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Agroforestry: Enhancing Resiliency in U.S United States Department of Agriculture Agroforestry: Enhancing Resiliency in U.S. Agricultural Landscapes Under Changing Conditions Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report WO-96 November 2017 Michele M. Schoeneberger is Research Program Lead and soil scientist (retired), U.S. Department of Agricul­ ture, Forest Service, USDA National Agroforestry Center; Gary Bentrup is a research landscape planner, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, USDA National Agroforestry Center; Toral Patel-Weynand is the Director of Sustainable Forest Management Research, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Research and Development. In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident. Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720­2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877­8339. Additionally, program information may be made available in languages other than English. To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD­3027, found online at http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html and at any USDA office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632­9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250­9410; (2) fax: (202) 690­7442; or (3) email: [email protected]. USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. https://doi.org/10.2737/WO­GTR­96 United States Department of Agriculture Agroforestry: Enhancing Resiliency in U.S. Agricultural Landscapes Under Changing Conditions Michele M. Schoeneberger, Gary Bentrup, and Toral Patel-Weynand Editors U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Washington, DC Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report WO-96 November 2017 ii Agroforestry: Enhancing Resiliency in U.S. Agricultural Landscapes Under Changing Conditions Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................ v Overview and Purpose ...................................................................................................................................... v Key Messages ................................................................................................................................................... vi Literature Cited................................................................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Cited.................................................................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 2. Reducing Threats and Enhancing Resiliency .................................................................................... 7 Adaptive Capacity of U.S. Agriculture .............................................................................................................. 7 Commodity Production ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Crop Diversity ................................................................................................................................................. 11 Soil Resources ................................................................................................................................................. 13 Water Resources .............................................................................................................................................. 15 Air Quality ....................................................................................................................................................... 19 Biodiversity ..................................................................................................................................................... 21 Adaptable Plantings ......................................................................................................................................... 25 Literature Cited................................................................................................................................................ 28 Chapter 3. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation and Accounting ................................................................................... 43 Potential Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Roles of Agroforestry .......................................................................... 44 Carbon Accounting at the Entity Level ........................................................................................................... 51 Carbon Accounting at the Regional and National Levels................................................................................ 53 Advancing Greenhouse Gas Performance and Accounting in Agroforestry Systems ..................................... 55 Literature Cited................................................................................................................................................ 58 Chapter 4. Valuation of Agroforestry Services.................................................................................................... 63 Valuation of Financial Returns to the Landowner ........................................................................................... 64 Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Externalities From Agroforestry ......................................................... 65 Risk and Uncertainty ....................................................................................................................................... 68 Summary and Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 69 Literature Cited................................................................................................................................................ 69 Chapter 5. Human Dimensions of Agroforestry Systems .................................................................................. 73 Agroforestry Adoption Constraints and Opportunities ................................................................................... 73 Indigenous Systems as Models for Modern Resiliency .................................................................................. 78 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................... 84 Literature Cited................................................................................................................................................ 84 Chapter 6. Agroforestry Resources ...................................................................................................................... 91 Decision-Support Tools ................................................................................................................................... 91 Conservation Programs ................................................................................................................................... 94 Challenges and Opportunities ......................................................................................................................... 95 Literature Cited.............................................................................................................................................. 100 Agroforestry: Enhancing Resiliency in U.S. Agricultural Landscapes Under Changing Conditions iii Chapter 7. Expanding the North American Perspective— Canada ................................................................ 101 Impacts of Climate Change on Canadian Agriculture ................................................................................... 101 Agroforestry Across Canada ......................................................................................................................... 102 Overview of Existing Policies and Programs ................................................................................................ 106 Needs for Agroforestry in Canada ................................................................................................................
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