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Planning Perspectives Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713706718 The aesthetics of city-scale preservation policy in Beijing

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W University teamledbyProfessor LüJunhuaasthe leadresearcher forhistoricpreservation aspectsof theBeijing participated innumerous redevelopment plansforneighbourhoods inBeijing.He alsoservedonaTsinghua He pursueddoctoralstudyat Tsinghua UniversityinBeijingfrom 1992to1997,duringwhich timehe * suggests howpreservationpolicymayberelatedtofunctions ofthestateandnotions the influenceofcertainvisualaesthetictraditionsto theexclusionofothers,analysis the subjectforthisanalysis.Notingextenttowhich thislanguageandthesetoolsreflect have definedthecity’sheritage,envisionedurbanspace andmanageditsappearanceserveas morphological change.Thelanguageandregulatory toolswithwhichBeijing’splanners problem ofcity-scalepreservationasthehistoriccentre entereditscurrentperiodofdrastic attempts asmallpartofthistaskbyexamininghow Beijing’s officialplanningtreatedthe urbanization anditsintersectionwiththeevolution ofurbanplanning[2].Thisarticle mammoth taskofsituatingcurrentChineseexperiencewithinaglobalhistorymodern growth, Westernobservershavecertainlynotedtheproblem[1],butnonehasyetbegun and historicpreservation.AstoundedbytheunprecedentedspeedscaleofChina’surban problem ofrelatingmassiveurbanredevelopmenttothetheoryandpracticedesign Chinese citiesattheturnoftwenty-firstcenturygiveanewurgencytohistorical Introduction Taylor andFrancisLtdRPPE_A_221273.sgm10.1080/02665430701213531PlanningPerspectives0266-5433(print)/1466-4518(online)OriginalArticle2007&222000000AprilAssistantProfessorDanielBenjaminAbramsonabramson@u.washington.edu 5740, USA(e-mail:[email protected]) Department ofUrbanDesignandPlanning,UniversityWashington,Seattle,Washington98195- DANIEL BENJAMINABRAMSON ability toaccommodatechange. private spaces),producedacity-widepreservationpolicythatwasparticularlyhandicappedinits Beijing’s overallcharacteristicform(asopposedtoanexperienceofthecityfromitsmyriadpublicand clearing thespacearoundthem,anddependenceonatotalizingview-from-on-hightodefine but didsoinnarrowlypicturesqueterms.Thepracticeof‘protecting’designatedhistoricstructuresby plan inthe1990sambitiouslyattemptedtodefinepreservation-worthyimageofentireoldcity, and astheyevolvedrespondedoverthefollowingfifteenyearsofradicalchange.Beijing’smaster ments. ThisarticlereviewsBeijing’spreservationandurbandesignpoliciesastheyexistedin1990, tion policyandurbandesign,theroletheyplayinrapidtransformationofenviron- Chinese citiestodayrepresentahistoricallyimportantcaseoftherelationbetweencity-scalepreserva- Beijing The aestheticsofcity-scalepreservationpolicyin Planning Perspectives Dan Abramson is Assistant Professor ofUrbanDesignandPlanningattheUniversityWashington inSeattle. est CityDistrict’sDetailedDevelopment Control Plan ( ISSN 0266-5433 print/ISSN 1466-4518online©2007 Taylor&Francis , 22 (April2007)129–166 DOI: 10.1080/02665430701213531 http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals Planning Perspectives * Kongzhixing XiangxiGuihua ) in1995–1997. Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007

130 back toornamentandthefaçade, anditsscenographicroleinthedefinitionofpublic spaces, urban construction[6].In reaction again,thePostmodernmovementturnedits attention most broadlyrealizedinthe utilitarianbanalityofthemajoritymid-twentieth-century symbolic andemotionalarticulation oftheprojectstheyactuallybuilt,nevertheless became the newvisualaesthetic[5].Modernistfunctionalistrhetoric, whichwasbeliedbythestrong of theeye–notonlyalonggroundbutalsoupinto theair–wasaprimedeterminantof functions, especiallydifferentmodesandspeedsofmovement. Theever-changingposition ing façadesandinsteadwouldbedefinedbyitsadaptation toincreasinglydifferentiated Historic monumentswouldremain,butpublicspace nolongerbeenclosedbybuild- out, effectivelystartingwithminimumstandardsofspace, lightandairforeachdwelling. the nineteenth-centurycitybuilders,Modernistsproposed torecreatethecityfrominside approach [4]andenvisionedradicallynewcitiesinplace oftheold.Instarkcontrastwith ecology oftenementslargelyuntouched. treating thewholeasanartisticensemble,butoften leaving behindhisfaçadesacrowded the selectivepreservationofmonumentalarchitecturewithredevelopedstreetsystem, political valuetomonumentalarchitectureintheFrenchRevolution,Haussmannintegrated private dwellings[3].Followingtheemergenceofanationalisticattachmentsymbolic on thecreationofspectacularpublicspaceslinedbyornamentalfaçadesandprivileged teenth-century designsinhisnineteenth-centuryembellishmentofParis,withemphasis by subsequentvisionaries.Inacrucialhistoricexample,Haussmannreliedheavilyoneigh- incomplete vision,aestheticallycompromisedandripewithcontradictionstobeaddressed generations’ aestheticsanddesigntechniquesastheycreateanew.Theresultisusuallyan tion, itisunderstandablethatcitybuildersusuallyborrowasmuchfromprevious tion wouldputonthem.Underthehurriedandunpredictableconditionsofrapidurbaniza- preservationists wereunpreparedforthedemandsthatactualdynamicsofimplementa- ( mayor, ChenXitong,launchedthe‘OldandDilapidated(orHazardous)HousingRenewal’ The rapidtransformationofBeijing’shistoriccentredatesfromApril1991,whenthecity’s Visuality andthepublicrealmasissuesintwentieth-centuryurbanism peculiarities andvicissitudesofBeijing’spreservationpolicyoverthelastfifteenyears. with whichthisarticlebegins,therefore,istailoredspecificallytohelpmakesenseofthe sudden large-scaledevelopmentinthecitycentreduring1990s.Thehistoricaloutline of thisparticularmixinfluencesonlybecameevident,however,underthepressures ‘indigenous’ practicesandpoliticaldemandsofthemomentplace.Thesignificance towards Beijing.Theseoriginshadrootsbothinnon-Chineseexperienceaswellhistorical features ofthishistory,beforeturningtotheoriginscity-scalepreservationpolicy design andpreservationtheoriespractices.Thearticlethereforefirstoutlinesrelevant preservation practiceinChinaisfundamentallyconnectedtotheglobalhistoryofurban that theyareappropriatetoChina,inasmuchastheformationofmodernurbandesignand architectural andurbanisticdebateintheWestthantheyareChina,thisarticleargues public realm.Whilestatefunctionsandtherealmaremoreexplicitlyasubjectof weijiu fanggaizao Early twentieth-centuryModernistsreactedagainst thishistoricizingandclassist ) programme.Despiteyearsofplanning,Chineseurbandesignersand Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007

City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing non-Chinese accomplishments [17]. developed modernarchitectural andurbanisticvisionsofchangewithexplicitreference to and non-Chinesealike),on theotherhand,consciouslycomparedChinato West,and ties ‘outside’theWesterncultural sphere.ThinkersandpractitionersinChina(both Chinese and downturnsintherateofurbanreconstruction, withoutreferencetoothermoderni- nity unfoldedinadialecticalfashionasdescribedabove, inthecourseofcyclicalupturns and self-consciousinnationalculturalterms[16]. IntheWest,anawarenessofmoder- the West,China’sintellectualdiscourseonmodernity wasdelayed,historicallycompressed least agenerationand,inmanycases,bymorethanhalf acentury[15].Secondly,relativeto First, asintheWest,visionsofurbanchangepredated theirlarge-scaleimplementationbyat There aretwofundamentalconsiderationsthatunderlie thenarrativethatfollowsbelow. How doesthedevelopmentofBeijing’scity-scalepreservation policyrelatetothisdialectic? The modernrootsofcity-scalepreservationinChina agreements betweencitizensandthespacesinwhichthosearemade. see eachother.Thestateassuchfadesfromview,beingnothingmorethanthesumof between citizensengagingindemocraticaction.Citizensareactors,notsubjects,andtheycan rectional governmentalvisuality,Arendt’spublicrealmisaspaceofmulti-directionalvisuality Hannah Arendt’snotionof‘thespaceappearance’[14].Ratherthanconsistingaunidi- ality intwentieth-centurybuildingandpreservation,GeorgeBairdcontrastspanopticismto and ultimatelydisciplinesthesubject.Inreviewingproblemofpublicrealmvisu- each subjectevenasnocanseeanyotherand,inseeing,thestateindividualizes,records imposition ofpublicorder.Theeyethestate,whetherfromaboveorcentre,sees public space,viapanopticism,becomesaninstrumentofstate-drivennormalizationandthe Hausmannian andCityBeautifulembellishmentsofpublicspace[13].Inthisinterpretation, Foucault’s interpretationofJeremyBentham’sPanopticon,whichhasbeenlinkedbothto also instrumentaltoit[12]. and ‘visuality’–‘sightasasocialfact’werenotjustexpressiveofthispoliticalculturebut spontaneous democracyinthepublicsphereorrealm[11].Furthermore,visualaesthetics often expressionsofpoliticalculturethatwouldnotmeettoday’sdemandsforinclusiveand that haverecentlybeenthesubjectofpreservationandnostalgiccelebrationwerethemselves Indeed, somehavepointedoutthattheverypre-Modernistembellishmentsofpublicspace the persistenceofstate’sfunctionaspoliceevenitabandonsitswelfare[10]. ness ofthesespaceshasbeencompromisedbycommercialinterests,socialexclusivityand the revivedvisualarticulationofpublicspaces,criticshavearguedthatactualpublic- rejects anytotalizingnormativeformula[9]. (‘places’) thatcelebratesitsownhistoricalassemblyandincrementalevolution vision emergedofthecityasproperlyaself-conscious‘collage’distinctpublicspaces edented level,insomecasesadoptingentirecitiesasobjectsforpreservation[8].Anew period, too,theheritagemovementbroadeneditsfocusandincreasedtoolstoanunprec- often aspartofanexplicitlynostalgicimpulsetorecoveralostpublicrealm[7].Duringthis Probably themostcitedillustrationofgovernmentalrolevisualityisMichel However, evenasthePostmoderncelebrationofhistoryanddiversitytookexpressionin 131 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 132 ju youjihuaxingdezhengti sketch thatfromhighintheairemphasizedcity’sintegrityasaplannedentity(Fig.1) an unparalleledmasterpieceofcityplanning’,referredtotheas‘aplannedwhole’[ to definethecity’sheritagevalue,andontermsofongoingdebate. twentieth centurypreservationadvocateshasleftacrucialimprintonthelanguagetheyused today [19].However,thecosmopolitanexperience–outsider’sviewofBeijing’smid- merits andthereasonsforgovernment’sdecisiontorejectit,continuebedebated designer, establishedarationaleandplantopreserveBeijing’sentireOldCity.Theplan’s nist Party-ledera.In1949Liang,alongwithChenZhanxiang,aBritish-trainedurban in establishingthetermsofpreservationistdiscourseandcarryingitoverintoCommu- of Architecture,andChina’sfirstmodernarchitecturalhistorian,wasparticularlyinfluential the cityitselfasanintegralwholealsobecamesuchobject. objects worthyofpreservationtothosewhocared.Moreremarkablewasthattheform walls andgates,memorialarches( definition ofheritageasacollectionmonuments.InBeijing,structuressuchthecity expressed largelyintermsthatemergedfromtheWest,especiallywithrespectto stemmed fromacomparativeperspectiveonChina’sarchitecturalidentity[18].Itwasalso Chinese discourseonthesignificanceofurbanheritagetothisday.Butreaction,too, iue1 Bird’s-eyesketchofBeijing byLiangSicheng.Source:SichengLiang,op.cit.[20], p.55. Figure 1.

Liang andhiswifepartnerLinHuiyin,inwritingtheirfrequentlycitedessay,‘Beijing: Liang Sicheng,theAmericanBeauxArts-trainedfounderofTsinghuaUniversity’sSchool The preservationistreactiontothesevisionsveryquicklysetatonethathasdominated

] and‘aworkofart’[ pailou ) andtheForbiddenCityitself,becamediscrete yishu jiezuo ] andincludedanexquisite Abramson yi ge Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 surface ringroad.Evenso, the materialdestructionofhistoricfabricBeijing andmost moat werenearlyalldestroyed andreplacedbyanundergroundrailtransitline andwide of iconicnewmonumental buildings (Fig.2)[27].Overalongerperiod,thewalls, gatesand Tiananmen Square,theextension andwideningofChangAnAvenue,theconstruction anniversary ofthefoundingPeople’sRepublic, mainlythroughtheexpansionof They embarkedonamajorsymbolicreformationof the city’sspacetocelebratetenth well ascounter-revolutionaryideas[26]. both sufferedevenmoreduringtheCulturalRevolution (1966–76)forhaving‘foreign’as the Anti-Rightistcampaignfouryearslater(1957)of conspiring againsttheParty,andthey Ironically, despitetheirdisagreementonthispoint,both HuaandChenwereaccusedduring considered thisa‘classsentiment’( their desiretopreservethecitywallsintact,however, becausethepoliticalleadership shape outfromthehistoriccentre.Chenandhisteam quicklyfoundthemselvesisolatedin form ofaseriesconcentricringroadsandstreetgrids radiatinginaroughlyoctagonal Both schemesacceptedaSoviet-influencedmasterplanfortheexpansionofcityin administrative functionswithintheOldCitybutotherwiseretaineditsspatialstructure. in thestyleofParis,andthat,asParistoo,Beijing’soldimperialaxisbeextended. proposed thatthecapital’sadministrativefunctionsbedistributedthroughoutOldCity, – aformalapproachquitealientoimperialcapitalcityplanninginChina[24].Healso City andconvergedinBaroque/Haussmannianfashionongatetowersotherlandmarks and therestructuringofstreetgridtoincludediagonalavenuesthatbreachedOld in 1952–3,hisvisionforthecityinvolveddemolitionofroughlyhalfwalls Modernism. WhenHuareturnedtoChinain1951andtookparttheplanningofBeijing Beaux-Arts-educated Chinesearchitect,YangTingbao,hehadbecomeenamouredof studied attheEcoledesBeaux-ArtsinParis,but,likeanotherprominentPennsylvania and returnedtoChinateachconducthistoricalresearchin1928[23].Huahad Beaux-Arts educations.LianghadstudiedunderPaulCretattheUniversityofPennsylvania represented cosmopolitan( Hoa), whofavouredintegrationoftheOldCitywithinanexpandedmetropolis.Bothsides who favouredpreservationoftheOldCityasadistinctentity,andHuaLanhong(Léon about howtoimplementthisdecisionwereplayedoutbetweenLiangandChenononeside, decided tolocateitsmostimportantagenciesinsidetheOldCity[22].Theensuingdebates was outofstepwiththewillnewrevolutionaryleadership,whichin1949hadalready However, itwasunsupportedbyanyprofessional,legaloradministrativeinstitutionsand Bird’s-eyesketchofBeijingbyLiangSicheng.Source:SichengLiang,op.cit.[20],p.55. Figure 1. City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing unity [21]. composition, clarityandsymmetryofBeijing’surbandesign–apicturesquenessbasedin Henry ChurchillandOsvaldSiren,whobetween1920to1960praisedtheorderliness, language fromnon-Chineseobservers,includingSteenEilerRasmussen,EdmundBacon, description inhisownargumentforBeijing’sintegralpreservation.Healsoquotessimilar advocacy workandintellectualtraditionestablishedbyLiangSicheng,referstoLiang’s ied underElielSaarinenatCranbrookinthe1940sandwhohascarriedonmuchof [20]. WuLiangyong,theTsinghuaprofessorofarchitectureandurbanplanningwhostud- The PartysharedHua’svisioninprinciple,butgaveit aStalinistarchitecturalexpression. The opposingschemebyLiang’syoungerpartnerChenZhanxiangconcentratedthe The scaleandholismofLiang’sChen’spreservationistvisionwasaheaditstime.

yang pai jieji ganqing ) perspectives,andbothLiangHuahadreceived ) thatwasinadequatelyrevolutionary[25]. 133 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 134 Katherine J.Idziorek). GeneralmapofBeijing’s OldCity,showingsitesmentionedinthisarticle(mapdrawn by Figure 2.

Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 prohibitive comparedwiththatofdevelopingsuburbangreenfieldsites. market inurbanland,moreover,madethecostofclearingbuilt-uplandcitycentre allocation, thanontheprojects’conformitywithanurbanspatialplan.Theabsenceofa on theproposingworkunit’sinfluencewithinoverallbureaucraticsystemofresource on whichtheplannedeconomywasbased.Approvaltoimplementprojectsbasedmore place ontheinitiativeofindividualworkunits( (Figs 3,4and5)[28].InChinesecitiesunderMaoZedong,nearlyallnewdevelopmenttook ing inBeijing’sOldCitydidnotseearadicalchangephysicalstructureuntilthe1990s structure, orappropriatedbygovernmentagenciesandfactories,themassofcommonhous- economic reform.Unlikethecity’smonumentsdemolishedtomakewayformoderninfra- other ChinesecitieshasbeengreatestunderDengXiaoping’sregimeofmarket-orientated City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing distinctly separatebranchof thegovernmentfromthatwhichoverseesurbanplanning, the Administration ofCultural Heritage,whichisundertheMinistryofCulture. Thisisa level thanatthelocallevel. Historicandculturalpreservationisthemissionof theState though thisresponsibility is oftenarticulatedmorevigorouslyatthecentral,or national the governmenthastakenrelativelyclearresponsibility foritsdefinitionandprotection, neither clearlypublicnorprivate[32]. or democraticsocialistsocietiesareinChinagiventodevelopment agencieswhoseinterestis of thepublicgoodsthathavebeenmadeagovernmental responsibilityinWesterncapitalist eradicated mostnotionsofprivateproperty,thepublic realmitselfispoorlydefined.Many minate placeinChina’sarrayofplanningactivities[31]. Inthewakeofarevolutionthat to dowiththeaestheticandsocialqualitiesof(spatial) publicrealm,hasaratherindeter- determination ofpopulationdensities.Urbandesign,as thefunctionofplanningspecifically commercial areasandstandardsforhousingunits,to therestructuringoflanduseand challenges, frombasicinfrastructuralimprovement, thesiteplanningofhousingand with urbanplanninghavefoundthemselvesdealingallmannerofspatial increase inurbandevelopmentduringthe1990s,agenciesandprofessionalsentrusted also toaneraofrevivedlegislationandprofessionalizationurbanplanning[30].Withthe The periodsince1980inChinacorrespondsbothtothecurrenteraofmarketizationand The definition,managementandmonumentalizationofBeijing’svisualcharacter velopment thatwouldgatherspeedoverthenexttwentyyears[29]. the CulturalRevolution,notinanticipationofthorough-going,market-orientatedrede- impetus wasinresponsetothevandalismandneglectsufferedbyhistoricstructuresduring tools forlimitingdevelopmentinOldCitycentreswereforged.Significantly,theinitial progressed quickly,foritwasduringthisperiodthatmostofthelanguageandregulatory the Reform,debateaboutculturalvalueofhistoricurbanenvironment tation, historicpreservationwouldbecomeprofessionalizedaswell.Fromthebeginningof making, inthenameofmodernizationinsteadclassstruggle.Asapartthisneworien- would take;rather,itwastorationalizebothurbanplanningandeconomicdecision- thinking wasnottoreducethelevelofurbanplanningthatdeterminedformcities GeneralmapofBeijing’sOldCity,showingsitesmentionedinthisarticle(mapdrawnbyKatherineJ.Idziorek).MapWestCityDistrict,extentone-storeyhousingandlanes(areas Figure 2. 3. 4. 5. Where thepublicrealmconsistsofasocietalinterest inarchitecturalheritage,however, When Denginitiatedthemarket-orientatedReformandOpeningpolicy,therefore,

hutong hutong

) approvedfordemolitionin1996(fromasurveyconductedbytheauthorandmembersofplanningteamdirectedProfessorL ) demolishedsince1948andareasstillintactin1989(fromasurveyconductedbytheauthormembersofplanningteamdi1996 rected byProfessorLüJunhuafortheBeijingWestCityDistrictPlanningBureau;mapdrawnKatherineJ.Idziorek). ü JunhuafortheBeijingWestCityDistrictPlanningBureau;mapdrawnbyKatherineJ.Idziorek). danwei ) –theproductiveandserviceentities 135 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 136 ( MapofBeijing’sWestCity District,showingextentofone-storeyhousingand lanes Figure 3. Planning Bureau;mapdrawnby KatherineJ.Idziorek). and membersofaplanningteam directedbyProfessorLüJunhuafortheBeijingWestCity District hutong ) demolishedsince1948andareas stillintactin1989(fromasurveyconductedbytheauthor

Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing ( MapofBeijing’sWestCity District,showingextentofone-storeyhousingand lanes Figure 4. Planning Bureau;mapdrawnby KatherineJ.Idziorek). and membersofaplanningteam directedbyProfessorLüJunhuafortheBeijingWestCity District hutong ) demolishedsince1989andareas stillintactin1996(fromasurveyconductedbytheauthor

137 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 ( MapofBeijing’sWestCity District,showingareasofone-storeyhousingand lanes Figure 5. map drawnbyKatherineJ.Idziorek). planning teamdirectedbyProfessor LüJunhuafortheBeijingWestCityDistrictPlanning Bureau; 138 hutong ) approvedfordemolitionin1996 (fromasurveyconductedbytheauthorandmembers of a

Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 definition of‘style’or‘harmony’ wasprovided,however. zones belimitedinheight and stylisticallyinharmonywiththehistoricarchitecture. No green beltsandfireaccess ways, withtheaddedstipulationthatnewbuildings withinthe sites, theseconstructioncontrol zones( pal PlanningInstitute,whichdrewupthecontrolzones forallnationalandmunicipallevel damaged [38].Beijingactedonthislegislationin1987 [39]and,inthehandsofMunici- site’ forthepurposesofensuringthatenvironmental characterofthemonumentisnot measure of‘drawingcertainconstructioncontrolzones inthevicinityofpreservation tion expandedtheinfluenceofhistoricsitedesignation bycallingfortheaddedprotective protection wasextendedtoatotalof854sites[37].The 1982nationalpreservationlegisla- revision oftheMasterPlanlisted777sitesatthislevel. Bytheyear2000thislowestlevelof entirely newlevelofprotectionatthedistrictandcounty levelwasestablishedandthe1993 total of35national-levelsites,174municipal-level sites [36].Moreover,since1984,an of national-andmunicipal-levelprotectedsitesthroughout Beijingmunicipalityfrom78toa for protection[35].By1984,twomorelotswereadded tothelist,raisingtotalnumber early as1957,themunicipalgovernmenthadadoptedfirstlotofindividualmonuments tion: (1)individualsites;(2)wholestreetsordistricts;and(3)theOldCityasawhole.As By 1990,historicpreservationinBeijingwasconceivedasinvolvingthreescalesofregula- Preservation sites,districtsandheightrestrictions while theywerequiteexplicitinthekindsofprotectiongavetohistoricmonuments. guihua plans ( detailed articulationsofofficialplanningpolicy,suchasthesub-municipaldistrictzoning subsection ofthesectiononhistoricpreservation,andeventheninacursoryway.More did notmention‘urbandesign’initsmainindex,anddealtwiththesubjectprimarilya 2010 edition;the2004–2020updatewasratifiedbyStateCouncilonJanuary27,2005) ( ulated thanthoseforindividualsites.Forexample,theeditionofBeijing’smasterplan officially recognizedhistoricenvironments,butcity-scaleconsiderationsaremuchlessartic- effectively asakindofproxyforurbandesignpolicy,atleastinthosecitiesthathave- legislation byeightyears[34].Inthiscontext,historicpreservationpolicymaybetaken urban planningpolicybytwoyears,andpredatedthenationalenabling reform-era legislationgoverningthepreservationofheritagepredatedkeynational fashion, despiteeffortsbythecentralgovernmenttoimposestandards.Themostimportant preservation ofheritage[33]. of morecentrallyformulatedpriorities,suchastheconservationagriculturallandand since theearly1980sandhaveusedittopursueeconomicdevelopment,oftenatexpense chiefly atthelocallevel.Municipalgovernmentshaveenjoyedincreasingfiscalautonomy ordination. Co-ordinationisinhibitedfurtherbythefactthaturbanplanningcarriedout from themunicipalleveluptoprovincialandcentrallevels,whichinhibitslateralco- Ministry ofConstruction.Eachthesebranchesgovernmentconsistsahierarchy City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing zongti guihua Urban planninganddesignhasthereforeevolvedinaparticularlylocalized ), werenomoreexplicitintheirlayingoutofurbandesignprinciplesorguidelines, fenqu guihua ) thatwasineffectformostoftherecentperiodradicalgrowth(the1991– ) and‘detaileddevelopmentcontrolplans’(

jianshe kongzhididai ) havetakentheformchiefly of kongzhixing xiangxi ad hoc 139 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 140 carries prestigeandunderlines theimportanceofheritage,butwasnotintegrated with concept issimilartotheWorld HeritageCity,andactuallypredatesitbyalmosta decade.It among localgovernments[45]. rapid urbanizationonhistoriccityscapesandeager topromotecity-scalepreservation early 1980sintheMinistryofConstructionamongplanners concernedabouttheimpactof 1950s [44].Theterm‘FamousHistoricandCulturalCity’ itself,however,originatedinthe the historicarchitecturalsignificanceofBeijingandother Chinesecitiesinthe1940sand Cultural City’designationdatetheconceptbacktoLiang Sicheng’sholisticdescriptionof limit zonesthatextendedthroughouttheOldCity.Proponents ofthe‘FamousHistoricand Historic andCulturalCity’( two policiesthatappliedtotheentireOldCity:(1) designationofBeijingasa‘Famous State AdministrationofCulturalHeritage. scale ofthemonument,itcameunderpurview the MinistryofConstruction,not Beijing’s rapiddevelopmentinthe1990s.Andbecausedistrictconceptwentbeyond ments andenlargementsofthehistoricdistrictconceptweremadesoonenoughtoinfluence outlying countiesofBeijing’sextendedmunicipality[43].However,nonetheserefine- preservation districts,fiveofthemintheOldCityandrestsuburbandistricts 2004, theMunicipalGovernmentpublishedanewplanwithanadditionalfifteenareasas the numberoftwenty-fivebydesignatinganotherareatoreplaceitonlist[42].As and, bythen,oneofthemhadalreadybeendemolished,thoughthegovernmentmaintained government approvedactualboundariesanddetailedplansforthepreservationdistricts rated intothenextMasterPlanrevisionin1990.Itwasnotuntil1999thatmunicipal reasons [41].InBeijing,twenty-fivenamedbutspatiallyundefinedareaswerethenincorpo- time theconceptthatwholestreetsordistrictscouldbeprotectedforhistoriccultural ‘Characteristic Streetscapes’( Historic CulturalPreservationDistricts( category ofpreservationistregulation:thedesignationspecificareasOldCityas much higherbuildings. from theircontext,surroundingthemwithaminiaturepark,whichisinturnsurroundedby landscape’) effect,becauseitvisuallydisconnectsindividualworksofhistoricarchitecture density. Theresultofthispolicyhasbeendubbedsardonicallythe architecture; theywouldthenbefreetobuildtherestofprojectsiteoutmaximum standards byfillingthezonewithplantinginsteadofunprofitablenewlow-risecontextual control zonesaroundprotectedbuildingsasanopportunitytomeetrequiredgreenspace developers, eagertomaximizefloorareawhereverpossible,interpretedtheconstruction integrated intotheneighbourhoods’newsiteplaninarelativelyseamlessfashion.Most opportunity totreatprotectedsitesas‘pearls’oftraditionalarchitecturethatcouldbe took theformoflarge-scaleneighbourhoodrenewal,Beijing’splannerssawthemasan vernacular courtyard( nated forpreservationsimplyonthebasisoftheirqualityastypicalexamplesclassic protected siteshadtheeffectofmonumentalizingthosesites,evenwhenweredesig- Beijing andanumberofother Chinesecitiesweregiventhisdesignationin1982. The The thirdandlargestscaleofpreservation-relatedregulation inplace1990consistedof Above thescaleofindividualhistoricsiteanditsimmediatesurroundingswasanother In practice,theuseofconstructioncontrolzonestoregulatedevelopmentaround siheyuan Lishi WenhuaMingCheng fengmao jie ) housing[40].Sincemostdevelopmentprojectsinthe1990s

). In1986,theStateCounciladoptedforfirst lishi wenhuabaohuqu

); and(2)asystemofbuildingheight ) or,inthecaseofstreets, penjing ( bonsai

Abramson or ‘potted Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing ‘traditional’ or‘unique’visual character( visual termsas‘theancient capital’svisualcharacter’( scale, whichconflictswiththegoalof‘gradual’( vidual units.Asitturnedout,planningatalargescale coincidedwithconstructionatalarge planned atalargescaleratherthanproceedonan parcels’ ( The 1991–2010MasterPlan AreaswherebuildingsexceedthemasterplanheightlimitsinOldCityofBeijing,asFebruary2002(basedonB Figure 7. enlarged versionofthe HeightlimitsintheOldCityasdescribed1993editionof Figure 6. major streetsinthesouthernpartofOldCity(Fig.6). 45 mattheeastandwestedgesofOldCityalongChangAnAvenueother 6 maroundtheForbiddenCityandothercentralareasinPreservationDistricts,upto The entireOldCitywasdividedintozonesthatrestrictedbuildingstovariousheights,from Measures fortheOldCityofBeijing,andaredescribedinsomedepthSitWu[46]. Heights inPlannedUrbanAreasandthe1987Land-UseHeightControlPlanning Height limitzonesinBeijing’sOldCitywereenabledbythe1985RegulationonBuilding development planningorregulationuntiltherevisionofcity’sMasterPlanin1993. Plan definedBeijing’s contradictory: tal identityofhistoricBeijingasawhole.Yet,fromtheoutset,policywasunclearand vidual monumentsandevendistrictswouldnotbeenoughtoprotectthebuilt-environmen- were motivatedinpartbytheconcernthatrestrictingbuildingheightsandprotectingindi- ning oftheFamousHistoricalandCulturalCityBeijing’.Theprovisionsinthissection The planaddressedpreservationandurbandesigninasectionentitled‘PreservationPlan- In 1993theBeijinggovernmentundertookaneweditionofmunicipalMasterPlan. often bybuildingsmorethantwiceashighofficiallyallowed(Fig.7). liked [47].Whereredevelopmenthasoccurred,mostoftheheightlimitshavebeenbroken, but therimisclosertoForbiddenCitythanleadingpreservationplannerswouldhave and mostcentralpoint.Asithasactuallyhappened,thebowlshapeismoreorlessintact, vation sites–i.e.Beijingwouldbeshapedlikeabowl,withtheForbiddenCityatitslowest Planners andofficialstypically referredtothecity’sidentityorcharacterindistinctly The laststatementinthispassageisespeciallyself-contradictory; theterm‘complete If theOldCitywerebuiltouttomaximumallowedheights,effectwouldbean Beijing In 1983,whentheyapprovedinprinciplethe on thebasisofcompleteparcels’[48]. new architecturemustbeinharmonywiththem.Theoldcity shallbegraduallyredeveloped tural vestigesshallbecarefullyprotected.Intheirsurrounding areas,thebulkandstyleof tionary history,[other]historicalandculturalrelics,oldarchitecture andsignificantarchitec- and theuniquevisualcharacterofcapitalasocialistcountry. Valuablesitesofrevolu- construction shallreflecttheChinesenation’scultureandhistory,itsrevolutionarytradition, country’s capitalaswellafamoushistoricandculturalcity.Beijing’splanning cheng pian , theCommunistPartyCentralCommitteeandStateCouncilsaid:‘Beijingisour Beijing MunicipalMasterPlan,1991Ð2010 ) expressesthegovernment’sconcernthatdevelopments shouldbe chuantong fengmao (mapdrawnbyKatherineJ.Idziorek). penjing eijing MunicipalCityPlanningCommission,op.cit.[43];comparisonmadewith1993editionofthe

metaphor usedtodescribethetreatmentofindividualpreser-

chuantong as havingthefollowingcharacteristics: (1)being Beijing MunicipalMasterPlan,1991Ð2010 Urban ConstructionMasterPlanSchemefor

zhubu

ad hoc

, andmapdrawnbyKatherineJ.Idziorek).

or

) redevelopment.

gudu fengmao

basisaccordingtothewillofindi- du tefengmao

) ormoresimplyas ) [49].TheMaster 141 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 Master Plan,1991–2010 HeightlimitsintheOldCity asdescribedinthe1993editionof Figure 6. 142 (mapdrawnbyKatherineJ.Idziorek).

Beijing Municipal Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing Katherine J.Idziorek). made with1993editionofthe February 2002(basedonBeijing MunicipalCityPlanningCommission,op.cit.[43]; comparison Areaswherebuildingsexceed themasterplanheightlimitsinOldCityof Beijing, asof Figure 7. Beijing MunicipalMasterPlan, 1991–2010

, andmapdrawnby 143 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 144 viewed alongmajorstreets, ortointrudeintocertainviewcorridors,mainlyalong streets not toallownewbuildings todestroythesilhouettesofcertainarchitecturalfocal pointsas rather thanontheground, inthestreet.Theonlyexceptionstothiswerestipulations sion ofstatepowerratherthan ofeverydaylife;somethingtobeappreciatedfrom onhigh, to strengthentheimpressionthatBeijing’svisualcharacter shouldbeconsideredanexpres- language usedtodescribethesehighpoints–‘commanding heights’( abstract, intwo-dimensionalplan,orfromafewselected highpoints.Therathermilitary there isasensethatthecity’spreservation-worthyidentity waslargelydeterminedinthe ing oneithertheOldCity’shistoriccityscapeoritsland-use pattern. rights-of-way torelievecongestion,butgavenoconsideration totheimpactofsuchwiden- avenues. TheMasterPlan’stransportsectionrequired thewideningofnearlyallstreet and lanes’bepreserved,itwasconsideredenoughto maintainthelocationofmain gone conclusion.TosatisfytheMasterPlan’sstipulation that‘thegridframeworkofroads setbacks fornewconstruction,thelackofintegration ofnewstructureswasalmostafore- and openspace.GiventheMasterPlan’sotherrequirementsforroadwideningdeep treatment ofmonumentsbybeingitselfsetofffromitscontext,surroundedwithgreenery individual projectswasthevaguesuggestionthateachnewdevelopmentshouldmimic their relationtoeachotherorpublicspace.Theonlyimpliedguidanceforthedesignof vation andUrbanDesign’,itprovidednoguidelinesfortheappearanceofnewbuildings,or for thecity’s2008OlympicGamesfacilities. into thesouthernandnorthernsuburbs;axishasbeenmadeamajororganizingfeature stipulated thatthecity’scentralaxisbe‘developed’aswellpreserved,byextendingitout ( historic low,grey,commonhousinganddominantgreenery‘settingoff’bycontrast ettes ( important viewcorridors( city; (6)thehorizontalprofileofcityanditsopennesstosky( of waterways;(4)thegridframeworkroadsandlanes;(5)traditionalcolouring walled city(whichwascomparedtotheshapeofChinesecharacter‘ ing elementsbepreserved:(1)thecentralaxis;(2)imageinplanofMingandQing Palace andthegreenbluetilesofprincelypalacestemples. the mainbygreywallsandgreentrees,punctuatedgoldenyellowtilesofImperial vernacular courtyardhouses,allsurroundedbythecitywallandgates;(5)beingcolouredin and YongdingGate–centredontheImperialPalacesetoffbyanexpanseofone-storey controlling highpoints( making arichcollectionoffocalpoints;(4)havinganorderlybutmodulatedskyline streets throughoutthecity,withgatetowers, walls, yellowtiles,greentreesandbluewater;(3)havingachessboard-likenetworkof to thewestofaxis,formingalltogetheracomplementaryhardandsoftlandscapered (2) havingincontrasttothestrictsymmetryofthisaxiallayoutasystemlakesandparks along whicharearrayedthecity’smostimportanthistoricmonumentsofdynasticera; centred ontheForbiddenCityandastrictlysymmetricalrichlyvariedcentralaxis, hongtuo Throughout thetextof1993MasterPlan’spreservation andurbandesignsection, Although thissectionofthe1993revisionMasterPlanwasentitled‘IntegralPreser- Based onthisdefinitionofBeijing’s jiedao duijing

or chentuo ); (9)oldandvaluabletrees[50].ThetextfrequentlyreferredtoBeijing’s ) thehigher,brighterroofsofitsmonumentalbuildings.Thetextalso kongzhi dian jingguan xian ) –Jingshan,DrumandBellTowers,ZhengyangGate fengmao ); (8)importantaxialfocalpointsandtheirsilhou- pailou , theMasterPlanstipulatedthatfollow- , templealtars,pavilionsandpagodas pinghuan kaikuo zhi gaodian

tu

’); (3)thesystem

Abramson

) –tends

); (7) Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 ing toBeijing’shistoricvisual characteronlynow,ironicallyasaresultoftheemergence ofa geometrical andgeographical identity[56].However,thischoicehasbecometruly threaten- known asoneoftheclearest expressionsofthecontinuityBeijing’shistoricmonumental ical gathering,andofZhongnanhai astheCommunistParty’scentreofpower, iswell in thecentreofOldCity.ThechoiceTiananmen Squareasthefocusofpopularpolit- especially giventheCommunistParty’sdecisionin early1950stolocateitsheadquarters became thelogicaloutcomeofmarket-orientated developmentpoliciesofthe1990s, clearly aviolationofthecity’svisualcharacterasdefined intheMasterPlan,nevertheless hulk, asitwasaddedtotheskyline[55].High-risedevelopment inBeijing’sOldCity,while dynasty InnerCity.Hedrewinbyhandeachnewmulti-storey building,likealargeblack Jing Shan–thehighestpointinBeijing’sOldCityand thegeographicalcentreofMing together showingthepanoramicviewoverForbidden Cityasseenfromthesummitof Municipal PlanningInstitute,keptamuralonhisoffice wallofenlargedphotocopiespasted Beijing’s historiccentresincethemid-1980s.DongGuangqi, ViceDirectorEmeritusofthe particular areaswheretheywerereallynecessary. historic skyline,norgaveplanningauthoritiesmuchroomtonegotiatelowerheightsin many historicstructures.TheblanketheightlimitthusneitherprotectedtheOldCity’s fact, evensix-storeybuildingsarehigherthanallbutaboutsevenoreightoftheOldCity’s construct, developersconsistentlypressedtobeallowedbuildthathighatleast[54].In keep buildingsbelowthetrees,butsincesix-storeyweremosteconomicalto Financial Street( to 45m,andeventhisheightlimithasbeenroutinelybypassed,asattheWestCityDistrict’s exceptions weremadefortheareasnearformercitywallgates,whichcouldbebuiltup height limitwasacompromisewithpro-developmentfactionsinthegovernment.Asitwas, Bureau’s failuretoenforcethemorenuancedzoningofmasterplan.Eventhisblanket the masterplan,andreflecteddesperationofCommissionmembersfacedwith [52]. Theblanket18mheightlimitwasanunwrittenpolicystricterthanthatrequiredby storeys –acrosstheentireOldCityinordertoprotectitstraditionallow,horizontalprofile Capital PlanningCommissioninsistedonanabsoluteheightlimitof18m–generallysix 80 mforspecific,well-connectedofficeandhoteldevelopmentswithintheOldCity, ning meetings.LongaftertheMunicipalPlanningBureaubeganapprovingheightsofupto that theywereimpossibletoenforceandthesubjectofmostheateddebateinplan- was buildingheightcontrol.Thesecontrolzones,however,weresobroadlydefined intruded intotheview. Jishuitan Hospitalbuiltinthemid-1980shadrisenabovetreesbehindHouhaiand employed onanurbanscale.Thisremainedthecaseevenafterwhitetowerof of thepicturesqueChinesegardentechnique‘borrowedview’( the bestplaceinBeijingtoviewmountainsoverwater[51].Indeed,itisaclassicexample Guanshan—and hasacenturies-oldhistoryinliterarydescriptionsofBeijing’slandscapeas lake towardthedistantWesternHills(Fig.7).Theviewitselfhasaname—theYinding protection, however,wastheviewfromsmallarchedYindingBridgeacrossHouhai that affordviewsoftheWesternHills.Theonlyspecificviewcorridormentionedfor City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing Beijing’s preservationistsandplannershavecriticized theproliferationofhigh-risesin A trulyprotectiveheightlimitwouldhavetobemaintainedatfourstoreysinorder The onlyspecificpreservation-anddesign-orientatedregulationorstrategyintheplan Jinrong Jie ) project[53]. jiejing ) being

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Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 146 blocked theview,andfurtheraway‘FinancialStreet’( swath ofshoppingandofficebuildingsbetweeneighttwentystoreyshighalongXidan reflects thepowerofstate’sfinancialmonopolyattime.By2002,however,abroad two-storey BankofChinatoweratFuchengGatecompletedin1988–anexceptionthat (Fig. 7).Nosignificantstructurewasvisibleabovethelineoftrees,exceptfortwenty- see almostnothingexceptgreeneryintheforegroundandWesternHillsdistance north-west acrossTiananmenSquare,Zhongnanhaiandtheneighbourhoodsbeyond stand atthetopofstepsMuseumChineseRevolutionandHistorylook power tothedistrictlevelofgovernment[57]. commercial landmarketandthedecentralizationofmostdevelopmentdecision-making the livingconditionsof residents[59].Theprojectarchitectappliedgreen-trimmed the Mosquewasasstrong a publicjustificationoftheprojectaswasneed to improve dents, 77%ofwhomwere of Huiethnicity. new four-andsix-storeyapartmentbuildings,which were rentedbacktotheoriginalresi- group ofoldcourtyardhousesjustbehindtheNiuJieMosque demolishedandreplacedwith District government,whosemayorwasoneoftheHui communitymembershimself,hada begun in1990andcompletedby1996,kepttheoriginal communityinplace.TheXuanwu opment beforeitsboundariescouldevenbedetermined. TheChunfengHutongproject, the originaltwenty-fivedesignatedhistoricpreservation districtsthatsuccumbedtoredevel- monumentalized togetherwiththeprotectedbuilding. Theneighbourhoodwasalsooneof Jie Mosque–thoughinthiscasetheminorityethnic identityoftheneighbourhoodwas Beijing’s XuanwuDistrictwasanotherinstanceofclearance aroundahistoricsite–theNiu blocked the‘displayofancientculturalcapital’sproper image’. as a‘massofrundownone-storeyhouses’thathave‘swamped’theWhitePagodaand views fromthemainstreets.Theexistingenvironmentaroundmonumentwasdismissed monument, suchasthemaintenanceofsightlinesandbuildingheights,theseonlyfor mentary goals[58].Preservationwasdefinedinpurelyvisualtermswithrespecttothe historic image’and‘remakingthedistrict’sbackwardurbanweretreatedascomple- the neighbourhoodofWhitePagodaTemple,forexample,‘accentuating[Temple’s] hood itself.IntheredevelopmentplanapprovedbyMunicipalGovernmentin1996for and alsooftenattheexpenseofhistoric,culturalorsocialqualitiesneighbour- existing buildings;ofteninexchangeforraisingbuildingheightselsewherethevicinity; policy. Theeffectwastomonumentalizethehistoricsite,clearingareaarounditofother tended toechotheoverarchingpicturesqueemphasisofMasterPlan’spreservation projects involvedaneighbourhoodwithprotectedhistoricbuilding,theirdesignapproach the 1990sarebestunderstoodatlevelofindividualredevelopmentprojects.Wherethese The developmentdynamicsthatchallengedheightrestrictionsintheOldCityofBeijing Neighbourhood redevelopmentintheshadowofmonuments the heightevenof‘old’BankChina. Nothing revealsthisironymoreclearlythanthefactthat,asrecently1992,onecould The perceivedneedtogive thedistrictafaceliftforbenefitofvisitorsandtourists to The ChunfengHutongredevelopmentintheNiuJie Hui(Moslem)neighbourhoodin Jinrong Jie ) developmentexceeds Abramson

Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 the northsideofcity,andnowamunicipal-levelpreservationsite(Fig.8). outside theDeshengGatearrowtowerandmoat–lastremnantofoldMingwallon community inthe This wasalmostthecaseinredevelopmentofanotherneighbourhoodwithaHui presence ofamonumentmightactuallybecomethreattominorityethniccommunity. ership andinpartfromnationalinternationalethnicpolitics.Withoutthesefactors,the and preservationdesignationofitsnearbymosque,inpartfromtheidentitylocallead- ally indistinguishablefromthemajorityethnicHanhousinginBeijing[60]. from thenorth.Visual‘protection’oftowertookformheightrestrictionson making itatrafficislandandfocalpointfordriversapproachingthecityathighspeed which hadonlya20mright-of-way,andcircledthearrowtoweronbothsides,effectively ring roadjustsouthofthearrowtower(Fig.9).Thisnewreplacedoldmainstreet, traffic arterythroughthesiteconnectingthirdringroadinnorthwithsecond PhotographofdilapidatedhousingintheDe-Wai Figure 8. status derivingfromitsmarginal‘ large oraswellknown,butperhapsmoreimportantisitsrelativelyweakpoliticalandsocial (300 yearsago).ThecommunityisnotaslargeatNiuJieandthemosqueold, ties, centredonasmallmosquethatdatedfromatleastthebeginningofQingdynasty Men Wai,or‘De-Wai’).Thisdistrict,too,containedoneofthecity’solderHuicommuni- minzu tese ‘Islamic-style’ façadestothebuildingsinorder‘highlightethniccharacter’( City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing iue8 Photographofdilapidated housingintheDe-Wai Figure 8. author. arrow towerbehind,1992. Area demolishedandreplacedbyexpressway,2002.Copyright the Chunfeng Hutong’sspecialstatusasaHuineighbourhoodderivedinpartfromthefame The redevelopmentofDe-Waiwasdrivenbytheplanforanewlimited-accesshighspeed ) ofthedistrict,eventhoughtraditionalHuihousinginBeijingwasarchitectur- guanxiang , withtheDeshengGatearrowtowerbehind,1992.Areademolishedandreplacedbyexpressway,2002.Copyrightauthor. faubourg -like settlement( faubourien guanxiang ’ history[61].Theneighbourhoodliesjust ) outsidetheDeshengGate(Desheng guanxiang , withtheDeshengGate tuchu 147

Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 148 [63]. save themosque,butforreasonsofethnicandreligious policy,notheritagepreservation approach tothenortherngateofOldCity.By endofthedecade,officialactiondid Municipal plannerstreatedtheprojectsiteonlyas agrandsymbolicandsymmetric in theexistenceofHuicommunityoutsideDesheng Gate[62].BothDistrictand City districtofficialsinchargeoftheredevelopmentdid notseeanyculturalorhistoricvalue relocate thecommunity.UnliketheircounterpartsinXuanwu DistrictandNiuJie,theWest surrounding shopsintact,initialplansintheearly1990s weretodestroythemosqueand plaza. Despiteanumberofproposalstoscaledowntheroadandkeepmosquewithits the newroad.Onlandleftoverbetweentowerandroad,citybuiltanexpansive but theseregulationsprovedunnecessarygiventheextremelywideright-of-wayrequiredby buildings withinacertaindistanceofthetowerandsightlinealongroadleadingtoit, of theQingdynasty,Forbidden City’smarginsincreasinglybecameapartof Beijing’s this equationisthemargin betweentheForbiddenCityanditsownmoat.Since the demise varying levelsofmarginalization. Perhapsthemostdramaticinstanceofanother balanceof tal preservationwascombined withorpittedagainstethnicminoritycommunities of municipal ornationalidentity.IntheNiuJieandDe-Wai casesdescribedabove,monumen- surrounding communitydependspartlyonthemonument’s powerasasymboloflarger iue9 PhotographofbillboardadvertisingnewdevelopmentinDe-Wai,2002.Copyrighttheauthor. Figure 9. author. PhotographofbillboardadvertisingnewdevelopmentinDe-Wai,2002.Copyrightthe Figure 9. The extenttowhichthepreservationofamonument comesattheexpenseofits Abramson

Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 project designs,planners andplanningofficialsreliedonlyonstandardsite planning large inthe1990s,averaging around14hectareswithintheOldCity[67].In reviewing and preservationgoals.Most oftheseneighbourhoodredevelopmentprojects were quite Old City,theseneighbourhoods arebeingredevelopedwithnointegrationofurban design a listofprotectedtreesandvaguerequirementstorespect thetraditionalcolouringof preservation districtsorcontainprotectedhistoricsites? Otherthantheoverallheightlimits, new luxurycourtyardhousingbuiltina‘Qingdynasty style’[66]. preserved thestreetwidth.However,oldhousing was completelyreplaced,largelywith implemented in2002–3forNanChiziDajiedidnotcall forapublicparkalongthemoatand the MasterPlan’sroadrequirementswouldhavetobe changed.Theplanthatwasfinally streets’, oneofthesharpestdebatesfocusedontheirwidth andplanting,whichaccordingto plot [65].GiventhatNan-BeiChangJieand ChiziDajiewereboth‘characteristic ‘traditional style;’andrestoringorreplacingeachhouse onitsexistingorslightlyreconfigured building newstructuresthatadoptedvaryingdegrees ofliteralnessininterpretingBeijing’s facing theTuileriesgardens;demolishingallexistinghousing,replantingland,and an openparkandbuildingauniformfaçadealongthestreetopposite,‘likeRuedeRivoli’ visions fortheoutermarginofForbiddenCitymoat.Theseincludedclearingarea the twenty-fivehistoricpreservationdistrictsas‘characteristicstreets’inMasterPlan. was currentlyoccupiedbyhousing,andthestreetsthatparalleledmoatwerelistedamong off fromotherbuildings,eventhoughhistoricallythisspacehadalwaysbeenbuiltuponand ipal MasterPlancalledforgreenspace,inkeepingwiththeprincipleofsettingmonuments moat (Nan-BeiChangJieonthewest,andNan-BeiChiziDajieeast),1993munic- There, inthenarrowspacebetweenmoatandnextstreetsrunningparallelto state consideredtobeitsmostrepresentativeperiod. City wasconsistentwiththetypicalpreservationpracticeofrestoringasitetohistoric removal ofhousingfromthenarrowspacebetweenwallsandmoatForbidden margin wasoccupiedbyguards’barracks[64].Despiteitsimpactoneverydaylife,the to thehistoricalappearanceandbeautyitpossessedinreignofQianlong’,when households betweenthewallandmoat,‘restorationofImperialPalacemoat Year PlanforDevelopmentofCulturalRelicsinBeijing,wastherelocation Topping thelistofprojectstobecompletedby1999,accordingthen-currentFive- ramshackle self-builthousesofPalaceMuseumemployeeswhohadnootherplacetolive. overcrowded neighbourhoodsnearby.Elsewherealongthebaseofwallstherewere of theForbiddenCitybecauseenvironmenttherewaseminentlysuitableforresidents customers inthesunshineatbaseofwall.Theseactivitiesweredrawntomargin residents practiced market strungoutitscartsofvegetablesalongtheesplanademoat,groupselderly neighbourhood lifesuddenlyprevailed:schoolchildrenjoggedinformation;amorning environment insidethewalls,justaroundcornersofthosegateslessfreneticpace world pulsedthroughtheWuMenandShenwutoseeessenceofanImperial daily life,andnotjustintouristicterms.Bythe1990s,whiletourgroupsfromaround City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing What hasbeenthefateofneighbourhoodsinOld Citythatdonotliewithinthe Through the1990s,professionals,academicsandauthoritiescontinuedtoraisealternative The neighbourhoodsalongtheouteredgeofmoatprovedtobemoreproblematic. By 1997thegovernmenthadaccumulatedenoughresourcestointerveneinthissituation. taiji

under thetrees;barberssetuptheirchairsandgossipedwith

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Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 150 massing models;perspectivesandstreetsectionswererarelyrequired. built environment.Mostprojectsreceivedinitialapprovalonlyonthebasisofsiteplansand internal layoutofprojects,notwhatoccursontheiredgesorhowtheyrelatetoanexisting served primarilyasworkunitcompounds.Thesestandardswereconcernedonlywiththe guidelines thathadbeendevelopedforlargegreenfieldhousingestates( which wasreplacedbyanewhousing unusual blockofnorth–south morphological evidenceofthecity’shistoricspatialdevelopment.Oneexampleis circulation systems.Thiswasthecaseevenwhenpartsofthisnetworkservedasimportant and wassacrificedtomakewayformoreautomobile-friendlyinternally-orientated (most tural historytextbookofthetime[68].NotonlywasitasignificantvariationonBeijing’s Urban PlanningBureau). redevelopment planofthe housingprojectonthissite(source:WestCity District Sheng Subdistrictasshown in the (Top)Theblockofnorth–south Figure 10. The networkofsmall hutong

run east–west)andwasfamouslypresentedinamajorChineseurbanarchitec- hutong hutong

was notconsideredworthyofpreservationinitsownright Qianlong JingchengQuantu centringonNanfengHutongintheWestCityDistrict xiao qu hutong

(Fig. 10).ThisblockwasuniqueinBeijing

around NanfengHutonginsouth-east Feng ; and(bottom)theapproved xiao qu ) whichhad Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 these provisionswithinthe OldCityaccountedfor2617hectaresor42%ofthe OldCity’s districts, includingtheImperial City,sothatthetotallandareawouldberegulated by control zonesincreased,and theplanproposedtoincreasenumberofpreservation encloses theForbiddenCity. Thenumberofindividualhistoricsitesandconstruction Old City,andincludedadetailedplanfortheImperial City,aformerlywalledenclavethat much broaderinscope[75].Chiefly,itupdatedthemaster plan’sprovisionsfortheentire lated intoEnglish[74].Twoyearslaterthegovernment producedasecondvolumethatwas with theplansinabeautifullyboundandprintedvolume, withsignificantportionstrans- ments andfordispositionofbuildingsplanting. The surveyswerepublishedtogether ownership, andsocialactivity;recommendations for accessandinfrastructureimprove- household surveysofconstructionandarchitectural quality, populationdensity,property districts includedhistoricalmaterials;meticulousbuilding-by-building andhousehold-by- detailed plans,asmentionedabove.Theresearchinvolved inproducingplansforthese to thetwenty-fivehistoricpreservationdistricts,defining theirboundariesandproducing 1990s [73].Atthesametime,municipalgovernment shifteditspreservationpolicyfocus area demolishedwasaboutone-quarterthatofthetotalamountthroughout the previousfiveyearsputtogether,andamountofoldhazardoushousingfloor year alone,morehouseholdswererelocatedasaresultofhousingdemolitionthanduringall Redevelopment intheOldCityofBeijingreachedapeakdestructiveness2001.Inthat Preservation planningresponsestoadecadeofredevelopment NanfengHutongwithhousingdemolished,butalltreesintact,1995.Copyrighttheauthor.Siteofnewunderconstruction,1997.Whilelargestareprotectedcarefully,th Figure 11. 12. Some keyplanningofficialsindependentlyarguedthatthe‘atmosphere’( by theirfunctionaselementsofacharacteristicpublicspace(compareFigs11and12). value ofmaturetreesthemselvesandbytheheightrelativetobuildings,not throughout Beijing’sOldCityshouldbepreserved,thispolicywasdrivenbothbythe the housesliningithavebeendemolished.Whilemunicipalpolicydecreedthatlargetrees well-planted another corollaryofapreservationpolicythattendedtoviewthecityfromonhigh.A (Top)TheblockofnorthÐsouth Figure 10. local variations. tuted Beijing’s‘classic’overallhistoricalgeography,thatitfailedtoappreciateimportant original environment.Officialpreservationpolicywassofocusedonanideaofwhatconsti- ment blocksthatmimickedthecourtyardformatamuchlargerscale,butleftnotraceof replaced itwassqueezedbetweenwidenedroadsonitsperipheryandcomposedofapart- the city’shydrologybetweenYuanandMingdynasties[69].Thehousingestatethat morphological themeintermsofthestreetlayout,butitservedasamarkerchange City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing ary andphotographiccelebrations. and environmental-behaviouralresearchbyothers[72],aswellmyriadhistorical,liter- supportive morphologicalargumentsbyimportantacademicssuchasWuLiangyong[71] value ofthe districts [70].However,theofficialdefinitionofheritageneitherrecognizedhistoric that linedthem,atleastinthoseareasofthecitywerenotdesignatedaspreservation hutong A blindnesstotheexperienceofwalking,bikingandsocializingonstreetwas

was indeedmoreimportantasubjectforpreservationthanthecourtyardhouses hutong aroundNanfengHutonginsouth-eastFengShengSubdistrictasshownthe hutong hutong

network initsownright,norfunctionalurbandesignvalue,despite remains atunnelofshadeandpotentialpublicamenityevenwhen e linearpublicspacetheyhelpedtodefine,togetherwiththesmallerstreettrees,hasdisappeared.Copyrightauthor. Qianlong JingchengQuantu ; and(bottom)theapprovedredevelopmentplanofhousingprojectonthissite(source:WestCityDistrictUr ban PlanningBureau). qifen ) ofthe 151 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 152 and theHutongFabric’ ‘ControlofBuildingHeightintheOldCity’[79].With respect sections offersignificantly new language:‘ConservationoftheCheckerboardRoad System encountered duringthe1990s, includingthelossof‘urbanfabricasawhole’ [78]. Two 1991–2010 MasterPlan,but itsupplementsthislanguagewithareviewofthe problems axis, theshapeofcityinplan,etc.–2004plan largelyrepeatsthelanguageof tions, thepolicyisstillunclear[77]. occur, butbasedontheapproachusedalreadyinNanchizi Dajie,andcontinuingdemoli- total area[76].Withinthisarea,nolarge-scale,clearance-style redevelopmentissupposedto author. NanfengHutongwithhousingdemolished,but withalltreesintact,1995.Copyrightthe Figure 11. With respecttotheOldCityasawhole–preservation ofthewatersystem,central Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 detailed developmentcontrol plan’,whichhasalreadyfailedtopreventroutineviolations of the OldCity,givesprioritytopublictransportandcalls fortrafficreductionmeasures. to theroadsystem,newplanreduceswidthof a numberofplannedrights-of-wayin City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing street trees,hasdisappeared.Copyrighttheauthor. trees areprotectedcarefully,thelinearpublicspacetheyhelped todefine,togetherwiththesmaller SiteofNanfengHutongwithnewhousingunderconstruction, 1997.Whilethelargest Figure 12. The planincludesnospecific strategiestoreversethistrendotherthan‘follow the The sectiononbuildingheightscriticizestheproliferation ofhigh-rises: hilated. Soitisimperativetocontrol thearchitecturalheightwithincitywallcontour[80]. contour oftheoldcity.Withoutboundary,citywould facetheriskofbeinganni- At present,thehigh-risecomplexininnersideofSecond RingRoadhasblurredthewall 153 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 154 example, andthatforBoston’s NorthEndin1960.AsJaneJacobswrote,‘Boston– oratleast There areparallelsbetween therhetoricofplanningforWhitePagodaTemple, for ronment, andspatiallyisolated fromit.ThistreatmentisnotuniquetoChinaby any means. ment ofindividualmonuments asobjectstobevieweddistinctfromtheirsurrounding envi- has influenceddevelopment,oratleastgonehand-in-hand withit,isthepicturesquetreat- behind someofthepolicy’sfailures.Onefeaturepreservation policyinBeijingthatclearly of thisdefinition.Toacertainextent,theaesthetics preservationpolicyinBeijingmaylie ence theshapeofBeijing’sdevelopment,itisworthwhile lookingattheaestheticdimensions system (includingpreservationpolicy). modernist visions,butwithouttheoverallco-ordination thatwasassumedintheplanning government powers[83].Thesecoalitionsproduced projects onascalesimilartoearlier project-by-project basisthroughsecretcoalitions ofinvestorsanddevolvedlocal re-make thecity,butnooneanticipated1990semergence ofmarketforcesactingona als andacademicsstrengthenedthehandofpreservationists againstgrandschemestoutterly large-scale stateprojects.Inthe1980s,renewedcontactwithWesternplanningprofession- by LiangSichengandChenZhanxiang),thesedebateswereframedprimarilyintermsof Modernism (aschampionedbyYangTingbaoandHuaLanhong)orhistoricismpushed debates ofthelate1940sandearly1950swouldresurface.Regardlesstheiremphasison hiatus inprofessionaldiscourseonurbandesignandpreservation,itwasnaturalthattheold nationwide anti-historicalviolenceoftheCulturalRevolution.Aftertwenty-someyears’ technical preservationplanningintheearly1980swaslargepartareactionagainst policy quiteirrelevant. unusual. AllofthesedifficultiescertainlyrenderedsomeaspectsBeijing’spreservation bureaucratic separationofculturalpolicymakingfromdevelopmentregulationisalsonot redevelopment forces,aswellrapidgrowthincitiesofthedevelopingworld[82].The that themselvessharemanyfeatureswithbothWesternmid-twentieth-centuryurban ness ofplanningtoolsgenerallyinChina,especiallythefacelocal‘growthcoalitions’ ties ofputtingtheseconceptsintopracticearecertainlydueinlargeparttotheactualweak- and regulatoryestablishmentofahierarchyhistoricpreservationconcepts.Thedifficul- mid-twentieth century,theredevelopmentofBeijingin1990swasprecededbylegal opment thatsweptWesterncitiesduringthesecondhalfofnineteenthcenturyand China’s positionrelativetoaglobalhistoryofplanningideas?Unlikethewavesredevel- How dotheaccomplishmentsandfailuresofBeijing’scity-scalepreservationpolicysuggest realm The ‘integral’picturesquedefinitionofBeijing’surbanidentityasaproblemthepublic developers themselvestofollowexistingpolicy. nor the2001directivedoesmuchmorethanexhortdistrict-leveldevelopmentofficialsand citing amunicipaldirectivetothateffectfrom2001[81].However,neitherthe2004plan dilapidated housingredevelopmentshouldbeintegratedbetterwithpreservationgoals, the OldCity’sbuildingheightrestrictions.Inanothersection,itdoesmentionthatoldand To theextentthatanofficialdefinitionofBeijing’sarchitectural heritagewasabletoinflu- One factpeculiartoBeijingandotherChinesecities,however,isthattheemergenceof Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 by parallelrowsofapartmentblocks[90]. Liangyong hasarguedespeciallystrenuouslyagainstthereplacementofcourtyardform seem tobequiteatoddswiththeprevailingdefinitionofBeijing’shistoriccharacter.Wu the twentieth-centurySocialist competing interests.Moreover,thetypicalurbanmorphologicalunitofthisdevelopment, cities inaneraofmarket-orientateddevelopmentarethenegotiatedproductmultiple inspired theoriginaldevelopmentofapicturesqueaestheticineighteenth-centuryEurope, for individualmonuments.UnliketheChineseclassicalscholars’andemperors’gardensthat [89]. Thistotalizing‘integral’visionhasprovenmuchhardertoimplementthanthepolicy lels here,too,withParis,whichafterthe1960sprohibitedhigh-risesfromhistoriccentre city as‘aworkofart’or‘anartisticurbansculpture’[88].Therewereself-consciousparal- – andbeenusedtoargueinfavourofpreservingtheentireOldCityisnotion against preservingtheOldCityintact[87]. Rue deRivolimentionedabove,orinargumentsfavouroflarge-scaleredevelopmentand for example,inthesuggestionmadetotreatstreetsfacingForbiddenCitylike designers inBeijinghaveconsciouslyreferredtotheaestheticofnineteenth-centuryParis,as, Dame andtheIledelaCitéperhapsbeingmostfamousexamples.Planners characterized bythedemolitionandsanitizationofspacearoundmonuments,Notre ment ofthePlacedel’Etoile[86].Nineteenth-centuryParisianredevelopmentwasespecially monuments thatM.ChristineBoyeridentifiedinHaussmann’swork,particularlyhistreat- particularly dramaticinstanceofthemarriagespectacleandspeedintreatment planning forthepreservationofmonumentsinUSA[85]. is alsoreminiscentofconflictsbetweenofficialheritagepolicyandethnicminorityidentityin buildings’. ThedismissalbyDistrictandMunicipalofficialsoftheHuicommunityinDe-Wai already beingpreparedinplan,theformofaschemeformassiveclearancearoundhistoric [84]. In1960Boston,asin1997Beijing,‘thefirststageofsuchacataclysm[icinvestment]is be distractedbytheirrelevantNorthEndwhiletakinginmeaningofAmericanfreedom’ the custodiansofitstradition–areashamedthatatpresenttouristsandschoolchildrenmay City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing urbanistically differentfromthe design ofmulti-storeywalk-upapartmentcompounds canopy, traditionalcolouring,undulatingrooflines –allcanbeaccommodatedinthe conflicts withtheMasterPlan’sdefinitionofBeijing’s traditionalvisualcharacter.Tree expressed inEuropeantraditions bythefaçade.Both access ratherthanofanabsolute symbolicorlegaldistinctionbetweenprivateand public,as themselves arerelativeterms. Theyarefunctionsofahierarchicalcontinuum ofspatial to createrealmsofprivacy. Inboth Beijing’s historicfabric.Bothtypesdependongatesand wallsorfencesratherthanfaçades housing estateandthetraditionalagglomerationof the wallsandbuildings. close relationshiptotheground,andveryintimate scaleoftheopenspacescreatedby ing aboutthefeaturesthatmakeBeijing’shistoric courtyard-and- In fact,however,thereisnothinginherentinthe morphology ofthe Another aspectofthepicturesqueaestheticthathassuffusedpreservationpolicyinBeijing The drasticisolationoftheDeshengGatearrowtowerbyhighwayinterchangesisa Indeed, despitethesedifferences,thereissomething akin betweenthemodernChinese existenzminimum xiao qu siheyuan : itsnearlyuniformsingle-storeyedheightand

and

housing compound,or xiao qu siheyuan xiao qu siheyuan , ‘privacy’andeven‘autonomy’

courtyard housesthatmadeup . TheMasterPlansaysnoth- andthe hutong xiao qu xiao qu

xiao qu morphology areinter- , would

that 155 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 156 process ofdevelopment?Perhaps, mostobviously,thepolicycontinuessimply to saytoo So wherehasthepolicyof ‘integralpreservationandurbandesign’fallenshort inthe Conclusion to its case, evenincomparisonwithotherChinesecities,is that thepanopticpicturesqueextends financial centreinShanghai’sPudongdistrict[95].What mayberemarkableaboutBeijing’s the PetronasTowersandKualaLumpurCityCentre, andthedesignofnewLujiazui specifically topanopticism[94].Indeed,therearestriking similaritiesbetweenthedesignof the ‘viewfromabove’ascharacteristicofsuchplanning inMalaysia,thoughhedidnotrefer and SocialistBeijing,tocitieselsewhereinAsia. Tim Bunnellinparticularhasnoticed tarian eye’andthe‘viewfromabove’,hasbeenattributed tothebuildingbothofimperial explicitly supportedanArendtianspace.Certainly,panopticism, ortheall-seeing‘authori- and Arendt’sspaceofappearance,onemightaskwhetherurbanplanninginChinahasever sphere). Or,toputitinthe existence ofapublicrealm(definedforthispurposeasthespatialcorollary exists oreverexistedinChina[93]. debate amonghistoriansandsocialscientistsaboutwhethercivilsocietyora‘publicsphere’ of panopticismtodescribethegovernmentalfunctionChineseurbanspaceparallelsa meaning ofimperialBeijingandtheworkunitcompoundor and DavidBrayuseFoucault’sdiscussionof‘panopticism’toexplainthegovernmental modern urbanresidentialtypologyofSocialist-eraBeijing.Significantly,bothZhuJianfei a remarkablecorrespondencebetweenthisdescriptionandthequalitiesofprevailing tions, infavourof‘relativizing’eachsubject’spositionasocialandspatialorder.Thereis kaikuo acter ascodifiedintheMasterPlan:its‘horizontalityandopennesstosky’( city’s historic‘Architectureofhorizon’thus: most canonicalofModernism’surbanimperatives:lightandair. a cellularstructuringoftheurbanlandscape.Andbotharefundamentallyresponsiveto nally orientated,evenastheyrepresentanddependonlargercollectives;bothcomprise If theexistenceofapublicsphereinChinesehistoryisopentoquestion,thensomight Zhu’s descriptionineffectelaboratesonthemostelusiveelementofBeijing’svisualchar- In theconclusiontohisbookonBeijing’spre-modernform,ZhuJianfeisummarizes and heaven[91]. and vastonthelandsurface,correspondstoinfinitelineofhorizon,betweenearth anism andcosmologicalethics…Theimmersive-dispersivecomposition,spreadinghumble total andstrategicdispositionstheirunderlyingdynamisminthepursuitofauthoritari- Beijing asageography-city-architectureisformalized.Initoneseespersistentuseoflarge, organize theinfinitesimalspacessystematicallyandextensively.Atotalconstructionof politically, socially,aesthetically,existentially.Auniversaldesignandcompositionthen world ofpracticesandexperiences,onatrajectorythatforeverrelativizestheirpositions, forms ofboundaryfragmentingthemintensively.Humansubjectsaredrawntoadense Space andobjectsareexternallydispersedinternallydissected,withwallsother preservation ) –andhelinksittoapoliticalsystemthateschewsabsolutepublic–privatedistinc- policy,asdistinctfromnewprojectplanninganddesign. visual

terms oftheoppositionbetweenFoucault’spanopticism xiao qu

[92]. Theapplication Abramson pinghuan Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 citizens appearastheyare, relatedtoeachotherdirectlythroughactionandspeech, rather the publicrealm,preservation ofthecitywouldhavetorecognizespaces whereits its ownspaces,whileother spaces aredistinctlypublic.ToapplyHannahArendt’s notionof Beijing mustbeginwiththe recognitionthatprivatelife(communalaswellindividual) has of publicspaceandprivatelifeareblurred,effortsto preserve thespacesofeverydaylifein Angeles, whichcanberecognizedonlyasbeingpartof thepublicrealmonceboundaries moving throughitandlivinginonadailybasis,rather thanasviewingitfromabove. native interpretationofintegrationwouldhavefocused onasetofexperiencesthecityas take theformoflargeenclosedresidentialcompounds orcommercialcomplexes.Thisalter- divergent effectsofdifferentdevelopmentprojectsacross theOldCity,whichincreasingly planting –thenthepreservationofthesespacesmight havesuccessfully‘integrated’the spaces –forexample,the shoppers areinvitedto‘meettheproducer’. preservation mightbeSeattle’sPikePlaceMarket,wherechainfranchisesareforbiddenand mosque inDe-Wai.Anexampleofsuchaspaceappearancebecominganobject activities unrelatedtostateinvestments,ornon-statecommunallikethoseofthe seen, i.e.whatkindofsocialactivitiestheysupport,whetherbeinformaleconomic value maybedefinednotatallintermsof ering placesmaybedefinedandregulated.Therealsospaceswhosepreservation carry thestampofstatecontrol.Thespacestreet,orviewsfrommultiplepublicgath- there aremanyotherviewsthatmaybeworthyofprotection,includingdonot important elementofthepublicrealminBeijing.However,likeYindingGuanshan, view fromJingshanandtheHallofSupremeHarmonyinForbiddenCityisan freshly relevantbutpoorlydefinedsubsetofurbanspace:thepublicrealm.Tobesure, on overallbuildingheights,andfocusitsattentionmuchmoreexplicitlythequalitiesofa ment, atrulyintegralpreservationandurbandesignpolicymighthavehadtocompromise cially alsotakeplaceinurbanspace.Inordertoaccommodatereform-drivenredevelop- private [interests]’[97]. interests atlocallevels’andhearguesfora‘clarificationofthelinedemarcatingpublic now beingsubvertedbyabusesofpowerarisingfromtheoverlappublicandprivate Economic Reform’,MichaelLeafobservesthat‘muchoftheregulatorypowerplanningis investors. Indescribingthegapbetween‘UrbanPlanningandUrbanRealityUnderChinese express newformsofsemi-autonomyintheactionslocalofficialsandwell-connected These newtypesnotonlyviolateBeijing’s gle againsttheproliferationofhigh-risestructures,shoppingmallsandotherbuildingtypes. take intoaccounttheemergenceofmarket.Thisfailureisreflectedinpolicy’sstrug- political dimensionsofBeijing’sspatialstructure[96].Specifically,thepolicyhasfailedto policy (toadoptatermasFrancoiseChoayusedit)doesnotacknowledgethesocialand from thelivedspacesofcity.Thepicturesque‘metalanguage’Beijing’spreservation historic character–avisualconceptualization,moreover,whosestandpointisquiteremoved wholesale. However,itisalsohamperedbyitspurelyvisualconceptualizationofthecity’s little aboutnewconstructioninthosepartsoftheOldCitythatarebeingredeveloped City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing However, unlikethe‘everydaypublicspaces’thatMargaret CrawfordcelebratesinLos To theextentthatthismorediverselydefinedpublicrealm includesacity-widesystemof Such apublic–privateclarificationintherealmofpolicyandadministrationmightbenefi- hutong

or eventhemajorstreetswiththeircharacteristictree what pinghuan kaikuo

can beseen,butintermsof

historic character,theyalso who

can be 157 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 158 4 GeorgeBaird, 14. Notes andreferences the worldhavedescribed. Beijing fromtheonethatZhuJianfeiandmajorityofarchitecturalhistoriansthroughout than throughtheirposition 2 HalFoster,Preface, inHalFoster(ed.) 12. 3 MichelFoucault, 13. 5 DavidStrand,Conclusion:HistoricalPerspectives, inDeborahS.Davis 15. 1 MargaretCrawford, BlurringtheBoundaries:PublicSpaceandPrivateLife,inJohnChase,Marg- 11. DavidHarvey, 10. .SiegfriedGiedion, 5. HowardSaalman, 4. MauriceHalbwachs,LesPlansD’extensionEtD’amenagementDeParisAvant LeXixeSiecle. 3. Forashortandtentativeenquiryinthisdirection,seetheconclusionRichard Marshall, 2. WilliamS.Logan(ed.), 1. .ReynerBanham, 6. .DavidLowenthal, 8. M.C.Boyer,op.cit.[5]. 7. .ColinRoweandFredKoetter, 9. Vie Urbaine Press, 2003. Emerging Urbanity:GlobalUrbanProjectsintheAsiaPacificRim France: ACTAR;Arcenrãevecentred’architecture,2000. City, StefanoBoeri,Multiplicity,SanfordKwinter,NadiaTazi,HansUlrichObrist Globalizing World Clarkson Potter,2001;RemKoolhaas the World’sGreatCities:TheDestructionandRenewalofHistoricMetropolis Cambridge, Mass.:MITPress,1994,pp.40–5. Boyer, London: TheHarvardUniversityPress;H.Milford;OxfordPress,1941;M.Christine York: FreePress,1996;G.J.AshworthandE.Tunbridge, New York:BelhavenPress,1990. Space. 33 Margaret E.Farrar,HealthandBeautyintheBodyPolitic: SubjectivityandUrbanSpace. 1977. Forexamplesoftheapplicationthisinterpretation topre-Modernistcityplanning,see aret CrawfordandJohnKaliski(eds) Routledge, 2004. Margaret Kohn, Park :TheNewAmericanCityandtheEndofPublicSpace Oxford, England;Cambridge,Mass.:Blackwell,1989;MichaelSorkin, ix. SeealsoMartinJay,ScopicRegimesofModernity,inHal Foster(ed.) Planning pp. 22–35; M.ChristineBoyer, Spaces inContemporaryChina: ThePotentialforAutonomyandCommunityinPost-Mao , 1(2000)1–23;TonyFabijancic,ThePrisonintheArcade: ACarceralDiagramofConsumer Mosaic :aJournalfortheInterdisciplinary StudyofLiterature The CityofCollectiveMemory:ItsHistoricalImageryandArchitecturalEntertainments . Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress,1983.

2 (1920)5–20. The SpaceofAppearance The ConditionofPostmodernity:AnEnquiryintotheOriginsCulturalChange Theory andDesignintheFirstMachineAge Brave NewNeighborhoods:ThePrivatizationofPublic Space Discipline andPunish:TheBirthofthePrison Haussmann: ParisTransformed . Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,2002;AnthonyM.Tung, Possessed bythePast:TheHeritageCrusadeandSpoilsofHistory Space, TimeandArchitecture;theGrowthofaNewTradition The Disappearing‘Asian’City:ProtectingAsia’sUrbanHeritageina vis-à-vis Collage City Dreaming theRationalCity:TheMythofAmericanCity

the state.Butthiswouldpreserveaverydifferent et al. Everyday Urbanism Vision andVisuality . Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress, 1995. . Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress,1978. , Mutations :RemKoolhaas,HarvardProjectonthe . NewYork:G.Braziller,1971,pp.25–8. . NewYork:FrederickA.Praeger,1960. . NewYork:MonacelliPress,1999, . Seattle:BayPress,1988,pp.ix–xiv, . NewYork:HillandWang,1992; The Tourist-HistoricCity . NewYork:PantheonBooks, . London;NewYork:Spon

34 , 3(2001)141–57. ibid. Variations onaTheme et al. , pp.3–28.

. NewYork: . Cambridge; . NewYork: (eds) . Bordeaux, Abramson Preserving . London; Urban . New Polity La . . Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 0 SichengLiang,Beijing,DushiJihuaDeWubiJizuo[Beijing:anunparalleled masterpieceofurban 20. JunWang, 19. D.Strand,ibid.;XiaocongLiandC.Lamoureux,MingzhengShi, DongpingYang, 18. City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing 2 XingRuan,AccidentalAffinities:AmericanBeaux-Arts inTwentieth-CenturyChineseArchitec- 22. LiangyongWu,op. cit.[19],pp.6–10.A.M.Tung,op.[1],p.146.AnthonyTungquotesa 21. 7 D.Strand,BeyondCoastandCapital…,op.cit.[15];XiaocongLiCharles Lamoureux 17. PingHe, 16. [ of PennsylvaniaPress,1994;HuiyinLinandCongjieLiang, planning], inSichengLiang(ed.) [ hood Liangyong Wu, ibid. Spirit ofBeijingandShanghai bank, Although theessayisattributedusuallyonlytoLiang,henoted Lin’scontribution.WilmaFair- Zhongguo JianzhuGongyeChubanshe[ChinaArchitectureandBuildingPress],1982,p.55. 30–47. tural EducationandPractice. take thiswholenessasthestarting point’(JunWang,op.cit.[19],p.85). planned whole( the outside:‘ThemostoutstandingfeatureofBeijing’sold city ispreciselythatitacomplete, arguing thatthecityshouldhavepreserveditswallsand,like Paris,restrictednewtallbuildingsto [19], pp.20–2).Inaninterviewin1999,I.M.Peialsoused thelanguageofBeijing’sunityin ‘unity’ oftheForbiddenCity’sdesignincomparisonwithEuropean capitals(JunWang,op.cit. French NavalofficerattheconclusionofBoxerRebellion in1900whoalsomarvelledatthe [Hundred FlowersLiteratureandArtPress],1999,pp.317–35. Yang, School oftheFarEast].Beijing,1995;MingzhengShi,op.cit.[15],pp.110–18,380–4;Dongping by thejournals Orient [HistoryandUrbanIdentities:NewDirectionsinResearch,Roundtableorganized nal) of theModernChineseCity. pp. 394–426;DavidStrand,BeyondCoastandCapital:PressuresPrevisionsintheMaking China Dushu tités urbaines:Nouvellestendencesdelarechercheurbaine Structure andCulturalIdentityinTraditionalChineseCities].Paperpresentedat (translator), StructureSpatialeEtIdentitéCulturelleDesVillesChinoisesTraditionnelles[Spatial Palgrave MacmillaninassociationwithStAntony’sCollegeOxford,2002. University ofCalifornia,SanDiego,1998. Chinese andSoutheastCoastalModernization,1843–1937.PhDdissertation,SanDiego: 1930s, wasanextremeexception.JamesA.Cook,BridgestoModernity:Xiamen,Overseas which experiencednear-completedemolitionandreconstructionduringthelate1920searly PhD dissertation,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversity,1993.Xiamen,onthesouth-eastcoast, Urban Infrastructure,PublicWorks,andSocialChangeintheChineseCapital,1900–1928. Honolulu: UniversityofHawai’iPress,2000,pp.1–16;MingzhengShi,BeijingTransforms: W. Esherick(ed.) Collected WorksofLinHuiyin:ArchitecturalVolume Liang Sicheng,LinHuiyinandMe 1 . Vancouver:UBCPress,1999,pp.16–23;LinZhu, , 1(1996);JosephW.Esherick,ModernityandtheNationinChineseCity, . Cambridge,UK:WoodrowWilsonCentrePressandCambridgeUniversityPress,1995, Liang andLin:PartnersinExploringChina’sArchitectural Past Chengshi Jifeng:BejiingHeShanghaiDeWenhuaJingshen

et China’s SearchforModernity:CulturalDiscourseintheLate20thCentury Annales Cheng Ji Dushu Rehabilitating theOldCityofBeijing:AProjectinJu’erHutongNeighbour- yi gewanzhengdeyoujihuazhengti

Remaking theChineseCity:ModernityandNationalIdentity,1900–1950 avec lesoutiendel’AmbassadeFranceetl’Écolefrançaised’Extrême- ( Tale ofaCity

and Annales ]. Beijing:DongfangChubanshe,1995,p.200. The JournaloftheSociety Architectural Historians Wall andMarket:ChineseUrbanHistoryNews Liang SichengWenJi ]. Beijing:TsinghuaUniversityPress,2004. , withthesupportofEmbassyFranceandFrench ). Beijing:Shenghuo,Dushu,XinzhiSanlianShudian,2003; [ Selected WorksofLiangSicheng ), andtherefore,[its]preservationmust ]. Tianjin:BaihuaWenyiChubanshe , Tablerondéeorganiséeparlesrevues Liang Sicheng,LinHuiyinYuWo Lin HuiyinWenji:JianzhuJuan [ Urban Monsoon:TheCultural . Philadelphia:University

(electronic jour- Histoire etiden-

61 . NewYork: , 1(2002) ]. Beijing: 159 . Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 160 9 TheChinesetermthatistranslatedas‘preservation’ inthisarticle, 29. 7 XiangLuandQimingWang, 27. XinminHua,BeijingHongxingHutong53HaoHe55BeiQiangzhi ChaichuQianhou 26. Ibid.,pp.216–20. 25. 8 Figures3,4and5 showtheresultsofasurveyconductedbyTsinghuaUniversityplanning 28. Ibid.,p.114.ThedebatebetweenHuaLanhongandChenZhanxiang,aswelltheirpersonal 24. TheBeaux-ArtsinfluenceonmodernChinesearchitectureisofgrowingscholarlyinterest(Jun 23. been demolished. However, otherareasoftheWestCitythatwerenotplanned forclearancein1996havesince clearance after1996waslaterprotectedinthe2004plan foradditionalpreservationdistricts. the endof1996,leavingonly426hectaresintactforfuture. Someoftheareaplannedfor Another 434hectareswereslatedforclearancetomakeway forprojectsthatwereapprovedat 134 hectareswerecleared,equalto77%ofalltheareacleared duringthepreviousfortyyears. hectares leftintact(thoughoftendilapidatedandfilledin). From1990to1997,anadditional 1986, pp.217–39). Essays inHonorofChauncyD.Harris Cultural Reconstruction,inMichael.P.Conzen(ed.) The TransformationoftheOldCityBeijing,China:AConcreteManifestationNewChina’s was tothishousethatHuaLanhongbroughthisfamilyliveinBeijing1951(RenzhiHou, Hua Lanhong’sfather(himselfaneminentengineer)purchasedandbegantotransformin1914.It Commission foranimpropertakinganddemolitionoftheirownproperty–acourtyardhouse house preservationintheoldcity.TheyarecurrentlysuingBeijingMunicipalPlanning Hua XinminsettledinBeijingandthelate1990sbecameanoutspokenadvocateofcourtyard France duringtheCulturalRevolution,butironyofhiscareercontinuestoday.Hisdaughter www.peacehall.com/news/gb/china/2006/01/200601022354.shtml. HuaLanhongreturnedto January 2,2006,21:13:35)boxun.com,cited5May2006;availablefromhttp:// 9:00am onthe5thofThisMonthinSecondIntermediateCourt](submittedbyHuaXinmin, Er ZhongjiFaYuanKai[theCaseofHuaLanhongV.BeijingPlanningCommissionOpensat 2006); ChuCai,HuaLanhongSuBeijingShiGuiWeiYianBenYue5RiShangwuJiuZaiDi bbs.people.com.cn/bbs/ReadFile?whichfile=993&typeid=107&openfile=1 (accessed5May by HuaXinmin,February14,2005),www.people.com.cn,2005,availableathttp:// [before andaftertheForcedDemolitionofBeijingHongxingHutongNumber5355](written ‘preservation’, Cultural Revolutiononhistoric architecture.InTaiwan,awordmuchcloserinliteralmeaning to ‘protection’. Thisseemstobe onereflectionofthereactiontoviolentonslaughts ofthe housing and occupies thenorth-westquadrantofBeijing’soldcity.Approximately 173hectaresofone-storey team fortheWestCityDistrictPlanningBureaubetween1995 and1997.TheWestCityDistrict [China BuildingIndustryPress],1996,p.161. Since theFoundingofCountry schemes from lic, isdescribedatlengthinJunWang’sbook,whichreprintsthedrawingsoftheircontrasting backgrounds andthelargerhistoryofBeijing’splanningafterfoundingPeople’sRepub- pretations forChineseTimberArchitecturewithBeaux-Arts/UPennClassicism’. helpful wasbyZhaoChenofNanjingUniversity,‘ElevationorFaçade:LiangSicheng’sMisinter- published, butamongthemanypresentationsrelevanttotopicofthisarticle,onemost http://www.design.upenn.edu/arch/news/cretschedule.htm). Theproceedingshavenotbeen 5, 2003,on‘TheBeaux-Arts,PaulPhilippeCretand20thCenturyArchitectureinChina’(see Wang, op.cit.[19],pp.114–15).TheUniversityofPennsylvaniaheldaconferenceonOctober3– hutongs baocun, Jian GuoyilaideBeijingChengshiJianshe

isusedinplaceof were demolishedtherebetween1949and1989,leaving about1000 Beijing Siheyuan ] (1986). . Chicago:UniversityofChicagoDept.Geography, baohu . Beijing:ZhongguoJianzhuGongyeChubanshe . World PatternsofModernUrbanChange: [ The UrbanConstructionofBeijing baohu , moreliterallymeans Abramson Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 6 BeijingMunicipal InstituteofCityPlanningandDesign, 36. 5 BeijingMunicipalCulturalRelicsBureau, 35. 34. KamWingChan,UrbanizationandUrbanInfrastructureServicesintheP.R.C., inChristineP.W. 33. DavidDowall,UrbanResidentialRedevelopmentinthePeople’sRepublic ofChina..Berkeley: 32. ErnestSternberg,AnIntegrativeTheoryofUrbanDesign. 31. MichaelLeaf,UrbanPlanningandRealityunderChineseEconomicReforms. 30. City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing 2 BeijingMunicipalCityPlanningCommission, 42. JinghuiWang, PreservationofHistoricHeritageinChina.PaperpresentedatInternational 41. DanielAbramson, Beijing’sPreservationPolicyandtheFateofSiheyuan. 40. BeijingMunicipal CulturalRelicsBureau,op.cit.[35]. 39. 38. A.M.Tung,op. cit.[1],p.163. 37. [People’s RepublicofChinaUrbanPlanningAct],enacted1990;R.Marshall,op.cit.[2],p.193. Handbook forCulturalRelicsWork Protection Act],enacted19November1982; Zhonghua RenminGongheguoWenwuBaohuFa MA: LincolnInstituteofLandPolicy,2005,pp.59–87. in ChengriDingandYanSong(eds) William Valletta,TheLandAdministrationLawof1998andItsImpactonUrbanDevelopment, York: PublishedfortheAsianDevelopmentBankbyOxfordUniversityPress,1997,pp.83–125; Wong (ed.) Towards aFrameworkforAnalysis. Series No.591,1993;FulongWu,UrbanRestructuringinChina’sEmergingMarketEconomy: University ofCaliforniaatBerkeley,InstituteUrbanandRegionalDevelopmentWorkingPaper translated inthe1980s,althoughliteraltranslationof‘urbandesign’( period since1949,theChinesetermfor‘urbanplanning’( it isoftendifficulttodistinguish‘urbanplanning’fromdesign’.FormostoftheSocialist Planning EducationandResearch Reconstruction ofOldBeijing. (1991–2010) Zhuanye GuihuaShuoming Housing Renewal’byLüJunhua. Inner-City NeighborhoodRedevelopment:ACommentaryon‘Beijing’sOldandDilapidated (1997) 640;M.Leaf,op.cit.[30];DanielAbramson,‘Marketization’andInstitutionsinChinese Development inModernChina Planning andDevelopmentinChina,LawrenceJ.C.MaEdwardW.Hanten(eds) China. Cities in usenow.YichunXieandFrankJ.Costa,UrbanPlanningSocialistChina:TheoryPractice. connotes physicalplanninganddesign,‘urbandesign’ishow more powerfulgovernmentagencies.Theword for economicandsocialplanning( Association European Cities.Xi’an,Quanzhou, andBeijing,China,6–18July1995. Conference ontheRenewalandDevelopmentinHousing AreasofTraditionalChineseand Protection Act],enacted. Zhonghua RenminGongheguoWenwuBaohuFa and SettlementsReview Yanshan Chubanshe,2002. Baohu Guihua

10 Third WorldPlanningReview , 2(1993)103–14;YichunXieandFrankJ.Costa,UrbanDesignPracticeinSocialist

66 Financing LocalGovernmentinthePeople’sRepublicofChina . Beijing,1993,p.48;GuangqiDong,RetrospectandProspect oftheProtectionand , 3(2000)265–78.TheinstitutionalhistoryofurbanplanninginChinaissuchthat [ Conservation Planningof25Historic AreasinBeijingOldCity

13 , 1(2001)7–22. [ Beijing UrbanMasterPlan:ExplicationbySpecializedTopics China CityPlanningReview . Boulder,Colorado:WestviewPress,1981,pp.147–93.

Cities 18 jihua ]. Beijing:BeijingYanshanPress,1996,p.457. International JournalofUrbanandRegionalResearch

Emerging LandandHousingMarketsinChina , 2(1998)145–53. 13

, 3(1991)[277]–96;R.Yin-WangKwok,TrendsofUrban 14 ), whichhasbeenundertakenbydifferentandgenerally Xin BianWenwuGongzuoShouce , 2(1997)71–5. Zhonghua RenminGongheguoChengshiGuihuaFa Beijing Jiucheng25PianLishi WenhuaBaohuQu guihua

[People’s RepublicofChinaCulturalRelics [People’s RepublicofChinaCulturalRelics

(literally ‘ruleanddelineate’or‘layout’) chengshi guihua

10 Journal oftheAmericanPlanning Beijing ChengshiZongtiGuihua , 3(1994). chengshi guihua chengshi sheji ) isdistinctfromtheterm [ . HongKong;New New Editionofthe Traditional Design ]. Beijing:Beijing wasfrequently . Cambridge, ) istypically Journal of Urban

21 161 , 4 ] Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 162 3 BeijingMunicipalCityPlanningCommission, 43. 4 YisanRuan,JinghuiWangandLinWang, 44. 8 ‘1983nian,zhonggongzhongyang,guowuyuanyuanzepizhun 48. LiangyongWu, 47. VictorSit, 46. InterviewwithJinghuiWang,ProfessorandSeniorPlanner,ChineseAcademyofUrbanPlanning 45. 1 ‘WestCityDistrict Gazetteer’EditorialCommittee, 51. BeijingMunicipalInstituteofCityPlanningandDesignop.cit.[36],pp.51–6. 50. 4 Theeconomyofsix-storeybuildingsisitself theproductofanarbitrarystandardinBeijingthat 54. JasperGoldman,FromHutongtoHi-Rise: Explaining theTransformationofOldBeijing,1990– 53. WestCityDistrict DetailedControlPlanprogressmeeting,BeijingMunicipalPlanningInstitute, 52. 9 GuangqiDong, 49. Cheng BaohuGuihua 2004, p.29. Beijing Sons, 1995,pp.251–4;LiangyongWu,op.cit.[19],32–8. and Design.Seattle,WA,1November2002. China, op.cit.[41]. Tongji UniversityPress,1999,pp.14–15;JinghuiWang,PreservationofHistoricHeritagein [ guihua fang’an cities allowedwalk-upbuildings ashighninestoreys. requires anybuildinghigherthan sixstoreystohaveelevators.StandardsinGuangzhouand other 2002. Mastersthesis,Cambridge, MA:MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,2003,pp.61–82. project approval.Theseagencieshavesincebeenmerged. planners, whiletheMunicipalPlanningBureauwasresponsible forenforcementandproject-by- 28 November1996.TheCapitalPlanningCommissionwas anoversightbodyofpolicy-making House], p.470. Baikequanshu long’s list;ithasbeeninterpretedvariouswayssinceatleast thetwelfthcenturyAD. Emperor Qianlongin1752.Asanexpression,however,the ‘EightViews’farpredatesQian- ing Guanshanwasbutoneof‘EightViewsYanjing’ ( City WestDistrictGazetteer chuantong tese chuantong fengmao Plan dealingwiththepreservationof also usedbutlessfrequently.Theword has averyvisualconnotation,asdistinctfromthemoregeneralword which arebothmorepreciseandnormativelyneutral.Whicheverway‘ ance’ or‘appearanceonitsface’), appearance’ or‘image.’Itisalsoanormativelypositiveterm,comparedwith ‘ Beijing: ChinaArchitectureandBuildingPress,1998,pp.84–148,especially92–4113–4. op. cit.[36],p.48. chengpian degaizaoBeijingjiucheng”’.MunicipalInstituteofCityPlanningandDesign, zhouwei diqunei,jianzhuwudetiliang,fenggebixuyuzhixiangxietiao.Yaozhubude, wenwu, gujianzhuhejuyouzhongyaoyiyideyizhi,yaotuoshanbaohu.Zaiqi tong heshehuizhuyiguojiashoududedutefengmao.Duizhenguigemingshiji,lishi Beijing deguihuahejianshe,yaofanyingchuzhonghuaminzulishiwenhua,gemingchuan- Fengmao Theory andPlanningofthePreservationFamousHistoricCulturalCities ]. Beijing:ZhongguoJianzhuGongyeChubanshe[ChinaArchitectureandBuildingPress], ’ istranslatedusuallyas‘styleandfeatures’,butitcouldalsomean‘characteristic Beijing: TheNatureandPlanningofChineseCapitalCity [ (‘traditionalcharacter’).

ibid. Encyclopedia ofBeijing shi tichu:“Beijingwoguodeshoudu,youlishiwenhuamingcheng. Beijing GuihuaZhanlueSikao

(‘traditional image’),althoughsometimesitisreplacedbythelessvisualword , pp.32–5. [ Conservation PlanfortheHistoricCityofBeijingandImperial ]. Beijing:BeijingPublishingHouse,1992,p.292.TheYind- yuanmao ]. Beijing:AolinpikeChubanshe[OlympicPublishing fengmao Lishi WenhuaMingchengBaohuLilunYuGuihua lishi wenhuamingcheng Beijing LishiWenhuaMingChengHuang ( [

yuanyou demianmao appears throughoutthesectionofMaster Reflections onBeijing’sPlanningStrategies Beijing ShiXichengQuDimingzhi Yanjing Bajing Beijing chengshijianshezongti tese . Chichester:JohnWiley& , usuallyintheformof

fengmao

– ‘originalappearance’) (‘character’), whichwas ) identifiedbythe mianmao ’ istranslated,it ]. Shanghai: Abramson

(‘appear- [ Beijing Beijing ]. Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 6 RenzhiHou,op.cit.[26];MarwynSamuelsandCarmelitaSamuels,BeijingthePowerof 56. Formoredetailonthedesignandapprovalofspecificcommercialprojectsthatbrokeofficial 55. City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing 60. YuZhou,BeijingandtheDevelopmentofDualCentralBusinessDistricts. 57. 5 TsinghuaUniversitySchoolofArchitecture Department ofCityPlanningandDesignTrond- 65. BeijingMunicipal GovernmentCapitalAdministrativeDocumentNo.58,BeijingWenwuShiye 64. DabeiZhang,Shi QuLingdaoDaoDe-WaiQingzhensiShigongXianchangJianchaGongzuo 63. InterviewwithYanYuying,RelocationDirectorfortheWestCityDistrict OldandDilapidated 62. JunhuaLü,Beijing’sOldandDilapidatedHousingRenewal(PartI). 61. 9 LizhuDong,ChunfengHutongWeifangGaizaoQuGuihuaShejiJianjie[a BriefIntroductionto 59. GongweiWang,BeijingXi’erhuanBaitasiDiquJiuchengGaizaoGuihuaSaomiao [Scanofthe 58. Bae Kim Zixuan ZhuandReginaldKwok,Beijing:TheExpressionofNationalPoliticalIdeology,inWon Together GeographicalandSociologicalImaginations Place inModernChina,J.A.AgnewandS.Duncan(eds) Making andSellingofPost-MaoBeijing height limits,seeChapterFour,‘TheMallingofWangfujing’,inAnne-MarieBroudehoux, shu structure, althoughearliermosqueshadoccupieditssitesince1000yearsago. Islamic ethnicgroupsfrombuilding‘foreignstylebuildings’.ThemosqueitselfisaMing tradition infactoriginatedtheMingdynastyasresultofalawthatexpresslyforbade Doctoral dissertation,Trondheim,Norway:NorwegianInstituteofTechnology,1995,p.58.This Muslim HousingArchitectureintheFrameworkofResourceManagementandIdentityPlace. real: McGillUniversity,1995,p.50;WeiDong,AnEthnicHousinginTransition:Chinese Ibid. April 1994. Interview withXiaoJian,DirectoroftheXuanwuDistrictNiuJieHousingManagementOffice,7 (1991) 84–117. 125–50; HungWu,TiananmenSquare:APoliticalHistoryofMonuments. Schemes forthePreservation ofaHistoricUrbanLandscape:TheNanchiziRenewal Project heim UniversityNorwegianInstitute ofTechnologyFacultyArchitecture, 1995–1999], 1995. Fazhan WuNianGuihua,1995–1999[BeijingCultural Relics DevelopmentFive-YearPlan, news/displaynewscentre1.asp?ArticleID=668 (accessed22May 2006). Mosque] [Internetnewsservice].BeijingHuarong,2005,available fromhttp://www.bjhr.com.cn/ [Municipal andDistrictLeadersConductanon-SiteInspection oftheConstructionDe-Wai Gongsi [BeijingMunicipalGeneralHousingConstructionCompany], Beijing,22July1993. Technology, 1992;InterviewwithXuJingyun,ChiefArchitect, BeijingShiZhuzhaiJiansheZong Xiangshan Institute ofTechnology,BeijingUrbanDesignStudio, proposed tokeepthemosqueanditscommunityinplace.Tsinghua UniversityandMassachusetts Housing RenewalOffice,18December1994.Boththedeveloper andstudentdesigners,however, 9 Beijing GuihuaJianshe the PlanningandDesignofChunFengHutongDilapidatedHousingRedevelopmentDistrict]. Ring Road]. Old CityRedevelopmentPlanfortheWhitePagodaTempleAreaAlongBeijing’sWestSecond that suchdevelopmentshouldbeconcentratedinChaoyangDistrict. governments’ competitionforhigh-endofficedevelopment,despitetheMasterPlan’sspecification 88 , 3(1993)27–35. , 3(1998)429.YuZhoudescribestheimpactofEastCity,ChaoyangandWestCitydistrict [ ; ZhengLian,HousingRenewalinBeijing:ObservationandAnalysis.Mastersthesis,Mont- Encyclopedia ofBeijing et al.

[Beijing andCambridge,MA]:TsinghuaUniversitythe Massachusetts Instituteof Beijing Fandichan

(eds) Culture andtheCityinEastAsia [ Beijing CityPlanningandConstructionReview ], p.315. [ Beijing RealEstate . London;NewYork:Routledge,2004. ] (1997)24–5. . Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997,pp. . Boston:UnwinHyman,1989,pp.202–27; Longfusi Market,Deshengmenwai, The PowerofPlace:Bringing China CityPlanningReview Geographical Review Representations Beijing Baikequan- ] 1 Some Tentative

(1992) 34–6. 163 The

35 . Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 164 2 JunhuaLü,Beijing’s OldandDilapidatedHousingRenewal(PartIi). 72. 1 LiangyongWu, 71. 3 JunWang,Gucheng DeAoyunMingpianRuheZhiban[HowAreWeTypesettingtheOldCity’s 73. 0 GuangqiDong,ChaoYangMenNeiNeighborhoodRedevelopmentProject Meeting,withDong 70. 9 Comparemapsonpp.27–8and31–2inRenzhiHou, 69. TongjiUniversityUrbanPlanningResearchLab, 68. JunhuaLü,op.cit.[61]. 67. J.Goldman,op.cit.[53];BaiChen,JinSiheyuanXianDeiShuaKa:YouChuWei 66. Press], 1994,pp.76–81,104–8;LiangyongWu, Neighborhood 200206270053.htm (accessed 11 March2005). 13:10:51) BeijingStatisticalInformation Net,2001,availableatwww.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/ Development StatisticsReport for2000uptotheNinthFive-YearPlanPeriod(2February Municipal StatisticalBureau, Beijing MunicipalStatisticalBureauNationalEconomicand Social www.cpic.gov.cn/free/redian/M_H_0_0228_040511.htm (accessed 11March2005);Beijing Urban Area?](11May)ChinaPriceInformationNetwork, 2004,availableathttp:// Commodity HousingPriceinthenearSuburbsUnexpectedly 275YuanHigherThanThatofthe Jinjiao ShangpinfangJunjiaJingranGaochuChengqu275 Yuan? [Beijing:WhyIstheAverage www.xindb.com/188/tegao2.htm (accessed11March2005); LongwangQian,Beijing:Yuanhe Calling CardfortheOlympics?](16–23April)XinDao Bao,2003,availableathttp:// 9 being inthe ings couldbeallowedofficiallyinlocationswheretheywouldnotimpingeontheexperienceof redeveloped. Theplancalledforamoreselectiveapplicationofheightlimits,sothathighbuild- the ordination betweenthem),theyalsosimplydidnotrecognizethefunctionalandsymbolicvalueof infrastructure provisionpractices(whichgenerallyinvolvedeachutilitylayingitslineswithoutco- reconciling itwithsuchprioritiesasthefavouringofautomobileaccessandprevailing proposed aplanforthepreservationofnetwork 1992. InhelpingtodrafttheWestCityDistrictDetailedRegulatoryPlanin1997,author the preservationof Professor LüJunhua’sDesignTeamatTsinghuaUniversity.Beijing,7October1992arguedfor Jingyun, ChiefArchitectoftheBeijingMunicipalGeneralHousingConstructionCompany;and Guangqi, ViceDirectoroftheBeijingMunicipalInstituteUrbanPlanningandDesign;Xu example, seeJunWang, confused withtheclassicconditionitself,ashashappenedeveninthistextbook.Foranother orientated gridaswellaneast–west-orientatedone.Whatisoddthattheimageoften illustrated howwellthecourtyardhousetypologycouldbeadaptedtosuitanorth–south- ture andBuildingPress],1985,p.80.Theattentioninthisbookisjustifiedbecausetheblock Chinese UrbanConstruction op. cit.[40]. tive designsforcontextualneighbourhoodredevelopmenthavebeenproposed,seeD.Abramson, style’ hasbeeninterpretedinthedevelopmentofnewluxurycourtyardhouses,andwhatalterna- Qingnian Bao Old NanchiziResidentsReturntoKitchens,Bathrooms,GasCookingandHeating.), ‘Shuang Qi’NanchiziLaoZhuhuZuoHuiqian(toEntertheSiheyuan,FirstSwipeYourCard: among architecturalfacultyatTsinghuaUniversityinApril1993. Beijing, 1995.ThereferencetotheRuedeRivoliwasmadeindiscussionaboutBeichiziDajie Beijing , 4(1993). hutong ]. Beijing,1988. asaviablespatialsysteminitsownright. hutong [ ]. Beijing:ZhongguoJianzhuGongyeChubanshe[ChinaArchitecture andBuilding Beijing YouthDaily Beijing JiuchengYuJu’erHutong . Districtofficialsrejectedthisproposal;apartfromthetechnicaldifficultiesof hutong op. cit.

character (asdistinctfromthepreservationof ]. Beijing:ZhongguoJianzhuGongyeChubanshe[ChinaArchitec- [19],p.17. ], 1September2003.Foradetaileddiscussionofhow‘Qing op. cit. [ Zhongguo ChengshiJiansheShi the OldCityofBeijingandItsJu’erHutong hutong [19],pp.69–78,100–2. Beijing LishiDituJi

in areasthatweretobeotherwise China CityPlanningReview siheyuan [ Historical Atlasof [ ) asearly Abramson History of Beijing Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 1 BeijingMunicipalCityPlanningCommission 81. Ibid.,p.39. 80. Ibid.,pp.37–9. 79. BeijingMunicipalCityPlanningCommission,op.cit.[43],p.25. 78. XinminHua,op.cit.[26],accessed15March2005. 77. 6 Oneofthenewpreservationdistricts,atXianyukou,wasestablishedlargelybecauseithadan 76. BeijingMunicipalCityPlanningCommission, 75. BeijingMunicipalCityPlanningCommission,op.cit.[42]. 74. City-scale preservationpolicyinBeijing 2 YanZhangandKeFang,IsHistoryRepeatingItself?FromUrbanRenewal intheUnitedStates 82. 3 ZixuanZhuandGuangzhongZheng,BeijingJiuchengChuantongGejuYu GujiBaohuTantao 83. 4 JaneJacobs, 84. 5 SethaLow 85. 6 M.C.Boyer, 86. 7 HuanjiaWu,BeijingChengshiFengmaoZhi WoJian[Beijing’sUrbanVisualCharacterasISee 87. 9 InterviewwithZhuZixuan,Professor,Tsinghua UniversitySchoolofArchitecture,Beijing,4 89. M.C.Boyer, 88. Figure 7. unusual north–south to Inner-CityRedevelopmentinChina. Capital CulturalRelics Cultural RelicsPreservationWorkintheCourseofOldandDilapidatedHousingRedevelopment. Urban HeritageinDevelopingCountries. among otherdeveloping-worldcities,seeFlorianSteinberg,ConservationandRehabilitationof Urban AffairsReview 286–98; TingweiZhang,UrbanDevelopmentandaSocialistPro-GrowthCoalitioninShanghai. [ Sites], inEditorialboardofChengshiGuihua[UrbanPlanning](ed.) [Discussion ontheTraditionalLayoutofBeijing’sOldCityandPreservationItsHistoric Conceptualisation. detailed studyofonecity,seeArzuKocabas,UrbanConservationinIstanbul:EvaluationandRe- Schools ofPlanning,Milwaukee,Wisconsin,1986. Design Studio.Paperpresentedat28thAnnualConference oftheAssociationCollegiate James R.Richardson.TeachingUrbanDesigninCross-Cultural Settings:TheBeijingUrban Wohl, BeijingStudio. Tsinghua UniversityandtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology. SusanStuebingandGaret tion-orientated schemesproducedbyfieldresearchersandjointstudiosinthemid-1980sbetween Also see,forexample,thedebatesasdescribedbyPhilippeJonathan,andsmall-scalepreserva- for MSinArchitecturalStudies,Cambridge,MA:MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,1988. standing theChangesandConstantsofCourtyardHouseNeighborhoodsinBeijing.Thesis Beijing: UnitéPedagogiqued’ArchitectureandTsinghuaUniversity,1982;AndréCasault,Under- and ArchitectureProjectintheShishahaiNeighborhood],Mémoiredefind’étude.Paris He JianzhuShejiWenti D’architecture DansLeQuartierDeShishahai( ippe Jonathan,Pékin–LaRestructurationDuCentreHistoriqueDePékin:ProjetD’urbanismeEt p. 310. Research a CaseStudyofIndependenceNationalHistoricalPark. It]. April 1994. Planning forUrbanRenewal:ACompilationofResultstoDate Beijing GuihuaJianshe

19 et al. , 4(2002)282–99. The DeathandLifeofGreatAmericanCities op. op. cit. , RecapturingErasedHistories:Ethnicity,Design,andCultural Representation– cit.[5],pp.38–40. Habitat International [5],p.33ff;A.M.Tung,op.cit. [1],p.272.

hutong MIT EastAsianArchitectureandPlanningProgramNewsletter 37

) [Beijing:TheReconstructionoftheHistoricCentreBeijing:Urbanism 247 , 4(2002)475–99.ForanoverviewthatconsidersBeijingandShanghai [ (2001)28May. Beijing CityPlanningandConstruction Review

layout somewhatlikethatofthedemolishedblockdepictedin Journal ofPlanningEducationandResearch

30 , 1(2006)107–26. Habitat International op. cit. Beijing JiuchengGaijian:ShishahaiDiquGuihua et al. [43]. , NoticeConcerningtheStrengtheningof . NewYork:RandomHouse,1961, Journal ofPlanningEducationand ]. Beijing,

20 , 3(1996)463–75.Fora Jiucheng GaijianGuihua c . 1986,pp.1–29;Phil- ] 3 (2000).

23

, 3(2004) (1986) 2; 165 Downloaded By: [University of Washington] At: 05:58 16 March 2007 166 2 DavidBray, 92. JianfeiZhu, 91. LiangyongWu, 90. 3 Seethecontributionstospecialissueof 93. 6 FrançoiseChoay, 96. 5 Ibid.ComparewithR.Marshall,op.cit.[2];KrisOlds,GlobalizingShanghai: The‘GlobalIntelli- 95. 4 TimG.Bunnell,ViewsfromaboveandBelow:ThePetronasTwinTowers and/inContesting 94. 7 M.Leaf,op.cit.[30]. 97. Routledge Curzon,2004,p.247. Punishment inChina as itrelatestothehistoryofsocialdisciplineinChina,seeMichaelRobertDutton, Reform Economic Reforms) gence Corps’andtheBuildingofPudong. 20 Visions ofDevelopmentinContemporaryMalaysia. Contemporary China Press, 1997;GordonWhite, and B.MichaelFrolic(eds), pp. 25–7. Baogang He, , 1(1999)1–23. . Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress,2005.Forathoroughdiscussionofpanopticism Social SpaceandGovernanceinUrbanChina:TheDanweiSystemfromOriginsto Chinese SpatialStrategies:ImperialBeijing,1420–1911 The DemocraticImplicationsofCivilSocietyinChina op. cit. The ModernCity;Planninginthe19thCentury 14 . Oakleigh,Vic.,Australia;NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress,1992. . NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1996. , 2(1997)109–23. [19],pp.60,78–103. Civil SocietyinChina In SearchofCivilSociety:MarketReformandSocialChangein Cities Modern China

(Special IssueonUrbanSocialImpactsofChina’s . Armonk,NewYork:M.E.Sharpe,1997; Singapore JournalofTropicalGeography , 19 , 2(1993).SeealsoTimothyBrook . NewYork:G.Braziller,1970, . NewYork:St.Martin’s . London;NewYork: Policing and Abramson