nte emrflcigteodruaews‘og-inc nta fcret‘Vol- current of instead ‘Volga-Finnic’ was usage older the reflecting term Another or Finnic’ ‘Baltic as such calques today, avoided better is that terminology older In has that one plus languages Saami living ten than less no are there Consequently, or criteria historical following that, is studies Uralic of feature conservative Another UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE 217 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 al novdi hssml nwrt uhacmlxqeto,bti em obe to seems it the of but functioning question, synchronic complex the 218 and a inevi- development such is historical to arbitrariness the answer both of with simple deal consistent great this A Thuringian, in Franconian. on involved then based Rhenish tably which The mainly and sense, historically language. Franconian narrow dialects, vari- the East German German Franconian in plus Central the German distinct, the East from the around Bavarian most under of and and revolve consists Alemannic subsumed westernmost, as They be well the as classification. to excludes eties of here are levels offered varieties lower solution which at of mentioned. found be question are to needs problems Latvian and to relation in language regional regional a of as galian couple parentheses a in below. be included languages may of Silesian, is checklist There Rusyn Upper the instance, contrast, Ukrainian. in by for of here, recognition, distinct and awaiting language exaggerated, languages often a is as languages recognised Slavonic East in of presented term ness aptly The are languages. languages Latin. modern individual language branch, first of the the of branches when proto-language created nine is the was that Baltic with within West entity emerged left the since boundaries Baltic, to case and East corresponds instead, any course, and branches of in Baltic Romance, primary West are of Baltic, status we of perhaps the extinct, groups could to two view elevated the this be that but uncontroversial.should united, claiming as almost by regarded challenged is Romance, often be are Indo-Iranian, Celtic, branches and Germanic, Baltic currently and Armenian Baltic, Slavonic is (Greek), (Slavic), evident family Slavonic is Hellenic Indo-European families, branches, the Albanian, the That nine of languages, 168–9). depth by Indo-European (1998: time represented and and Campbell structure example, Uralic the for classifying in in, similarity of factual traditions the the despite in difference The family are language distinct Indo-European Selkup seven admin- and their of Nenets despite chain Enets, languages languages. little a separate single while but as model, languages, is actually treatment related binary istrative single is There closely a of are branches. Samoyed followed consisting which but southern subbranches also of scheme, and usually four a northern has branches, such it into for that division foundation in primary and family a English language involving whole between the that of instance, for closely than, the three languages, distant Khanty and more surviving four Swedish. two actually of the consisting of is case branches relationship the are In respectively. Khanty they languages, and Understandably related Mansi features. both diagnostic contrast, of Udmurt. number to opposed a as in subbranch a differ constitute but related each. as languages regarded closely two formerly of were Mari consist actually and Mordvin they but Both contacts. languages language single of basis the on SALMINEN TAPANI h iiino h emnclnugsit he rmr rnhsapassolid, appears branches primary Lat- three into of languages recognition Germanic the the only of languages, division Baltic The (East) the of classification the to As the and well-established rather is branch Slavonic the of classification internal The that of us reminds branch Samoyed the of classification internal the of history The Csa dialect, outlying very an with are but language, Permyak single a and is Zyryan) Hungarian or proper, (Komi Komi branch, Permian the In h lvnclanguages Slavonic The ´ ngo 19) h close- The (1993). ´ ugra.By Hungarian. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 sas nm iwavldcneto ieaylnug htlreyuie h Oc the Oı the unites of largely a that that than itself problematic language languages, less Oc literary be the to a out of of turns classification Occitano-Romance, concept to of the issue valid subbranch Occitan Incidentally, obstacle a instance, the here. no for view described of is sense; my languages much relativity there sociolinguistic in Importantly, the the be also continua. in on to languages dialect is as focusing out extensive units discussions of turn larger as idea recognising in of them regarded the assumed between be on division often certainly found based is The can boundaries than presentation language subbranches. clearer this the Romanian in but languages generous, and separate well-founded into as Sardi- Dalmatian Romance Gallo-Romance, recognised Ibero-Romance, Italo-Romance, here controversial are less nian, alone, the Istriot alongside neglected Istro-Romance forums as subbranches often Raeto- other well the as on of branches, by aired position two been represented have These the statements particular. undermine similar in Occitano-Romance, and to about branch, more them distinct and a allows as developments which Romance historical phenomena, and early contact Haiman eagerly. recent confusing quite occasionally affairs tendentiously, of state rather this emphasising enjoy Beninca to seem also cialists compendium fayohrlnug ru,a a ese rmtedsusosin discussions the from language seen in be can issues as of group, language analyses languages other in-depth any offers of kind, well. as its revival language of and endangerment volumes in most presentations the unlike Norn. from and clear Cimbrian extremely as becomes such rarely, more discussions the enter that guages ihntegorpi raaecvrdb hscatr aeyRmn n Lomavren and Romani namely chapter, this by covered are such. area as geographic described the be within Homshetsma, well least could at Vaux, as by omission, of occasions an dialects various possibly outlying on is No mentioned which notable. here, quite recognised are are Armenian Armenian East lan- and Greek, Armenian separate West Pontic of between status Italy), the (in distinct approach Griko a Greek, Greek, as Cappadocian seen of guages. be and dialects also Greek outlying could Mariupolitan Greek The Cypriot language. and are regional Tsakonian, precise, and be Greek to (Modern) Tosk of dialects, Greece. outlying Two and Italy dialects. Tosk in found and Gallo, tentative. Champenois Geg highly Poitevin-Saintongeais, and the as between Lorrain seen of be but must treatment languages, French, separate of current dialects as the Walloon the among and case Picard which Norman, in languages, handbook last recent the the like anything of traditions as basis literary regarded the to be forms more guages to referring languages, Germanic, not spoken of is than classification list traditional the The but word. recognised Ko are cf. languages question; in varieties h lsicto fteRmnelnugsi rubymr opiae hnthat than complicated more arguably is languages Romance the of classification The picture the and classification, for problems few offer languages Celtic extant The ftemn agae fteId-rna rnh nytoesoe nenclaves in spoken those only branch, Indo-Iranian the of languages differences many the the Of although language, single a as classified currently is of Armenian consisting branch Hellenic a is there language, Greek single a than Rather differences major are there although language, single a as classified here is Albanian ` 19) while (1994), 19) o ntne ics h oiino h at-oac languages Raeto-Romance the of position the discuss instance, for (1992), 18) onr(1996), Posner (1988), eio e oaitshnLinguistik Romanistischen der Lexikon emnsh et n Tru und Rest- Germanische ¨ i 20:9) usd hsae,anme fregional of number a area, this Outside 92). (2001: nig h ilcso Italy of dialects The ¨ mmersprachen h etclanguages Celtic The 18–02,btRmnespe- Romance but (1988–2002), 19) r ned h vast the indeed, or, (1997), UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE 18)fcsso lan- on focuses (1989) h emnclan- Germanic The h Romance The 19) which (1993), 219 ¨ l Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 eadn agaa igelnug ahrta ru fcoeyrelated closely of group a in than side rather conservative the 220 language on single con- remains seem a presentation Starostin a by this as languages. than presented hand, rather Dargwa as language other this regarding decision independent for the unorthodox an grounds On as only the vincing. but Inkhokvari The to Khvarshi, of reality. left of treatment in be co-dialect the and must is literature matters here sub- these in languages made Lezgian of Nakh-Daghestanian both discussion the the well-established the of Khi- in are but boundaries of included well, The position commentators. customarily as question The better-informed doubts together. open languages subbranch An raised other Nakh. a has some as form branch level and perhaps Lak same and and the Nakh Daghesta- Dargwa nalug at not the between branches or dissolved of whether have indeed, number is a schemes is, into some branch Nakh-Daghestanian although nian 2003), within (Nichols division Daghestanian primary The hegemony. family Russian the avoid language Turkey, to Nakh-Daghestanian to century migration nineteenth the large-scale in the Balkans after the and territory East the indigenous Middle of their side outside Russian the live on spoken proper. dialect covers does Abkhaz only other Abaza linguistically, to the and belongs defined while border Abkhaz as group, between Abaza, dialect boundary but Tapanta cri- both border, the the linguistic administrative of that appropriate the division though, on follow based the noted, not also be but is must languages, some languages It single two are teria. it as into There that units Circassian Adyge). and three in (or Abkhaz these uncontroversial Circassian regarding is and for Ubykh family grounds Abkhaz, Abkhaz-Adyge branches, the three of involves classification internal and The Laz about family question language Abkhaz-Adyge little however, is, languages. There distinct occa- as ‘Zan’. are functioning historically, of exception currently together only Mingrelian belong dialects The undoubtedly recognised. called which generally Mingrelian, sionally is and Svan Laz and that Mingrelian is is Laz, Georgian of that status today guage claim would people Few family language was Kartvelian Arabic 4. of Chapter here. classification in the found considered on exactly be Discussion Ages. are can more Middle Semitic and the Maltese, and in Semitic, Arabic only and two islands chapter, these Arabic this to introduced in Cypriot included languages, are Arabic Cyprus and Malta Since family Middle language the Semitic in Iranian the discussed of is Ossete chapters. languages as Asian well Indo-Iranian South as and Tat of East and classification Juhur and The subbranch, subbranch. Indic the to belonging SALMINEN TAPANI pcfi etr fti agaefml sta eylreprino h speakers the of portion large very a that is family language this of feature specific A the ateinlnug,bttelan- the but language, Kartvelian Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 igemdr agae hvs.Teeaetorcn adok oeigalof all covering handbooks a by recent survived two is are Europe, represents There to namely it Asia Chuvash. Turkic, from although language, as expansion branch, modern Turkic in known Turkic single highlighted attested branches, Bulgar not historically often the first distinct is the because two division presumably this into literature, although Turkic, divided the Common fundamentally and Turkic is Bulgar family Turkic The family language Turkic e.Smlrqetosaieesweea el otntbyi h ae fCrimean of cases the Turk- in with notably 1985b). contacts most in 1985a; secondary well, Doerfer as by Uzbek (see elsewhere influenced Oguz Tatar arise while been questions have dialect, Similar that Kazakh men. a dialects as Uzbek older Uzbek to the Kipchak refers on regards the rely simply of compendium to Wurm basis dia- necessary which indispensable the therefore neighbouring on still seems the even It to but obscure above. Kipchak respect remains the mentioned and respectively, with handbooks to Kazakh, Uzbek especially recent and contrary dialects, Turkmen Oguz instance, these of called for of lects Uzbek, status dialects facts. The includes Uzbek. linguistic conventionally considerations beside administrative divisions, account if above into complicated found taken becomes be situation are can the which on although entry Turkic, and the it China, from sub- in distinct Yugur peripheral apparently Saryg two 5. but and Chapter further Oguz 4, in are Chapter in in included There Sayan with Yakut. often languages, dealt by Iran, principal Turkic in their Khalaj Lena by Siberian full branches, and other known a two Tuvan also into The by are Khakas. developed Turkic Turkic the of clearly Common dialect To Turk has outlying of regions. which Chulym an subbranches Kirghiz, Shor, originally adjacent Manchurian being Altay, and from as of Northern language sub- Siberia well belong subbranch distinct as in subbranch Khakas, three fourth attested Khakas, and Kirghiz, the con- are with or geographic Altay Turkic Turkic, form strictly Yenisey Southern Common they a including be of scheme, one to the branches present appears besides general the and in cept, in Turkic Siberian but Turkic. Common Kipchak, in ded Kazakh. and (ii) Karakalpak Karachay-Balkar, subgroups, Nogay, and (iii) three Kumyk and Karaim, incorporates Bashkir, Tatar, and subbranch Crimean Uzbek Tatar the (i) includes Kipchak may in including subbranch the with sense those Karluk dealt Third, broad namely the are Uygur. a Second, they chapters. that in (Modern) means Asian (and and which East Iran China, and in in East Salar spoken Middle and is Turk) the Kashkay Turk, Iraqi First, cover Khorasan which follows. also Kashkay, as of Azerbaijani, Salar, recognised Turkish, be and Gagauz, Turkmen can of groups consists major subbranch three Oguz Europe, and Asia Central ope atr seietfo h ealdtetetb Scho (http:// by treatment map’ detailed linguistic the from Turkic evident as the matter, well- complex on less are ‘Discoveries the handbook about article English-language information Johanson. the the more by www.srii.org/Map.pdf) of offers by shortcomings general The compensated in languages. latter Turkic the known which of (1997), loehr hr r hsnn esnbycerctsbrnhso Common of subbranches clear-cut reasonably nine thus are there Altogether, inclu- are well, as Altay Southern occasionally and Kirghiz, classifications, some In h lsicto fteCmo ukcbac nosbrnhsi relatively a is subbranches into branch Turkic Common the of classification The h ukclanguages Turkic The hllga ucceFnaet I Fundamenta Turcicae Philologiae hllga ucceFnaet I Fundamenta Turcicae Philologiae 19)adthe and (1998) ayimr:tukkejazyki tjurkskie mira: Jazyki n rm(e Podolsky (see Urum and ) UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ¨ i 19–) u in but (1997–8), nig 15) in (1959), 221 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 evsaekont eetnie eetees h otenSkai ilcsare network a dialects constituting as Sakhalin seen northern be can them- the Nivkh 222 sense, dialects Nevertheless, that Sakhalin in differ- extensive. and within Amur, although on be as those isolate, well to to language closer as known or dialects family, are Sakhalin single-language selves and a Amur as between seen ences here is Nivkh language Nivkh China, people in ‘Hejen’ of as group known Nanay, Evenki- the of entry. of dialects respective majority for the the the of for term see explain diversity used to Chinese the is but On ‘Oroqen’ official groups. while Solon, speaking Solon, and the is Evenki is language on and traditional ‘Ewenke’ entries used whose the Grenoble ethnonyms briefly, in of (cf. situation presented system literature are idiosyncratic the somewhat details the recent http://www.dartmouth.edu/ The being also of China. confusion website are of in Group basis source Research Tungusic main the Tungusic dealt the within on the ~trg/), both boundaries and language, expected separate 2003, language be an fully Whaley originally The could a Sibe, than 5. rather and now clearer Chapter Manchu by of in but that regarded Manchu with be is could of branch that dialect grouped features fourth usually few outlying The are be Oroch, innovations. branches to and two shared appear with These Udege there as Evenki Orok. but of Tungusic, other, and consists Amur Ulcha the Nanay, as branch together of on second North one and, The first, third family Even the Solon. The the and hand, and 2004). as one Negidal 78; required, related the 1996: not closely is on (Janhunen is comprises, than branches classification branch, complicated distinct binary Tungusic less rather a four slightly if of perhaps least consists at is family assumed, Tungusic tacitly the often of classification The family language Tungusic Tungusic. family, jazyk oo,hsa nr nCatr4 nadto otevlm etoe bv,the above, mentioned volume the and to branch, addition language, fifth In single the tunguso-man’c 4. while jazyki, a Chapter mongol’skie 5, Yugur, in mira: Chapter Shira entry Jazyki in an branches, appear in has languages, satellite with Mogol, four dealt other is of Dagur, the branches, consisting language satellite Monguor, Kalmyk-Oyrat Of the the of chapter. dia- and one the branch, this Ordos its core of Buryat, among the language per- Mongol, Khorchin Besides four principal Khamnigan complex. and and as the Chakhar group well of core as Khalkha, consists lects, or includes branch central which core a Mongolian, The including family, groups. family, satellite the or in ipheral branches five are there h lsicto fteMnoi aiyhsbcm nraigycertak oa to thanks clear increasingly in become summarised has studies, family recent Mongolic of the number of classification The them family of language well-known Mongolic less and the languages and the family, of Turkic below. all the entries includes own to languages their belong have of that list dialects the outlying in found classification explicit AAISALMINEN TAPANI nti nrdcin nytemjrTri agae aebe etoe,btthe but mentioned, been have languages Turkic major the only introduction, this In 19)peet uvyo oglc n tas oestenx language next the covers also it and Mongolic, of survey a presents (1997) h oglclanguages Mongolic The ˇ z ˇ rkejzk,jpnkjjzk korejskij jazyk, japonskij jazyki, urskie 20) Essentially, (2003). 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The Ket, member family. separate of surviving dialect larger principal a a the a considered rather previously be is was it to Yug, but used isolate, an what be of to considered often is Ket family language preparation. Yeniseian under is families language The Paleoasiatic languages. other the two and of Nivkh of group handbook a than jazyki rather dialects of h eiea agae r atclryitrsigfo h ra n typological and areal the from interesting particularly are languages Yeniseian The 19)i h etgnrlsuc urnl vial,bta English-language an but available, currently source general best the is (1997) 19)apast ewl-one.Acrigt t Arin it, to According well-founded. be to appears (1997) ayimr:paleoaziatskie mira: Jazyki UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE Jazyki 223 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ee,tersau sqiedfeetfo hti nw rmohrprso h world. the of parts other from known is 224 what from languages. different quite endangered is and status safe or their between gered, America line North the of point draw cases in the to many from as discussed where in are pace deciding chapter and the drastic of in covered the endangered, view equally areas of are the an section, areas languages on this In critical native Australia. not smaller most its although the the of of extinction, like endangerment all nearing more of be is almost level cannot Siberia because the severe. that rule, world particularly a languages not as indigenous remarkably and, is several is all, languages are languages at endangered there minority as safe contrast, there regarded spoken of by languages number Caucasia, other the In another the words, low. for of other all responsible in almost largely high. endangered, that are are exceptionally namely nation-states Europe, is same of languages, feature nation-states, the safe peculiar very of independent of policies of number assimilative the populations that The in majority world by the of spoken parts other from differs Europe endangerment of levels the Assessing Kamchatka in in Island all included Bering Aleut, also on Island Nikol’skoye therefore Copper of and village are Aleut the Province. on Aleut Siberian in entries of concentrated Island The speakers were are Attu. remaining Copper elderly, from few Aleuts language Island the not 1; Copper mixed whence is Chapter to the a family, Islands and from have and Atka the derives Commandor from Aleut to of there Island the branch Bering presence seem to its other on continent brought but the the territory resettlement constitutes Russian Island on nineteenth-century present which Diomede relocated the Aleut, the to was Great 1990s. on autochthonous born population the the elders by Inuit-speaking entire on the died language, the of spoken westernmost last before the the formerly The Federation; island which Russian Alaska. of was the Inuit, in to languages, Inupiaq, belonging is exclusively two branch spoken Peninsula Eskimo Yupik, further the St Seward the Gulf has alongside of on Pacific 1 subbranch subbranch also and Chapter other Yupik Yupik in Yupik Strait, included The Alaskan Siberian Bering are Central languages. the Central entries their of Eskimo-Aleut and but west exclusively, other Alaska, the Yupik in to Cape Island spoken Lawrence East were and or are Sirenik family language have Eskimo-Aleut old not the may past. to or the refer may in to which speakers used could Kamchatka, Itelmen what also absorbed of beyond is Kamchatkan population well Kamchadal ethnonym indeed, Kamcha- immigrant the are, the Russian-speaking Eastern Notably, languages of and dialectal. three Kamchadal called member the be Southern between surviving extinct differences only the The dal. comprises the also is which family Kamchadal) (Western Itelmen family language Kamchatkan Zhukova by Koryak. suggested into as (292), than, rather volume Alutor same into the dialects in Karaga and the Palana in distinct Skorik of position the SALMINEN TAPANI xetfrtebl atta oto h ioiylnugsi uoeaeendan- are Europe in languages minority the of most that fact bald the for Except the of branch Eskimo the of subbranch Yupik the of languages three Furthermore, ayinrdvSS V SSSR narodov Jazyki 16:25 nicroaigthe incorporating in 235) (1968: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 fEurope of Europe Eastern and the Central in minorities Linguistic Ireland and Britain in eadsillreyi n ftemr rbeai ra,w o aetebooks the have now we areas, problematic more the of communaute one cinq is largely still and be SSSR situation gosudarstv in language Kibrik on (1981), Lectures Comrie notably of Union, For- languages 1992 Soviet acii: the sources. that the covering secondary languages of sources all up-to-date European on the of or to relied wealth Federation devoted a Russian largely is the have publications There recent I typi- useful. linguists, proved are several study have materials as are this source trained Primary there in speakers knowledge. tunately, native our and have in scattered, lacunae them many stu- cally of also well most are relatively and there are but languages atten- 1983), point minority on Pogarell their the European (cf. direct focus From linguistics, instead. and died rarely descriptive education peers, too higher of with and view largely activists coverage, and of media but home projects, have at level, European literacy to maintenance high within nation-states tion language awareness a of of Political on issues instead. currently basic ideologies the shift is language communities deeply-rooted maintaining minority a and the bilingualism forced, marginalisation and to functional but avoiding favoured, possible Stable of both language, therefore forms language. to various is native majority escape contribute It and are, obviously the community, culture. features majority would adopting of the distinctive by to aspects main- only fully related discrimination, to their less the or communities typically, more and minority because, assimilate language European high, the of very indeed, integration is of societies level stream the particular, In ugso uoeo te ra el ihi hscatr eie h printed the Besides chapter. of this available, quality in various with of sources dealt electronic lan- the the areas the of about which other plenty information are unique or there contains publications, Europe rarely world, of the of guages parts other of guages The languages. maintenance language ubr fsekr,aecerywti hsgopbcueo hi oiina the as position their of because low group relatively this widely having are within while they clearly Luxemburgian, areas, are and their speakers, Faroese in of generations. dominance numbers all for them by with spoken competing broad languages. languages which nevertheless safe other is of Belarusian, group base of the speaker exception in whose possible it but keep Russian, lan- the to from with these enough pressure endangered, Consequently, under way Ukrainian. is no clearly Serbo- and in Russian, Swedish are Romanian, Spanish, guages Portuguese, Slovene, Slovak, Polish, Lithuanian, Latvian, Croat, Norwegian, Italian, Estonian, Maltese, Icelandic, English, Hungarian, Macedonian, Dutch, Greek, Danish, German, Czech, French, Finnish, Bulgarian, Belarusian, Albanian, country: purpose. eea te agae etteciei o en aei ht lhuhteeare there although that, in safe being for criteria the meet languages other Several European one least at in position dominant a have that languages thirty are There ioiylnugstoday languages Minority nagrdlanguages Endangered 16–)cniust evlal.O h agae fFac,wihue to used which France, of languages the On valuable. be to continues (1966–8) 19) the (1992), 19) the (1998), en urnl ulse,yttespr v-oueseries five-volume superb the yet published, currently being Euromosaic Ethnologue ´ igitqe el France la de linguistiques s rsaakiajzkvnrdvRossii narodov jazykov kniga Krasnaja io agae fEurope of languages Minor 20)poierte nvndt naslcino endangered of selection a on data uneven rather provide (2003) 20)cvr h rts se.A o te eetsucs the sources, recent other for As Isles. British the covers (2000) n the and 19:277) the 257–73), (1991: 1t d 96,epoe xesvl yeprso lan- on experts by extensively employed 1996), edn (13th 18 2den19],the 1990]), edn [2nd (1981 20) n the and (2002), GeoNative ie rvdms riflfrtepresent the for fruitful most proved sites 18)adSble(00,and (2000), Sibille and (1988) ayoaastaiavRsiso Feder- Rossijskoj v situacija Jazykovaja ayiRsiso eeai sosednih i Federacii Rossijskoj Jazyki 20) n the and (2001), 19)lcslnusi eal while detail, linguistic lacks (1998) nylpdao h languages the of Encyclopedia 19) aaeic nthe in Kazakevitch (1994), UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE agaedahand death Language ayinarodov Jazyki Languages Vingt- 225 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 tl aigpaeadteoealnmeso paesaesalr te agrminority is larger assimilation Other smaller. but are areas 226 speakers the core of official their numbers in overall some in census the have least and 2002 at place Gaelic taking position the Scottish still stable of reasonably and a results Romansh Lal- and preliminary support Saami, by the major discussed North languages. the thoroughly by Federation. Udmurt, endangered is corroborated Russian and status of and Moksha whose category (1990) Komi, Russia, so the Erzya, lukka east-central been in Mari, in has Eastern fall languages shift about rather Uralic Emilian- language of true they a is languages. languages that but same regions speakers The regional dominant of their Piedmontese, numbers from in Irish large rapid and have of pressure but also fraction Lombard Italy, worldwide, strong tiny northern speakers Ligurian, a under of by Friulian, millions everywhere used Romagnol, have is contrast, are it by language, they Yiddish, first and the Romani society. bor- as here. but apparent given each country, some are in independent why languages detail reasons endangered some as the regarded to have concerning been discussed section to have guidelines is following cases known general the derline endangerment languages in some of the summarised but level below; are entry, The entries era languages. respective modern extinct the their on in in Europe endangered seen from as be disappeared classified been can and have languages that as seventy-three Europe here, the in spoken with contrasted dialects outlying be twenty-four must figure This is above. Ale- which mentioned France, instance, in For Alsatian sharp. as French. to well typically from extends as pressure are language German strong Swiss a status under safe of its extremely area the domain in the covers important If differences mannic most friends. the their and in countries, family languages among several dominant medium losing have to spoken not fast, supposedly Sicilian the are very as and to languages with not to (Neapolitan) regional least so diglossic Italian These Scanian at Italian. ground, language, South is Danish, with and umbrella relationship Limburgian-Ripuarian to Venetan same the while Dutch, the Jutish Bavarian, and is Latvian, German and German to both Alemannic Spanish. regard Latga- for to while with speak, Dutch, Extremaduran language to and regional Flemish Western Swedish, dialects. a and as is Slovak, Eastern regarded lit- clear. to established be reasonably lian related cases an view obviously, most of of is, in lack point is Slovak the sociolinguistic status often of related language a are because intimately their from however, what and, are Linguistically, can area represent they they their that They tradition, of meaning situation. erary language sense, diglossic dominant specific a the a involve to in also languages side regional safe called literary the old on and be substantial reasonably by a up traditions. show backed cultural as and languages, arguably qualify other speakers to and Scots dominant not of and with seem millions but Rusyn diglossia have spoken, Saxon, stable are they they Low because where stable. languages countries to quite Bashkir, the endangered smaller authorities in is regions. and slightly status position communities weaker autonomous by a both their have spoken by their that supported are in extent be Frisian to the position West appear strong but and nations, Welsh a minority independent languages Galician, have minority and Chuvash, largest also the Basque, autonomous and are respective speakers, Europe of the millions in with in Tatar, and languages Catalan states. spoken commonly most SALMINEN TAPANI rs sceryaseilcs,a ti nofiiladwdl utvtdlnug fan of language cultivated widely and official an is it as case, special a clearly is Irish been have languages European non-endangered presumably fifty-five than less No to deemed been have presentation this in that languages European of group last The Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 upre yraoal ag ain ihacranlvlo uooy a be can autonomy, Russian of from pressure level under certain clearly a are they with although nations non-endangered, large as regarded reasonably by provided by is supported Sinkiang A in justified. sub- situation seems very ethnolinguistic a endangered has complex as (1994). it it the Rybatzki but regarding of broad, so summary reasonably endangered society, still useful of modern group is in the Oyrat position in are of Dagur, ordinate Sinkiang as base safe and Dukha speaker relatively Turk and area The be Ili Oyrat languages. dialects, the to only outlying leaves appear in two This as Uygur. that languages well and languages nations, dominant Ordos regional Turk, the smaller Khorasan and Karakalpak, chapter, are much this Uzbek by by and covered Turkmen spoken Mongolian, languages, Kirghiz, other languages. 20,000 endangered the of to category is close all the There have languages. to about dominant Tsakhur belonging low from and the pressure question growing Rutul of under Juhur, spite little to are of Agul, ground in they number losing even stable only but be relatively larger as speakers, to are a speakers, appears Daghestan and with of in areas numbers language languages scattered another smaller widely in The is but spoken Russian. Georgian, per- Nogay is with is weak. it relationship but Mingrelian diglossic quite speakers these, a seems in Of position language extents. regional its various a Greek to as (Pontic endangered functioning dialects haps are outlying two that and Trukhmen) on languages and them twenty-nine keep remain there to eighteen, languages native of in the even to status less but enough side. clearly loyal Caucasia, The safe is appear northern stable. Abaza the speakers of related the languages and closely in case larger having the their functional above-mentioned bilingualism Russia and the problematic, both east-central the than more in secure appears is and languages Georgia speakers, population, in Uralic of Abkhaz major the numbers the by with similar well contrast Ossete maintained in Kumyk, Russian, Karachay-Balkar, are Chechen, state Avar, Kabard-Cherkes, Tabasaran, four Adyge, twelve Lezgian, republics, the and the Lak, Caucasian Russian, them, northern Ingush, besides Besides of Dargwa, the are, Turkish. domi- languages rule, The and Anatolia indigenous a severe. Georgian including main as particularly Azerbaijani, area not and, Armenian, is the all, languages, languages at in smaller endangered languages the as nant of regarded endangerment be of cannot level that book, the languages in control. genous elsewhere my them beyond to was given that definitions affairs the the of with out state match in point a not languages do to the European 2001) useful for of edn word be (2nd prepared endangerment the cases, may I of use their It that level never in endangerment. map the would even language one, characterising that for of symbols mind I, context that and in the dying, keep in with to ‘moribund’ synonymous important not course, is of endangered is, endangered. It as languages. them gered define on to as speakers necessary Walloon, losing it also and makes are Nogay that Sardinian, scale Logudorese Kashubian, a and Kalmyk, Sardinian Campidanese Gagauz, as Corsican, well as such languages nSbraadMnhra ycnrs,ol w agae,TvnadYakut, and Tuvan languages, two only contrast, by Manchuria, and Siberia In Kazakh, smaller. much is languages of number the Mongolia, and Asia Central In is Anatolia adjacent and Caucasia in languages non-endangered of number the If indi- several are there conflicts, political and ethnic many the despite Caucasia, In endan- of category the to belong undoubtedly languages European other the All ta ftewrdslnugsi agro disappearing of danger in languages world’s the of Atlas UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE 227 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 rgnlIdclnug,coeyrltdt oai htbcm xic hni was 228 of it time when The unknown. extinct Bosha. be called became to conventionally that seems here Romani, extinction variety Armenian-based to the related by closely replaced Kashubian. language, and Krevin Vote Indic languages, on original endangered entries respective of the dialects in presented outlying century. are large extinct Slovincian, a eighteenth Two over and spread times. early was modern it the earlier early Europe. till century; Eastern seventeenth of perhaps early the area Ukraine till Hungary the the in as spoken in 1750. approximately endangered growing. Crimea in until constantly as Germany exists the be northeastern regarded and in to be revived basin seems being River cannot users currently Cornish is of revived Cornish number versions; 1777; different in three place took probably which century. mid-nineteenth the till Finland in Province land 80 ale twsas pkni h rnyIlnsadajcn anadScot- mainland adjacent and Islands Orkney the in spoken also was land. it earlier 1880; aln n uiceNhugi atPusapoal ilteedo h eighteenth the of end the till probably Prussia East century. and in Nehrung (Zada) Kurische and Zarar Samland in spoken also was it earlier 1898; in speaker (Ragusa). last Dubrovnik the of divided death appear extinction they their follows of order what time. chronological in In approximate incor- back an below. also moving in languages are and They of sections times. geographic checklist into modern the of beginning into Solon. the Ongkor porated after dialect, attested outlying fragmentarily extinct least recently Yug; one Kerek, and is 1), Kamas, there Chapter languages, Asia (see such Central Sirenik seven in Mansi, Ubykh Western are and Anatolia, Mansi, there and Southern Siberia, Khanty, Caucasia this In Southern Europe, in In Greek. and below. French, Cappadocian entries Alderney and own and their Manx have includes languages category extinct possibly) (or Recently languages Extinct the notably Manchuria, and Siberia on focus Federation, Russian a endangered with the of others of guages category few languages the a Chinese all into are covering Northern them there brought publications or Southern Russian has the still which to Dagur, Besides and trend, shift languages. Manchuria, autonomous Khakas constant a in the but other extent language been speakers, indigenous has of lesser the prominent numbers to large of most relatively the and have languages as Buryat, well co-official especially as but Altay, three Siberia, endangered only being The in not their about are republics extinction. question languages no indigenous nearing is of O number there are Manchurian large cases, indigenous and a most thirty-eight and In Dolgan here. Tatar, endangered, as endangered (Baraba many as as dialects classified that outlying are means three This and languages. languages Siberian other all like SALMINEN TAPANI t languages ity rmCuai,only Caucasia, From nEurope, In at and spoken still were that those comprises languages extinct of group Another eiSaami Kemi 19) ahnn(91 96,Vktn(93 01,adthe and 2001), (1993; Vakhtin 1996), (1991; Janhunen (1990), Cornish (1997). Dalmatian a pkni onal nln,utltedaho h atspeaker, last the of death the until England, Cornwall, in spoken was a pkni Sodankyla in spoken was Norn a pkni r Vgi)o h os fDlai ni the until Dalmatia of coast the on (Veglia) Krk in spoken was Lomavren Mozarabic a pkni h htadIlnsutlapproximately until Islands Shetland the in spoken was ed ob etoe ee eei eest the to refers it Here here. mentioned be to needs a pkni otenSanutletnto in extinction until Spain southern in spoken was ¨ n Kuolaja and Polabian ¨ l Prussian Old v Sla onisi Lap- in counties (Salla) rvi a pkni h Elbe the in spoken was Gothic otenminor- Northern a pknin spoken was a pknin spoken was Cuman rtclan- Arctic ¨ was lo ¨ t) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 aa,adSo sKzes aa.Byn h usa eeain hr r few a are there Federation, Russian the Beyond Yenisey Tatar. or Kuznetsk Tatar Abakan as lan- as Shor Khakas Mator Tatar, and Tatar, Mountain extinct as the known of was Karachay-Balkar the dialect for a names valid of Itelmen. are name to Kamchadal related to the Eastern Also languages only and Yug). as extinct Kamchadal (and not used Southern Ket referred that unrelated still and sense the is guage, and widest Karagas Selkup its related that distantly in notice the ‘Ostyak’ to that also but Notice Khanty languages. of groups to ! Kamchadal (Western) ua Samoyed) Yurak ag o ag Samoyed) Tavgi (or checklist Tavgi a is Cheremis here so Lapp) names: to sources, important many new course, in of and found is, While are old it them. they usage, about because of current ones, quaint of for old nothing relics the recommended really cherished recognise is are as there names them view, modern regarding my lin- the them, in Conservative employ but, century. still twentieth tradition, may scholarly the countries in section. other changed this in names in guists derogatory them often on old, light problematic their shed and to with controversial appear try truly familiarity there I occur of Federation and lack there well, Russian but a as languages, the from issues these derive of espe- in they languages but studies Occasionally minority English, earlier spellings. the in and names of names established case variant their have the area in the cially in spoken languages Most names language on Notes uha tucn als,Htie ura rOcn r etota well. as out Langobardic left earlier, and are even Oscan, disappeared Khazar or that Cumbric, Hurrian languages Hittite, say, examples, Gaulish, to Etruscan, of Needless as group. couple such this a to belong just would give Even. and To Khakas on sentation. eight- entries respective late the in the (not presented Kamas till are languages, Arman, region, endangered and of Minusinsk Samoyed) Kamas dialects the outlying of extinct Two century. north century. eighteenth the nineteenth to early century. basin, the eenth Yenisey till upper basin Yenisey the lower in the of west (Karagas century. nineteenth the east early the the till in Ob’, upper region the Baykal to the 1840s. to Taygi) the and till proper regionSamoyed) Mator Minusinsk the (dialects of west part the eastern the in from 1850s. extending mountains, the Sayan of Eastern till the Yenisey, end of the upper by the extinct to became butary and coast, century. eastern nineteenth the the on mainly possibly Kamchatka, of htaadi h ai ftervrKmhta n a aesrie iltefirst the till survived have may and Kamchatka, river century. the twentieth of the basin of decades the in and chatka utemr,mn l agaenmscnandtewr Ttr,frinstance, for ‘Tatar’, word the contained names language old many Furthermore, nSiberia, In otmnrt agae fteRsinFdrto swl ssm teshv had have others some as well as Federation Russian the of languages minority Most agae htol uvvdit h ideAe r o icse nti pre- this in discussed not are Ages Middle the into survived only that Languages dut eie Ostyak Yenisey Udmurt; ! am;Oyrot Saami; atr Kamchadal Eastern Assan ! ees Zyryan Nenets; a pknt h ato h ottrioyprastl h late the till perhaps territory Kott the of east the to spoken was ! Kott Pumpokol ! ! tle;Karagas Itelmen; ! la;Ostyak Altay; a pkni h ai ftervrKn nesentri- eastern an Kan, river the of basin the in spoken was gnsn Tungus Nganasan; e adYg;YnsySamoyed Yenisey Yug); (and Ket otenKamchadal Southern a pkno h atr os fcnrlKam- central of coast eastern the on spoken was a pkno h pe e’ nesentributary eastern an Ket’, upper the on spoken was ! ! oi biul,ms ae nti itrefer list this in names most Obviously, Komi. ai Gilyak Mari; Mator ! ! hny sykSamoyed Ostyak Khanty; Yurats oa Lamut Tofa; ! a pkno h otenslopes northern the on spoken was vni Vogul Evenki; a pkni h otenpart southern the in spoken was a pkni h udazn to zone tundra the in spoken was ! ik;Gold Nivkh; UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ! ! vn aps (or Lappish Even; ! nt;Yrk(or Yurak Enets; Arin as;Votyak Mansi; a spoken was ! ! Selkup; Nanay; 229 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ufils Lzi.FrSai hr sawdl sdatraieseln Sa of spelling instead alternative used used likewise widely 230 a is is Lezgian there ‘Dargva’. Saami, pro For Dargwa ‘Lezgi’. ‘Ginukh’, suffixless pro and Hinukh ‘Gunzib’, names be Russian languages pro when the used not hence are Hunzib respectively, ‘w’ ‘v’, also and and ‘h’ ‘g’ that should suggest so well-established, would Vote be to seem and spellings English Ingrian when Tofa. for languages ‘Tof’ Finnic ‘Vod’. and or the Khanty, ‘Izhor(ian)’ of with for replaced names ‘Khant’ Evenki, Russian current the recent for of The on place ‘Evenk’ based in include variants literature non-recommended colloquialisms scholarly Other in Chukchi. strangely spelling, persists modern ‘Chukchee’ spelling colonial A ht o xml,telnug ae vni ekp iei n ua r sdin used are Tuvan and ‘So so Sirenik ‘Ewenki’, recommended, Selkup, of not Evenki, instead are names by presentation English language this is in the but example, borrowings for ‘Tati’, Russian that, as and established lan- ‘Juhuri’ the been Turki’, in already ‘Ili used pro not Azerbaijani. Tat, is in which found and end, convention case Juhur the and Turk, special at necessity Ili ‘i’ A Iranian-based names ‘Votian’). an ‘Ossetian’),guage (or with (or ‘Votic’ names ‘Ossetic’ the and Slo- ‘Mordvinian’, involves ‘Kabardian’, Serbo-Croat, ‘Slovenian’ of Samoyed, ‘Serbo-Croatian’, instead Ossete, ‘Samoyedic’, appear Mordvin, Vote Kabard, and names vene branch Kamas, Cherkes, and German names language from language etc. copied the ‘Cherkess’, to yielding typically Tabasaran added ‘ss’, and sometimes for Nganasan Double is Botlikh, Khakas, suitable it etc. Karagas, ‘Abxaz’, as Akhvakh, more avoided, than clearly Khvar- is Abkhaz, rather Khinalug, spelling, is Khanty, Nivkh names ‘kh’ Khamnigan, and but language Khakas, shi exception. Ubykh, fricative Tsakhur, the established velar Hinukh, an including for Budukh, names being ‘x’ terminology, language Kirghiz use the English etc., Uygur, would ‘Adyghe’, hence Udege, people Nogay, of Russian, Negidal, Some instead from Yukagir no Lezgian, pro deriving is and Khinalug, there Mansi words Yug Godoberi, as and alike, in Dagur, names ‘Itel’men’ Agul, it place Adyge, pro and employing An language Itelmen in in ‘Koriak’. avoided example be point is pro must ‘gh’ for Koryak it digraph but names, and The transliterations, ‘Man’si’. regular language ‘Buriat’ in from pro letter sign Buryat omitted soft Russian names the language marks apostrophe the name Russian hence the Groznyy. in ‘ya’, as Chechenia, glide), both of (a represents Republic i’ it the ‘short that of the in capital and functions the like variant) different vowel of two spellings (a is the has i’ there in of ‘y’ ‘back since Russian used feature letter presentation: the the a ‘i’ this confusion, also plus in of is used risk vowel is This no place-names a Russian exception. spelling of for established instead system Oyrat an former transliteration Nogay, ‘y’ being Nanay, the Azerbaijani plus names etc., vowel Here language ‘Nanai’, a also respectively. contain the are Uygur these Altai, example, but and for Altay, and language hence, range Yenisei above-mentioned consistently, mountain the adopted as the instance and for spelled Yenisey river well, branch. commonly the as a to names of referred geographic name names the in as seen valid be be not can to is continues Eskimo it and although Gypsy, names, over language preferred in nowadays used is Romani changes. name notable SALMINEN TAPANI ntenmso e acsa agae,ecpin r aet hs conventions these to made are exceptions languages, Caucasian few a of names the In admyntvsdo tews aiuae esoso agaenmsta have that names language of versions manipulated otherwise or nativised Randomly the examples, few a give to that, so avoided, are function any lack that Suffixes and ‘yu’ letters vowel Russian the of transliterations the of part also is ‘y’ letter The this and Russian, from borrowed words in abound conventions spelling Different ¨ kp o ‘So (or lkup’ ¨ qp) Srnkk’ad‘Tyvan’. and ‘Sirenikski’ lqup’), ´ mi. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 Nenets Samoyed: Khanty: Mansi: + Hungarian Permian: Mari: Mordvin: Finnish) Finnmark + Finnish Finnic: Bbn Saami) (Babino Saami Kamas lvnc ot lvnc ugra +Pomak) (+ Bulgarian Slavonic: South Slavonic: Indo-European Saami: Western Saami: Uralic of with Basque and dialects question order. in outlying alphabetic languages the the fourteen in on place entries are their the in there in are references with varieties that, dealt languages extinct, Besides endangered possibly languages. cases parentheses. in discussed non-endangered given specially italics, are few in names marked Alternative a are The asterisk. section in an sign. next by or + the of followed the in extinct, basis entry by the the an separated on with and cases also dialects dialects many parentheses, outlying as in within and here and languages included classified mentioning sign, are while worth + criteria, clearly sense, the linguistic by are sociolinguistic separated that the are varieties in dialects other languages Outlying the of names not. by number specific do have a represented some subbranches and while are as some colon, subbranches a languages; appear by between of branches followed bars levels major horizontal in different and of with the boldface, number dealt and in languages paragraphs, marked the of separate families, classification Language genetic chapter. the this summarises list following The checklist language The +olk + (+Forlak) hr r loehr12etis fwihtet-n ersn uligdaet of dialects outlying represent twenty-one which of entries, 172 altogether are There etr Mari Western (+Koybal) * jj j otenMansi Northern Livonian F otenKhanty Northern atr Saami: Eastern Udmurt rs Nenets orest Erzya Nganasan ugnadCroatian Burgenland Csa j ´ j j ngo idnSaami Kildin jj Moksha Vo jj ´ Komi: ˜ro-Seto jj j ao*(+-Taygi+Karagas) Mator* Hungarian atr Mari Eastern jj Enets: ot Saami South j Selkup: atr Mansi Eastern nr Saami Inari j Permyak otenKhanty Southern j udaEnets Tundra j Estonian j Ingrian e Saami Ter otenSelkup Northern + + oieCroatian Molise j j av Komi Yazva m Saami Ume j eiSaami* Kemi j j Karelian Vote etr Mansi Western j * oetEnets Forest j +Krevin*) (+ atr Khanty Eastern j j eta Selkup Central EsenPermyak) (Eastern Olonetsian j ieSaami Pite j jj j Macedonian kl Saami Skolt * lvn + Slovene jj j j Yurats* otenMansi Southern ins +TreValley Torne (+ Finnish UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE j Lude j ueSaami Lule j otenSelkup Southern einSlovene Resian jj j j Nenets: jj j Veps kaaSaami Akkala Komi Serbo-Croat * j Tundra North 231 jjj jj Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 etc alc(Goidelic): Gaelic Celtic: vian: + +ReihFacna atFacna)+Pnslai emn(e hpe 1) Chapter (see German Pennsylvania + Franconian) East Yiddish + Franconian Rhenish (+ cniain Icelandic Scandinavian: rnoin Limburgian-Ripuarian Franconian: atc etBli:OdPrussian* Old Baltic: West Baltic: (Bachkan) Silesian) Faetar jj oac:IeoRmne Portuguese Ibero-Romance: Romance: o rnoin uc fian seCatr7) Chapter (see Afrikaans + Dutch Franconian: Low emnc etGrai:AgoSxn ct +Northumbrian) Frisian (+ West Scots Anglo-Saxon: Germanic: West Germanic: zulian) Polabian* Lechitic: Slavonic: West SALMINEN TAPANI apdns Sardinian Campidanese Sardinian ursyFrench Guernsey + (Occitan): aars iads Cantabrian) nito) + Mirandese + Sanabrese Nooia apna biza pla Lucanian) + Apulian + Abrizzian + Camponian + (Neopolitan elnc re +CpitGek + Greek) Greek Cypriot iupolitan (+ Greek Hellenic: + Albanian (Macedo-Romanian) [Otrantan] Salentine eos+Bruda Mra]+Franc-Comtois) + [Morvan] Burgundian + penois oac:Ctln(Vlnin)+ (+Valenciano) Catalan Romance: 232 4) Chapter languages Iranian South-West other 4) the Chapter for 4 Tat: Iranian: Chapter South-West Iranian: (Aryan): Indo-Iranian Armenian tan anb(e hpe 4) Chapter (see Yagnob rtoi:Welsh Brythonic: Gardiol Cimbrian jjj Dalecarlian j Raeto-Romance: jj j Judezmo (Judeo-German) Piedmontese Ukrainian jj j jjj Limousin Sorbian jjj tla (Tuscan Italian jjj jjj raieAlbanian Arvanite +Mo (+ al-oac:Oı Gallo-Romance: j atSaoi:Rsn(uhna)( ek Lme ok Hut- + Boyko + [Lemke] Lemko (+ (Ruthenian) Rusyn Slavonic: East e hpe o h te ni languages Indic other the for 4 Chapter see Saterlandic ot-atIain(e hpe 4) Chapter (see Iranian South-East TuoRmi)+ (Tauro-Romaic) + j Ldn,Judeo-Spanish) (Ladino, ` esyFrench Jersey wds +Gutnish) (+ Swedish jj hn* + cheno*) j j j jjj Auvergnat zc-lvk Czech Czech-Slovak: j eauin( oisa [Palesian]) Polissian (+ Belarusian Cornish* j Megleno-Romanian Ligurian Istriot Romansh jjj j jjjj jj Irish Faroese StrFrisian) (Sater Italo-Romance: + lmni +Asta wba)+ Swabian) + Alsatian (+ Alemannic ni (Indo-Aryan): Indic eta Italian) Central jjj Gottscheerish + IihGaelic) (Irish j j +Mone (+ ¨ Dalmatian* +Sr French) Sark (+ l: Languedocian Breton Arbe j j Ladin Poitevin-Saintongeais jjj apdca Greek Cappadocian Norn* j j ¨ atBli:Lithuanian Baltic: East lhrs Catalan Algherese uebrin(oel Franconian) (Moselle Luxemburgian reshe Kashubian Griko ´ jj gasque) j j j j Scanian Extremaduran Friul ¨ j ot Frisian North Corsican j aiin(+ Galician j oain(Daco-Romanian) Romanian Albanian Slovak j jjj jjj owga +Jemtian) (+ Norwegian j j IaitGek + Greek) (Italiot Mozarabic* Manx j Romanian: ian Italkian ot emnc(cniain:West (Scandinavian): Germanic North Provenc j j j Romani Lombard Picard +Slovincian*) (+ jjj j Gallo j Danish + * atr Slovak Eastern Sardinian: jjj * alrs Sardinian Gallurese Mn Gaelic) (Manx ¸al (Judeo-Italian) jj jj j ot-atIain Ossete Iranian: North-east F j j j j jj Tat j rnh( ori Cham- + Lorrain (+ French Norman +Nic¸ard)(+ Russian ala) Walloon Tsakonian o ao + Saxon Low j etr Flemish Western Istro-Romanian jjj pns Csiin +Lla- (+ (Castilian) Spanish j jj Gascon Lomavren* j Emilian-Romagnol j Jutish ot-etIain(see Iranian North-west jj Aragonese j Juhur jj iiin( aara + Calabrian (+ Sicilian Latvian ouoeeSardinian Logudorese otcGreek Pontic Asturian-Leonese To + jj j j +Aranese) (+ ¨ jjj lenyFrench Alderney j English Francoprovenc j itschu jj oih( Upper (+ Polish (Judeo-Tat) ovdn Rusyn Vojvodina lieProvenc Alpine j Gothic* jj atScandina- East ctihGaelic Scottish j j Plautdietsch ot Italian South jjj Latgalian oai(see Domari j + jj Aromanian jj jj Occitano- jj Sassarese Bavarian German + Frisian: Central j Vene- jj Mar- jj ¸al see Oc ¸al (+ + + jj jj j j Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 Budukh Megeb) eii languages Semitic Inkhokvari ogl(uh Monguor) (Huzhu Mongul Kalmyk jjj Dagur Mongolic 4) Chapter (see + Turkish Khalaj Turkic: Common Chuvash Turkic Avar Avar-Andi-Tsezic: Daghestanian: Nakh: Nakh-Daghestanian Shapsug) (+ Abaza Abkhaz: Abkhaz-Adyge Georgian Kartvelian Maltese Arabic: Semitic jjj + Akhvakh Tatar 4) 5) Chapter Chapter (see (see Afshar + Turk) Iraqi Khakas Kirghiz Kumyk lbgtTatar Alabugat aa ukc ua +Toja) (+ Tuvan Turkic: Sayan oo seCatr4) Chapter (see Mogol j Bats + Krimchak +Kamas*) (+ j j jj jjj j Karachay-Balkar Archi j jj ikagDagur Sinkiang Oyrat otenAltay Southern rma Turkish Crimean Bagvalal j ega:Lezgian Lezgian: Svan jj j Bezhta hce-nuh Chechen Chechen-Ingush: aadCeks(atCircassian) (East Kabard-Cherkes j jjj j Udi + j + jj JdoCienTatar) (Judeo-Crimean alk ze + Uzbek Karluk: Abkhaz yro Arabic Cypriot Karagash Zan: j acuinO Manchurian (Kapucha) j acuinKirghiz Manchurian jj Tindi Khinalug Mingrelian jjj jj j jjj jj age MneMonguor) (Minhe Manguer aa +Sbra aa)+ Tatar) Siberian (+ Tatar j + + Ubykh eie Turkic: Yenisey j hmia Mongol Khamnigan Chamalal utTatar Yurt Urum Tabasaran j j Dukha ¨ Hunzib lo j ¨ * l Turk Ili j t e hpes4ad7frteohrAai and Arabic other the for 7 and 4 Chapters see j Laz jj j jjj hrsnTurk Khorasan jj zrajn (Azeri) Azerbaijani icsin(dg) dg Ws Circassian) (West Adyge (Adyge): Circassian (Tuha) jj (Fuyu j j j jjj hr uu seCatr5) Chapter (see Yugur Shira Andi: (Chan) Ingush Karakalpak ua*( Armeno-Kipchak*) (+ Cuman* j Tsezic: Lak j jjj Agul yu +Lopnor) (+ Uygur ¨ otenAltay Northern Kirghiz) j Oguz: Andi Tofa jjj j Tsez j aga( atg+Kbci+ Kubachi + Kaytag (+ Dargwa Rutul Buryat jjj j aaaTatar Baraba j Gagauz j j aah( ica Uzbek) Kipchak (+ Kazakh Botlikh jjj (Dido) eaTri:Ykt+ Yakut Turkic: Lena uke + Turkmen Bonan ay uu seCatr5) Chapter (see Yugur Saryg j Tsakhur j jj UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE aha +Anlu+ Aynallu (+ Kashkay j Mongolian +Bla Gagauz) Balkan (+ Shor j j j jjj at seCatr5) Chapter (see Santa Hinukh Godoberi Kipchak: j Trukhmen Bashkir j j hlmTurk Chulym Kryts jjj j j Khvarshi Monguor: j j Karaim Ordos Karata Crimean (Kryz) jj Dolgan j Nogay Salar 233 jjj jj j j j j j j Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 Itelmen Kamchatkan Chukchi Chukotkan Yukagir Tundra Yukagi Ket Yeniseian Nivkh Jurchen*) (+ Tungusic: North Tungusic SALMINEN TAPANI 234 Solon j * Yug jjj WsenKamchadal) (Western jj * Kerek Udege jj Arin* j ie(e hpe 5) Chapter (see Sibe +Cua*+Omok*) + Chuvan* (+ * Even jj j j Oroch Koryak: Pumpokol* +Arman*) (+ jjj Alutor j Nanay otenKamchadal* Southern jj Assan* jj +Pln oyk+Krg Koryak) Karaga + Koryak Palana (+ Evenki j Ulcha j oetYukagir Forest j Kott* +Orochen) (+ jj Orok j (Uilta) atr Kamchadal* Eastern j Negidal jjj acu Manchu Manchu: jj Solon j + Koryak Ongkor Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 Arde fe eadda igelnug ihPoeca.– Provenc¸al. with endangered. Definitely language Italian. single to a shifting are as people regarded younger Varacho, 100,000 but Often Val approximately Mairo, ages, by (Val all Sestriero) Piedmont of Pignerol, of speakers Vinai, valleys upper Limoun, the Entraigas, in d’Esturo, Val spoken southernmost is the it Italy, and In Haute-Provence, elderly. de Ise Alpes of of parts parts northern the Hautes-Alpes, ewe 000ad3,0.Sm hlrnlantelnug,btte a stop Sar- may Logudorese Provenc or they Alpine Italian but of influence language, probably the the Endangered. speakers, is strong. many learn speakers For is age. of children dinian school number Some at The it 30,000. in Sardinia. using century and northwestern mid-fourteenth 20,000 in the Alghero from between deriving of community town immigrant the old an by spoken eetrpr,nwol n pae skont elvn.Sm ecnat of descendants Some extinct. Nearly living. Russian. be to Tatar to shifted Alabugat have known most is but to Saami, speaker according Kildin one and Lovo- speak elderly, only Saami of all now 1990s, Akkala centre Federation, early report, the the Russian Lovozero, recent in the speakers to a in eight translocated were Province forcibly There Murmansk County. were zero southern speakers in the Babino where from of village the in definitely as regarded Saami be Akkala must it. commu- language in the literacy the of Avar, no size to of is small up com- position There the be endangered. expatriate dominant of may the the because There but and in Azerbaijan. the children, nity as in in many County well County including (Quba) as speakers, Kakhib Kuba 5,000 Federation, in in Tsegob Russian Akhvakh-dere and the of Tlyanub munity in Ratlub, be Daghestan of can of villages Republic it the in now and but County curriculum school in Akhvakh role schools. for local no newspaper in Russian, local had subject one now of a in Agul is as recently, place there influence taught and took Until years, increasing experiments recent Agul. in the Dargwa, Literary in again notably endangered. and as century definitely languages, nineteenth well as the neighbouring as language dominant reasons the Lezgian, more are regarding and there were of ages, speakers Tabasaran all presence 18,000 of Lak, com- the speakers nearly expatriate of as 1989, of number number In large such relatively a Federation. Kurag, the in Russian Tpig, Despite and the Burkikhan, reported. Daghestan in Richa, of Republic elsewhere them the munities amongst in County, Fite, Kurakh and in Burshag, villages five and Agul languages of list Alphabetical lhrs Catalan Algherese lenyFrench Alderney ` h ecp h ot n h etr odraes,Dro areas), border western the and north the (except che [125] [115] ` acsa otenDgetn pkni fenvlae nAu County Agul in villages fifteen in Spoken Daghestan. southern Caucasia: eb ehp vr1000sekr,btms fte r ideae or middle-aged are them of most but speakers, 100,000 over perhaps by re ¸al (or .See See . acsa etr ahsa.Soe nsxvlae nAkhvakh in villages six in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: [66] aioSaami Babino i Algherese [in Nogay Norman nFac,Apn rvn¸li pkni h eatet of departments the in spoken is Provenc¸al Alpine France, In ) [8] alguere otenErp:Kl eisl.Erirspoken Earlier peninsula. Kola Europe: Northern ` s ] [60] tl:a uligdaeto Catalan of dialect outlying an Italy: Gardiol UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ˆ e(xettenorth), the (except me [67] tl:soe in spoken Italy: 235 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 eadda entl nagrd nii o rte agae n usa and Russian and language, Aragonese written children. a many be below not schools. must includes in language is being and the used Andi Avar 20,000, as are of endangered. Avar as given position definitely high dominant usually as as the regarded as is be such may speakers reasons figure for in of Nevertheless, actual Daghestan number the of Republic but The the 10,000, Federation. in County Russian Botlikh the in Kvankhidatl’, and (Munib), the Muni endangered. and Severely language, impossible. literary be Andi Alutor to out specific turned a has been Koryak never written of has of speakers the use the including There of Kamchatka, speak Itelmen. many northern 100 by and and than communication Even central interethnic ‘fewer in for County, groups used Olyutor ethnic still in neighbouring cf. are Vyvenka elderly; dialects of fewer Alutor are village language’. much speakers the most are in children; living There any Koryak. Alutor the if and in of reports few Karaga, dialects Kibrik very proper, in considered Koryak. including and Alutor often District speakers, Olyutor Autonomous are groups, 2,000 Koryak which than of dialect in of most three County all including Includes Tigil’ Palana, Isthmus, Federation. of Kamchatkan Russian north the the the and of counties region Karaga the in few a spoken are There time. Alutor long a for endangered. Provenc¸al, influence Severely speakers. Alpine Italian older of South mainly dialect strong hundred outlying under an been is has Gardiol which Calabria. in Piedmontese Guardia SALMINEN TAPANI o ie omncto.I a eniflecdb a n vr Definitely Avar. and and Lak school by in used influenced are highly 236 been Russian is and has Archi Avar family, It and to its it, communication. up endangered. Within in by wider literacy children. Federation Russian no of for the is number in There a Daghestan divergent. including of speakers, Republic the 1,000 in County Definitely Charoda greatly. vary to many Archi likely but is language, competence the ethnic Speakers’ learning larger age. children much school be at endangered. a may it of there using out places, stop speakers and some 100,000 Catanzaro In under Cosenza, population. probably Taranto, nearly Potenza, by in Avellino, provinces spoken in refugees Palermo mainly earlier) villages even scattered (or sixteenth-century fifty and fifteenth- of but language language, endangered. the Definitely language. learn more Arbe second children times a Few several as language. are studied actively the there also but of is 10,000, knowledge Aragonese below some perhaps with is people speakers active of number Arago of province historical ao,Sbab n iaoz,i h otenpr fteHec Usa einin (Somon- region (Uesca) River Huesca Aragon the notably of Pyrenees, part Arago northern the of the northeast of in the valleys Ribagorza, and high Sobrarbe the tano), in mainly spoken ¨ reshe [110] [130] i Russian [in ¨ Albanian i Aragonese [in acsa otenDgetn pkni h ilg fAci(rhb in (Archib) Archi of village the in Spoken Daghestan. southern Caucasia: acsa etr ahsa.Soe nnn ilgs nldn Andi, including villages, nine in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: luosi jazyk aljutorskij [96] ´ ,mi on en ru n Sabin and Graus being towns main n, tl:a uligdaeto Ts)Abna eiigfo the from deriving Albanian (Tosk) of dialect outlying an Italy: aragone ´ n daetprso aar.TdyAaoeeis Aragonese Today Navarra. of parts adjacent and n nagrdlanguages Endangered ´ s ] seln Aytr etravoided) better ‘Alyutor’ (spelling ] [59] pi:oiial pkni otprso the of parts most in spoken originally Spain: 19:28 hto h 0 ethnic 400 the of that 268) (1991: ˜a ´ io(aing) The (Samianigo). nigo [179] Siberia: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 osekAvrnt u eyfwi n hlrnlani.Ee h agaeo h most the Bagvalal endangered. of Severely language French. the by Even influenced heavily it. be learn to children likely any is speakers if competent few very but Auvergnat, speak to rn h eatet fCna ecp uilcrgo) at-or,adPuy-de- Arde and in areas Haute-Loire, border western region), the and Loire, Aurillac in (except Cantal is of Do departments Asturian-Leonese the Nevertheless, ering 15,000 then. in to presence Auvergnat since 10,000 some Spain. some gained life and Portugal has by do in it public region Miranda both and endangered Vimioso the and 1999, is increasingly in in the media estimate there spoken in recognised reasonable is education, towns officially the language a was two in it the used in but people; extent Portugal, and exactly some In to region known Asturias. is Douro language not in the system official, is as school Spain recognised not in Though 100,000. speakers of number rvne( Province ae fKuhaa lnoa vnd n ees nTuaaCut n the and County Tsumada in Gemerso and Kvanada Tlondoda, Khushtada, of lages hlrnlantelnug,adt uhlse xeti h etr at fLeo of parts western the Castille-Leo in of extent region lesser autonomous much to and language, the learn children ande Asturian Asturian-Leonese the learn children endangered. Nogay any Severely prob- Astrakhan if perhaps Greek. is few by are Very use influenced people. regular There heavily of are and Greece. number idiolects rapidly smaller central All proceeded much language. and has a shift to Peloponnese language confined Boeotia of ably a Attica, sections but in speakers, smaller 50,000 areas few rural a the and extensively occupy (Voiotı that communities in immigrant found endangered. now Severely Albanian age. probably the Arvanite school learn is at children speakers it speakers Some 400,000 using Macedonia. of stop to of number Republic many be up the but largest may suggest language, and figure the Greece Albania factual by case, from followed the any data Albania, Greece, In recent in alone. hand, especially 350,000, Aromanian there other shift at many the estimated language and been on been rapid has lower; Vlach a also speakers of names have of number because the there total but by century, The Romania. known twentieth in immi- century early immigrants Aromanian-speaking eighteenth the Macedonia, the traditionally of since from Republic Tsintsars; are deriving the there Nis groups in Yugoslavia, between pockets grant especially former small Serbia, in central several In the in elsewhere Bulgaria. in as another and and well Macedonia Greece as Greek northern Albania, in Epirus of and parts Thessaly in one areas, larger Leo Aromanian ˆ ´ e n xedn oteGna eini lir h Saint-Bonnet-le-Cha the Allier, in region Gannat the to extending and me, ˆ ,etnigt h otesencre fPrua.Atra-ens o simply (or Asturian-Leonese Portugal. of corner northeastern the to extending n, s ]) ´ ) otenEbe (E Euboea southern a), [57] [ as called (also )srie anyi suisaon veo(Uvie Oviedo around Asturias in mainly survives ]) asturianu Leonese i Auvergnat [in (or pi ale nms at ftehsoia rvne fAtra and Asturias of provinces historical the of parts most in earlier Spain Aromunian See . as nw as known (also n nteSnbi eini aoaPoic ( Province Zamora in region Sanabria the in and ) [95] Bagulal Nogay ree notyn ilc f(ok lainsoe nold in spoken Albanian (Tosk) of dialect outlying an Greece: auvernha ,or ) ´ [116] vi) otenAdo (A Andros northern vvoia), Macedo-Romanian ` Bable s ´ or ,weepoal l paesaeedry The elderly. are speakers all probably where n, acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevil- the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: auvernhat nPrua nw oal as locally known Portugal in ; ` h.Teemyb vr1000pol able people 100,000 over be may There che. ] [63] ) [93] rne pkni nae cov- area an in spoken France: h akn.Soe ntwo in Spoken Balkans. the ´ do) oiti,Argolis Corinthia, ndros), UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ˇ n ldv,and Kladovo, and Sanabrese Mirandese ´ )weesome where u) ˆ euregion teau nthe in ) [ mir- 237 ´ n Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ru.Teei oltrc ni,btAebiaii sdi coladfrwider for and school in used is ethnic Azerbaijani the but 238 of it, members some in to literacy including endangered. refer and Definitely speakers, no probably communication. County literature is 1,000 (Quba) in There approximately Kuba found group. are figures in There higher Pirusti children; and Azerbaijan. Deli-Kaya in of elsewhere communities expatriate the u ti o la fte otnet s ti dlho.Rglruesaemostly are users Regular adulthood. in it completely endangered. language, use Severely Budukh strongly. the almost to felt learning continue is stopped are they influence children French children if of although clear number competent, to not fully small language is a in it Now reported the but were 1970. speakers and of 240,000 1950 only transmission between but speakers, The million a 1997. over were there 1950s, are Russian and Breton Avar but communication. be it, wider must in for language literacy and the Avar, no school of is in the position There used Federation. of dominant endangered. Russian because the definitely the but and as community in regarded children, the many Daghestan of including of size speakers, Republic small 4,000 the approximately in are County There communication. Botlikh wider in for dominant Miarsu and the school no in and is used Botlikh community There are Russian endangered. the and definitely of Avar as but regarded including size of it, be speakers, Republic small in must 7,000 literacy language the the to the Avar, of in up of be because County position may Tsunta but There in children, Federation. many Russian Khasharkhota the and in Tlyadal, Daghestan Bezhta, of lages hnte eesitdt usa.Brb aa utb eadda severely as regarded be must 1964 Tatar the until Bats Baraba while Tatar Tatar, Russian. in Baraba to operated speak 8,000 shifted Schools elderly are Russian. endangered. were the There and only they Tatar. Tatar but when Siberian use group, mainstream generations ethnic by Tataryounger the Baraba influenced Federation. of Russian been the members recently in Province more Novosibirsk of has parts western the in regarded Tatar it. be Baraba in must language literacy no the Avar, size is of small There position the endangered. of dominant definitely The Because the as Federation. 6,000. and Russian expatriate and community of 4,000 the the number between in of a somewhere Daghestan in lies as of speakers well Republic of as number the County in Akhvakh elsewhere in communities Tlibisho and Tlissi of villages SALMINEN TAPANI asi ehp nykonb ml ru fedr.Teei oltrc ni,but it, in literacy no is communication. There Bezhta wider elders. for of of is and of group number Bats variety school small in Modern traditional a The fewer. used more by County. is far a known Georgian be and only Akhmeta speakers, may perhaps most users in is with active Bats Zemo-Alvani Georgian but by 3,000, of influenced as heavily village given usually the is speakers in Spoken gia. as called (also i Breton [in as called (also [129] [112] acsa otenAebia.Soe ntevlaeo uuhadin and Budukh of village the in Spoken Azerbaijan. northern Caucasia: [142] acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevlae fBtihand Botlikh of villages the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: Batsbi brezhoneg iei.A uligdaeto aa pkni h aaasteppes Baraba the in spoken Tatar of dialect outlying An Siberia. Kapucha i Georgian [in ) ] ) [56] [123] rne pknmil nwsenBitn.I the In Brittany. western in mainly spoken France: acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevil- the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: tsova-tush] [110] acsa otesenGeor- northeastern Caucasia: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 re ilcssilsoe ntergoso slai eri n lvriin Alaverdi and Georgia in Tsalka of regions the the and Greece, in survi- in spoken and most Turkey which in still the extinct after dialects is before exchanges, Greek villages, near population Greek Cappadocian Greece. (Silli) adjacent subsequent in Sille and the settled in and vors (Pharasa) notably 1915 Faras Turkey, of and central genocide Kayseri, in near Cappadocia of villages Konya, interior the in munities osbeta ubro hlrnsillantelnug,btmn families Definitely many groups. age but exactly, Buryat between known language, presumably, not the and, is areas, learn competence different Speakers’ still endangered. language. within children majority varies is the of It but less. Croatia. to number much in probably shifted spoken now a have 1970s, dialects the that Serbo-Croat in from speakers possible extensively 28,000 differ approximately to were There said is It genland. Croatian Burgenland h agae u fe tpuigi tsho g.Dfiieyendangered. Definitely age. Greek school Cappadocian at learn it children using Many stop Sardinian. often Logudorese but cf. language, 500,000; the approximately perhaps is is ers endangered. Buryat severely Western as Sardinian regarded as Campidanese be such there may dialects Bargut and of mod- Old situation is and shrinking the alarming, whole continually more but a even monolinguals, as territory few Buryat Buryat-speaking which very Mongolian. Buryat lit- being Buryat, of the all the Mongolia varieties Eastern endangered, and as as China on serves erately counted In Mongolian China. officially based in Written are population script Mongolian; varieties Buryat Written the Cyrillic for of Mongolian. language in to use erary standard shifting earlier are the literary Bargut, Speakers replaced Old a Buryat. the Eastern has among on especially Rus- than Buryat Mongolia, and Buryat Buryat Western speakers, and between on child China even stronger few in been spoken relatively has are normally are influence there is children sian Buryat Russian Federation, Western Russian cities the many the in Among of speakers. including but areas language, Russian, dialects, rural languages, the all many dominant learning In from of Mongolian. pressure Mongolia speakers under and Inner 400,000 everywhere Chinese in is over League Buryat probably Right Buir but are and Hulun children, Banner There in Baerhu respectively, China. Chen banners, in in pinyin Baerhu region steppe Xin Chinese Barga Left the [in and of part Bargut southwestern seven- the Old the in from respectively. New deriving and centuries, Manchuria recent Bargut Baerhu in eighteenth by Old Buryat as China. and Eastern well and of teenth as Mongolia branches Federation, Dis- earlier of Russian Autonomous are regions the Buryat Bargut adjacent in (Aginskiy) in Province is Aga groups Chita Buryat in of immigrant in Eastern and dialect Transbaykalia. elsewhere Buryatia of outlying and of valley trict an Republic Barguzin Federation; the the Russian in Western in the spoken distinguished. spoken in District be is Autonomous Province can Buryat Buryat east, Irkutsk Western (Ust’-Ordynskiy) the in in Ust’-Orda elsewhere basin in from and Onon extending mainly Transbaykalia, the spoken moun- in to Sayan is Buryat west Eastern Buryat Eastern the the and in of region, Baykal north Angara Lake the the to in Cisbaykalia, and in tains Buryat Western groups, lect ssoe ntenrhr atadNwBru i hns pinyin Chinese [in Bargut New and part northern the in spoken is ] i hns pinyin Chinese [in [100] [40] [86] notyn ilc fGeksoe nafwioae com- isolated few a in spoken Greek of dialect outlying an uti:a uligdaeto eb-ra pkni Bur- in spoken Serbo-Croat of dialect outlying an Austria: Buliyate tl:soe nsuhr adna h ubro speak- of number The Sardinia. southern in spoken Italy: ] [159] iei,CiaadMnoi.Tooddia- old Two Mongolia. and China Siberia, UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE i Baerhu Xin Chen 239 ] Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 eta Selkup Central assimilated apparently have extinct. Greek, Recently Cappadocian Greek. from Pontic to partly derive which Armenia, SALMINEN TAPANI a pkni h on fGaz Lezn nVrn rvne on (Rowan), Roana Province, Verona (Lusern) in Luserna (Ljetzan) and 240 Province, Vicenza Giazza in of (Rotz) Rotzo towns and (Mitterballe) the Mezzaselva in spoken ian ocre bu oiladeooia rbesrte hnteft ftenative the Chamalal of Criti- fate script. Cyrillic the in standard than written a rather endangered. create cally problems to best, attempts at ecological been Tomsk have speakers and There in mainly hundred language. seems counties social it of but Parabel’ awakening, about couple dialect national and of a a concerned movement Kargasok having are a basin of exists There There river elderly. parts Federation. all each probably eastern Russian with the the north, the in in in Province mainly Tym own, the its to south of the in Chaya the togitreec rmRsinadSbra aa,wihi pkno lower on spoken is with others which few Cimbrian Tatar, a are Siberian There and older. or endangered. Russian Critically middle-aged Chulym. from are speakers fluent them interference of of number The strong all Turk. thirty-five; Chulym of only dialects is as regarded be apparently can utb eadda entl nagrd hr sn ieayi t u vrand Avar but it, in French Islands literacy language communication. Channel no the wider Avar, for is of and There position school endangered. dominant in used the definitely are and as Russian community regarded Because the 6,000. be of and must size 4,000 Russian the between small somewhere in the Daghestan lies of of speakers Republic of the number Gadyri, in The Richaganik, County Federation. Tsumada, Tsumada Agvali, in Kvankhi Gakvari, and Lower Gigatl’, Gakvari, Upper of villages the ait.Cucihsawitnsadr nCrli cit u ti iteue nedu- in used men’s little the is Turk of it Chulym favour but in script, endangered. Cyrillic levelled severely in even being or standard and now Definitely written phono- cation. speech are a be men’s has differences to between Chukchi the used differences variety. but There safe, but grammatical, language. rather and speech, be the women’s lexical to speaking thought also but reported, children often possibly Chukchi, were few is logical, speakers Reindeer very Chukchi 11,000 actually or inflated. are 1989, slightly Inland be there In the may division. figure and dialectal the Chukchi but corresponding Sea as no known or is groups Coastal there economical in or and (Yakutia) geographical Maritime Sakha two District of the are Republic Autonomous There the Federation. Koryak parts Russian in in most the County covering regions (Nizhnekolymskiy) region, Kolyma adjacent Sea Lower District, Bering and the Autonomous to Chukchi coast of Arctic the from Chukotka around Chukchi h ideCuy,atiuayt h pe b,mil nTgldtCut in Ku County Fed- names Tegul’det Russian special in the the by mainly in known Region Ob’, varieties Krasnoyarsk upper Turkic in extinct the County Two to Tyukhtet eration. tributary and Province a Tomsk Chulym, middle the i Russian [in (or i Russian [in Cimbro as called (also [37] iei:i h ai fteuprO’ado t rbtre,from tributaries, its on and Ob’ upper the of basin the in Siberia: c ˇ i German [in ) ktkjjazyk ukotskij c ˇ mlnkjjazyk amalinskij .See hlmTatar Chulym Norman Zimbrisch] as nw as known (also ] ] [118] or ideCuy language Chulym Middle acsa etr ahsa.Soe in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: [51] tl:a uligdaeto Bavar- of dialect outlying an Italy: Luoravetlan ) [177] ) [150] ¨ a ¨ iei:i and in Siberia: i n Kecik and rik iei:on Siberia: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ia smc togrta hto n te ioiylnug nFac,bti is it but France, in language Cor- minority of – other position any endangered. The of world. expatriate that increasingly the in than of speakers nevertheless stronger of parts much thousands other is of off and sican tens Island France are Maddalena in on There elsewhere spoken Sardinia. communities Also of (Corse). coast Corsica northeast of the island the of people 250,000 Corsican aycide er h agae u fe tpuigi tsho g.Definitely age. school at it Sardinian. using Logudorese stop cf. often The but 100,000; Corsican. language, – approximately of the endangered. perhaps dialect learn outlying is children an Many speakers is of Sardinian number Gallurese Sardinia. northeastern ete nKandrRgo;snete,mn oehv eundt h rma tis It Crimea. reliably: the speakers to mostly fluent fully returned Federation, of have number Russian the more represent the many figures in in these then, that however, 180,000 unlikely, since 20,000 tra- Province, Region; and the Kherson Krasnodar Tajikistan, in in in from both settled especially few lived elsewhere, a they and plus where Crimea Uzbekistan Ukraine, the the the from in officially reported in area been were 40,000 ditional have speakers over region 250,000 including coastal 1989, steppe Union, In northern southern Tatar. Soviet the the Dobruja Crimean in spoken in the Nogay the Turkish under was of Crimean of subsumed speakers Tatar of while parts Crimean those Crimea, World and Romania. southern the Second area of adjacent the parts the and central in after the Bulgaria speakers across Asia Tatar northeastern Central Crimean in to also region mainly are there There from War. of deported number were endangered. speakers The Definitely age. dialect. Tatar school at mixed Crimean it a children using Many stop called often Sardinian. be but Logudorese language, cf. also been the 100,000; has learn can approximately It perhaps it Corsican. and is that Ligurian of speakers profoundly Sardinian, dialect Logudorese so outlying notably languages, another Tuscan, Romance as other treated by here influenced is Sardinian sarese rsiog Gru) tsesmr ieyta hycretyuealclvreyof variety in local Matzel a least use at Tru currently and und influences, they Rest- substate that nische Germanic likely numerous more with seems Venetan it (Gereut), Mo Frassilongo dei Val Mo or sina, nrcn eae,i sdfiieyednee.Aohrotyn ilc fBavarian of dialect outlying actively Another more it endangered. promote definitely to pre- attempts is as some been it have known has decades, there Cimbrian and Cimbrian recent Although media, modern languages. in and and these all school well, by are in as influenced Speakers sence German heavily there. knowing Cim- even be many safe to learn Venetan, as tends apparently and regarded children Italian be of cannot of in couple language number fluent the are the a Luserna, comuni while still Although Sette in people, is in older. brian 500 speakers Cimbrian or 1,500 some approximately Luserna, middle-aged the of In mostly and community today. Giazza, whole till in the speakers up hundred by survived which and used of has century, century, language language sixteenth thirteenth the the the the Giazza in in as in established well founded only Gemeinden) as was (Dreizehn Rotzo Luserna (Sieben comuni and comuni Tredici Roana which Sette including from as century, (Lafraun) known twelfth Lavarone areas the larger in two established in Gemeinden) spoken Earlier Province. Trento in ` hn tl a 0 paesi irzo(lrt) ,0 nPalu in 1,000 (Florutz), Fierozzo in speakers 400 has still cheno [87] Mo ` rne pknb prxmtl w hrso h oa ouainof population total the of thirds two approximately by spoken France: cheno asrs Sardinian Sassarese [139] ¨ mmersprachen a ensoe nteFriaVle Fretl al e Fe del Valle (Fersental, Valley Fersina the in spoken been has ` atr uoe rgnlysoe nteCie,btmost but Crimea, the in spoken Originally Europe. Eastern hn)i rnoPoic.Atog hr r eot that reports are there Although Province. Trento in cheni) 18)rfr oMo to refers (1989) [89] tl:soe nnrhetr adna Sas- Sardinia. northwestern in spoken Italy: alrs Sardinian Gallurese ` hn sextinct. as cheno UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE [88] ` Pli,ad40in 460 and (Palai), tl:soe in spoken Italy: Germa- 241 ` r- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 oin oa,Crli) n rjc fanwltrr agaei urnl being currently is language Mon- literary (Manchu, new systems or a various of middle-aged 242 in project are Dagur a speakers language. write and all the to Cyrillic), or retaining Roman, made communities most golian, been where those have Qiqihar) Heilongjiang, within attempts and in fluent it Many groups Nenjiang generally while most are of well, among Speakers retained cities older. children being the In to is speakers. in language transmitted 50,000 the (as be than basin) to more Imin ceased probably the has the are in in There (especially Janhunen Buir Siberia. cf. Hulun adjacent basin); of Amur a within parts middle as covered the well (in languages as and region basin) Nonni minority Daur Nonni Aihui the Northern the the Dawa (in (in in Mongolia Province Morin population Inner Heilongjiang small in in in and League mainly basins) Buir Imin China, Hulun and in in banners Manchuria autonomous Ewenki northwestern and people, central Many language. endangered. been hybrid Severely Dagur has Cyprus. a area Northern influence Arabic Greek-speaking of Greek Republic government-controlled, Cypriot Turkish Greek. the self-declared make to in the moved of to younger from fluent have out and time young, more speakers the language, long are 2,000 especially the left, a than any learn for fewer are strong children far there no are if Probably There speakers, Maronites. north. the thousand in many village Kormakiti language the the Arabic towards Cypriot authorities Romanian endangered. Severely of hostile. be attitude to continues The themselves. amongst Csa few a also were there merly, h odv eini oai,piaiyi Baca in primarily Romania, in region Moldova the epeal osekCsa young speak still are to There Transylvania. thou- able in of community people Szekler tens the some from Csa of immigrants not century range are who the Moldova in in is speakers speakers of Csa number sands. The Moldova. of Republic a on based is figure rough this endangered. above.Csa even Definitely the explained estimate. but of as reliable best, Tatars, shores a at Crimean than southern speakers rather the the thousand guess of along best few fate region a the Yalta are shared the There speakers in the villages but of Crimea, number less a be in spoken may of Turkish people influence younger Crimean strong and exhibit endangered. both Bulgarian, but speakers Definitely Tatar. language, of all or Crimean Probably the speakers in Russian competent adulthood. learn covers languages, in children Turkic which communities, it speakers, related some using ‘Tatar’ In stop 25,000 Nogay. Crimean many to and In to 11,000. Tatar principally up and Crimean 6,000 refers are between ‘Tatar’ somewhere not there lies term may speakers Tatar Romania ‘Tatar’ official of Crimean number the of the speakers Bulgaria, and language Tatar, In first solid 100,000’. of number exceed the that me the advises in writes Comrie SALMINEN TAPANI ´ ngo ´ as spelled (also Hungarian ´ ngo ´ ugra eie rmteMdl gs hr r loHungarian also are there Ages; Middle the from derives Hungarian as called (also [135] [23] Daur ta ftewrdslanguages world’s the of Atlas atr uoe notyn ilc fHnainsoe in spoken Hungarian of dialect outlying an Europe: Eastern atr uoe notyn ilc fTrihoriginally Turkish of dialect outlying an Europe: Eastern ´ i hns pinyin Chinese [in ) ngo yro aoieArabic Maronite Cypriot 19:189.I ale ie h au agaearea language Dagur the times earlier In 128–9). (1997: ´ ugra nafwvlae,btte aeyueit use rarely they but villages, few a in Hungarian ´ ngo ´ ´ ngo sekn ilgses ftervrPu nthe in Prut river the of east villages -speaking ´ u r anysvnenh n eighteenth- and seventeenth- mainly are but Dawoer ˘ ) ,Nat n a¸ onis for- counties; Ias¸i and Neamt¸ u, [105] 19)ta MraS Polinsky S. ‘Maria that (1994) ] [156] yrs pknmil in mainly spoken Cyprus: acui:soe in spoken Manchuria: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 etr rbtr otelwrIts,mil nKnaCut n h southern the and County Konda in mainly Irtysh, lower the older. to or tributary middle-aged western a to therefore shift are Mansi them Eastern speakers of active many but most a children, age; endangered. probably some Definitely school are including There at include speakers, Khanty. Russian dialects Vakh-Vas’yugan thousand and Khanty adjacent and of Surgut Eastern Khanty the Federation. couple Nefteyugansk, Russian Surgut and in the Khanty, mainly District in Salym Province Pim, Autonomous Tomsk the of Khanty-Mansi parts to in Vas’yugan counties the Nizhnevartovsk from Ob’, middle small very the Khanty endangered. Given Eastern it. definitely in as language, monolingual regarded lies native be be the speakers to nevertheless speak used must of to children Dukha continue 1970s number group population, the the until The of of least way handbooks. traditional at members the and the although general and of isolation Tuvan, geographic in all from the practically of clear distinct life, because in and clearly made Buryatia 200, and of but always 100 Republic to between the not related and is west closely the is this in Tuva Dukha of northeast. Republic the the bordering area an Kho in of district Tsaagannuur yasm-oai ru iigt h otws fLk Kho Lake of northwest the to living group semi-nomadic a by defi- as the Dukha regarded a of be with size 5,500 must Siberia small Dolgan 1989, in Russian, the languages In of of smaller endangered. position Evenki. because nitely few dominant from Nevertheless, the the speakers. influences of and child community one deep of is with number it Yakut substantial and of Dolgan reported, Federation. were dialect Russian speakers the in outlying in as (Yakutia) an well Sakha as of is Republic District the Autonomous in Nenets) County and Anabar (Dolgan Taymyr in counties Khatanga the endangered. of definitely Because as Dolgan regarded Swedish/ be to must language shifting the are comunity people the of younger size areas small other in while A of standard, south (occasionally the in A dialict spoken In characteristic is ‘Elfdalian’) most as Its to people. referred 10,000 approximately by Province dyfletbtudrteiflec fnihorn agae.Teei wide- is There Definitely languages. languages. Dalecarlian neighbouring other of and report- Chinese influence cases Sinkiang Uygur, many thousand. the Kazakh, in few endangered. are a in under Speakers of multilingualism range children. but spread the some in by fluent lies learnt number it edly The being but 1763. possibly exactly in is known Manchuria Dagur Dagur. not from of is Sinkiang dialect speakers outlying to Xinjiang of an in translocated is Prefecture were Tacheng Dagur speakers in Sinkiang Dagur Sinkiang, China. of in Region region Autonomous (Yili) Uygur Ili the in spoken Sinkiang: lne.Icesnl nagrd – endangered. Increasingly planned. ¨ vae,Dlcrini anandqiewl n thsrcnl rae literary created recently has it and well quite maintained is Dalecarlian lvdalen, as spelled (also [155] [157] iei:suhr amrpnnua pknmil nDdnaand Dudinka in mainly Spoken peninsula. Taymyr southern Siberia: as called (also [30] otenErp:See.Soe ntecnrlprso Dalarna of parts central the in Spoken Sweden. Europe: Northern Tuha iei:soe ln h etr n atr rbtre othe to tributaries eastern and western the along spoken Siberia: i ogla nw as known Mongolian [in ) od Mansi Konda ¨ vsgo ¨ egei h otenotrgo fMongolia, of region northernmost the in League l ikagDagur Sinkiang ) [25] iei:i h ai ftervrKonda, river the of basin the in Siberia: ¨ vae onyb ,0 speakers. 3,000 by County lvdalen tsaatan as called (also ] UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE [153] ¨ vsgo ogla spoken Mongolia: uksa Dagur Turkestan ¨ ,mil nthe in mainly l, 243 ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 iuto satal etri h atr isoaaesta nteRepublic. the in than areas diaspora Eastern Even only The it the future. use the in them in of it better for most endangered. use but little actually Increasingly language, have the will is they learn that speak- children situation means were of which them relatives, were lot elderly of a speakers with 500,000 Quite and approximately 770,000 Erzya. languages; the Saratov of 1989, Mordvin in ers Samara, two In Mordovia Novgorod, the of Bashkortostan. for Republic Nizhniy and reported the in Tatarstan of areas provinces, south several and Orenburg northwest also the Federation; in Russian pockets small in also as viewed Erzya be constantly also been have can one Emilian-Romagnol Romagnol between of probably languages. and use separate is Emilian two of speakers Pesaro-Urbino endangered. domains of the Increasingly the number and narrowing. but The Marino, million Marche. San two of dis- and of region Lunigiana Republic the the Lombardy, the in Tuscany, southern province northwestern in Mantua in and trict Voghera, Pavia, of the provinces outside groups diaspora Emilian-Romagnol the many to In reserved language. is the eastern endangered. Mari’ in learn Increasingly actively; Republic. ‘Eastern children it term use all lan- to the practically the continue publications, Bashkortostan areas learn of in rural children remote majority areas Many in large In diaspora living Mari. the those Federation. the languages, only Eastern Russian but Mari of speaking guage, both the 500,000, parts for approximately in Republic, reported eastern provinces, them, Udmurt were speakers Orenburg the and 540,000 Tatarstan, and Bashkortostan, 1989, central Perm’ of in Yekaterinburg, parts and and mainly Mariy-El Spoken of Russia. Republic east-central Europe: Mari are Nearly Eastern there pessimistic. more likely even Russian most are the but reports some exactly, in and known speakers, District extinct. elderly not of Autonomous is handful speakers a Khanty-Mansi only of in number The County Federation. Sovetskiy of parts SALMINEN TAPANI rpia tnad,bt nCrli cit ofrigt au n Russian, and Yakut to ortho- Two conforming Koryak. script, or Yakut Cyrillic the Russian, older; 244 in or in middle-aged both multilingual 7,000. are as or speakers standards, given most bi- speakers; be graphical is child may no speakers population Koryak or of whole in few number probably very approximate is areas are figure the several the There that but and so reported, were Province inflated, speakers Bystraya slightly Kamchatka 8,000 the 1989, in in In group District. Kamchatka diaspora Auton- Autonomous small central Chukchi a Okhota in plus of Province, Federation, counties Russian region Anadyr the Magadan and in Bilibino in District and omous (Severo-Evenskiy), Region counties Even Khabarovsk Eveno-Batantay Yagodnoye Northern in Ola, County Upper and (Yakutia), and Sakha Ten’kinskiy (Nizhnekolymskiy), of Bulun Omsukchan, Republic the Abyy, Kolyma in Oymyakonskiy, counties Lower (Verkhnekolymskiy), (Srednekolymskiy), Kobyay, Kolyma Kolyma Ust’-Yansk, Middle Tomponskiy, Momskiy, Verkhoyansk, Allaykhovskiy, in areas [163] [17] iei:i otesenSbra rmteLn oteAay’ including Anadyr’, the to Lena the from Siberia, northeastern in Siberia: atr uoe eta usa pknmil nteesenprsbut parts eastern the in mainly Spoken Russia. Central Europe: Eastern otncalled (often [81] tl:soe ntergo fEii-oan,prso the of parts Emilia-Romagna, of region the in spoken Italy: edwMari Meadow fe h ags ilc group) dialect largest the after [20] Eastern Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 itntSln hl l ogetbihdvreiso vniaesbue under subsumed are terminology, Evenki Chinese of official pinyin varieties In Chinese long-established region. [in all Amur ‘Orochen’ while Autono- middle Evenki Solon, in the distinct the region pinyin some Tunguska in Chinese by and the [in learnt in and in ‘Evenki’ provinces still notably is reported Tomsk localities, District Evenki were some but and mous older speakers in or children 10,000 Irkutsk middle-aged the are Federation, of in them Russian of majority localities the The In 1989. few Buryatia. a of Republic in numbers, declining 0prcn ftegop anymdl-gdt lel.Te ersn ordaet of most dialects four at represent by of They spoken elderly. speakers to only remaining middle-aged is mainly the group, Evenki Evenki: the but of members, cent per ethnic 30 8,196 has nationality Oroqen aneac shge ntermt at fAu n ht rvne,a explained as provinces, Chita and the Amur language of in native parts of Atknine remote in level the Autonomous by settlements the in but Nenets) including higher Province, Autonomous is Region Sakhalin and maintenance Khabarovsk Evenki and (Dolgan Region (Yakutia), and Taymyr (Primor’ye) Evenki Region Sakha Maritime of of Krasnoyarsk of numbers and regions Republic largest region District adjacent the Khingan the including the in Federation, to District Russian and found extends Baykal the area are to language In north communities the the Manchuria. where in and south northern Amur Lena lower lower the of the the in spar- to and Amur Taymyr west population upper from the a and the in Yenisey by east, the spoken the from in Siberia, zone Sakhalin taiga of whole language the widest-spread covering sely the is Evenki golia. ilc fEe pkni ml osa okta h kos e,t h south the to available. Sea, is Okhotsk date exact the no at though Evenki recently, pocket extinct coastal became small that city, a Magadan in of spoken west Even – of endangered. Severely dialect use. limited have respectively, ne ogla hl h paeso h te ilcslv ln h mrbsnin basin Amur northeastern the in along live League dialects Buir other Province: the Hulun of Heilongjiang speakers in northwestern the Banner while Mongolia, Autonomous Inner Oroqen around tered h aadSlebsn ntemdl mr a osekr ne fy and fifty, under speakers no has Amur, middle the closely-related on the but basins speakers, archen Selpe child and some Fa has still the Amur, upper the on ruslvn otenrho h mraeas cainlyrfre oa Orochen. as to referred occasionally also are Amur also the possibly of and within north Orochen, differences the and dialectal to Evenki the living regarding Evenki-speaking area, home groups notably, some for weak; vast the is languages case separate the as as Kumarchen, the chil- and consistently of Birarchen and few learnt spite very small, is In are including Evenki China, Evenki children. in where most Altogether, Evenki Khamnigan language. by of the language second speakers among a thousand of except Evenki-speaking as of dren 1,000 sides couple Mongol approximately a Khamnigan Mongolian are are speak there there and also today, who the Siberian after 1917; League Khamnigan Buir in Hulun the in Revolution Banner Baerhu cen- on Chen October the in nineteenth from mainly Chen Transbaykalia settled early originally who but are to the border of who the in Russia Ewenke) Tungus Mongolia region from as Inner known migrated Onon-Argun in (also Khamnigan League who the Buir people, and the tury, Hulun ‘Yakut 1,000 to in as belong Banner than known speakers Barag (also less Tungus Evenki Reindeer numbering of Manchurian Ewenke’), groups the immigrant nationality: Ewenke recent official two Only people. elderly (or [164] Birar iei icuigprso h usa a at,MnhraadMon- and Manchuria East), Far Russian the of parts (including Siberia ,i h u n hnbsn,i nysoe yasalnme of number small a by spoken only is basins, Zhan and Xun the in ), otenmnrt languages minority Northern Ewenke Elunchun eesams xlsvl otecoeyrltdbut related closely the to exclusively almost refers ] Orochen Kumarchen nntvsdpinyin nativised in , rpr l vrfit er l,lv scat- live old, years fifty over all proper, (or 19) vnii losoe,in spoken, also is Evenki (1997); Manegir Arman a nacacoutlying archaic an was UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ,i h uaabasin Kumara the in ), Oroqen .Teofficial The ]. Selpechen Bir- 245 ,in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 lievlest h ot n ato a iSs nPemn ypras70,000 people. perhaps younger by among Piedmont Italian in to Susa shift di notable Val a 246 with of but east generations and all north of the speakers Arde to original the of valleys 2,000; Alpine parts by Doubs northernmost and called Jura the (locally in byFrancoprovenc¸al of to departments 15,000, the spoken extended by of Bresse) area parts the is southern of Francoprovenc¸al the of region in area the and Haute-Savoie), in traditional (mainly the and Ain within Rho in (Savoie departments speakers, all Savoy 35,000 almost approximately in in found still language: are they but Francoprovenc Yukagir. Tundra than rapidly fifty more Yukagir than even two dying less the endangered. be sixty Of are Critically to over multilingual. There seems those typically Yukagir region. are among Forest Speakers Kolyma found languages, Yukagir. are Tundra upper speakers cf. the pre- old; fluent Zyr- older, in years Sakha, centre and area of county middle-aged Republic wider the all the much speakers, in in a as County well in (Verkhnekolymskiy) now as viously Kolyma Federation, Nelemnoye the Upper Russian of between in the divided village yanka Kolyma, in the Province the in of Magadan concentrated sources and largely (Yakutia) the on Sakha zone, of forest Republic the in spoken Siberia: sntbeKat nune n one epemypee usa.Definitely Russian. prefer Yukagir may Forest people younger and there areas influence, some In endangered. age. Khanty school at notable Russian Nizhne- few to shift A of is many Nenets. but Tundra parts language, cf. the speakers; learn adjacent 1,500 children approximately the are the There and in Federation. District Autonomous Russian District Khanty-Mansi in Autonomous counties Beloyarskiy and Nenets Surgut vartovsk, Yamal in County Critically Nenets Nenets. Forest Tundra last The and older. Russian or also middle-aged are speaking per- them kilo- currently trilingual, of endangered. is 500 all mainly speakers practically approximately are and of moved speakers 40, number and gradually The 30 basin. have 150 between Yenisey haps last Enets the the Forest along Taymyr In northwards in of Federation. metres Russian County speakers the Dudinka the in in District Potapovo years, Autonomous of Nenets) village and the (Dolgan in concentrated now Yenisey, Enets Forest poor with but transcription, in Faetar IPA extinct possibly in China, ele- schools and Federation for elementary Russian used been the few Mongolia. script, has in a endangered language Cyrillic at Severely the in results. China publications; norm other in language written lan- occasional first, taught a the indigenous and often has textbooks prominent or Evenki second, mentary-school more a communities. also as Evenki spoken but are in Chinese Buryat, and Northern Yakut notably and guages, Russian only Not SALMINEN TAPANI ˆ eb ,0,i or y500 ntenrhr n eta at fIse of parts central and northern the in 5,000, by Loire in 1,000, by ne See . Francoprovenc ¸al as called (also [36] as called (also [76] iei:soe nPrCut n h otenprso Nadym of parts southern the and County Pur in spoken Siberia: nFac,ms ralsekr fFacpoeca r elderly, Francoprovenc¸al are of speakers all or most France, In ¸al Bay otenYukagir Southern ) [33] Harpitan iei:soe ntefrs oeo h lower the on zone forest the in spoken Siberia: ssoe nteAsaVle n nthe in and Valley Aosta the in spoken is ) or ` h n Dro and che oyaYukagir Kolyma ˆ ea el nItaly, In well. as me or ` Odul eb 2,000, by re ) [176] Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ml ieo h omnt n h otnigeirto,Fea sdefinitely the is of Faetar Because emigration, language. continuing the Friulian the to and loyal community remains including the probably population 1995, endangered. of the in size as reported for small were influence children, outlying speakers Italian an few 700 South is Approximately a Faetar strong Region. time. under Apulia long been in a has Province Foggia Francoprovenc¸al, which in – of Vaud, Vito Switzerland. dialect also San and Celle perhaps Evole France and Fribourg, of in Faeto and village endangered Valais the severely in of butItaly; used villages spoken, actively was mountain French most romande of in being dialect Suisse mainly Franc-Comtois in survives the where everywhere it Jura of spoken Canton earlier the except was Francoprovenc¸al Switzerland, In ua,drvn rmegtet-adnntet-etr mirto,cvrn the Ceadı covering Comrat, immigration, of areas nineteenth-century surrounding and and eighteenth- towns from deriving Bujak, Venetan by influenced towns Many heavily Gagauz in are 720,000. especially idiolects as age, Most school many endangered. evident. at Increasingly as is the it Italian. Venetan or about using and to stop 500,000 in estimates shift often to a and The but where 350,000 language, regions, Region. the from border Veneto learn range eastern in children speakers and Province of western Venezia number and in Province area Trieste Portogruaro except Giulia zia or-tatqe(asd or ein yasalprino h ouain Very population. Russian, the of portion like small a languages by region) Loire non-related de (Pays and Loire-Atlantique Turkish Gallo Balkan languages, related endangered. speaking neighbouring Increasingly Greek. by children closely and influenced Romanian no Bulgarian, strongly probably by been are are have communities both there the speakers areas, languages; Many many close in is Gagauz. dominant speakers but language, Gagauz to of the number learn shifting total children Sur- the cen- Some Gajal; 7,000 200,000. twentieth of approximately to number the Gagauz, unknown in an Macedonian 5,000 early and 4,000 only now: guch, approximately indicate speakers estimates were in few recent there Gagauz probably more tury, Maritime has but of Gagauz 1990 number in Balkan the 12,000 speakers. of Republic Ukraine; as the reported the from was from reported Bulgaria speakers were speakers 25,000 140,000 and 1989, Moldova In Bulgaria. in Orman Deli groups, three least as at Bulgaria further of are There parts Bul- Asia. other the in Central in as Varna and in found known from, Serbia collectively were Province inland Romania, or and in (Odesa) are of, as Gagauz north well settlements Odessa original the Gagauz the of to Scattered occupies region garia. region Gagauz coastal Maritime the Izmail as covering known territory, adjacent group separate the A Ukraine. and area, omous Vulca fMcdnaadi h otenprso h rvneo aeoi nGec;(ii) Greece; in Macedonia of Province (i) the of namely parts northern obscure, the Surguch somewhat in and remain Macedonia of proper Gagauz Gagauz Macedonian with connections linguistic ˘ e¸ ii h ot fteRpbi fMloa osiuigteGgu auton- Gagauz the constituting Moldova, of Republic the of south the in nes¸ti [69] [134] i Friulian [in ntergo fEin Araol)i uky n (iii) and Turkey; in (Adrianople) Edirne of region the in rne pkni h atr at fBitn n ntedprmn of department the in and Brittany of parts eastern the in spoken France: atr uoe pknpiaiyi eaieycmatae nw as known area compact relatively a in primarily Spoken Europe. Eastern furlan nsuhatr aeoi,aprnl ohwti h Republic the within both apparently Macedonia, southeastern in aknGagauz Balkan ] [84] tl:soe nteAtnmu einFriuli-Vene- Region Autonomous the in spoken Italy: otnsbue ne Bla ukc) whose Turkic’), ‘Balkan under subsumed (often ` ˆ ei aas entl nagrdin endangered Definitely Valais. in ne -ug,Bsrbac,Trci and Taraclia Basarabeasca, r-Lunga, Faetar UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE Gajal [77] tl:soe at spoken Italy: ntergo of region the in 247 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 h ubro paesle nterneo 000 ot tla nunehsbeen has influence Italian French old. South Guernsey years 20,000. vil- endangered. of thirty the Severely over range time. in child are the long actively a speakers in more few for youngest used lies strong a only speakers the tend is of there be speakers dialect number even may active Calabrian The but and The there Gaddhiciano, rapidly, old. of proceeded and years has lage widely, fifty Italian over relatively South be used times. to to Byzantine shift still from a southern deriving is in but largely Calabria speakers, dialect Greek di of Reggio Salentine dialect near villages outlying The few an a is in Griko Calabria. and Apulia southern in Province e faycide er h agae vntelnug ftems competent most the of language endangered. Severely Sardinian the French. Gallurese by Even influenced language. heavily be the to learn likely is children speakers any if few SALMINEN TAPANI oatrky nKzyrCut,i h eulco ahsa nteRussian of the village in the Daghestan in of community Republic immigrant the an in 248 by County, and Kizlyar County, in Tsunta Monastyrskoye in Ginukh of Hinukh only now endangered. is Critically Griko exile. but in Gottschee community in the flourishing of was members that oldest Bavarian the of Gottscheer- by world. known dialect the outlying around an all is practically scattered ish live now and War, World Second (Koc In children’. of socialization primary the for used as be (known to Gascon ceased Spain, nearly ‘has it 86), (2000: ein(Pyre region 5,0 paes n ti tl sdatvl ymn epeepcal nteBe the in especially people many by actively used still is it and speakers, 250,000 Arie and Garonne Hautes-Pyre Gascon Gardiol sdfiieyednee.Teei oltrc ni,btAa n usa r sdin used are Russian and Avar Gottscheerish but regarded it, somewhere be in communication. must literacy wider lies size language for no small the and Avar, speakers is the school of There of of position of endangered. Because Republic dominant definitely speakers. number the the as child and in few The community relatively County the with Federation. of Botlikh 4,000, Russian in and 2,500 Beledi the between and in Zibirkhali villages Daghestan small two and Godoberi France. in Be endangered severely in Spain; in speakers endangered many Definitely influence. this for Spanish and strong, so increasingly is be influence Be French may France, in in both elsewhere speakers competent; elderly fully least be At Pyrenees. the in Valley Aran ˇ ve eini otenSoei,bttesekr eerstlddrn the during resettled were speakers the but Slovenia, northern in region evje) as called (also See . as spelled (also [61] [113] ´ ´ ne ne lieProvenc Alpine nFac,Gso ssoe ntedprmnso ads esand Gers Landes, of departments the in spoken is Gascon France, In ´ ´ as called (also s h atr at fPyre of parts eastern the es, s.Nvrhls,eeyhr nFac,a ttdb il nFLIV FEL in Field by stated as France, in everywhere Nevertheless, es). acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntelrevlaeo Godoberi of village large the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: See . ` tlo Greek Italiot e n h otenadwsenprso iod,b perhaps by Gironde, of parts western and southern the and ge, See . Ginukh Norman Corsican Aranese Granish ¸al ) [120] ) [97] ssoe yms fte480pol iigi the in living people 4,800 the of most by spoken is ) ) acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevillage the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: [52] ´ r,to nAa,teei oal aaa and Catalan notable is there Aran, in too; arn, tl:soe nteSlnopnnuai Lecce in peninsula Salento the in spoken Italy: lvna rgnlysoe nteGottschee the in spoken originally Slovenia: ´ ne ´ sAlnius h etr at fHaute- of parts western the es-Atlantiques, ´ r n rnapa to appear Aran and arn ´ arn Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ilgso vnlaa atyd,Ikoai(nhkai n han nTsumada in Khvayni and (Inkhokvari) Inkhokari Santlyada, Kvantlyada, of villages Inkhokvari influenced heavily are endangered. so lower, idiolects speakers, Severely Russian. Most younger is older. no and number probably or Finnish are middle-aged actual by There are the in languages. speakers River River reported; other all Luga Oredezh prefer were practically the lower them speakers along of the found 300 most formerly in and 1989, was Kurkola area Russian Soykin In fourth of County. the of a cape cape county; Gatchina in same the the Province the County, and (Leningrad) in Lomonosov County, area Petersburg in Kingisepp St (Hevaa) southern in Kovashi in the (Soikkola) of Finland on cape of areas the Gulf small Federation: three the in of Spoken shore Russia. northwestern Europe: Northern Turk and somewhere Avar Ili by but influenced is endangered. also it, Definitely is in speakers language. Hinukh literacy communication. Bezhta of no wider related is for number closely and There the speakers. school The in child used few Federation. Republic are with Russian the Russian 800, in and the County 600 Tsunta between in in (Gorbutl’) Daghestan Garbutl’ and of Nakhada Gunzib, of lages oissria.Dsietepstv rns tms esi httelnug sbeing is language the endangered. that severely said Ingrian be be to must continues it and the committed trends, Finnish, are and positive by and community the influenced highly heavily language the Despite native survival. of their but its value size precarious, to people still small Saami is to same the Inari situation started the most the Given have clearly, media, At childhood classes. Finnish-language in system. of evening Saami presence school Inari in overwhelming local learnt actively the not have it in who fortunatelystudy adults changes is of recent relatives trend number by positive elderly a time, This func- extent with themselves. only as some amongst not growing to also language now but supported remarkably native are tutors the proved youth nest use language Saami has even or Inari nests, the may however, of who language then, bilinguals portion Since two tional so. substantial nest runs or a language five moment and Saami to Inari the successful, down children first was at speakers the few which child of Very programme, of founding speakers. number the the 300 before 1997, approximately language; in the are Definitely learn There Uygur. to Finland. used and in Province Kazakh land in fluent Saami Inari families, be officially so not to Zha or is see deep Turk tend thirty information, Ili with detailed speakers of Uygur. For Uzbek or language endangered. its of Kazakh the and to dialect is shifting recognised, outlying are It an generations languages. younger is Turkic where Turk other Ili from China. influences in Region Autonomous language.Hunzib Tsez few related closely with for the and 500, by school in and influenced used endangered. also are Definitely 200 Russian is and Avar between Hinukh but it, communication. somewhere in wider literacy is no is speakers There speakers. of child number The Federation. as spelled (also i Russian [in [138] as spelled (also [6] ikag pkni h atr at fteIiVle nXnin Uygur Xinjiang in Valley Ili the of parts eastern the in spoken Sinkiang: otenErp:Lpad pkni eta nr onyo Lap- of County Inari central in Spoken Lapland. Europe: Northern iz ˇ Gunzib rkjjazyk orskij Inkhokari ) [124] nEstonian in , ) [122] acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevil- the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: acsa etr ahsa.Soe nthe in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: ` n an1989. Hahn and o sr keel isuri nFinnish in , UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE inkeroinen ] [13] 249 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 h sra eisl,i h ilg fZ of village the in peninsula, Istrian the otenIay loi of,Gec ( Greece Corfu, in also Italy; northern Sus being these of one main the it, of south the to villages few 0 paes l lel;tefiueo h 99Sve esssgetn ,0 ethnic 2,500 suggesting census Soviet Tigil’ 1989 than of the less of Fed- perhaps 250 south Russian are figure the there the the currently elderly; in in but all District reported, Khayryuzovo speakers, were Autonomous speakers 100 Upper Koryak 500 of and 1989, corner In Kovran eration. southern of the in villages County the in mainly some in still Itelmen is Corfu, Italkian In language. individuals, endangered. the 50 Critically in than use. fluent less of are counts sort Italy population in total few the very although generally but Rome, in speakers endangered. Serbo-Croat, Severely in language. Italkian bilingual the are on speakers influence inflated strong All highly a speakers. contain had younger has few sources which and Other Z children for Istria. no 500 are in outside to speakers 450 living second-language as 100 such others figures, and 1,000 first-language 300 plus of estimate Istria, an gives 48) (1998: eisl,mil ntetwso oij(oin) ae(al) ona (Dignano) Vodnjan (Valle), Bale (Rovigno), Rovinj of Galiz towns and the in Ireland. mainly Northern peninsula, in language first a Istriot endan- as Definitely extinct approach. Ireland; (1990) Shannon Hindley’s alternative of while Ireland. Republic an schools, Northern the as in in in Irish offered lan- as gered of be second well place may as a the treatment explores Ireland as controversial 109–16) widely of (2000: used Republic III being the FEL in is of in decreasing Irish parts the be time, all to today; same in appears 20,000 the number guage school. their than At at but areas. less Irish language, Irish-speaking perhaps the learned the have learn 1976; who children in speakers of English number pockets less many A plus the include areas, of figures principal each census four official the Northern in eight in in thousand plus speakers also a counties, language formerly Kerry than first counties; and Waterford 29,000 Galway were and There in Cork Mayo, Ireland. each in one also Donegal, pockets, County small in the two Avar, it. west, of the in position literacy no but dominant is speakers, the Irish There child and endangered. community definitely are as the of There regarded of number Khvarshi. be foun- size must with The little small language language Federation. with the single but Russian of customarily, a because the is as Inkhokvari in regarded 1,000. Daghestan dation, around of somewhere is Republic speakers the in County SALMINEN TAPANI u sro sas cieycliae ntefr ffllrsi oty Severely poetry. folkloristic of form the Istro-Romanian in Venetan, cultivated by actively influenced Galiz heavily also in be speakers endangered. to is outside middle-aged tend living Istriot idiolects and others All Bale but elderly. 500 in are plus speakers speakers Istria, young elsewhere in are speakers There second-language Istria. 400 and language as nw as known (also as called (also [181] (or ˇ n Gleao.Jh nFLI 19:4)etmtsta hr r 0 first- 400 are there that estimates 48) (1998: II FEL in Jahn (Gallesano). ana Judeo-Italian iei:i ml okto h etr os fcnrlKamchatka, central of coast western the on pocket small a in Siberia: as spelled (also Istro-Romance rs Gaelic Irish ) [90] Istrio-Romanian ˇ tl,mil nubnaesi oeadcnrland central and Rome in areas urban in mainly Italy, jn n 0 o100frtesuhr ilgs There villages. southern the for 1,000 to 800 and ejane ) ) [53] [91] h eulco rln:fu rnia ra in areas principal four Ireland: of Republic the rai pkni h otws fteIstrian the of southwest the in spoken Croatia ˇ ofit Italkian Corfiote jn otenrho Uc of north the to ejane ) [92] rai:soe ntenrhatof northeast the in spoken Croatia: .Teeapa ob some be to appear There ). ˇ jvc.Jh nFLII FEL in Jahn njevica. ˇ amuti,ada and mountain, ka ˇ n,but ana, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 hae u loesweei h akn,a ela nNrhArc,especially Africa, North in as well as communities Balkans, dispersed and the Macedonia as in in of known provinces spoken (where elsewhere historical Morocco been the also in but has primarily Turkey, Thrace, Jews, and Greece Sephardic in mainly of language ditional Criti- French Koryak. Jersey Palana of influence areal noticeable is endangered. There cally inflated. highly is Itelmen hr paesaelreycnetae nItnu taiinlyi h uresof quarters the in (traditionally Istanbul in Hasko concentrated and largely Balat are speakers where uem paeslf fe h ooas,adi ooc h agaei extinct. is language any the if several Morocco few and very in the States are and in there United Holocaust, Hetzer Balkans the the to the in after According in and left elsewhere live, speakers or speakers Judezmo Greece the In of countries. majority European the where Israel Judezmo 0,0 paes n uem snttedmnn agaefrms speakers. some most of for total language a dominant suggest Juhur estimates the endangered. Other not Severely few. years’. is very 50 are Judezmo but speakers worldwide, than Younger and language older the speakers, of’ [are] command 200,000 them certain a of have still ‘most people 400,000 than less nuei ahsa.I zrajn zrajn sue saltrr agae Defi- language. literary a Kalmyk as used like is is places Azerbaijani dialect in Azerbaijan, Derbend on live In endangered. however, based nitely Daghestan. they language then, literary in where speakers Juhur use Since Israel, A 5,000 in Akiva. to Azerbaijan. Or added emigrated and from are have Haderah was nationality speakers Sderot, which Federation Juhur Jew to Russian of Mountain Daghestan, the thousands from the from 15,000 to speakers the them belonging 1989, language of In native Juhur. 25,000, reported is nearly distinct language are of nominally traditional only there mem- figure whose to nationality, most While appear joint Jew Federation Daghestan, Tat. Russian Mountain in the with the in Juhur customarily, language from nationality is than Tat Che- single the Juhur the rather well. of of a Tat in as bers speaking as Republic Azerbaijan Tats Nal’chik regarded in the Christian foundation, Baku in apparently in in little speakers particular Groznyy with some in in but are recently, Caucasia, and there Pyatigorsk until northern chenia; Majalis, and, Makhachkala, in as Republic Federation, Russian such elsewhere Kabard-Balkar the Daghestan commu- and in in Derbend Daghestan in of towns Buynaksk town of other live the Republic in in the speakers also especially in century, but of areas eighteenth rural Kras- the majority in surrounding in of great Oguz) form and villages to currently the the started (Vardashen, that in but Vartashen nities mainly and region, Azerbaijan, region (Vardashen) in (Quba) diminish- Vartashen Kuba area in in though original spoken, Sloboda most Still naya its Caucasia. in northern numbers, of ing regions other and Daghestan ehsoial ena notyn ilc fOrt u o tceryfntosa a as functions clearly it now but and Oyrat, Rostov of Astrakhan, may dialect of Kalmyk outlying Federation. an part Russian as adjacent the seen in the historically Region be and Stavropol’ Republic and provinces Kalmyk Volgograd the in Spoken as called (also as spelled (also (or Judeo-Spanish .See ¨ ) ypoal esta 000sekr,i eete omnte in communities resettled in speakers, 10,000 than less probably by y), Norman Judeo-Tat Kalmuck ,or Haketı io agae fEurope of languages Minor ) or Ladino [102] Kalmuk) ´ a .I snwsoe nafwlctosi Turkey, in locations few a in spoken now is It ). ) acsa otenAebia n at of parts and Azerbaijan northern Caucasia: [58] [160] ic h ideAe,Jdzo h tra- the Judezmo, Ages, Middle the since atr uoe otesenRussia. southeastern Europe: Eastern 20:14,‘n a a that say can ‘one 144), (2001: UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE 251 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 u oti o l fte eoemr un nRsinadlreyso using stop largely and Russian in fluent language, more the become learn Tver’ them children in of of speakers 252 number all Karelian A not more Karelia. case if of not any most Republic may in Republic but the are the in There outside 63,000 than such. speakers was Province many as 1989 because registered in low, been Lude too have and 35,000 be approximately Olonetsian, actually possibly Karelian, may are County for which there Suomussalmi figure in Federation, combined villages Russian the border the speakers; two In in Province. and Oulu Karelia, in of Republic the in County Karaim Khakas in extinct. Recently trilingual Karagash last skills. was The language Abalakovo. native She rudimentary village, 1989. The rather single September mountains. with Russian, a Sayan in and in Eastern died and Plotnikova, the here basins Klavdia of lived river speaker, Mana slopes community and northwesternmost Kamas-speaking Kan where the the last Federation, to on Russian restricted sources gradually the became their in Kamas Region of Krasnoyarsk area the modern in region, Minusinsk n e’eos.I iln,Krla ssoe ypol vcae,i 90and 1940 Suoja including in Ladoga evacuated, Lake Korpiselka people of and by north Maksatikha territories spoken tamo Tolmachi, Finnish is around former Karelian mainly from Province, Finland, 1944, Tver’ In Ves’yegonsk. in Novgorod; and and Tikhvin of them 1989, of In most Kamas but lexicon. language, to endangered. the Definitely learn limited Russian. children prefer largely few to A are tend reported. differences were speakers the 150,000 although language, distinct SALMINEN TAPANI eeain otenadcnrlrgoso h eulco aei,mil in mainly Karelia, (Suoja County Belomorsk, Suoyarvi Kondopoga of of of of Russian region part parts Republic Porosozero the southwestern the western the the and the in counties, counties, Medvezh’yegorsk of areas and Muyezerskiy Segezha separate regions and Kalevala several central Kem’, in Loukhi, and Spoken northern Russia. Federation: west-central as and the regarded western of be size must small language Karelian it. the in the Avar, literacy of no of because is but position There endangered. speakers, dominant Russian definitely 5,000 the the in least Daghestan and of at community Republic are the in There County Federation. Akhvakh in (Tukita), Tokita and immediately not is Karata it endangered, Csato severely community by speakers while Lithuanian described the and the as of language, in extinction, thirds the efforts Two set- nearing revitalisation to have Crimea. recent hope the who but in some number old, none give small years and a in sixty Halich, but plus over in 1989, Crimea, Lithuania are six In the only in and Lithuania. in Poland, speakers (Lutsk) 100 in in fifty and tled places Luts’k about Lithuania, other are of in few there 200 towns a reality including Ukrainian reported, and (Troki) were west times speakers Trakai medieval 500 the in since and in Yevpatoriya; (Galich) translocated near Halych been remain Karaim has ethnic Karaim of communities small (or [114] [141] i aeinadFinnish and Karelian [in See . Kamas-Koybal acsa etr ahsa.Soe nnn ilgs nldn Karata including villages, nine in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: atr uoe rgnlysoe nteCie nteUrie where Ukraine, the in Crimea the in spoken Originally Europe. Eastern Nogay ¨ onis urnl h eta at fSoav (Suoja Suoyarvi of parts central the currently counties, ) [151a] iei:frel pkni h atr ato the of part eastern the in spoken formerly Siberia: karjala ´ ] nthe in [14] ¨ v)Cut;salpcesi h vicinity the in pockets small County; rvi) otenadEsenErp:north- Europe: Eastern and Northern io agae fEurope of languages Minor ¨ (2001). v,Suis- rvi, ¨ rvi) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 togitreec rmCuci h agaewihteKrkcmuiyhad community Kerek showed the speakers Ket extinct. which last Possibly Russian. language the from as of 1950s the well early language Chukchi, as the adopted, The from in Meyno- speakers. in 1991; interference of in District 100 villages strong speakers Autonomous approximately the elderly Chukchi were three in in were only there There County later Federation. Bay, Beringovskiy Russian Anadyr in the the Khatyrka and and Bay pil’gino Olyutor until the Poland, between present-day in Kerek Pomerania in in Garde speakers and child 1900. approximately Schmolsin of in of lot called extinction dialect a parishes outlying not quite the An is including – in speakers 50,000, endangered. of around Definitely areas. number be some The may districts. but exactly, Chojnice known and Koscierzyna Kartuzy, (Puck), eerpre,wihi ofimdb oeseilss o ntneVja(03 394) (2003: Vajda instance for specialists, speakers some 500 by over west 1989, confirmed the In in is Federation. County which Russian Baykit reported, the along in in were and, Sulomay District Region of Autonomous Krasnoyarsk village Evenki of the of north in the Tunguska, in Podkamennaya Kanga- County the Goroshikha Kellog, Turukhansk Serkovo, in Bakhta, Farkovo, Turu- Maduyka Verkhneimbatsk, of and and Yeloguy Surgutikha, villages Vereshchagino, the the between Baklanikha, in mainly tovo, concentrated tributaries, today its basins, and khan Yenisey upper and middle Byto Lebork, Wejherowo, in mainly Gdansk, of southwest and Kashubian Finland. in Definitely endangered Karelia. critically of literary Republic Federation; Another the Russian recently. in the revived used in now been endangered is has dialects, it northern language the and literary on 1930s, A based the Finnish. variant, in mostly speakers, Province use thousand Karelian Tver’ few in in a fluent existed are are there while who Finland, families those In in even case. elderly; use the all active not in is be this of to state that a knows to claimed the in everybody escape is up Since language people end the and and solution. where carpet, arises, inevitable self-betrayal the dilemma collective under perhaps a maintenance strongly, language and felt of easy problem also the the is the sweeping language in surprising as native not factor the seen is decisive of it is value so the Russian stigma, remains to major a language shifting bears clear home that still any Karelian of produced Speaking to choice yet Karelian. not of the change have survival better, speakers nests the language Karelian the to use Since most changes who possible. that individuals as dedicated much such also as are everywhere there Karelian but is people, young trend addressing smaller Jyskyja lan- when prefer in The Russian and native better found. Vuokkiniemi but the much as be however, use command such is, can older situation county passive and of The the a functions. years of knowledge traditional seventy have villages little pro- its those generally possess all only has in age 70 and centre guage contexts, of and county most years northwestern the 30 in thirty the Russian in between in under shift those operate people language to Karelian, that A started so (Uhtua). rapidly, lan- 2002, Kalevala two ceeded and Pasanen), of Finnish, 1999 (Annika centre (in in linguist society county recently, Finnish cultural have a local nests of the guage participation of the initiative the and Following Uhtua-Seura) life. in later Karelian as called (also [178] as spelled (also iei:oiial pkni ag etaogteBrn e coast Sea Bering the along belt large a in spoken originally Siberia: otenKet Northern Cassubian or ) ma Ket Imbat [43] oad ipre na ranrhet west northwest, area an in dispersed Poland: ;cf.Yug) ¨ v,weesekr falages all of speakers where rvi, [173] UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE iei:soe nthe on spoken Siberia: Slovincian ´ Btw) Pock (Betowo), w a spoken was 253 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 smd onyi h eulco ahsa nteRsinFdrto yafew a by Federation Russian the in Daghestan 254 of Republic the wider in for County and Tsumada school in highly used is Khvarshi is Khinalug Azerbaijani family, but its it, Within in endangered. literacy children. Definitely communication. no between some somewhere is includes lies There speakers and divergent. of 2,000, number The and Azerbaijan. 1,000 in County (Quba) Kuba Khinalug Siberia. and Mongolia in occasionally extinct possibly is Manchuria, literary in Mongolian the endangered as Written used Definitely is language. Mongolian Written Modern Modern people. educated of from speech but the speakers, interference in present all printed by lexical as language community well and the as grammatical television as Both Khamnigan spoken and settlers. Khamnigan is Chinese radio of Mongol through Han in Khamnigan present of survival material. influx also bilingual the increasing are the Mongolian moment, by families and threatened the Chinese is (in run for long language the vigorous mono- in community (in Although Mongol language Khamnigan Evenki). the first people. the and as either 1,500 Mongol as approximately or children by all families) Hulun China almost lingual by in in consistently Banner learnt Mongolia Baerhu is Chen Inner Mongol symbiotic in in complex mainly a spoken League in currently exists Buir is furthermore It which Evenki. language, with distinct relationship but a Buryat, as of Mongolia. dialect classified outlying and archaic better Siberia an is adjacent as seen historically in Transbaykalia be may of Mongol Khamnigan region Onon-Argun the in originally Mongol their extinct. Khamnigan and became (Samoyed) well Kamas as of it speakers when last recently with the – until script by endangered. spoken Cyrillic descendants Definitely in Khakas belletristics. standard of and including written dialect newspapers a schools, outlying in has few even Khakas a capital. use in it local instruction some Nevertheless, the of Khakasia. Abakan, language min- of in the small population one as a total introduced of are the been language recently of speakers typically the has cent, most is become per Russian parents; has 10 cities Khakas Khakas-speaking approximately ority, in and with older, some but families or In children, in middle-aged reported. by therefore even were learnt language Khakas being only of nine- Alatau is speakers Kuznetskiy the to language the 60,000 sixteenth the across 1989, the areas, Shor In (in Mrassu rural region. of migration Kamas, Minusinsk speakers the of the the from dialect of to Koybal derives part closely the Khakas of of centuries) several of speakers of teenth dialect of the dialect Shor of Koybal conglomeration the descendants The a the Shor. and by and is spoken Beltir Uzhur is Khakas Koybal, Republic in Kyzyl, Khakas Federation. Sagay, the also Kacha, Russian of but dialects: parts the Khakasia related adjacent in in of and Tuva Republic Region Krasnoyarsk the of in in counties mainly Sharypovo and Siberia, southern in Yenisey endangered. in Severely Khakas locality; older. on or depending middle-aged varies are situation speakers the most but case, speakers, any child few the very in generally Georg are although speakers, maintenance native language remaining and so or 600 mentions SALMINEN TAPANI [151] [121] [132] iei:i h etr afo h iuis tpergo nteupper the on region steppe Minusinsk the of half western the in Siberia: acsa otenAebia.Soe ntevlaeo hnlgin Khinalug of village the in Spoken Azerbaijan. northern Caucasia: acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevlaeo hasiin Khvarshi of village the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: i hns pinyin Chinese [in 20)poie uhmr esmsi vlain There evaluation. pessimistic more much a provides (2003) Hamunikan ] [158] acui,eriradmore and earlier Manchuria, agaedeath Language Kamas a an was Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 lhuhtestainmyvr eedn nlclt;teeaesm younger Krimchak language some single a speakers, are Cyrillic considered in Often there child Russian. endangered. standard Severely in or written locality; Alutor. few conducted a them, only with has on is Koryak very of older. education depending half or but are and middle-aged script, vary one are Koryak There most than may for but Koryak. more speakers situation reported slightly speak the was that people, speakers although give north, Fed- 5,000 the would 3,000 Russian in estimate figure the approximately basin rough combined in Anadyr a District a upper Autonomous Alutor; 1989, the Koryak to In in extending County eration. Sea, Penzhinskiy Bering in the mainly to Sea Okhotsk hr ewe ,0 n ,0,adicue aycide,btdcesnl so. decreasingly but children, many includes some- and lies speakers 8,000, in of and and number County 5,000 The (Quba) Kuba between Azerbaijan. in Alyk where in and elsewhere Yergyuj Khaput, communities Jek, expatriate Kryz, of villages the or in 1930s the they even in Kryts and born 200, people perhaps number endangered. only they Critically rarely. as Krimchak; 600 Krimchak in meaningless, fluency use and seem in retain Crimea, 100 to figures including appear the Union, the earlier in Soviet but the Krimchaks from Crimea, reported ethnic the were the 1,200 speakers during 500 Germans now 1989, by are In murdered elsewhere. were There main population War. the the World as of Simferopol Second thirds with two speakers, than Tatar More Crimean centre. among originally lived speakers 1930s, Permyak, the in first language, Komi literary endangered. a Severely or as 1990s. middle-aged use them the are in small-scale amongst most again had speakers, but them and speakers, has 650 of younger Saami perhaps majority some Kildin were vast are are older. There speakers the there children. peninsula, Today 800 no Kola speakers. in probably combined on Saami County 1989, languages Lovozero Kildin Saami In of being four Lovozero. forcibly parts the were centre they for western county which reported the from the Federation, and to Russian County the concentrated Kola in Province of Murmansk parts central eastern the in it. be very Saami in must the Kildin language literacy the of no Avar, is of because There position but endangered. dominant speakers, the definitely a and as child as community regarded regarded are the foundation, of There size little Inkhokvari. small with with but language customarily, single is Khvarshi speakers. hundred fte tpuigKm ae nlf.Icesnl nagrd fe osdrda considered Often endangered. Koryak Increasingly many life. but language, in the later Permyak. learn 1989, with Komi children In language using of single Federation. stop lot Russian of a them the parts Quite Autonomous in of reported. and regions Nenets were other Republic speakers Yamal 240,000 and Komi Province, Province the Arkhangel’sk Murmansk in District, District, Spoken Autonomous Russia. Nenets northeastern Europe: Eastern o,t aeadsicinfo h oisbrnhcmrsn ohKm and Komi both comprising subbranch Komi the from distinction a make to (or, as spelled (also as nw as known (also as spelled (also yynKomi Zyryan [9] otenErp:Kl eisl.Erirsoe nmn locations many in spoken Earlier peninsula. Kola Europe: Northern Kryz Krymchak h usa-ae em‘oiZra’bte avoided) better ‘Komi-Zyryan’ term Russian-based the ; localled also ; Nymylan localled also ; ) [180] Jek ) [128] iei:i otenKmhta rmthe from Kamchatka, northern in Siberia: ue-rma Tatar) Judeo-Crimean acsa otenAebia.Spoken Azerbaijan. northern Caucasia: UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE [140] h Crimea: the [22] 255 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 tpuigi tsho g;bsds h oa ubro paesi o.Definitely low. is speakers of many number but Languedocian language, total the the learn besides, children age; Some school 20,000. number at endangered. of The it Province. range using Belluno the Trento in stop in in valley the lies valley Cordevole in Fassa speakers the the Gardena of in in and Fassa valley Livinallongo Tyrol), Badia and (South the Province, Province in Bolzano commu- Marebbe in valley wider and Gardena Badia for including and Dolomites, school the in used Ladin is Azerbaijani but it, endangered. in Definitely literacy nication. no is There SALMINEN TAPANI otws oRdzi h otes,cvrn h eatet fAern o,Lot- Lot, He Aveyron, Arie the of Aude, and in departments Toulouse Garonne the Tarn, from covering and Tarn-et-Garonne, northeast, southeast, the et-Garonne, the in in Rodez Montpellier to to southwest northwest the in Bordeaux nraigyrpdy hr sn ieayi a.Dfiieyendangered. proceeded Ger- Definitely Ligurian has in Laz. Georgian community in expatriate and literacy Turkish an no to is in Turkey is There shift and Turkey rapidly. of language 2,000, increasingly in parts A to speakers western 1,000. 1,000 of approximately also the Georgia number many are in The in in provinces. there war, 30,000, Bolu side; Province to 1877–8 and Georgian 20,000 the Kocaeli Artvin the of Sakarya, on in in refugees Ajaria Arhavimainly by of (Sarpi) Republic founded and the villages, Sarp Province in Laz partly and of Rize is Borc¸ka towns Sarpi in the Turkey; (Xopa), including Fındıklı Hopa Georgia, C¸ and of (Arkabi/Arxave), Ardes¸en, amlıhems¸in corner (Atina), southwestern the Pazar and Turkey of northeast Loze in areas smaller and Gard, of parts western the vnmr akdta nohrprso otenIay iuin ne h name the under Ligurian, been Italy. has northern Italian of to shift parts the other but in speakers, than Mone million marked a over more well even by Tuscany and Emilia e faycide er t ntenrhr ilcsteeaemn neetFrench inherent many are there dialects very northern but the Limousin, In speak 256 it. to able learn parts people children eastern 100,000 any the over and if be Dordogne, few well of may parts There northern Charente. the of Creuse, of most Haute-Vienne, ept h ag ubro paesadtecniun utvto fteOccitan the of cultivation Laz Languedocian. continuing on the endangered based but and severely essentially Languedocian, speakers is language speak which the of language to makes number literary able which large people language, the the million despite learn a children over few be very well may There Gironde. oeatvl ntetwso alfreo h a itoiln n aaet nthe endangered. on Increasingly Calasetta Limousin Sardinia. and of island and Pietro speakers, coast San elderly southwest the mainly the on 300–400 off Carloforte by island is of of Corsica Sant’Antioco towns Ligurian corner in the century. eastern Bonifacio in twentieth of the actively the town to more being the until extended in France area after used in its 1988, still and Alpes-Maritimes in 1970s, of speakers, the department in language the extinct second nearly presumably as people, regarded 5,000 by spoken (or ´ gasque as called (also Chan [79] i Limousin [in sas h rdtoa agaeo oao hr twsreportedly was it where Monaco, of language traditional the also is , nIay iuini pkni iui n daetaeso Piedmont, of areas adjacent and Liguria in spoken is Ligurian Italy, in ) i Languedocian [in [108] ` e h otenprso odge h uilcrgo fCantal, of region Aurillac the Dordogne, of parts southern the ge, ooii Ladin Dolomitic ukyadGoga pknaogteBakSacati the in coast Sea Black the along Spoken Georgia. and Turkey lemosin ] [62] lengadocian ) rne pkni h eatet fCorre of departments the in spoken France: [83] tl:soe nsvrltwsadvlae in villages and towns several in spoken Italy: ] [64] ´ al,teesenprso Haute- of parts eastern the rault, rne pkni nae from area an in spoken France: ` e Pyre re, ´ ne ´ sOinae,and es-Orientales, ´ eand ze Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 g,teueo ueSaihsrcnl enatvtdt oeetn.Younger extent. some to Keerkezi activated been Kirghiz endangered. recently years Manchurian of Definitely few has number Norwegian. a or small Saami alarming Swedish prefer highly A Lule nevertheless seemed 2,000. of may trend The speakers and Norway. use the while in 1,000 the and Province between ago, language, Nordland somewhere the northern learn lies in children speakers region Tysfjord of the number in and Sweden (Kuuja Mikhaylovskoye the corner and northernmost parts County the central County, the (Prionezhskiy) to Pryazha covering of north Onega Federation, parts Russian from of eastern the streching the in County, strip Karelia Kondopoga narrow of of Republic a the along in south Spoken Russia. northwestern Europe: igi a ehsoial ena notyn ilc fKaa,btms o be now several must For Manchurian but left. speakers Khakas, Mongolia. elderly of ten Inner than dialect twentieth less in outlying are early League There an language. the Buir distinct as a since Hulun seen as regarded historically extinct of be region China; may Imin in Kirghiz the Province in Heilongjiang century in County Fuyu including best, Ga at speakers Saami thousand Lule of couple endangered. a Severely are children. There few County. very Olonets of east Lude gered. actively. it Sardinian speakers cultivate Logudorese Livonian and is of language descendants There second younger as inflated. several Livonian clearly are learnt there nearly have were time, language who figures the same makes the these which competence, At number but native same extinct. full Federation, the with about speaker Russian and one only the Latvia Gulf possibly from the of reported of were parts east speakers Livonia in fifty of 1989, province In historical Riga. the of in also formerly elsewhere; scattered ssoe nTcn atnadi h eocn ititadtodsrcssuho St of south districts two and District Mesolcina the in Lombard and Graubu Switzerland, younger Canton in In among drastically. Ticino Moritz and diminished in in towns has spoken as in Lombard Sicily. is particularly well of and but use Italy as speakers, of the Piedmont, million south generations several in the still province in are Novara settlements There immigrant the thirteenth-century in and and twelfth- areas) border age. school southernmost at Italian it use using Lombard them stop often of but many language, although the endangered. 1,000,000, learn Sardinian Definitely children over of Many number slightly often. total be more the to 500,000; approximately appears perhaps speakers is speakers of number Livonian from interference strong exhibit speakers fluent most endangered. the Severely even French. areas, all in but features, ¨ lvr n te daetcute nNrbte rvne(ueLpmr)in Lappmark) (Lule Province Norrbotten in counties adjacent other and llivare i Lude [in ] [11] [80] [152] [4] ava ln h otencato uoi ntenrhet u also but northwest, the in Curonia of coast northern the along Latvia: nIay obr ssoe ntergo fLmad ecp the (except Lombardy of region the in spoken is Lombard Italy, In otenErp:Lpad pkni okokCut n at of parts and County Jokkmokk in Spoken Lapland. Europe: Northern acui:silsoe nteesenbn ftelwrNni in Nonni, lower the of bank eastern the on spoken still Manchuria: liu ¨ ¨ dn(rgoi ypras3000sekr.Icesnl endan- Increasingly speakers. 300,000 perhaps by (Grigioni) nden di nRussian in , as called (also as called (also Logudorese-Nuorese jdkvkjjazyk ljudikovskij Fuyu ¨ i hns pinyin Chinese [in Kirghiz) nFinnish in , ) [85] tl:cnrlSrii.The Sardinia. central Italy: UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE lyydi ¨ v)rgo nthe in region rvi) Jierjisi ] [15] Northern or Fuyu 257 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 eeain,tesekr fMnhra igi emt aebe iiga in bilingual O extinct. been Manchurian Nearly have Chinese. Northern to by replaced seem being are Kirghiz languages Manchurian of O Manchurian speakers the generations, SALMINEN TAPANI Manx iigi h seo a h aenwlandMn sascn agae xic as people Extinct Greek language. are second Mariupolitan a There as people. Manx learned separate though now have people, language. a who Manx first Man as Native a of Isle 1974. themselves the in regard in died living English, Maddrell, Ned in speaker, monolingual last The Man. of e,adsm teseirtdt oai hr hyetbihdafwvillages. few a established endangered. they Severely Mingrelian speakers. where child Romania any exchan- if to population few Atanasov emigrated Balkan probably the are the by others in There during remained some count Turkey however, whom, to and a of deported Mace- ges, cent were to the per speakers crosses 70 According Many only River area. speakers, Salonika. (Axios) 5,000 Vardar were of there the (1989), northwest where area border the by donian-Greek in spoken also originally earlier nia: but Ukrainian, Mar- Megleno-Romanian and Ukraine. Russian the by from endangered. influenced reported (Donetsk) Definitely the Donets’k were now Tatar. founded now Greek Crimean and is is of 1770s, what Greek the speakers in in iupolitan 20,000 villages Ukraine 1989, several speakers the In its and in where Province. (Zhdanov) Sea from Azovan Mariupol’ Crimea, the of the of of city shores south the the to in moved spoken originally Greek of dialect jazyk rumejskij ilgso otmto(udmtr,SnFlc e oie(Filic Molise del Felice the San relatives. in (Mundimitar), mainly elderly spoken Montemitro Dalmatia from with of refugees villages sixteenth-century it and fifteenth- use of guage only they Croatian Molise that is the 1989, learn pattern children In of typical Province. endangered. lot Orenburg Increasingly the a and Quite but Tatarstan Erzya. cf. Ryazan’ in language, speakers; of pockets 250,000 parts approximately in adjacent were the also there in provinces; and Federation, Penza Russian and the younger in Mordovia among of Republic Mingrelian of position gen- Moksha the is Georgian and related endangered. language, closely Increasingly literary precarious. The is a 500,000. generations as as given used usually erally is speakers of number cuvv olcoe(Kruc Collecroce Acquaviva h he ilgs lsanme neptit omnte;tefiueo 3,500 of figure the communities; expatriate in in 258 Vincent number of by inhabitants a 2,300 reported plus approximately the speakers villages, among three speakers 1,000 the over are There Molise. as nw as known (also [18] (or atr uoe eta usa pknmil ntewsenprso the of parts western the in mainly Spoken Russia. central Europe: Eastern ¨ ¨ lo lo ¨ nMruoia Greek Mariupolitan in , Megrel ¨ t ;koldeo au a lobe omn u oa l h local the all today but common, been also has Dagur of knowledge t; See . [42] as called (also (or tl:a uligdaeto eb-ra eiigfo h lan- the from deriving Serbo-Croat of dialect outlying an Italy: axGaelic Manx Oyrat i Mingrelian [in ) rma Greek Crimean ˇ ,orZ Meglenitic ˇ ) h ol’ ao languages major world’s The v oa nCmoas rvnei southern in Province Campobasso in voda) iva [54] localled also ; margali etr uoe rgnlysoe nteIsle the in spoken originally Europe: Western rume ) [94] ´ ] ka [107] reeadteRpbi fMacedo- of Republic the and Greece ] [99] Tauro-Romaic eri:wsenlwad.The lowlands. western Georgia: atr uoe noutlying an Europe: Eastern i Russian [in ) 18:22 seems 282) (1987: ´ rStifilic or , ´ tavro- and ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 un nalsyitcvreiso h agae rtclyendangered. fully Critically appear Nganasan language. them the of few of a varieties only stylistic and elderly, is all Polina Tyr, are speakers in of speakers of including fluent County all number villages Practically The the of Federation. 200. in Russian below number Vladimirovka the well a and in in Region County Khabarovsk Amur, Ul’cha in lower Osipenko in the Kal’ma of and west Beloklinka the to basin, the Amgun’ in endangered Severely Negidal written Russian. Russian a is the China. is in in instruction There schools endangered of members; critically in proper. Federation, teaching group language Nanay Russian language ethnic the speak native 4,640 Raohe for but half of used Federation, and and out script Tongjiang Cyrillic Nanay old, fewer in in years Sungari are standard sixty villages speak There over Nanay. three half now Kur-Urmi in about all and of China, concentrated smaller, speakers in of speakers much so speakers were counties elderly 3,000 or is speakers perhaps forty hundred figure 6,000 are than a There actual nearly older. and the or proper, 1989, middle-aged but Nanay In are Bikin Federation, speakers side. river all Russian Russian the practically the on the population from Nanay-speaking on reported small County the Pozharskoye by and in called China also in Nanay, spoken and Amur Upper and Nanay endangered. Severely older. or Nanay middle-aged and are Acquaviva speakers in most while Felice Montemitro, in San speakers in younger especially few a are There exaggerated. hm usd hsgop nypol gdfryo oeaeflyflet hr r a are There with fluent. meddle fully not are to do more forced or authorities forty Russian be aged that therefore people case only may a the group, reindeer in and in this of even environment, Outside havoc breed life them. severe special playing of the way their destiny their lost in cruel have change survival they of been this, for recently, example as children until necessary an such few least group As very at the self-sustainable actively. have, includes but small, members more which of reported, whose Nganasan 500, group, were group of only using semi-nomadic speakers region perhaps the a 1,100 the smaller, in however, 1989, in much except In life is is, Ust’-Avam. semi-nomadic number a there near in actual lead Dudypta Volochanka Federation; to Nenets) river continue and Russian and the who (Dolgan Ust’-Avam the people Taymyr of 100 in sys- in approximately County river villages Taymyra Khatanga District the and in Autonomous Novaya Pyasina in the and concentrated of County regions Dudinka largely the now in Taymyr, tems, central on spoken ally with basin, Amur middle the of and north phonology, the to its rivers, ‘Sama- in Urmi as and influences known Kur besides Evenki formerly the groups: of was region dialect which the of three one are comprises subdialects, there northeast Nanay gir’), many the China. (with in lower in proper counties the in as Raohe Nanay in Province and well and Fuyuan Heilongjiang as Federation, Tongjiang, Russian in Region of basins the (Primor’ye) Ussuri in and Maritime Province Amursk, Sungari Sakhalin in Nanay, Region in in counties Khabarovsk County basin, Ol’ga Poronaysk in Amur and counties lower Pozharskoye Khabarovsk and and and middle the Ul’cha Solnechnyy, in Komsomol’sk, Manchuria: and East) Far (called as called (also [31] u-riNanay Kur-Urmi Hejen iei:tenrhrms agaeo h uaincniet origin- continent; Eurasian the of language northernmost the Siberia: la Beye Ilkan i hns pinyin Chinese [in (or or Kile lknBeye El’kan ,or Hezhe ugr Nanay Sungari Kili Akani nChina) in ] ,or or ,wihi once ihUdege with connected is which ), Kiler Elkembey ,aseilnrhr ru in group northern special a ), (or [170] UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ) Kilen [165] iei teRussian (the Siberia nldsUssuri includes ; iei:i the in Siberia: 259 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ieyt er oa,btmn fte hf oohrlnugsa colage. school at of languages dominance other overwhelming the to and shift communities, them 260 scattered of are small, areas many remote the but covers more of Nogay, which in speakers, living Because ‘Tatar’ In learn Children Tatar. 25,000 Nogay. to Crimean and to Tatar likely up the Crimean are among both there counted of Romania Stavropol’ speakers are in Chechenia, in Nogay region of counties Crimean Dobruja Republic Kochubeyevskoye the of the speakers and in The Vody County Region. Mineral’nyye Shelkovskaya Neftekumsk, Daghestan, counties approximately Babayurt of and of 1989, Republic and parts In in Kizlyar the live Crimea. Tarumovka, in War they Nogay, in the where World Republic, Federation, region of Second Russian Karachay-Cherkes Dobruja the area the the from the steppe after reported of were northern Asia speakers parts 70,000 the Central northern in to the Perekop deportations in around the as before well and as Romania, Russia southern and casia Nogay Amur recently and a endangered with propagated severely and is being Nivkh Nekrasovka, is endangered. Sakhalin a dialect critically in script. of Sakhalin is Nivkh Cyrillic used East in There territory recently. both the also success, the until on Nivkh, some based survived in Amur standard Hok- emigrants live literary on to these to created evacuated of based were used few standard Sakhalin a who of written 1945; speakers part after southern Nivkh Japan, the middle- kaido, the in are of County speakers be Poronaysk Several to most the modern appears nevertheless, in older. Nivkh speakers Nivkh; or Sakhalin younger Amur though no aged than Sakhalin, are on vigorous There any, hundred. more Poronaysk if active few somewhat few, of of a very town number of and the the range region, but in Amur the reported, lives the in were to probably group speakers Tym’ in is small river 1,200 (Rybnoye) users a the 1989, Rybnovsk County; of In County. Nogliki basin of Poronaysk the in village in and Nogliki shore the in of eastern living town to the the those inhabiting island County, those the and Okha county, of in the same neighbouring Viakhtu from corner smaller those and and northwestern settlements: Chir-Unvd Nekrasovka the of larger Moskal’vo, village three as the in such to the live villages north around to the liquidated sent in were in were peninsula villages people River Schmidt Nivkh the in Amur original and Tneyvakh the time, the and Sakhalin, same on Makarovka villages On Baydukovo, county. other Aleyevka Vlas’yevo, var- exist; same of to to the include said move village population be to Nivkh may single forced community with were the Nivkh towards Nivkhs distinct in Amur a transitional only County, the East Komsomol’sk features 1970s, and Sakhalin, shows and settlements, 1960s North Sakhalin ious the Sakhalin as North In which Nivkh. Sakhalin; identified of Amur Russian South geographically Nivkh, the and dialects, Sakhalin in Province and Sakhalin the three Sakhalin Nivkh both comprises on in Amur and Sakhalin Nivkh of Region of consists Khabarovsk coast Nivkh in River Federation. eastern Amur the the and of northwestern region mouth the around Nivkh endangered. Severely Nga- common. a traditional also is of of Dolgan typical of because knowledge alternations knowledge detect morphophonological Some a to of nasan. easy with system features intricate interference only the with Russian, or of in Russian, bilingual younger fully and of are Middle-aged Govorka. speakers knowledge as known also little pidgin Taymyr Russian-based with special speakers old few SALMINEN TAPANI [173] [143] iei teRsinFrEs) rdtoal pknaogteTtrStrait Tatar the along spoken traditionally East): Far Russian (the Siberia acsaadEsenErp:soe nsvrlaesi otenCau- northern in areas several in spoken Europe: Eastern and Caucasia Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 rm rvne n ntenrhrms onro odadPoic nNorway, Ga in of Province parts Nordland and of counties corner Pajala northernmost and Kiruna the in in and provinces Troms German. Saami and North Saxon Denmark. Low in by to continue extinct influenced heavily them Germany; are of in few idiolects endangered but Most Severely language, adulthood. the in learn it children use of number small A mainland. el xeddt daetDnak hr r prxmtl ,0 paes lan- speakers; 8,000 Fo approximately western on are active There most is Denmark. use Fo adjacent guage of to islands extended adjacent merly the and younger Islands some Halligen are There Frisian 100. North below is endangered. Severely Sark older. or on middle-aged are speakers most of but speakers number the in Sark Jersey; of [ island from the Guernsey on and of Jersey, Bailiwick of Bailiwick the the constitutes which Jersey, of island the wnit etr,as nmr otel ein nSee,adi tjk and Utsjoki in and Sweden, the in in regions resettlements southerly of more because in as, Enontekio also well as century, Lappmark) twentieth (Torne Province Norrbotten ideae rodr eeeyednee.– them of endangered. all Severely practically speakers, older. 5,000 or perhaps by middle-aged Guernsey of Bailiwick the in Guernsey fAdre nteBiiiko ursy h atntv paesde rud1960. around died speakers native last The – Guernsey. of extinct. competent Bailiwick known Recently the most collectively in Islands, the Alderney Channel are of of the There on – language spoken endangered. the Severely Norman as French. of Even by dialects influenced language. outlying heavily the three be Very to population. learn likely the is children of speakers portion any small if a by few (Basse-Normandie) Normandy Lower and definitely Province as Astrakhan regarded as in spoken known be community Nogay collectively must Federation, of the Russian language dialects of the outlying size the in two small Russian are the There Tatar of of have – in influence Because endangered. They operated Russian. increasing 1987. to school the shifted in the was and speakers, and it all language, when were presumably 1960 literary There group, until Tatar Kalmyk. ethnic the influ- particular, the employed deep in of traditionally with and, Nogay members languages Turkic of 400 the other dialect over in and Republic outlying Tatar Kalmyk an the from in is ences County Tatar Lagan’ Alabugat in Federation. Ulan-Khol Russian of station – the endangered. at increasingly Severnyy is Nogay area, Tatar traditional Alabugat its in everywhere languages other fAtahnb eea huadsekr;asalgopkona udrTatars Kundor as County.Norman known Volodarskiy group in Tuluganovka small city of the a village of speakers; the suburbs thousand in the lives several in as by thousand well Astrakhan few been as a of counties has Volodarskiy by and counties influence Nariman Kharabali Russian (Privolzhskiy), and Krasnoyarskiy the in – then spoken speakers. is since It endangered: but Kazakh. clearly by 1962, now are until they Tatar and growing in operated areas hne sad French Islands Channel [70] ¨ onis etr at fIaiCut,adVos eino Sodankyla of region Vuotso and County, Inari of parts western counties, utTatar Yurt rne pkni h ein fUprNrad (Haute-Normandie) Normandy Upper of regions the in spoken France: [5] [47] [144] otenErp:Lpad pkni otprso inakand Finnmark of parts most in Spoken Lapland. Europe: Northern emn:wsencato clsi ot fHsmicuigthe including Husum of north Schleswig of coast western Germany: ursyFrench Guernsey atr uoe ot-atr usa pkni h ilg of village the in Spoken Russia. south-eastern Europe: Eastern a eniflecdepcal yTtr ti pkni Volga in spoken is It Tatar. by especially influenced been has : sercquiais lenyFrench Alderney .I 99 esta ,0 paeswr reported were speakers 6,000 than less 1989, In ]. ¨ radi h ilg fRsmLnhl nthe on Risum-Lindholm of village the in and hr [ guernesiais [ auregnais] esyFrench Jersey Karagash ¨ ¨ r mu,Sl,adHload for- Helgoland; and Sylt, Amrum, hr, lvr n te daetcute in counties adjacent other and llivare srka Nogay Astrakhan ] [72] [71] a eniflecdespecially influenced been has ssoe nteiln of island the on spoken is [ a pkno h island the on spoken was je ` UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE rriais h col ntheir in schools the ; ] [73] ssoe on spoken is 261 ¨ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 hr r rbbyls hn1,0 paes h rnmsino h agaeto Khanty language is Northern the Altay endangered. Southern of Definitely completely. standard. stopped transmission written not The probably the has speakers. as Altogether, but used 10,000 people. rare Chi- becoming 2,000 than Malyy is approximately generations. less children by Suranash, probably younger Kurmach-Baygol, Kemerovo County are Turochak of among in in villages there Sheregesh rarely the the Itkuch and only in in and Tashtagol but counties spoken bechen’ of people, is towns adjacent (Kuu) the thousand in Chalkan in several and as by Region well Kyt-Province Altay thousand as Solton, of Altay in Krasnogorskoye, couple of in counties a Republic spoken by Tselinnoye Federation is and Russian Kumandy the manovo children. in few Altay including of people, dialects: Republic related the closely in three counties of conglomeration a is Tuba Russian Altay Northern the Siberia. in southern extinct Altay Finland; Northern languages. and regarded dominant be Norway must In to Saami Sweden, speakers. North away child in range, giving its also Federation. endangered of are still parts definitely there in adulthood, is trends as in Finland, positive Saami language and recent the the North Sweden use Despite chil- however, of to many regions, parts continue status, to adjacent other official likely the an are in has and and area Saami language core the North the above learn where In is 1,500. Province, dren speakers approximately Finnmark of Finland number in in central and Torne the region in Norway, 5,000, groups, perhaps In Petsamo dialect Sweden Saami. in three to Sea 10,000, Includes and extended Federation. Saami Formerly Russian Finnmark Finland. Saami, the in in Province Province Murmansk Lapland in County SALMINEN TAPANI mmcul fhnrdEsenMnisekr,teeaeapoiaey3,000 speakers approximately most speakers; are child any, max- there if a few, speakers, 262 includes very Mansi are figure There this 1989, Eastern Mansi. since In Northern hundred whole; of Mansi. dialects a speakers of Loz’va as Mansi Upper Mansi couple and for Northern imum Republic Mansi, reported Federation. Komi Ob’ were speakers Russian the Mansi, 3,400 Sos’va of Khanty- the Mansi, in parts zone, Sygva in County adjacent forest include Sovetskiy Province in the of Yekaterinburg also within parts formerly mountains, and northern District, Ural the Autonomous northern and and Mansi County central Berezovo the in mainly in and Sos’va, have the they but dialects, Mansi the Northern generations. of younger some among for endangered. Russian exist Definitely is use. script to the speakers limited Cyrillic but shift very language, in Khanty a family norms Northern a forces written as of often min- Separate used clear number system still a is school the Khanty since boarding Khanty, Northern and 10,000. whole, Eastern than a more speak as possibly Khanty them for of reported Khanty. Niz’yam were Shur- ority Khanty, speakers and Khanty 14,000 Ob’ Sherkaly Dis- 1989, include Khanty, Autonomous In dialects Kazym Nenets Khanty, Khanty Berezovo Yamal Northern and in Federation. and yskary Russian County County (Priural’skiy) the Bere- Shuryskary in Ural of in trict of parts and parts adjacent District southern the Autonomous the in Khanty-Mansi and in counties County Oktyabr’skoye zovo and Beloyarskiy in mainly , Kumandy [148] [24] and [28] iei:o h etr rbtre otelwrO’ anyalong mainly Ob’, lower the to tributaries western the on Siberia: iei:i h otesenrvrvleso h la rain area Altay the of valleys river northeastern the in Siberia: iei:soe ntelwrO’bsnado t tributaries, its on and basin Ob’ lower the in spoken Siberia: Chalkan uai pkni uohk hy n Mayma and Choya Turochak, in spoken is Tuba Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 fLk aoaicuigSliadIplhicute,cretyteesenprsof parts eastern north the territories currently counties, Finnish Impilahti former (Pitka is Pryazha and from which Olonetsian Salmi Pitkyaranta 1944, of area Finland, including and parts Ladoga In 1940 an Lake County. western in of in Kondopoga evacuated, the of Federation people corner), part by the Russian spoken eastern southwestern in the the the in Ladoga and (except Karelia County Lake County of of Olonets Republic northeast includes the Spoken of Russia. southwest northwestern Europe: Northern Oroch Federation; Solon Russian Ongkor In the fluent in developed. are who endangered been those Finland. Definitely recently even in Finnish. and endangered has elderly, mostly critically all alphabet use life. speakers, Latin in thousand Olonetsian later few the in possibly Olonetsian a in using are all are stop there not written there largely Finland, if language and Federation, most Russian literary but in Russian language, fluent A the the more learn become In children them Karelia. few of A of speakers. Republic 25,000 approximately the in County lkados onisi ahlnPoic nteRsinFdrto,nwmainly now Federation, Russian and Poronaysk the Nogliki, in in Province Sakhalin, of Sakhalin shore in eastern counties the Aleksandrovsk of parts central speakers, and northern native Critically group. of ethnic proportion Orok corresponding 150 lowest the 1989, the to In relation has County. in Oroch Komsomol’sk cent, endangered. so-called North’, per the in Far of 20 River languages approximately the the Amur among of older; the or ‘Peoples middle-aged Tumnin in on into all the reported, on emptying mainly other were Us’ka-Orochskaya rivers speakers and one the the Datta Federation, of and along villages Gavan’ Russian River, the Sovetskaya two including the of in Strait, now Tatar town in Amur, the lower the Region the near of Khabarovsk County, east Vanino the in to range, groups mountain isolated Alin Sikhote the of section yilcsrp a eetybe enrdcdadi en sd ihmds success, modest Olonetsian with used, in being endangered. standard Severely is written instruction. and A school reintroduced communication. elementary-level been internal Selkup in recently for but has families Russian, script of some Cyrillic speakers in remotest monolingual used the Northern are probably in of children includes, is number and Most Nizhnevartovsk 1,500, the children. 1989, and languages; some of 1,000 In areas, Selkup between Federation. three somewhere corner lies Russian all speakers northeastern for the Selkup Turukhansk reported in the were of District speakers Krasnosel’kup parts Autonomous and 1,800 in northern Khanty-Mansi Region mainly in the zone, Krasnoyarsk County District, tundra the in Autonomous to the system, Nenets within County river Yamal Baykha-Turukhan partly Yenisey, the in in upper County as the well as of Ocean), west Arctic is the use to its (flowing but script, Selkup Cyrillic Northern in standard endangered. written Severely textbooks. a school is to There limited older. or middle-aged are i Orok [in i Oroch [in i Olonetsian [in See . ulta naani as called (also ¨ at)Cut n h otencre fSoav (Suoja Suoyarvi of corner southern the and County ranta) Solon or uilta ] [169] nJapanese in ; livvi iei teRsinFrEs) pkni h northern the in spoken East): Far Russian (the Siberia a Selkup Taz nRussian in , Orokko ) [36] ivkvkjjazyk livvikovskij iei:i h ai ftervrTaz river the of basin the in Siberia: or Uiruta ] [172] nFinnish in , UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE iei:soe nthe in spoken Siberia: aunus ] [14a] ¨ 263 rvi) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 a-eCli yasalbtntbeprino h ouain nBlim tis it Belgium, in In Mons to population. Tournai from the extending area of 264 the portion in people notable 200,000 estimated but an small by spoken a in by County Pas-de-Calais endangered. Krasnovishera Severely in 4,000. possiblyPicard some best, Valley of at Yaz’va population speakers a hundred the of of couple out in elderly, a all are spoken There Province. is Perm’ northeastern Permyak, of dialect ema’bte avoided) better Permyak’ ecigSadr n rte ogla talclsho.Svrl endangered. Severely school. Permyak local a at Mongolian Written and Standard teaching ouetelnug nautod entl nagrd fe osdrdasingle a considered Often continue endangered. to Definitely tend – they adulthood. Komi. areas in rural with remote language language a in the Quite only reported. but use language, were to the speakers Perm’ learn 110,000 and children 1989, (Vyatka) of In Kirov lot Federation. of Russian parts the adjacent in the provinces and District Autonomous Komi myak nteNnirgo.Teehv enatmt ospotMnhra O Manchurian support to attempts been all have elderly, them There of most region. speakers, 1,000 Nonni than the less probably are in There Oyrat. of dialect i rte Mongolian Written [in eino uu urLau nInrMnoi.Mnhra O Manchurian Mongolia. Imin Inner the in in in County century Fuyu League twentieth in Buir early Nonni, the Hulun lower since the of extinct of region China; bank in eastern Province the Heilongjiang on spoken still Manchuria: there few Mongolia a only in areas Ko China; other (Issyk in Issyk-Kul’ and and the 130,000, In Mongolia than speakers. less thousand in Sinkiang both in 150,000, approximately Mongolians are as counted officially nraigyednee,adi ygztnciial nagrd – endangered. critically is it Kyrgyzstan whole, a in As of Chinese. and Northern but few and language endangered, Uygur a community Mongolian, a constituting increasingly from as pressure generation, used severe be under oldest to is continues the it Oyrat by areas, most spoken In speakers. only hundred is Oyrat Kalmyks, called been endangered. script Critically recently material. syllabic Oyrat has Orok Japanese transcribe schools the to earlier, used elementary been scholars; at in also Japanese Far Orok has language with for (katakana) the norm the cooperation the of literary in teaching of a ‘Peoples size launched creating and smallest at so-called the script aiming of the project out Cyrillic speakers A lan- of native group. Orok of ethnic languages number the all corresponding smallest forty, the the below lost has is now Among Orok number North’, actual by older. the have but or 1945; reported, population were after middle-aged emigrant speakers Japan, southern county eighty Hokkaido, small the the 1989, to in In this to evacuated guage. also were moved of speakers people have descendants where Orok Oroks from be the many island, to but the used County, of There part Nogliki Poronaysk. in and Val Nogliki centres of village the in SALMINEN TAPANI eto ne oglai hn n h sy-u’rgo nKrysa.Oyrat Kyrgyzstan. in O Khoshut, region the Torgut, Issyk-Kul’ in including names, the League by tribal Alashan and by and Do China, known China and China, groups in in dialect in Qinghai and nine Mongolia Region in Tarbagatai includes Inner Autonomous Hoboksar, region Uygur of Kukunor (Bortala, the west Xinjiang region in of Jungaria groups north in smaller the and in Mongolia Bayangol) of west the [161] ¨ [74] bt h ubro ya paescnol eetmtdbcuete are they because estimated be only can speakers Oyrat of number The rbet. as called (also nFac,Pcr ssoe ntergoso iad Pcri)adNord- and (Picardie) Picardy of regions the in spoken is Picard France, In oglaadCnrlAi:soe anyi od n bulausin leagues Ubsu and Kobdo in mainly spoken Asia: Central and Mongolia ema Komi Permyak eeMingghan Yeke av Komi Yazva [21a] atr uoe atcnrlRsi.Soe nPer- in Spoken Russia. east-central Europe: Eastern or as called (also nMdr Mongolian Modern in , ema Komi Permian ¨ )rgo,weeteOrt r officially are Oyrats the where region, l) atr Permyak Eastern h usa-ae em‘Komi- term Russian-based the ; ihMianggan Yikh ¨ ) lo [21b] ¨ acuinO Manchurian sa outlying an is t noutlying an ¨ lo ] ¨ [162] tby ¨ ¨ lo lo ¨ ¨ t t Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 h uueo iadsessihl esbekta hto te Oı other of that and than language, bleak the less learn children slightly few seems A Picard Hainaut. of of province future the the of part western the wdn hr r esta wnyedrysekr.Nal extinct. in Nearly Lappmark) Plautdietsch speakers. (Pite elderly Province twenty Norrbotten than in less County are Arjeplog There of Sweden. parts drastically. most in diminished spoken has Piedmontese Saami of of Pite particularly area use but border the speakers, the young million in of the as endangered. couple among Increasingly well a and as are towns areas, There in Liguria. border in southern Province and Savona valleys Alpine western Piedmontese endangered. severely nevertheless is It France. n r osm xetsilfudaon h on fO n Su and Of of towns the around found Gu remained, still Muslims around extent War; World some especially First to the Chaldia, after are Greece and in to emigrated Turkey U and Georgia: in adjacent to speakers area and Inebolu Turkey Trapezunt) of from coast spoken (Trabzon, Sea was Black Pontic entire the western along spoken was century otc h oa ubro otcGeksekr a nyb use u tmystill may to it but assimilated guessed have be to only can seem Alaverdi speakers but Greek and Pontic Greek Georgia of from in Cappadocian number Tsalka total 2,500 from of The and partly Pontic. regions derive Georgia, the in from Armenia spoken number reported fromin dialects same reported were Greek the were speakers the and Greek Armenia; 60,000 Region of Krasnodar Region; speakers in Stavropol’ nine- 40,000 15,000 populations in and 1989, these including Federation, eighteenth of In many Russian Greece. the but the to healthiest, in migrating now Caucasia now is are Greek and Pontic Russia where centuries, southern teenth to migration significant itc a ergre stels enn fWs rsinLwSxn Definitely Saxon. Low Plaut- Poitevin-Saintongeais Prussian stopped. West but of all remnant has last the children as to endangered. regarded language be 40,000, the may Mexico Asia of Central dietsch Europe, 100,000, transmission In to 10,000. the States 80,000 Siberia, United Canada and the the 2,000, and thousand where 2,000, 60,000 Rica Uruguay Bolivia 40,000, hundred Americas, Costa 6,000, Paraguay the 8,000, of Belize in Brazil 4,000, couple Argentina 80,000, mainly for to a people, to are speakers younger emigrated has of of recently numbers still approximate number have Plautdietsch a speakers Asia including countries. Siberian Most Central speakers, Americas. to and other Poland War the Asian World or northern to Second Central now Germany the further is Many during and what Siberia. deported in Ukraine were and Delta Ukraine the Vistula the to in the emigration speakers of subsequent area their the and in Mennonites of tion h agae vntelnug ftems optn paesi ieyt eheavily Greek be Pontic to learn likely children is any speakers endangered. if competent Severely few most French. Very the by population. of influenced the language the of Even portion language. small the a by region Aquitaine Vende of department as called (also [48] [78] [98] notyn ilc fLwSxnwihdrvsfo h concentra- the from derives which Saxon Low of dialect outlying an tl:soe nPemn einecp h oaaPoic,the Province, Novara the except Region Piedmont in spoken Italy: notyn ilc fGekwiha h einn ftetwentieth the of beginning the at which Greek of dialect outlying an ´ nPy el or eina ela nnrhr iod in Gironde northern in as well as region Loire la de Pays in e [68] relgSaami Arjeplog rne pkni h eino otuCaetsadi the in and Poitou-Charentes of region the in spoken France: ) [3] otenErp:Lpad Traditionally Lapland. Europe: Northern ¨ y,adesenPni nTrebizond in Pontic eastern and nye, UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ¨ mn.Teewas There rmene. ¨ mu ¨ agae of languages l ¨ ¸ ae Most s¸hane. 265 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 rnlantelnug,btms fte eoemr un nGra n may and German in fluent endangered. more Increasingly 266 life. become chil- in Many them actively. later of language actively Romansh most the use but use half not language, (1986) than speakers the more 65,000 learn little of dren Perhaps number Unterengadin. official and the Seumeir, of Surselva, in mainly Increasingly schun), language. the learn Romansh the longer have no to policies children through hostile discriminatory where it are situation such use governments a countries, endangered. to national many to continue all In led to culture. practically already chances children and that many all language not are have Romani There it would numbers. the they were large the and adulthood, have Sinte from 1989, of Romani, of dialects parts In situation learn 30,000 other the other 2002). who similar; left; from Federation, speakers Matras be 30,000 few have (see actually Russian and Romani may total Moldova, Finnish the and of in Welsh Republic Union. from speakers Soviet the million from reported half 10,000 were Ukraine, a speakers and (7) three 130,000 Ukraine; least the at and are Slovakia, Romania, Poland, Romani Hungary, Republic, Czech atr uoeadi h akn.Mn paeswr udrdb Germans (1) by spoken: murdered still are were dialects speakers Romani Many Seven War. Balkans. Definitely World the Second Italian. in the during by and Europe influenced Eastern heavily quite language Romani The Oseacco is extent. of some particular villages to the in language in Giorgio, but the men San endangered. speakers, learning of child younger still any villages are of if westernmost children few, in the Stolvizza are Province approximately and there In the Udine Prato municipality. of of and majority the part Gniva the of northeastern by inhabitants the Giulia 1,400 Friuli-Venezia in Region Resia Autonomous of the municipality the constitute Often endangered. Slovene Definitely Resian age. Provenc¸al. language, Alpine school the with at language learn French single children to a of entirely speakers, as number regarded shift 200,000 small approximately usually A elderly. by they or Gard, but middle-aged of them parts of most eastern the and Haute-Provence, rad,Pln,Soei,SizradadYgsai;(6) Yugoslavia; and Switzerland Slovenia, Poland, erlands, the Turkey, Romania, Macedonia, (5) of (3) Republic Yugoslavia; the and Moldova, Ukraine of Republic the Greece, Bouches-du-Rho corner), eastern kan,Ygsai n egbuigcutis (2) the countries; Romania, neighbouring Moldova, of and Republic Yugoslavia the Hungary, Ukraine, Hercegovina, and Bosnia Albania, severely Caucasia, Provenc and Greece. symbolic in Federation mainly endangered Russian critically most retains and but the Greek Turkey, speakers, in Pontic in child endangered Greece, few endangered In a Definitely probably older. are functions. or There middle-aged 100,000. are than speakers 200,000 to closer be SALMINEN TAPANI Sinte ¸al [104] nBlrs soi,Lti,Ltuna oad usaadteUrie There Ukraine. the and Russia Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, in nAsra rai,teCehRpbi,Fac,Gray tl,teNeth- the Italy, Germany, France, Republic, Czech the Croatia, Austria, in i emnoften German [in [65] ipre nmn uoencutis otdneyi atCnrland East-Central in densely most countries, European many in dispersed [42] rne pkni h eatet fApsMrtms(xetthe (except Alpes-Maritimes of departments the in spoken France: tl:a uligdaeto lvn pkni h v ilgsthat villages five the in spoken Slovene of dialect outlying an Italy: Bu es Romani Welsh ¨ ndnerromanisch] ˆ e a n acue ntesuhr at fApsde Alpes of parts southern the in Vaucluse, and Var ne, nWls (4) Wales; in [126] wteln:Graubu Switzerland: aknRomani Balkan ins Romani Finnish aptinRomani Carpathian nBulgaria, in ¨ nFinland; in dn(Gri- nden Vlach nthe in Baltic in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 landic. hn100sekr,icuigfwi n hl paes hl hr a esome heavily Gaelic be be to Scottish may endangered. likely Severely there are German. While idiolects and less twentieth speakers. All Saxon much older. early Low child probably or by any the middle-aged are influenced if till are there Wangerooge most few 2,000, speakers, of including younger is speakers, island figure 1,000 the cited than commonly on the spoken Although also century. was Frisian East Saxon, Low of dialects neighbouring with confusion creating Saterlandic pub- definitely was primer as Rutul Sardinian regarded a Sassarese but be it, in must ago. literacy years language no few of a was position the many lished there dominant including recently, the Lezgian, and Union, Until community Soviet and endangered. the the of Azerbaijani size from small reported Russian, the of were because Daghestan, but in children, all almost ers, aso Rmle n carl(Scha Scharrel and (Romelse) Ramsloh n igitccncoses rte tnadi yilcsrp sbsdon based is script Cyrillic Dagur in Sinkiang standard written by endangered. A national Severely surrounded increased dialect. is consciousness. Kondoma of community signs linguistic Shor been The recently families, and have the older. rural there few or were of but a speakers middle-aged immigrants, regions in 10,000 Russian-speaking are possibly industrial than speakers except speakers, greatest less most child 1989, (1925– the and no In probably district of are region). autonomous one There Kuzbass reported. an so-called into of (the Shor-speaking turned status Union The subsequently Soviet the Khakas). Northern was held to to but briefly close close dialects, 39), Shoria, dialect, dialect, distinct northern as southern the (the historically known (the in territory, Shor two Shor Province Mrassu Kondoma of Kemerovo and as conglomeration Altay) names of river a parts by is southern identified Shor the Federation. in Russian mountains Alatau Kuznetskiy Definitely areas. but Shor core language, the the in learn Scotia even children Nova maintenance of language in number in communities endangered. A problems immigrant others Canada. serious in are in 50,000 speakers there Island Scotland, than thousand Edward in more elsewhere several Prince spoken Isles users; and to also Inner active is one the Gaelic by 30,000 Scottish and of and language. to Inverness, rest the Cromarty, 20,000 of the and knowledge in are Ross claim locations There Sutherland, few counties). (mainly a mainland Argyll and Highland Skye, the and and Barra) Uist, South Uist, Akhty vil- in adjacent Khnov in and of (S Federation, Sheki village Russian and the the (Qax) in in Kakh Daghestan and in of County lages Republic Rutul the in Myukhrek, in Borch, Ikhrek, County Shinaz, and Rutul, Amsar including villages, Luchek, seventeen in Spoken Azerbaijan. Rutul [149] as nw as known (also seeltersk iei:soe ln h iesflwn rmtesuhetr lpso the of slopes southwestern the from flowing rivers the along spoken Siberia: as called (also .See [55] ] [46] See . ctad ua ra fteWsenIls(ei,Hri,North Harris, (Lewis, Isles Western the of areas rural Scotland: Dagur emn:soe ntetwso Stru of towns the in spoken Germany: Mukhad Corsican ae Frisian Sater ) ˇ [126] a ¨ i onisi zrajn n18,1,0 speak- 19,000 1989, In Azerbaijan. in counties ki) ¨ acsa otenDgetnadnorthern and Daghestan southern Caucasia: r ale oecretybtnwpossibly now but correctly more earlier or, dl nStradrgo eto Oldenburg; of west region Saterland in ddel) UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE atFrisian East ¨ kign(Strukelje), cklingen i Sater- [in ) 267 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 pkni Sevettija in Spoken kl Saami Skolt SALMINEN TAPANI oGra a enpoedn ail ic h eodWrdWr ota hr are there that so War, adulthood shift World elsewhere in Second while the it 268 unemployment, since use rapidly of to proceeding and because been continue away Hoyerswerda has move and Bautzen, German to language to forced of the are towns learn they the still unless children between Catholics, most people Sorbian Upper Kamenz, the 10,000 Among Lusatia. some upper about in 30,000; thirds constituting and 110,000, transitional two 20,000 the even and between lower of or somewhere Although in 70,000 lies third area language. and one as lower, large spoken high much is as single a number reported factual a by occasionally the is of unified speakers recognition is Sorbian the of area based number for Sorbian, language speaks Upper the which and but dialects, Sorbian dialects Lower languages, different literary on two are There Lusatia). rnebr lwrLsta n nadaon ate (Budys Bautzen around and in and Lusatia) (lower Brandenburg — et a none eety hr a tl eafwpol h nwsm iso- his some and know 1990, who in people Sorbian seventy-nine few a was extinct. be sex, Recently words. still male or may the phrases There Dagurs of lated recently. speaker, with Solon: announced together fluent of was Manchuria last dialect death from outlying The Sinkiang Xinjiang an 1763. Severely to in is in translocated District Solon IPA). were Autonomous Ongkor speakers Kazakh Roman, China. Solon in in region, write Region (Mongolian, (Yili) Autonomous to Ili Uygur transcription the made in of been spoken Sinkiang: also systems have both – by various attempts endangered. fulfilled Mongolian; is in and languages Written Dagur, literary Solon speak Modern of also chil- speakers function and all some The Chinese not with Chinese. if better, Northern Most retained greatly, locality. speak being on varies many the generally depending situation On it, is the Chinese). learning language (Dagur, speakers, dren the languages child other side to adopting Mongolian As Heilongjiang manyInner old. in are in groups years and Evenki. There members, some fifty the Evenki. group with over of cf. ethnic are 21,000 south nationality; of they Ewenke and out places speakers, official west 10,000 the basin), Province, than in Heilongjiang Nonni fewer perhaps in included the in as are (in League well speakers County Buir as Solon autono- (Nehe) Hulun basin) Nahe Ewenki in Imin in and banners the mainly neighbouring (in Daur of Mongolia Dawa Inner areas Morin northeastern adjacent in and China, banners in mous Manchuria northwestern and usa eeain hr r nyedrysekr.SotSaihsbe sda a in Solon the extinct as in Norway. nearly used Finland, in and been in extinct endangered language, has and severely Federation, the Saami is Russian It Skolt learn the 1970s. speakers. the children elderly since language few only literary are very the there Finnmark Finland, in Federation, easternmost of In speakers Russian in number spoken Norway. twenty also approximately The of Formerly were 1990s. County. Province early There Lovozero the 300. were in of speakers around Federation Russian the is centre where Finland the western from in Lovozero, the Province, speakers in Murmansk to also western translocated spoken in forcibly Earlier County Federation. County Kola Russian Pechenga of now the parts Petsamo, in of Province territory Murmansk Finnish in former from evacuated people by uz ˇ c] einaon otu (Chos Cottbus around region yca]) i hns pinyin Chinese [in as called (also i Finnish [in nkrSolon Ongkor ¨ v eini nr onyi aln rvnei iln,mainly Finland, in Province Lapland in County Inari in region rvi Lusatian Suolun koltta or as called (also ] or [7] Wendish ulnEwenke Suolun otenErp:LpadadKl peninsula. Kola and Lapland Europe: Northern ´ bz n nteSread(B Spreewald the in and ebuz) ) [44] ikagSolon Sinkiang emn:Lsta(ast [ (Lausitz Lusatia Germany: ] [166] acui:soe ncentral in spoken Manchuria: or uksa Solon Turkestan ˇ n nSxn (upper Saxony in in) • t)ae in area ota) — uz ˇ ) c or ica [167] Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 is onisi hnyMniAtnmu ititi h usa Federation. are There Russian Khanty. the Irtysh and in Khanty District Konda Khanty-Man- Khanty, Autonomous and Dem’yanka Konda Khanty-Mansi included and Dialects in Province Tyumen’ counties in siysk County Uvat within tributaries, is it but Altay much language, Southern a the of learn out may a children Norwegian, are families, endangered. or There severely some Norway. Swedish nevertheless In in prefer population. Province whom ethnic Hedmark of larger many in Sør-Trønde- speakers, and region Nord-Trøndelag hundred Engerdal of few in parts and many Province, provinces, Nordland lag in Rana) till (up A in region Idre Stro otenKhanty Southern endangered. to Increasingly lead language. might Teleut, native which nation- of renaissance, the speakers of national of The in rise revigoration language. interest native a the shown the currently recently of have is particular, position there thousand in the entirely. problems, improve of the stopped ecological may couple not in which and probably a alism, even has social children of and both to consisting children, by language Triggered communities the of northern of Teleut proportion Southern transmission of language. dispersed some the the widely people, District by speak the learnt to Altai of continue being the they case still if within probably eighteenth known registered is not the is Altay been the since it (probably in has but group County China, origin diaspora Tselinnoye Sinkiang, western small Teleut in the A region of in Region. Chumysh in century) Altay counties the concentrated of Novokuznetsk in region, part and Altay and and eastern Province centuries, actual Gur’yevsk Kemerovo the Belovo, eighteenth of of in and part north dis- region the seventeenth were to Bachat speakers the spoken Teleut the mainly of in now bulk developments in is the spoken spoken Teleut but political still mainly Altay, is is of by specifically Republic Altay Teleut persed the Southern Federation. 50,000 Russian in inflated. approximately the notably County by in not AltayShebalino Altay spoken is of Northern Republic is figure and the the Altay Altay in as Southern Southern long that for as means speakers people, which 61,000 of reported, figure was combined a 1989, ot Saami endangered. South severely Lusatia, lower in endangered; Definitely network. school Sorbian rai otenSbra otenAtyi ogoeaino he lsl related closely three of conglomeration a is Altay Southern dialects: Siberia. southern in area Va in counties neigbouring of parts and County Secondary Sorbian the down close to the instance, planning For (Chro financial currently background. Crostwitz for at is the School officially in Saxony another, of apparent of unification after are the government one feelings after closed anti-minority minority support but European being public reasons, among are former school trends its schools at recent of Sorbian language much to Germany. second lost Contrary a has fifteen. as Sorbian Protestants of studied languages, among age still speakers the among is active from Sorbian none Most starting although Protestants. and elderly, Protestants, all therefore Sorbian are are Upper who the Sorbians among Lower speakers the child few very now ¨ sn,Koo,A Krokom, msund, Altay [1] , ¨ otenErp:LpadadcnrlSadnva pkni Vilhelmina in Spoken Scandinavia. central and Lapland Europe: Northern [147] Telengit vae onyi aan rvnei wdn n nsuhr parts southern in and Sweden, in Province Dalarna in County lvdalen [29] iei:i h eta n otwsenrvrvleso h Altay the of valleys river southwestern and central the in Siberia: ˚ iei:frel pkni h oe ryhbsnado its on and basin Irtysh lower the in spoken formerly Siberia: e egadHa and Berg re, and , ´ sc ´ c) hc ol eeeydsut fntdsry h Upper the destroy, not if disrupt, severely would which icy), Teleut (or ¨ jdlncute nJa in counties rjedalen Telengut ¨ trotnPoic (A Province sterbotten i hns pinyin Chinese [in ) ¨ UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE tadPoic,adin and Province, mtland ˚ eeLpmr) in Lappmark), sele Tielingute .In ]. 269 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 paes rbbymc esta n ude,aledry rtclyendangered. of Critically number elderly. Svan small all a hundred, Ob’ has one Upper still than groups, which less Selkup, dialect Ket’ much two probably and Federa- of speakers, extinct, Russian Consists practically the south. is in the which Region to counties Selkup, Krasnoyarsk (Verkhneketskiy) further of Ket’ spoken parts formerly Upper adjacent tion; and Kolpashevo and Province in Tomsk have Ob’, in upper to the seem to tributary speakers last Selkup Southern very speakers, of the the generations but of last Tatar, middle the Siberian Russian. the from adopted from before recorded interference extinct as parts language, reveals became adjacent of The Mansi and century. area much Province Southern Yekaterinburg twentieth a border regions. of over parts the spoken neighbouring was southern Yekaterinburg in of Mansi the in Tobol’-Irtysh, covering Southern County area Earlier lower Tavda Federation. larger the Russian and the Province to in Tyumen’ Province tributary in a County Tavda Tavda, Nizhnyaya lower the of u otsekr pert emdl-gdo le.Teei oltrc nSa,but Svan, in endangered. Tat literacy Definitely no language. speakers, is literary younger There a older. some as or certainly used possible middle-aged are is be is There Georgian be to it left. appear related may known, speakers speakers closely poorly it child most the is few but reality to situation very in shifted the are have but While small there who ethnicity. that 40,000, Fed- people Svan in many as Russian claim because possibly given still the thousand, Georgian usually in and few is Republic a Georgia, speakers Kabard-Balkar to down of the in number in counties The regions eration. adjacent Lentekhi the and in enclaves Mestiya within mainly ino h agaet hlrnsopdln g.Suhr hnywsassimilated was Mansi Southern Khanty extinct. Southern transmis- Possibly ago. Russian. the long and case, Tatar stopped any Siberian children in both available; to to is language confirmation the no of but sion left, speakers no probably SALMINEN TAPANI e Saami may Ter Azerbaijani endangered. There rapidly use Definitely trustworthy. Azerbaijan proceeded communication. in from has wider speakers for Azerbaijani far the and to but are school written, shift figures not in a Azerbai- is but these Tat in Tats. speakers, Tat but Muslim child of among to Baku, some speakers villages move be 5,000 in the to still reports them forced in possibly census of were 1989 Azerbaijan, region, The 4,000 in 1980s. Shemakh jan, communities late in Tat the Madras in Christian and Armenia region last centuries, Divichinsk the the nineteenth of in and in Many Kilvar Tats. eighteenth people the Armenian) in the (or divided already Christian and Daghestan is the in nationality and settled Tat Tats Tats Muslim the Christian the the language, speaking groups, (Judeo-Tat) traditionally on two Juhur Tats as into Jewish distinct well the as but from Azerbaijan related Apart of closely Baku. northeast and the in peninsula regions Apsheron Ismail and Semakh Konakhkend, h paeswr ocbytasoae oLvzr,wihle usd h native the outside lies which where Lovozero, from to Federation, Russian 270 translocated the forcibly in were Province speakers Murmansk in the County Lovozero of [102] [106] acsa otenAebia.Soe nSaa,Dvcis,Kuba, Divichinsk, Syazan, in Spoken Azerbaijan. northern Caucasia: [10] acsa otwsenGoga pkni nae nw sSvanetia, as known area an in Spoken Georgia. northwestern Caucasia: otenErp:Kl eisl.Erirsoe nteesenparts eastern the in spoken Earlier peninsula. Kola Europe: Northern as called (also [38] iei:soe anyi h ai ftervrKt,a eastern an Ket’, river the of basin the in mainly spoken Siberia: ad Mansi Tavda ) [27] iei:ls paeslvdi h region the in lived speakers last Siberia: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ilgsaon endo u rcial l paesaeedry hl northern while elderly, are speakers all practically but schools. Leonidio, local in around in subject a villages again as definitely and studied mid-1930s as been Tsakonian the has regarded in it be years language recent must literary in a dominant language and the as 1990s, the and the used community Russian, are was the children Tsakhur and of Most endangered. size Azerbaijani higher. small even Russian of from relatively be the 6,000 the position may in of and figures Daghestan because Azerbaijan actual but of from the speakers, Republic reported but the Federation, were Russian speakers in well the 13,000 County as Rutul Azerbaijan 1989, in in In counties Federation. villages (Qax) thirteen Kakh in and (Zaqatala) as Zakatala in villages prob- sixteen endangered. children Definitely few in known. a poorly Tsakhur century is and situation reported, eighteenth the been but the Russian has language, the speakers the since in 18,000 learn Province ably of spoken Astrakhan figure and Turkmen A Region Stavropol’ Federation. of in mainly dialect Russia, southern outlying an Europe: cuadTtc nteAsaVle srprel 0.Dfiieyendangered. Definitely 600. reportedly Trukhmen is Valley Aosta the in Titsch and schu rnorvn¸ladPemnee h obndnme fsekr fbt To both of speakers of Graubu number in combined as The Piedmontese. well village Francoprovenc¸al and as the Canton in notably Ticino To Canton, of in (Wallis) true Valais Bosco-Gurin be outside may spoken of same Lys Walser Gressoney-Saint- the of upper Switzerland; of varieties in villages the other Alemannic cross-border the in with in contact (Eischeme) spoken constant Issime Gressoney-La-Trinite is of and Titsch, village Jean dialect, Walser the Another in valley. spoken Alemannic), (Highest nw un paesaeaoefryyaso g,bttestainmyb slightly be All may Nerkha. situation To and the but Alygdzher age, endangered. in of Critically speakers Gutara. years fluent Verkhnyaya forty forty passive in above than better of are more speakers number no actual fluent perhaps same the known are and the reported, there were plus currently speakers and speakers 300 the lower, 1989, to probably In Federation, was Russian Nizhneudinsk. Verkhnyaya figure the of and in city Nerkha Province the Alygdzher, Irkutsk of of in south County villages Nizhneudinsk the in in Gutara now mountains, Sayan Eastern endangered. definitely Tofa as the regarded it. and be community in the must literacy of no language size is the the small Avar, There in the of 6,000, Daghestan of and position Because of 4,000 speakers. dominant Republic between child somewhere the few lies relatively in speakers with County of number Tsumada The in Federation. Russian Tissi and Echeda extinct. Aknada, Nearly of Russian. descendants to Some shifted Tindi elderly. have most all but 1990s, Saami, early Kildin the speak in Saami speakers Ter six were There territory. ¨ ¨ itschu tcui yia,rte needn uligdaetta a eniflecdby influenced been has that dialect outlying independent rather typical, a is itschu [155] [117] [127] [50] iei:oiial pknb oai ruso h otensoe fthe of slopes northern the on groups nomadic by spoken originally Siberia: [101] as called (also acsa etr ahsa.Soe ntevlae fTni Angida, Tindi, of villages the in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: tl:a uligdaeto lmni r oepeiey fWalser of precisely, more or, Alemannic of dialect outlying an Italy: acsa otenAebia n otenDgetn pknin Spoken Daghestan. southern and Azerbaijan northern Caucasia: ree atr eoons:suhr skna ssilsoe in spoken still is Tsakonian southern Peloponnese: eastern Greece, acsa Turkmen Caucasian ´ u tapast evr lsl eae oadin and to related closely very be to appears it but , ) [137] otenCuai n Eastern and Caucasia northern ¨ dnadprso Austria. of parts and nden UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE 271 ¨ it- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 in o agl ocnrtdi h ilgso nruhioadKlmky in Kolymskoye and in Federa- Andryushkino spoken 272 Russian was of Yukagir the villages Tundra in Previously (Yakutia) the County. lower Sakha (Nizhnekolymskiy) the in Kolyma of to concentrated Lower Republic close west largely the the in now in east, Indigirka tion, lower the the in from basin extending Kolyma belt a in zone, tundra entl nagrd ni eety hr a oltrc ni,btaTe rmrwas Enets primer Tundra Tsez a as but regarded it, in be of literacy must 1993. size no language in small was the published Avar, there the recently, of The of Until Turkey. position Because endangered. a in dominant 8,000. definitely in the as and and and 7,000 well Federation, community between as Russian probably the Daghestan is the in speakers in elsewhere of Daghestan number Sagada, communities of and expatriate Republic Shapikh of the Asakh, number in Tsebari, County Mikok, Tsunta Shaitl, in Khupri, Kidero, Khutrakh, ing Cri- Tsakonian. Tsez southern in well. discernible as Tsa- Kastanitsa influence southern in significant than endangered. few also Greek tically a is from still there influence fluency but but population earlier some region konian, undergone 1922 with Leonidio has people the in Tsakonian hundred mainly following of Northern best, couple Macedonia at a Tsakonian Greek are There in in extinct. settled became it were exchanges, speakers the after uky ntevlae fHvus n ak ntemuho h Go the northeastern of in mouth the colonists on Vatka by and an spoken Havoutsi also of Tsakonian was villages There Propontis the Sitena. in and called Turkey, Kastanitsa of dialect villages the outlying in survives barely Tsakonian SALMINEN TAPANI rfrRsin n otsekr hr r ideae rodr entl endan- Yukagir Definitely Tundra older. or lan- middle-aged the are in fluent there to still speakers tend but people are gered. most young language, language, people and the the young learn Russian, children most learn few prefer yet 27,000 very children side, age, European 1989, many 25,000 school the approximately On at Siberia, and In guage. Russian these In Territory Republic. to of Nenets. shift languages; Inta Komi Tundra often Nenets of the of two speakers parts in the were for northern counties reported the Mezen’ Izhma were formerly speakers of as and well least parts Ust’-Tsil’ma as Province, at northern Arkhangel’sk Usinsk, in and the including Islands Territory Zemlya Russia Island, Novaya Vorkuta European the Kolguyev Nenets) formerly of and the and parts (Dolgan County District, Taymyr northernmost in Autonomous the Dis- County in Autonomous Ust’-Yeniseysk Nenets of Nenets and Yamal and parts District, in counties most Autonomous Taz as County and (Priural’skiy) well Nadym as Ural Yamal, trict of covering parts Federation, Russian northern the the in area vast a are be Nenets them also Tundra endangered. may of Critically there all Nganasan. but Russian, and of in thirty, knowledge bilingual a around are with perhaps speakers individuals Fed- last is Ust’-Yeniseysk The Russian of speakers older. that the or in of to middle-aged number in comparable Vorontsovo movement The District northward of Enets. Autonomous a Forest occurred village Nenets) has there and the Historically, (Dolgan eration. in Taymyr in concentrated County now Yenisey, lower (or Dido ) as called (also [34] [119] as called (also iei n otenRsi:soe nnrhetr iei across Siberia northwestern in spoken Russia: northern and Siberia acsa etr ahsa.Soe nsvrlvlae,includ- villages, several in Spoken Daghestan. western Caucasia: Madu otenYukagir Northern or Somatu ) [32] or Wadul iei:i h udazn nthe on zone tundra the in Siberia: ) [176] iei:soe nthe in spoken Siberia: ¨ e ie,but river, nen Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 at fTtrtn h eulco ai-l ahotsa,adKrv(yta and (Vyatka) Kirov and Bashkortostan, Mariy-El, of Republic the Tatarstan, of parts communication. wider for used Udmurt be Russian to continue and they Georgian and Azerbaijani, recently, school, Until in exclusively years. used recent in century, were in nineteenth again the and in place 1930s, lan- took the the experiments have and Literary may speakers, endangered. child Udi definitely few many is relatively lower; guage are be There may Russia. Vartashen numbers to Vartashen actual of from the and that emigrated but Azerbaijan to from Georgia, reported from related were hundred speakers closely few 5,500 in is a 1989, Zinobiani) In which (formerly fled. of speakers Okt’omber the dialect of where from village the the Georgia, in in spoken County been Kvareli also has Udi 1920s the atsekr efi sn¸ rmtevlaeo aıOmnKo Osman The Hacı 1864. of in Turkey village to practi- the migrated but from people, Region, Esenc¸, 50,000 Krasnodar Tevfik some of speaker, nation, part last Ubykh southernmost the entire now the is cally what in or Khosta Russian from either with Ubykh script, Yukagir. Cyrillic Forest in and Yukagir standard Tundra endangered. both written Critically for currently a principles, are remaining create orthographical Attempts the Yakut-based Chukchi. to All or Russian speakers. made Even younger in Yakut, few Russian, as fluent being a in more it be multilingual typically have may are are who there speakers who people Andryushkino are people In elderly Yakut. There middle-aged including and inflated. Yukagir, and clearly Tundra language is first of figure their speakers speakers the 400 150 but 1989, than languages, In Yukagir fewer region. both Lena-Yana-Indigirka-Kolyma for the reported in were area wider much a hn urnl gz nVrahnCut n i Nc)i ukse (currently Kutkashen in (Nic¸) Nij and (Varda- (S County Vartashen Sheki of in Vartashen also villages recently in the County, Qabala) in Oguz) mainly now currently but shen, Azerbaijan, northern in area large China. also in Udi earlier extinct Federation, were Russian Udege the initially in The was endangered Chinese. it Critically available; Northern tion. is by date finally exact and called no Udege Manchu locally but of century, by China, twentieth speakers in replaced early were Manchuria the there northeastern in in probably Earlier basins lost. as Sungari in been character- known and proceeded have many Ussuri has and language Russian the Siberia, the to between in of shift else much anywhere A features currently elderly. almost Khabarovsk is istic than them number of in faster of actual out communities all County the speakers Udege 100, but first-language Nanay below reported, 500 possibly in were under smaller, members 1989, (Rassvet) group In Arsen’yevo ethnic Federation. 1,900 Russian and in the Gvasyugi Pozharskoye Lazo and the in in Region, of Region of Yar (Primor’ye) east Maritime Krasnyy County the in villages: County to the Terney four range, in in mountain Agzu concentrated and Alin County mainly Sikhote now the river, of Ussuri sections central and southern Udege extinct. Recently 1992. October in died Marmara, [131] Tazy as spelled (also [109] [21] acsa otenAebia n atr eri.Erirsoe cosa across spoken Earlier Georgia. eastern and Azerbaijan northern Caucasia: Kyakala emwihtdypiaiyrfr oalclCieesekn popula- Chinese-speaking local a to refers primarily today which term a , atr uoe atcnrlRsi.Soe nteUmr eulcand Republic Udmurt the in Spoken Russia. east-central Europe: Eastern rgnlysoe nnrhr acsa nteBakSacatnorth coast Sea Black the on Caucasia, northern in spoken originally i hns pinyin Chinese [in Udihe or Udehe ) ˇ [168] Qiakala a ¨ i onyadpr fZktl ony Since County. Zakatali of part and County ki) iei teRsinFrEs) nthe in East): Far Russian (the Siberia .Mnhra dg eaeextinct became Udege Manchurian ]. UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ¨ yu ¨ erteSaof Sea the near 273 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 tncgopmmeswr eotd l ideae rodr n h hf oRus- 3,200 to shift of Saami the the Ume out and in endangered. older, speakers Region Critically or rapidly. Khabarovsk first-language middle-aged proceed in 1,000 all to continues reported, County than sian were Ul’cha less members in group 1989, ethnic basin, In Amur Federation. lower Russian the in spoken continue Ulcha areas rural remote endangered. reported. in Increasingly were living actively. speakers those it only 520,000 use but 1989, to language, In the learn Federation. children Russian Many the in provinces Perm’ SALMINEN TAPANI n h otesencre fAjpo onyi orotnPoic Pt Lapp- (Pite Province Norrbotten in Mala County in Arjeplog and of mark) corner southeastern the and onyi h eto so rvnei h usa eeainb approximately by Federation Russian the Pechory in in Province and Pskov Estonia 274 of of rest corner the southeastern in the in County Spoken Russia. northwestern Vo endangered. Definitely factors. negative various also but pkni aaCut nNrln rvnei owy hr r esta twenty Norway. than in Urum less extinct are Sweden; There in Norway. extinct in Nearly Province elderly. Nordland all in speakers, County Rana in spoken Va in County ena notyn ilc fEsenSoa ihRsniflecs u ti now the is in it speakers 20,000 but than influences, less Rusyn by spoken with is Slovak It language. Eastern distinct Bac of a as dialect regarded outlying better Severely an schools. as local the seen in in subject again a Rusyn and Vojvodina as at mid-1930s studied it the been using in has stop language it many low. but years literary too language, endangered. recent a slightly the in as be learn and used actually 1990s, children was In may some Veps County. figure villages, age. Boksitogorsk the of school Pro- of but Vologda couple part reported, in a southeastern were In counties the speakers Vytegra in 6,000 Petersburg and spoken Babayevo St 1989, is in of Veps counties parts Southern is of Boksitogorsk vince; western Veps corner of the eastern part Central the and northeastern County, Vologda Federation; Province, the Podporozh’ye and Russian and of (Leningrad) Petersburg part County the the St southern Tikhvin in of the in boundary County in the Karelia (Prionezhskiy) mainly across provinces, area Onega of larger of a Republic part in spoken the eastern the of in southeast spoken is Veps Northern Defi- speakers. of Veps child language number A few thousands. leaving The of rapidly, Caucasia. tens proceeded some has endangered. in in places, languages nitely range elsewhere some dominant may in to but perhaps exactly, and shift known and Ukraine villages not the Georgia few is of a speakers southeast in in now the Trialeti, Crimea, in the notably Province of (Donetsk) south Donets’k the in in spoken originally Turkish (Crimean) ˜ ro-Seto ˇ argo nVjoiaPoic nSri.Teeaepoal oecidspeakers child some probably are There Serbia. in Province Vojvodina in region ka [16] (or as spelled (also otenErp:nrhetr usa escmrsstredaetareas: dialect three comprises Veps Russia. northwestern Europe: Northern re Tatar Greek o simply (or [2] ¨ trotnPoic Lcsl apak nSee.Frel also Formerly Sweden. in Lappmark) (Lycksele Province sterbotten otenErp:Lpad rdtoal pkni risarCounty Arvidsjaur in spoken Traditionally Lapland. Europe: Northern (or ˚ n osl onisadtenrhr Ta northern the and counties Sorsele and Olcha Bachkan Vo ) ˜ [136] ro i Ulcha [in ) i Estonian [in ) ) atr uoeadCuai:a uligdaetof dialect outlying an Caucasia: and Europe Eastern [45] h akn.VjoiaRsncnb historically be can Rusyn Vojvodina Balkans. the naani Vo otenErp:Etnaand Estonia Europe: Northern Keel] ˜ru ] [171] iei teRsinFrEast): Far Russian (the Siberia ¨ n eini Storuman in region rna Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 hr ee1–2mlinsekr,wiei h 90,4mlinwr siae.In estimated. were million 4 1960s, war, the the in Before while War. World speakers, Second million most the but 11–12 Europe, during were East-Central Germans and there by Eastern in murdered mainly were areas speakers large in spoken earlier was Yiddish oeniilcsaehaiyiflecdb nra,FnihadRsin Nearly Russian. and Finnish All as 1980s. Ingrian, known the dialect by in outlying influenced (Kukkusi) An heavily Kurovitsy – of extinct. are dialect idiolects Ingrian-influenced modern distinct, the of atr ai nefrnefo usa sgnrlysrne hni atr Mari. Eastern Komi Yazva in than cf. stronger children; generally few is including Russian endangered. speakers, from Definitely Russian 50,000 interference the than in Mari; less provinces Eastern Novgorod probably Nizhniy Mariy-El are and of There (Vyatka) Republic Kirov Federation. the of of parts parts adjacent westernmost and in Spoken Russia. east-central Europe: extinct. Possibly known. Mari not in Western speakers is no died counties probably ones are Mansi, Gari last There Pelym the and Mansi. Vagil’sk when included and Ivdel’ but Dialects Mansi left, within Loz’va Federation. Lower Tobol’-Irtysh, Russian and lower Middle the the in Province to Yekaterinburg tributary a Tavda, Belgium; in endangered Mansi language, Western Increasingly the Lux- French. Luxemburg. learn in to In children extinct entirely of elderly. France; number shift in mostly a the to endangered where Belgium, people, severely likely Sonlez), In are of (Doncols, 1970s. many villages of the number three but department in or small the died two of speakers in a north spoken last the pro- by formerly in the was spoken Givet) it of is embourg, it of part speak- France, eastern active In (town of number. the number that Ardennes the in half although and people, be 600,000 Luxemburg may estimated ers of an by province Hainaut the of vince of part northern the Lie the until Latvia Walloon present-day of territory the in century. survived nineteenth century, early fifteenth the last in the tured dialect; Western the of area the (Its Icipino communication. to in daily Vote, belong in Eastern Russian of villages prefer speakers and mentioned elderly, above are them The of All (Rajo). Mezhniki nadvlae ot fteGl fFnadi igsp onyi h eto St of (Jo Krakol’e west less of the probably villages (Liivts in the are in Peski-Luzhitsy County There concentrated Kingisepp now, and Federation. left in Russian speakers Finland the twenty-five of than in Gulf Province the (Leningrad) of Petersburg south villages inland avoided) better ‘Votic’ as language. majority the Vote to shifting are people younger but endangered. ages, Definitely all of speakers 50,000 ` e ntesuhr ato h rvneo rbn,i h rvneo au,in Namur, of province the in Brabant, of province the of part southern the in ge, i Russian [in (or [75] Judeo-German EsenPryk.See Permyak). (Eastern nBlim alo ssoe ntegetrpr ftepoic of province the of part greater the in spoken is Walloon Belgium, In otncalled (often [26] osi jazyk vodskij iei:frel pkni h eino h orervr fthe of rivers source the of region the in spoken formerly Siberia: [12] ) ˇ u ¨ [49] la ilMari Hill ¨ otenErp:nrhetr usa pkni few a in Spoken Russia. northwestern Europe: Northern nEstonian in , Luis) ni eetyas nKty(atl)and (Kattila) Kotly in also recently until -Luuditsa), h rdtoa agaeo sknz es Yiddish Jews, Ashkenazi of language traditional the Permyak ˇ a ¨ fe h ags ilc group) dialect largest the after pa Krevin ¨ iva aj keel vadja ¨ ,de rbbyi h 90,adthose and 1960s, the in probably died ), rgnlysoe ypioescap- prisoners by spoken originally , nFinnish in , UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE vatja vrat such (variants ] [19] ˜go Eastern ˜pera 275 ¨ ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 utTatar extinct. middle Possibly Yurt the left. the speakers in to no Region probably tributaries Krasnoyarsk in Vorogovo are in western of There County Federation. Dubches, villages Yeniseysk Russian the in and Yartsevo in and later Kas County Tunguska, Sym, Turukhansk Podkamennaya the rivers to the opposite Yenisey of basins the and several alarming. America are Yug is there worldwide. North trend endangered general and increasingly in the Europe, Yiddish, but in in language, people of live endangered the 1,000,000 Definitely learn knowledge now still have speakers than children where Israel Most More communities smaller. in Israel. much but 200,000 probably Union, and approximately Soviet was the America users from Rus- actual North reported the as were in of Switzerland, speakers Siberia Ukraine, and number 150,000 eastern Netherlands the the 1989, in the and Birobijan) In Alsace, Belarus (capital Federation. in Province in sian individuals Autonomous of places Jewish number few in small and a a in by spoken as well currently is Yiddish Europe, SALMINEN TAPANI 276 as called (also See . Nogay otenKet Southern or y Ket Sym f Ket) cf. ; [175] iei:oiial pknin spoken originally Siberia: Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 uoe,adtelt ar rs n tpe .Wr.Ovosy oeo the of presentation. none this Obviously, in found Wurm. errors A. any for Stephen responsible and held Trask be should Larry mentioned late above the Kulo- and Ulla-Maija Suhonen, Deaton, de Gru O Kuga Riho Donall Jarel Golla, Krauss, Ku with Victor E. Ago me Fryer, nen, Florian Michael helped Paul Abondolo, Habeck, have Daniel Otto Campbell, who notably Joachim scholars Lyle study, other Bradley, this the David with all Blaschke, connected thank problems (Torne to general Winsa wish Wilson Birger more also Chris and Verdy I (Plautdietsch), (Rusyn), Finnish). Wiens Philippe Vitanovics Valley Peter Trosterud languages), Dusan (Scots), Wilson Vote), Trond David (Siberian (Livonian, (Cornish), (Forest (Extremaduran), Vakhtin Viitso Toulouze Tiit-Rein Nikolai Trinidad Eva (Gallo), Scandinavia), Manuel (Saami), of (Rusyn), Todal (languages Trier Jan- Jon Slovene), Tom languages), (Resian Nenets), (Mongolic Steenwijk Han Svantesson Nenets), Olof (Tundra Ga Soosaar Esa- Sven-Erik (Udmurt), Croatian), (Buryat), (Molise Salminen Romagnoli Gabriele (Megleno-Romanian), Jussi (Saami), Popa of Rasmussen Gabriela Torkel languages Karelian), Peninsula), and and (Vo˜ro-Seto), Pyo Saami Pajusalu languages Raija Karl (Inari (Hellenic (Udege), Pasanen Nikolaeva Irina Nicholas Federation), Annika in (Ingrian), Russian Nick Nikolaev the Ilia (Saami (Scanian), Greece), of Ma Narvselius (languages Larsson Kaur Matsumura Italy), Lars Kazuto Lars-Gunnar in (Tsakonian), (Germanic Mansfield Greek), Lupani Walter Scan- (Cypriot in Nganasan), Leisio (Saami Koumi Korhonen Larisa Olavi Scandinavia), Alek- (Rusyn), Iacovos languages), Kindahl Pawe Tomas Siberian China), dinavia), (Alutor), other northern Kibrik (Megleno- and and E. (Selkup Kahl Siberia sandr Kazakevitch eastern Thede Olga other of languages), (Kashubian), and Ka˛sk (languages (Jewish Kalmu (Italkian Jochnowitz Timo Jerchower Romanian), Eugene Seth George French), languages), (Luxemburgian), Henriksson (Jersey Jewish Harrison Katalin Jennings Heinen (Walloon), David Geraint Hendschel Christian Franconian), K. Lorint Tofa), Finnic), Nganasan), (Csa and and and (Enets Karaim, (Eskimo-Aleut Dukha, Helimski Arabic, Hallamaa Turk, (Cypriot Plaut- Hakalin Panu and (Chulym Mikko Saxon Prussian), Sinkiang), (Low of Hahn Old F. languages (Urum Reinhard Sorbian, Garkavec (Nivkh), dietsch, N. (West Gruzdeva Falkena A. Luı Ekaterina Onno Siberia), languages), (Sorbian), Frisian), (Latgalian), western Turkic (North of other Cibuls Ebert (languages and Juris H. Filtchenko Karen Rusyn), Andrei Frisian), (Galician), Vojvodina Conde (Rusyn, F. mixed Xavier Browne and Megleno-Romanian), Bo Wayles (Romani Martin and Bakker (Lombard), languages), Aromanian (Jewish specialists, Peter (Istro-Romanian, Benor of (Evenki), Sarah Bara number Lars-Go Atknine large Mariana (Ubykh), D. a Andersen languages), Viktor to Stig further (Dalecarlian), Ole and son (Selkup), data, Alatalo much Manchurian Jarmo of basis and the including information forms provided Siberian work have whose who Janhunen, the Juha mine to of of first study, colleagues this all of purpose to the gratitude for my express to wish I Acknowledgements ´ ngo ´ ´ ¨ ugra) ayhHcs(ons,Mn) tpai uhs(Rhenish Hughes Stephanie Manx), (Cornish, Hicks Davyth Hungarian), i(lntin,Eiaet aann(uh) efRnaa(am nKola in (Saami Rantala Leif (Dukha), Ragagnin Elisabetta (Olonetsian), li igi,MraSl,PkaSmalhi oeSunb-ags Seppo Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove Sammallahti, Pekka Salo, Merja Riagain, ¨ np ran .Kzeoa on ao uo od,Ncoa Ostler, Nicholas Mojdl, Lubor Maho, Jouni Kuznecova, I. Ariadna nnap, ¨ Naaa) aiaLbisaa(udaNnt and Nenets (Tundra Lublinskaya Marina (Nganasan), ´ o ad Facpoeca) ln .Skribnik K. Elena (Francoprovenc¸al), Sandi bor ´ oe Atra-ens) oeadGottwald Godehard (Asturian-Leonese), Gomes s ¨ lr(skna) øgnGogoBosoni Giorgio Jørgen (Tsakonian), hler ¨ i(oetNnt) Peter Nenets), (Forest gi UOEADNRHASIA NORTH AND EUROPE ¨ a Anders- ran ¨ nthal, 277 • Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ahnn ua(91 Ehi et n uvvli h oitNorth’, Soviet the in survival and death ‘Ethnic (1991) Juha Janhunen, (1990) Reg Hindley, amn onadPoaBeninca Paola and John Haiman, Tungusic: in continua dialect for case ‘The (2003) Whaley J. Lindsay and A. Lenore Grenoble, Tru und Rest- Germanische languages Germanic The Ha Vjac and V. Thomas Gamkrelidze, (2005) Michael Forbescue, ——(1996) E V= IV FEL 278 languages world’s the of Atlas awakening an languages: Arctic Bibliography SALMINEN TAPANI E I = III FEL = II FEL world the of languages Ethnologue: languages Endangered Europe of languages the of Encyclopedia Italy of dialects The (1981) Bernard Comrie, languages Celtic The disappearing of danger in languages world’s the of Atlas —20)‘ugsc nednee agaefml nNrhatAsia’, Northeast in family language endangered an ‘Tungusic: ——(2004) ayimr:mno’kejzk,tunguso-man’c jazyki, mongol’skie mira: Jazyki jazyki tjurkskie mira: Jazyki apel ye(1998) Lyle Campbell, ¨ Jahrbu nLnusi hoy26 mtra n hldlha onBnais 97–122. Benjamins, John Philadelphia: and Amsterdam 246, Aronson Theory Linguistic I. Howard in of honor in papers in morphology’, plural Gruyter. de Berlin: 3, Altertumskunde germanischen der Reallexikon proto-culture Gruyter. a de and Mouton York: Routledge. proto-language New and a Berlin of 80, Monographs analysis and Studies historical Linguistics: and reconstruction a ok Routledge. York: Gruyter. de Mouton York: New and Berlin Languages. 23, Endangered for Documentation Foundation Charlotte: Rudes, Blair and Ostler Nicholas eds Finno-Ougrienne d ihlsOte,Myot:Fudto o nagrdLanguages. Endangered for Foundation Maynooth: Ostler, Nicholas ed. 19)Msv:Indrik. Moskva: (1997) Conference Linguistics. of Institute Berg. York: New well. Press. Press. Routledge. York: New and sinki. of 20)e.SehnA um atgahrInHyad ai:Unesco. Paris: Heyward, Ian cartographer Wurm, A. Stephen ed. (2001) knn as 18)‘Wa (1984) Kaisa kkinen, the ¨ oilg fLanguage of Sociology cher nagrdlnugsadeuain rceig fteTidFLConference FEL Third the of Proceedings education: and languages Endangered nagrdlnugs htrl o h pcait rceig fteScn FEL Second the of Proceedings specialist? the for role what languages: Endangered nagrdlnugsadltrc:Poednso h orhFLConference FEL Fourth the of Proceedings literacy: and languages Endangered acui:a tnchistory ethnic an Manchuria: eeFle4 1–24. 4: Folge Neue , 19)e.Ncoa slr dnug:Fudto o nagrdLanguages. Endangered for Foundation Edinburgh: Ostler, Nicholas ed. (1998) 3 111–22. 83: 19)esMri adnadMi ar,Lno:Routledge. London: Parry, Mair and Maiden Martin eds (1997) h et fteIihlanguage Irish the of death The 19)e.Mri .Bl ihJmsFf,Lno:Routledge. London: Fife, James with Ball J. Martin ed. (1993) 19)esRbr .Rbn n ueisM hebc,Ofr and Oxford Uhlenbeck, M. Eugenius and Robins H. Robert eds (1991) itrcllnusis nintroduction an linguistics: Historical h agae fteSve Union Soviet the of languages The urn rnsi acsa,Es uoenadInrAinlinguistics: Asian Inner and European East Caucasian, in trends Current 19)esEkhr Ko Ekkehard eds (1994) oprtv hktokmhta dictionary Chukotko-kamchatkan Comparative ¨ ¨ mmersprachen ee co ndrZi,dnSamamz fa zu Stammbaum den Zeit, der an schon es re 19)Msv:Indrik. Moskva: (1997) 19)gnrlesCrsohrMslyadR .Ahr London Asher, E. R. and Moseley Christopher eds general (1994) 19)e.Dri .F ols ai:Unesco. Paris: Collis, F. R. Dirmid ed. (1990) 7:25–38. 170: ˇ ` 3hen(96 d abr .Gie,Dla X Summer TX: Dallas Grimes, F. Barbara ed. (1996) edn 13th , sa .Iao (1995) Ivanov V. eslav (1992) d e n oik n ei ut,CretIssues Current Tuite, Kevin and Holisky Ann Dee eds , 19)e.GavlePie xodadMle:Black- Malden: and Oxford Price, Glanville ed. (1998) ,M h heoRmnelanguages Rhaeto-Romance The 18)e.Hirc ek Erga Beck, Heinrich ed. (1989) e ´ orsd aSocie la de moires ˇ z ˇ rkejzk,jpnkjjzk oesi jazyk korejskij jazyk, japonskij jazyki, urskie ¨ odnadNwYr:Routledge. York: New and London , i n oa a e uea London: Auwera, der van Johan and nig n d,rvsd nagdadupdated and enlarged revised, edn, 2nd , noErpa n h Indo-Europeans: the and Indo-European abig:CmrdeUniversity Cambridge Cambridge: , dnug:EibrhUniversity Edinburgh Edinburgh: , ´ te ´ in-uren 2,Hel- 222, Finno-Ougrienne rnsi Linguistics: in Trends , ora el Socie la de Journal ¨ nentoa Journal International odnadNew and London , llen?’ ¨ nzungsba Ural-Altaische rnsin Trends , ¨ d zum nde (2000) (1999) ´ te ´ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 19:41 26 Sep 2021; For: 9780203645659, chap3, 10.4324/9780203645659.ch3 ihl,Jhna(03 TeNk-ahsaincnoatcrepnecs,in correspondences’, consonant Nakh-Daghestanian ‘The (2003) Johanna Nichols, languages Mongolic The hllga ucceFnaet I Fundamenta Turcicae Philologiae survival of problems languages: minority Northern ie agae:1 aesuisi agaeintertwining language in studies case 15 languages: Mixed SSSR narodov Jazyki jazyki ural’skie mira: Jazyki jazyki paleoaziatskie mira: Jazyki ayiRsiso eeai oenxgsdrt:e gosudarstv: sosednix i Federacii Rossijskoj Jazyki SSSR narodov Jazyki SSSR narodov Jazyki SSSR narodov Jazyki SSSR narodov Jazyki ayiRsiso eeai oenxgsdrt:e gosudarstv: sosednix i Federacii Rossijskoj Jazyki Ko 1992 Federacii: Rossijskoj v situacija Jazykovaja rsaakiajzkvnrdvRsi:e Rossii: narodov jazykov kniga Krasnaja etrso agaestain usa soi,Finland Estonia, Russia, situation: language on approaches Ireland Lectures and descriptive Britain and in Languages practical theoretical, maintenance: language and death Language (1990) Seppo Lallukka, igitcmnrte nCnrladEsenEurope Eastern and Central in minorities Linguistic Linguistik Romanistischen der Lexikon ars ao (2002) Yaroz Matras, io agae fErp:asre flcue tteUiest fBee,ArlJl 2000 April–July Bremen, of University the at lectures of series a Europe: of languages Minor on conference International first the at read papers the from selection a today: languages Minority ¨ eiVld oa,Webdn Steiner. Wiesbaden: Togan, Velidi Ethnology. Zeki of Museum National Osaka: 44, Studies Ethnological I. Senri Howard of honor 207–64. Benjamins, in John papers Philadelphia: linguistics: and Asian Amsterdam Inner and European Aronson East Caucasian, in trends Mous, Nauka. Leningrad: Skorik, Ja. P. ed. Nauka. Moskva: Lomtatidze, Nauka. Moskva: Majtinskaja, E. K. Nauka. inFdrto:1992]. Federation: sian Mixal’c etce acebc Verlag. Taschenbuch Deutscher 20)esMr as n imnTl urn susi igitcTer 4,Amsterdam 240, Theory Linguistic in Issues Current Benjamins. Tol, John Sijmen Philadelphia: and and Janse Mark eds (2003) mia. trends Academia. Moskva: oznak, n hita cmt,Tu Schmitt, Christian and igitcSuis6 Tokyo. 6, Studies Linguistic oadPchm utlnulmtes19 lvdn utlnulMatters. Multilingual Clevedon: 109, matters Multilingual Peckham, Donald 20)e.Toa tl,Bcu-see Beitra Bochum-Essener Stolz, Thomas Edinburgh ed. Edinburgh: (2001) Thomson, 1980 Derick September and 13 McClure to Derrick 8 Press. J. University Haugen, from Einar University Glasgow eds 1990]) at held languages minority Br i,Wre (2001) Werner nig, ockmeyer. nae cdmæSinirmFniæB22 esni umlie Tiedeakate- Suomalainen Helsinki: 252, B Fennicæ Scientiarum Academiæ Annales , ˇ Studies no ocw[ihadtie nls umr:Telnug iuto nteRus- the in situation language The summary: English detailed a [with Moscow enko, d e n oik n ei ut,CretIse nLnusi hoy246, Theory Linguistic in Issues Current Tuite, Kevin and Holisky Ann Dee eds , nlnug n agaeue1,Asedm IFOTT. Amsterdam: 13, use language and language in V: oai igitcintroduction linguistic a Romani: IV: III: II: I: h atFni ioiisi h oitUin napaslo h erosive the of appraisal an Union: Soviet the in minorities Finnic East The oglsi,tunguso-man’c Mongol’skie, 20)e.Jh ahnn odnadNwYr:Routledge. York: New and London Janhunen, Juha ed. 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