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48 -level timber production: orienting towards the market

C. Holding Anyonge and J.M. Roshetko

Recommendations for helping imber from natural is in- important element of farm livelihoods small-scale farmers manage creasingly less available because (Dewees and Saxena, 1997). timber for specific markets, T of conservation, environmental The potential of small-scale timber based on experiences in East and social concerns. Industrial producers in providing raw materials in Africa and Southeast Asia. make up only about 5 percent of the total both contractual (corporate-smallholder area but provide 35 percent of the partnerships) and open-market situa- world’s supply (FAO, 2001). Expan- tions looks promising. However, con- sion of industrial plantations, however, is siderable obstacles are to be overcome limited because of competition from al- if are to produce timber of the ternative land uses. Yet the demand for quality and quantity sought by markets, timber and other forest and products and if timber production is to enhance is increasing at the local, regional and in- incomes for farm families. ternational levels. In response, many This article explores the potential of small-scale systems have farm-level timber production, specifi- evolved market orientations. cally in non-contracted or open-market Trees on farms have long been recog- situations where farmers produce tim- nized as protecting and often enhancing ber as one component (segregated or fertility, assisting in soil and water integrated) of their farm enterprise and conservation and providing , search for markets in an ad hoc manner. fuelwood and construction materials for The article does not address contractual rural households. They also help main- arrangements between corporate and tain (by diversifying plant smallholder partners (e.g. outgrower cover and providing for other schemes). (Such arrangements are dis- plants and animals) and enhance the cussed at length in FAO & CIFOR, landscape. In addition, commercial pro- 2003.) The article focuses primarily on duction of timber on farms in the trop- timber production for local and regional ics, either as scattered trees or as small- construction and furniture manufacture. scale is a potentially It draws on experience in East Africa and Southeast Asia – regions where these local industries are increasingly supplied in this way. The article addresses key issues at the landscape and household scale: • the potential of farm-level timber production to enhance farm liveli- hoods;

Christine Holding Anyonge is Officer (Extension) in the Forest Conservation, Research and Education Service, Forestry Department, FAO, Rome. Indonesian farmers receive James M. Roshetko is Trees and higher profit margins by Market Specialist, Winrock converting standing trees International and World Agroforestry to sawn timber for sale to Center (ICRAF), Bogor, Indonesia. consumers J.M. ROSHETKO

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• medium-scale wood enterprise per- Incorporating timber trees in croplands ceptions of timber from farms; diversifies farm • market and marketing chain analy- productivity and sis to support farm-level timber pro- enhances farm livelihoods (northern duction; Mindanao, the • transparency in legislation, farmers’ Philippines) rights, advocacy and extension. Issues associated with the global and national scales – e.g. biodiversity con- servation and (see Tomich et al., 2001) and the contribution

of farm-produced timber products to na- .M. ROSHETKO tional economies – are not discussed here.

AGROFORESTRY, TIMBER PRODUCTION AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS Purnomosidhi, 2003). In farms around there will be a tradeoff with the diver- “Agroforestry” refers to a dynamic, eco- Mount Kenya, it is not uncommon to find sity of the system and its agricultural logically based natural resources man- up to 19 different tree species on one productivity. agement system that, through integra- farm. In a survey conducted around east- tion of trees in farms and in the ern Mount Kenya, approximately 200 Species selection and germplasm landscape, diversifies and sustains pro- different tree species were identified on access duction for increased social, economic farms (Oginosako et al., 2003). Traditionally, farmers have grown trees and environmental benefits for Smallholder tree-growing systems are using local seed sources to provide prod- at all levels (Leakey, 1998). Farmers conventionally considered less produc- ucts and services that support their live- plant or conserve trees on their farms tive than nearby commercial plantations. lihood needs and are known to be com- for a variety of products and services – However, results from the global Alter- patible with the annual crop and not only timber, but also fuelwood, natives to Slash and Burn (ASB) project components of their farming fruits, vegetables, fodder, medicines, (Tomich et al., 2001) demonstrate that systems. The tree species used are not resins, shade (for livestock or the potential overall economic profit- necessarily those sought by the timber understorey crops), and soil and water ability of some small-scale agroforestry market. conservation. Timber may be a second- systems appears to be comparable to that When farmers seek to plant non-local ary product, harvested only after the tree of large-scale plantations. The analysis species, they have little control over the has served its primary production or suggests that small-scale systems pro- species made available to them. Scien- service role. In small-scale systems in vide greater employment and equity as tists and extension agents may make this developing countries timber production well as social stability without signifi- decision through reviews of literature is generally not intensive; once trees are cant reduction in economic growth. and screening trials to meet the require- planted there is little proactive manage- But can small-scale systems contrib- ments of local biophysical conditions ment – application, , ute significantly to the quantity and (Franzel et al., 1998), often without or weeding. If these activities quality of timber required by the mar- considering markets or local uses. are undertaken they are usually intended ket? The multiple-species, multiple- Research indicates that the use of im- to benefit agricultural crops. product nature of small-scale proved-quality germplasm and im- Tree species used are diverse and can agroforestry systems results in tradeoffs proved varieties, provenances and clones be either indigenous or exotic. In North with productivity and quality of wood. could raise the profitability of small- Lampung, Sumatra, home gardens, av- A 1-ha agroforestry system will gener- holder production of tree products, in- eraging 0.75 ha, contain as many as 21 ally produce less timber than a 1-ha for- cluding timber. Yet farmers have little tree species excluding the understorey est . But if timber production access to quality germplasm of either component (Roshetko, Mulawarman and is intensified in the agroforestry system, indigenous or exotic tree species. In most

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cases quality seed sources of indigenous but can also be detrimental to the long- ity and quantity of smallholder timber, species have not been identified and term agricultural productivity of the plus the time and expense required to farmers have limited experience with farm, impairing and soil and interact with numerous smallholders, are proper seed collection and management water conservation. the reasons for farmers’ low earnings from techniques. The supplies of quality ex- timber (Roshetko and Yuliyanti, 2002). otic germplasm are usually limited and TIMBER FARMERS, MARKET To improve these conditions, farmers, restricted to government and industrial AGENTS AND FOREST ENTERPRISES market agents and forest industries can use (Holding and Omondi, 1998; – IMPROVING LINKAGES work together to educate farmers to pro- Roshetko, 2001). Most farmers have little access to mar- duce better-quality timber (see Box op- These limitations frequently contrib- ket information concerning timber de- posite). Researchers, extension agents ute to mismatch between on-farm tree mand and price; little knowledge of and NGOs have an important role to play resources and market demand. This market specifications; and weak link- as facilitators to ensure that relationships shortcoming can be improved through ages with market agents (Roshetko and are transparent and mutually beneficial participation in species evalua- Yuliyanti, 2002). As a result, they have to all parties. tion and selection activities (Franzel et little knowledge of how to assess the al., 1998). value of their trees and how and where MARKET ANALYSIS FOR SMALL- to market them. SCALE FARM-GROWN TIMBER Factors influencing tree harvesting Because farmers often plant and man- Most efforts to enhance small-scale tim- The decision of when to harvest trees age trees without a specific market or ber production have focused on plant- may be determined by the prices of the product in mind, farm-grown timber is ing or growing trees. In developing coun- principle agricultural commodities and often of substandard quality, and vol- tries the marketing of farm-grown timber vigour of other farm enterprises. For umes and lengths are often inadequate. has received little attention and is not example, many on-farm timber trees are Other problems cited by medium- to well understood. Farmers and projects grown as shade in predominantly coffee small-scale construction, furniture, and often start planting trees without know- or tea production systems. As long as enterprises in sourcing farm- ing the market. Before planting it is rec- coffee prices provide a profitable return, grown timber (Holding, Njuguna and ommended that a market analysis be and farm incomes are stable throughout Gatundu, 2001) include: conducted to identify the products and the year, farmers are not inclined to har- • difficulty in identifying farmers species for which market opportunities vest their trees. Trees under this situa- selling trees; exist. This is the best way to ensure that tion become a form of living bank ac- • difficulty in collecting a sufficient the trees grown will have a positive count. quantity of logs to achieve econo- impact on farmers’ livelihoods. Trees may be harvested when the prices mies of scale for transportation; Subsequently, an analysis of the mar- of basic farm commodities (coffee, tea, • low recovery rates (as low as 20 keting chain can be conducted with the cotton, tobacco) fall. During the past two percent) because of poor form and producers to understand the various stages years in Central and Latin America and small size; of processing and conversion of the prod- East Africa, many overstorey shade trees • the many stages of handling and uct, and parts of the chain where efficiency have been felled for timber, fuelwood and conversion between the farm and the and profitability could be improved. A sales as a result of the fall in sawmill, with an associated reduc- marketing chain is a sequence of opera- coffee prices and the need for cash. Any tion in conversion efficiency. tions for a particular product from its pro- tree (including fruit, shade or timber trees) Because of the lack of knowledge and duction to its final point of sale (see Box may be felled prematurely for timber or often substandard quality of their prod- on p. 52). A marketing chain analysis is charcoal sales to provide households with ucts, farmers are at a disadvantage in divided into functions, participants, link- quick income during lean periods when negotiating with brokers and mobile ages and channels; it is essentially commodity prices are low, in emergen- sawmillers who come to villages in multidisciplinary. The chain is analysed cies or for celebrations, or to meet regu- search of trees to fell. Farmers often feel in technical, institutional and economic lar financial commitments (school fees, exploited by market agents (Holding, terms. However, issues of landscape di- taxes). Such not only affects the Njuguna and Gatundu, 2001). Market versity and resource sustainability also of timber production, agents counter that the unreliable qual- need to be taken into account.

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Farmer and industry When natural forests were abundant, the species with properties and quality similar collaboration to expand tree Philippines was one of the major producers to those of commercial species. Further farming and meet commercial of and the forestry sector research on these and other species is needed needs in northern Mindanao, was a top foreign exchange earner. As tim- to explore: Philippines ber supplies from natural forests have de- • decentralized germplasm production clined, wood producers have increasingly and delivery systems; depended on imported timber to meet do- • tree production (propagation and man- mestic demand. In 2001, about US$86 mil- agement) methods appropriate for small- lion was spent on imported sawnwood (FAO, holder farmers; 2003). • local knowledge about species uses and In the past two decades, as a result of fa- management; vourable market conditions, trees grown on • technological properties and market farms have become a reliable alternative acceptance. wood supply. During the early years of tree The use of a greater number of lesser- farming, planted trees were mostly used for known and lesser-used indigenous and ex- paper pulp and low-value wood products otic tree species is expected to help farm- (e.g. pallets and boxes). As timber supplies grown timber gain more than a modest share have become scarcer and tree farming has of the national and international timber developed and spread, many of the com- market and help the forestry sector again mon fast-growing plantation hardwoods become a net contributor to the Philippine have been increasingly used for construc- national income. tion materials, furniture, panels, flooring and crafts. Northern Mindanao has 135 mini- Bibliography exclusively supplied by tree farmers (DENR, 1998). These mills supply larger wood- Department of Environment and Natural processing plants with sawn timber for the Resources (DENR), the Philippines. fabrication of blockboard, furniture and 1998. Five-year mini-sawmill rationali- other wood products. zation plan for region X. Cagayan de Oro, An increased market share of farm-grown the Philippines. timber has been made possible by recent FAO. 2003. FAOSTAT forestry data. Internet advances in technology and product trans- document: apps.fao.org formation which allow the use of smaller Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. & diameters and lesser-known and lesser-used Prawirohatmodjo, S., eds. 1998. Plant timber species (Sosef, Hong and resources of South-east Asia. Timber trees: Prawirohatmodjo, 1998). lesser-known timbers. Bogor, Indonesia, To lessen its current dependency on ex- Prosea Foundation. pensive imported timber, the in- dustry of VICMAR Development Corpo- ration in Tagoloan has been testing the ve- neering properties of over 30 lesser-known and lesser-used tree species commonly grown on farms, including some fast-grow- ing exotic species. Last year, VICMAR, together with a group of upland farmers Contributed by: M.G. Bertomeu and A. from three municipalities, identified ten Tabbada, ICRAF, the Philippines.

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Smallholder timber production Lampung Province, Indonesia, like many cit creates an opportunity for smallholder and marketing in Lampung, areas across Southeast Asia, was once heav- farmers to develop or expand farming sys- Indonesia ily forested but has witnessed conversion of tems that provide timber for construction, most of its land to other land uses. The prov- packing crates and furniture markets. ince is now a timber deficit area, importing A study of timber production by smallhold- 94 percent of its 400 000 m3 annual wood de- ers was conducted in five communities in mand from other provinces (Provincial For- Lampung where farmers grow timber to in- estry Office Lampung, 1999). This local defi- tensify their farming systems, provide for their

Local Province Jakarta

1 Farmer Households/ consumers

2 Households/ Farmer Logger consumers

3 Farmer Logger Furniture

4 Households/ Farmer Sawmill Seller consumers

5 Households/ Farmer Logger consumers

6 Seller from other Farmer area (Jakarta) Marketing channels for smallholder timber in Note: Market channel 1 – sawnwood; market channels 2 to 6 – logs. Lampung, Indonesia

The following are some of the ques- cropping system and sustainability chain analysis is readily adaptable to tions the producer can be encouraged to of the on-farm tree resource? participatory approaches, enabling farm- consider in ascertaining which timber • Does tree species diversity on-farm ers and farmer associations to assess or multipurpose species to plant. support a range of livelihood options their own markets and make more in- • Do the tree species on-farm match at different stages in the life cycle of formed choices. market demand? What are the char- the household, from ready cash to The institutional dimension of market- acteristics of the market? intergenerational investments? ing chain analysis looks at the role of • Does the range of tree species cur- • What is the quality and diversity of direct actors (owners of the product for rently on-farm provide a sustainable germplasm supply for the species at least one stage of the marketing chain) source of those products sought by used? and indirect actors (those providing the market? Marketing chain analysis can assist in some type of service to one or more • How can farmers achieve a more comparisons between regions and coun- marketing chains or products). Indirect advantageous position in evolving tries and between time periods; it can actors include, for example, financial markets? assist in evaluations of the competitive- offices, public services, professional • Does the tree species mix on-farm ness of subsectors and subchains and of associations, police, legislators and vil- balance market demand, household the potential of different products for lage or tribal heads. Key questions that requirements, compatibility with the enterprise development. Marketing arise with regard to the relationships

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timber and income needs, and make better medium- to long-rotation premium-value tim- Bibliography use of their limited labour and capital ber) are the two major species grown by (Yuliyanti, 2000; Roshetko et al., 2002). The smallholders. Market demand for both spe- Provincial Forestry Office Lampung (Dinas study indicated that smallholders use vari- cies is reliable. Other commonly used species Kehutanan Propinsi Lampung). 1999. ants of three basic systems to produce tim- include Alstonia scholaris, Acacia Data kawasan hutan sesuai fungsi pada ber: home gardens (the traditional system), ariculiformis, Acacia mangium, Gmelina setiap Kabupaten di Provinsi Lampung s.d. in which timber species are grown with fruit arborea, Maesopsis eminii, Peronema awal 1998. Bagian Bina Program, Dinas trees and estate crops (coffee, rubber, etc); canescens, Pterosperum javanica, Swietenia Kehutanan Propinsi Lampung. Bandar single-purpose timber block plantings (pri- mahagoni and Dalbergia latifolia. Farmer Lampung, Lampung, Indonesia. marily of single species); and preferences for tree species depend on house- Roshetko, J.M., Delaney, M., Hairiah, K. & with annual crops (cassava, corn, upland rice hold needs and markets, but are also influ- Purnomosidhi, P. 2002. Carbon stocks in and peanuts). The latter two systems have enced by socio-economic factors. Farmers Indonesian homegarden systems: can been developed more recently in response to with more land, higher incomes and off-farm smallholder systems be targeted for increased the favourable market conditions for small- jobs prefer to invest in long-rotation premium- carbon storage? American Journal of sized timber. Of the two, block plantings are value timber species and estate crops; farm- Alternative , 17: 138-48. currently preferred as household labour limi- ers with limited income and land plant short- Yuliyanti. 2000. Analisis pemasaran kayu di tations make it difficult for smallholder fami- rotation timber species. Propinsi Lampung. (Timber market analysis lies to cultivate annual crops on all their Smallholders utilize six channels when in Lampung Province.) Bogor, Indonesia, landholdings. Intercropping systems may marketing their timber (see Figure). For Bogor Agricultural University. become more popular as the area of short-rotation species (P. falcataria), small- underutilized land decreases with increas- holders receive the highest profit margin (51 ing area planted. percent of final product value) for sawn tim- In most communities, average landholdings ber sold directly to consumers (market chan- are between 1.5 and 2.0 ha with a few families nel 1). For long-rotation species (T. grandis), owning 5 to 10 ha. Smallholder timber pro- smallholders receive the highest profit mar- duction systems are not intensively managed. gin (35 percent of final product value) for Compiled in collaboration with: Yuliyanti, Paraserianthes falcataria (a short-rotation logs sold directly outside the province (mar- Winrock International and ICRAF, Bogor, low-value timber) and Tectona grandis (a ket channel 6). Indonesia.

between actors include the following timber on-farm. On-farm conversion is district of Kenya compared the effi- (Freud and Dabat, 2000). desirable because it usually enables ciency of unskilled and skilled power- • How do different actors influence the farmers to capture higher profit margins, saw and tractor-mounted sawbench op- transactions and therefore the price? may provide additional local employ- erators (Onchieku, 2001). Results indi- • How important is trust among the ment opportunities and generates cated that recovery rates ranged from various actors to the smooth func- residues that can be used locally. Farm- 27 percent for unskilled power-saw tioning of the marketing chain? ers may convert standing trees into operators to nearly 60 percent for skilled • What are the principle opportunities sawnwood themselves, but more com- sawbench operators. Currently, anyone and constraints observed by each monly they hire local skilled or semi- with a tractor can hire five to six la- direct and indirect participant in the skilled chainsaw operators. Short-rota- bourers and set up a tractor-mounted marketing chain? tion low-value timber species are those sawbench business. Many entrepreneurs most commonly converted on-farm. The in this business are locally based. Both Timber conversion on-farm resulting products are primarily sold in industry and contractors would benefit One specific area where training and village- or local-level markets (house- from: advice can directly help farmers meet holds or local wood industries). • on-site training (on a paid basis) for the market requirements more effectively A study on sawn-timber yields of tractor-mounted sawbench operators is in the processing and conversion of farm-grown Grevillea robusta in Meru and chainsaw operators;

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• a system of professional certifica- Farm-level timber production linkages: tion and regulation of mobile power- research, development and advocacy saw operators and contractors. Training, certification and regulation In Meru district of Kenya, since 1999, tim- quality; and that farmers select one central would not only increase the returns to ber for local construction and furniture point close to their farms for log delivery by industry, contractors and farmers; but has increasingly been farmers and collection by brokers and mill- would also improve conversion rates, sourced from farms because of bans ers. The pilot programme therefore embarked increase the amount of timber reaching and a diminished supply from neighbour- on a series on interlinking research, exten- local and national markets and enhance ing indigenous forest blocks and State- sion and advocacy activities. the sustainability of on-farm and natu- owned forest plantations. Accordingly the The research component focuses on docu- ral timber resources. Meru timber marketing programme, im- menting and analysing the structure of the plemented jointly by ICRAF, FAO, the timber marketing chains and identifying TRANSPARENCY IN LEGISLATION, Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture and Rural actual and potential market niches for farm- FARMERS’ RIGHTS, ADVOCACY Development and the Forest Action Net- ers. Over 200 timber businesses have been AND EXTENSION work, was initiated in 1999 to address re- censused along eastern Mount Kenya, and Standardizing legislation search, extension and advocacy issues of 40 separate marketing chains characterized Trees on farms fall under a myriad of farm timber supply. and documented. Household surveys and rules and laws, from water licences, In the first stakeholders’ meeting, farmers discussions with farmers on their multi- watershed and environmental protection and sawmillers identified a series of prob- product tree management strategies will legislation and forest and agricultural lems and solutions regarding farmers’ en- enable the development of market-oriented regulations to taxation acts. These are trance into the market for timber. timber management protocols with farmers. sometimes contradictory and call for Farmers listed the following problems: a The extension component has trained ex- mutually exclusive actions. In this situ- lack of mensuration skills and a consequent tension staff and farmers in tree mensura- ation farmers are subject to exploita- inability to value their product; poor knowl- tion and valuation techniques, tree manage- tion by unscrupulous administration of- edge of tree management; poor knowledge ment and silvilcultural practices. It is piloting ficials citing various rules and laws. In of the market; low prices for timber; diffi- the formation of farmers’ marketing groups, many countries farmers must have per- culty in harvesting trees in coffee plantations; farmer-led market analysis and improved mits – or are told that they must – to conflicts with family or neighbours about market-focused tree management. harvest trees that they planted on their felling trees; permit requirements for felling The advocacy component focuses on poli- own land. Officials in one or more agen- and transporting timber; and transportation. cies pertaining to pricing, market informa- cies may require “fees” to issue or Sawmillers cited: inaccessibility of trees on tion, harvesting and transporting of timber process the permits. Often there is no farms; bureaucracy in obtaining felling and from farms, and farmers’ rights in the mar- legal basis for these permits, or offi- transport permits; poor quality of logs; lack ketplace. The experiences of farmers, cials fraudulently apply natural forest of information on quantity or location of tim- extensionists and researchers from Meru are management regulations to farmlands. ber; distance of farms from processing facili- feeding into a nationwide advocacy effort. In addition, there may be export taxes ties; and presence of nails and other objects Activities have included local workshops on or quotas intended to promote domestic in the logs leading to damage of machinery. tree felling, policing of timber transporta- ; these may drive down As solutions, the farmers requested that the tion and radio programmes. the domestic price of timber and hence, Forest Department provide information on The next step, emerging from requests from in the case of agroforestry species, re- pricing, mensuration techniques and tree both farmers and the industry, will be pilot duce the incomes of smallholders. Re- management, and they proposed to form a contractual and joint venture arrangements lated rules may also be selectively en- farmers’ organization to facilitate market- between tree product farmers and local in- forced or misused by officials (Tomich ing. The sawmillers suggested that farmers dustries. and Lewis, 2001). should clear access paths; that farmers be Any programme in timber marketing provided with advice on improved farm plan- Compiled in collaboration with: S. Carsan, requires farmer empowerment not only ning and management for improved wood ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. in terms of markets and market knowl- edge, but also in terms of government

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legislation, rules, and farmers’ rights (see Timber broker drawing Box opposite). In this way, farmers can a marketing chain, Kenya avoid unwarranted charges. Officials themselves may be confused over which rules to apply in which situation. Stream- lining of legislation and rules in relation to on-farm and harvesting is required, as well as greater transpar- ency in that legislation. Ideally, small- C. HOLDING ANYONGE scale timber farmers should be repre- sented in national industry associations and local government bodies and should have strong linkages with forest indus- try companies, local and national forestry A tractor-mounted agencies and government legislature. sawbench, Kenya

Conflicting extension and administrative advice Advice from agriculture and forest ex- tension staff can be conflicting. Agri- culture staff may advise lopping trees for fuelwood at shoulder height, while forest staff advise managing trees for longer stems and greater diameter to yield more logs. The result is confused farmers and ineffective tree manage- ment. C. HOLDING ANYONGE On the other hand, innovative farmers are developing silvicultural methods that interest depends on demonstration of the Key community-level activities in- fit their biophysical and socio-economic financial benefit of good management clude: conditions. For example, Kenyan farm- and on reliable access to profitable mar- • market analysis to assess current and ers in one locality close to Mount Kenya kets. The challenge to research, exten- future demands and identify the tree have successfully grown straight Cor- sion and development specialists is to products for which farmers may have dia abysinnica, a high-value indigenous help facilitate the development of such comparative advantages; hardwood species that naturally grows conditions. • the development of farmer groups twisted, by training and supporting it Activities that will assist small-scale to facilitate tree production and prod- with less valuable but straight-stemmed farm-level timber production to achieve uct marketing and to enhance econo- tree species. its multiple potentials include those at the mies of scale; There is a strong need for farmer-to- farm-level to improve farmers’ access to: • collaboration with government agen- farmer extension and capacity building for • markets and market information; cies and advocacy groups to clarify farmers and extension staff in timber tree • germplasm of suitable and well- and strengthen land and tree tenure selection, management and marketing. adapted species, provenances, vari- rights and legislation and to address eties, clones and seed sources of high other policy issues that may hamper CONCLUSION quality; farm-level timber production. Many farmers in developing countries • knowledge regarding species selec- The benefits of farm-level timber pro- show an interest in managing trees to tion, tree management, product duction are not limited to farmers. As- produce quality timber for specific mar- processing and required product sociated benefits also accrue to the wood kets. Experience indicates that farmer quality. industry and to the public. These include

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enhanced timber supplies to meet social Farmer and Stakeholder Decision-Making”, needs, strengthened local and national Lorne, Australia, 29 October - 2 November economies, diversified landscapes and 2001. the protection of environmental services Bibliography Leakey, R. 1998. Editorial. Agroforestry Today. (watershed functions and biodiversity September. conservation). Dewees, P.A. & Saxena, N.C. 1997. Wood Onchieku, J. 2001. Assessment of sawn timber However, the true magnitude of farm- product markets as incentives for farmer tree yields (recovery rates) of G. robusta from level timber production and its impact growing. In J.E.M. Arnold & P. Dewees, eds. farmlands in Meru Central District, Kenya. on local and national timber markets, Farms, trees and farmers: responses to Report, ICRAF/FAN timber marketing present and potential, are not known. agricultural intensification. London, UK, project. Research is needed to assess: Earthscan. Oginosako, Z., Mathenge, S., Simons, T. & • the number of farmers involved in FAO. 2001. Global forest resources assessment Simutu, P. 2003. Composition and structure different tree product markets by 2000: main report. FAO Forestry Paper No. of indigenous and exotic tree species in the region; 140. Rome. agro-ecological zones of the southern foot of • the household income provided by FAO & CIFOR. 2003. Equitable partnerships Mount Kenya. (In press) farm-level timber production (as between corporate and smallholder partners Roshetko, J.M. 2001. Strengthening germplasm both total and proportion of house- – relating partnerships to social, economic security for NGOs and smallholders in hold income); and environmental indicators. Synthesis of a Indonesia. First Annual Report. Bogor, • the volume and value of wood prod- workshop, 21-23 May 2002, Bogor, Indonesia, ICRAF and Winrock International. ucts sourced from farms, as a pro- Indonesia. Rome. Roshetko, J.M. & Yuliyanti. 2002. Pemasaran portion of industry supply, by prod- Franzel, S., Ndufa, J.K., Obonyo, O.C., untuk hasil-hasil wanatani di tingkat petani. uct type. ! Bekele, T. & Coe, R. 1998. Farmer-designed In J.M. Roshetko, Mulawarman, W.J. Santoso agroforestry trials: farmers’ experiences in & I.N. Oka, eds. Wanatani di Nusa Tenggara. western Kenya. In S. Franzel and S. Scherr, Proceedings of a workshop. Denpasar, eds.Trees and farmers: assessing the adoption Indonesia, 11-14 November 2001. Bogor, potential of agroforestry practices in Africa. Indonesia, ICRAF and Winrock International. Confused tree management: a Nairobi, Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre Roshetko, J.M., Mulawarman & result of conflicting advice from extension staff in forestry (ICRAF). Purnomosidhi, P. 2003. Gmelina arborea – and agriculture Freud, E.H. & Dabat, M.-H. 2000. Atelier de a viable species for smallholder tree farming formation sur les méthodes d’analyse des in Indonesia? In W.S. Dvorak, G.R. Hodge, marchés agricoles. Training materials. W.C. Woodbridge & J.L. Romero, eds. Recent Nairobi, Kenya, International Cooperation advances with Gmelina arborea. CD-ROM. Centre of Agricultural Research for Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, North Carolina Development (CIRAD)/ICRAF. State University. Holding, C. & Omondi, W. 1998. Evolution of Tomich, T.P. & Lewis, J. 2001. Putting provision of tree seed in extension community-based on the programmes in East Africa – case studies map.ASB Policy brief. No. 2. Nairobi, Kenya, from Uganda and Kenya. Regional Land Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn Programme. Management Unit (RELMA) Technical Tomich, T.P., Van Noordwijk, M., Report No. 19. Nairobi, Kenya, Swedish Budidarseno, S., Gillison, A., Kusumanto, International Development Cooperation T., Murdiyarso, D., Stolle, F. & Fagi, A.M. Agency (Sida). 2001. Agricultural intensification, Holding, C., Njuguna, P. & Gatundu, C. 2001. , and the environment: assessing Farm-sourced timber: the restructuring of tradeoffs in Sumatra, Indonesia. In D.R. Lee & the timber industry in Kenya – opportunities C.B. Barrett, eds. Tradeoffs or synergies? and challenges. Paper presented at the 5th Agricultural intensification, economic IUFRO Extension Working Party Symposium development and the environment, p. 221- “Forest Extension – Assisting Forest Owner, 224. Wallingford, UK, CAB-International. ! C. HOLDING ANYONGE

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