Planning & Development

61 Planning & Development 1 under sixcategories. Table 1presentsasummary Siche ofLiang AnOverview ofLiangSicheng’s Major Planning Publications 2. influences onhisperspectivesplanning. an overviewofLiang’splanningideas,follow my examination ofthebackground foreachofhisplanning publication. manner istoidentifywhathadshapedLiang’ mere repeatingwhathesaid.Thefirststepto known despiteofhisidolizedst destruction remains relevanttodayasbulldozer Chinese intellectualswithunyielding integrity. Liang Sicheng( 1. Introduction This journey started with advising CCTV on a docume and Development Huiyin and Liang Sicheng as Architectural Students at the University of Pennsylvania (1924-27).” (6) (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) Background andInfluencesonLiangSicheng’s Planning Thoughts

A visionofanidealcity(J) Pleading forconservingoldBe The Liang-ChenProposal–newtownandurban rehabilitation(E), The idealdesigneducationasmeans to Urbanism, decentralisationandgarden-c Western (primarily American) planning system andpractices(A &C), Assistant Professor, Department 梁思成 , 23(1): 75-93, 2008. ), thehonouredarchitecturalhistorian,

atus. We earnestexam needan Morgan State University Special Paper Sidney WONG ijing (D,F, G&I),and ng’s primary publications studyhisthoughtsofpl s thoughtsaboutplanning.Thisarticlereports

s roam thecity.Buthisplanningideasareless of CityandRegionalPlanning, His futilecampaign topreserveBeijing from ed byseveralsections discussing possible ntary on Liangand anarticlebythe author: “Lin shapethephysicalenvironment (C), ity likeneighbourhood

is viewedasarepresentativeof ination ofhisideaswithout anning inasystematic 1 thatcanbegrouped It will first present planning (B&H), Planning Planning Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 62 and adopted decentralisation.” nder the dual city city would function lopment in Beijing. Beijing. in lopment the new town would ai Voronin’s concept r a loosely defined along its north-south on of form-order. The orical continuity. aimed at an orderly at an orderly aimed Capital Plan of Nanjing Capital Plan of Proposal Liang insisted that planners — not Liang insisted that planners plans. engineers — should develop city over These letters expressed his concerns the disorderly redeve for establishing an effective He pleaded to guide redevelopment. planning system This restoration of the old city and suggested to build a new town. U regional plan, the old town while the new centre as a cultural would function as an administrative centre. The layout of with old city to the be similar self-contained functional districts. In arguing for the preservation of the form the ideal city explained walls, Liang self-contained small of multiple in terms earlier in B mentioned districts, a theme and E. of This traced the historical development of Beijing and the city’s layout composed segregated districts axis. It quoted Nichol of cultural and hist American planning and zoning practices. planning and zoning practices. American on municipal emphasis It has strong public. and administration based on This short newspaper article was noti Eliel Saarinen’s fo article advocated concept called “organic of Liang viewed planning as an extension physical settings. architecture to multiple students He stressed the needs of exposing and social science subjects. to humanities by was likely influenced The curriculum Perkins’ integrated the Holmes design curriculum at environmental Harvard University. This award-winning plan modelled on the plan modelled This award-winning 1929

ang Sicheng (Arranged in Chorological Order) Chorological Order) (Arranged in ang Sicheng -- ” “The ” “A Liang-Chen (

Title Themes and Comments Major Planning ) ” “A Discussion ” “Beijing – The Practical City Practical 關於北京城牆存廢問題北京－都市計劃的無比清華大學營建學系學制市鎮的體系秩序 Planning Manual: Planning Manual: Proposal of the Material the Tianjin Construction of Special City “ 的討論 or about the Preservation the Old City of Demolition in Beijing” Walls “ 傑作 Unparalleled Masterpiece in City Planning” 《關於中央人民政府行政中心位置的建議》 Proposal for the Location of the Central District of Administrative the PRC Central People's Government “ 及學程計劃草案 Draft Program and the of Curriculum of Department Architecture and Planning, Tsinghua University” (“Draft Curriculum”) officials government “ Structure and Order of Cities” 《城市設計實用手冊天津特別市物質建設方案》 Proposal Publication Publication Table 1: Major Planning Publications of Li Publications of Major Planning Table 1:

Item Year of Item Year G 1951 F 1950 E 1950 D 1949 - 1951 letters to Multiple C 1949 B 1945 A 1930

63 Planning & Development J 1952 I 1952 H 1951 Item Year of 3 2 Liang wasattractedtoSaarinen’s reforms from practices likezoning,generalplanning,localpl evolved overtime. He started Liang’s planningideaswerewest and planning. education from engineeringtraining, and14) zoning codes,12)theimportanceofsurveya rehabilitation ofdilapidatedareas,10)the facilities, 7)aesth working andlivingconditions,6)generous organic decentralisation,4)walkableandself-c well-matched cityform andorder,2)planning Most commentatorsagreethatthetenetsof CIAM stands for Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne or the International Congress of Modern

73-88. 護和現代化發展的傑作 Architecture. Architecture. 出的先驅蘭高亦蘭 , 夏路 Publication , 北京王蒙微 -- 2006 : 《首都計畫》 3 紀念梁思成先生誕辰商務印書館

1991 1991 “ 《一代宗師梁思成》 etical valueandcultural Planning Principles of City Understanding” of “Translators’ “Preface” ofthe epesCptl People’s Capital” Construction ofthe “The Municipal 《人民首都的市政建設》區之重建》《蘇聯衛國戰爭被毀地 “ Areas oftheSovietUnion Rebuilding theLiberated 梁思成的古城保護及城市規劃思想研究 -- 序 ; ” 吳良鏞重讀梁思成先生論城市規劃的著作《城市計劃大綱》 ( The

with adoptingthebestpracti 2001 2001 “ 100 il MajorPlanning ThemesandComments Title

Capital Plan form-order notionthatthephys “ ern-centred andhadlittleSovi 214-226, 譯者的體會周年 General 紀念梁思成先生 ” 《城市規劃》北京 LiangSicheng’splanningthoughtsinclude:1) continuity, 8)historic adherence tomasterplanning,11)theuseof the introduction ofhumanitiesinto architecture

of Nanjing

: nd analysis,13)theuniqueroleofplanning ” 中國建築工業出版社 anning system,andmunicipal administration provision ofgreenspaceandrecreational ontained residentialdist as adesignofthephysicalenvironment,3) planning system inBeijing. inability of establishing aneffective mention thechaoticredevelopment andthe seemed disingenuousbecause itdidnot in accomplishing planning ideals.It This articleglorifiedthenewgovernment cultural andaesthetical cities. follow the Sovietexperience to build and historyargued It praised Voronin’s sensitivity toculture CIAM advocated. architectural styleand modernism that also denounced theinternational garden citiesasisolated half-successes. It officials. the CIAM’s Liang promotedtheplanningdoctrinesin ” 25(5): 45-49; 45-49; 25(5): 《城市規劃》 ” ” , hereafter the 《五十年回眸《世界建築》 2 He characterisedRaburnand ces ofcontemporary American Athens Charter et influence. Hisideas also ical settingofacityshould 劉小石 ; 25(5): 41-44. 劉小石 preservation, 9)orderly -- 1: 60-69; Capital Plan 1999 1999 “ ricts, 5)comfortable 新中國的城市規劃》 2001 “ 2001 thatChinashould to government 歷史城市的保郭黛姮城市規劃傑 ). Later, , 高亦 Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 64 Liang-Chen d effectively perform tional districts and was this plan, they applied ted various projections to to the old city and contain ) published the ountries. After analysing the ods. He would use zoning and ods. He would use the necessity for both planning the necessity for ogy. He distinguished planning storic buildings. 陳占祥 planning was to rationally allocate land use planning was to rationally allocate ke intermediate and advanced methods and advanced methods ke intermediate trained planners coul demand of the administrative district of the district of the administrative demand rder with the garden-city-like self-contained self-contained garden-city-like the rder with n to present his visions by adding political sted selective demolition and gradual sted selective demolition s, maximise worker production, and improve s, maximise ed design activity; so he required planning ed design activity; ang, ideal cities are those provided generous cities are those ang, ideal ortation system. In this way, planning would ortation system. In this way, planning nation’s most important cultural centre, so he centre, cultural important most nation’s analysis and impact assessments to evaluate and impact assessments analysis to accommodate the administrative district and district the administrative to accommodate and recommended a regional plan under which and recommended vided into different func knowledge base in humanities and history. His and history. in humanities knowledge base on, public health, rural and urban sociology, on, The 1949 “Draft Curriculum” best reflected his best reflected Curriculum” The 1949 “Draft population density and increase its amenities and population density and increase its amenities rance of the central city. In ant landmarks and hi ant landmarks ectural styles and streetscapes. styles ectural techniques from the western c techniques from wn would have a similar layout wn would have a similar context of Beijing, they conduc urban design skills. Liang saw urban design skills. nxiang (Charles Chen or Liang considered an ideal city as functionally modern and modern considered an ideal city as functionally Liang ological engineering, and geol amenities for these neighbourho amenities make them look socialist. For example, when he recommended when he recommended example, look socialist. For them make e population and land use patterns. e population and did not prevent Liang from criticism. As the clearance of old of As the clearance criticism. from did not prevent Liang to counteract the proposed clea Liang-Chen Proposal self-sufficient neighbourhoods. They sugge self-sufficient neighbourhoods. They its rehabilitation of the old city to lower as the viewed the old capital facilities. Liang called for the preservation of its import tried agai Liang Beijing started, the bewildered current planning concepts and regional setting and historical the of land needed to meet the amount estimate benefit They used cost central government. district options of locating the administrative old city of the west a new town would be built its ancillary uses. This new to The clichés in his publications to provision of green space and provision of green match its purposes. Liang augmented the form-o Liang augmented its purposes. match units of a city. as basic neighbourhoods For Li to control th other regulations as a design activity at planning re-conceptualised the United States, Liang After a visit to environment. physical of the multiple levels is an enrich planning new thinking. Primarily, artistic and students to acquire to have a common students and architecture

curriculum required planning students to ta required planning students curriculum (plan-making skills), municipal administrati skills), (plan-making transportation engineering, ge from engineering, and argued that only properly from planning tasks. At this stage, Such a city would be di Chinese. aesthetically sprawl. For him, highly regulated to stop formless transp activities and to develop a coordinated conveniences for the inhabitant modern improve archit with harmonious the aesthetics In 1950, Liang and Chen Zha Proposal

65 Planning & Development 4 In 1924,DongXiujia( Chinese PlanningPublications(1919to1930) who hadsucharichexperience inmodern cities. in cityplanning.Bythetime hereturnedChin architectural programs, howmode particular experiencegave Liang gotmarriedinCanada1928andtook skyscrapers, theworld’slongestsuspensionbrid electrical railroadstation.When hegradua Blocks from thePenncampus wastheconstruc museums,building its institut Liang witnessedafrenziedconstructionboom modern utilitiesandinfrastructure.Ithadama first-hand experienceofamode at theUniversityofPennsylvania(Penn).Phila In 1924,LiangleftChina withhis fiancée,Lin Huiyin( Formative Years(1920to1928) background shapedhisplanningthoughts. working withcolleagues. Thefollowing discussions willshowhowthesemultiple his upbringing,overseastravels, Liang Sicheng’sthoughtsaboutplanningcame with 3. Background Influences influence toLiang’splanningideas. architecture andplanningwasshattered.Th Liang stoppedwritingaboutpl public space intopolitical statements paid his restoration ideas.But the newregime wh successful onlyinasocialistsociety.Also,he the

Thomas Campanella. 2008. World Culture People’s in the Early Republic Athens Charter . Princeton: Princeton Architectural togovernment officials,heclai 董修甲 The Concrete Dragon: China’s Urban Revolution and What It Means for The

Liang opportunitytoobserve, ) publishedhis ional buildingsalongatree-lin

rn city. This America’s thirdlargest city wasserved by . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. University . Cornell Ithaca: anning andfortherestofhi discussions withtheplanners rn citiesfunctionedevenhe Press. Chang-Tai Press. 2011. Hung. littleregardstoplanningprinciples. ted in1927,hehadwitnessedtheconstructionof e following sectionstracethebackgroundand 《市政新論》 andtheCapitalPlanofNanjing(1929) ich hadagrand scheme to convertBeijing’s a, Liangwasoneofa usedSovietrebuildi ss transit system, anelaboratedtram network. an extendedhoneymoon tripinEurope.This ge, andmany advancedmodern cityfacilities. delphia, hishome for during the Roaring Twenties. The city was during theRoaringTwenties.Thecitywas tion siteofthenati varioussourcesofinfluences,including med that good planningcouldbe 林徽音 ( Municipal Government had notreceived and later andarchitectshemet, and with eyestrainedthrough ed Parisian-likeboulevard. s life,hisconfidencein Mao’s NewWorld: Political ng experience to support ng experiencetosupport handful ofpeoplethere three years,gavehim on’s first intermodal 林徽因 4 After 1952, any training ), tostudy ), abook

Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 66 22 . An Draft 1926 ) and

建築學 , 張銳中國近代 became a became 市制 ; The First ( . 2010. “ of Nanking 成功大學 ) wrote planning ) wrote 《東方雜誌》第 ” rticular, it adopted

” 邱瑛張銳 ; Capital Plan 期 2 城市設計 planning affairs in Tianjin. 上海：商務印書館 ministration expert. Beforeministration ), a three-volume work; one ), a three-volume ” (“City Planning”) and two anning, road engineering, and anning, road engineering, aining public administration in aining public administration . Capital Plan 1925 “ Building in China: Henry K. Murphy’s Murphy’s K. Henry China: in Building 張銳 ng techniques. In pa 城市設計《市制新論》 11; movement in major Chinese cities because in major movement 1926 Chinese half a dozen In following years, 卷第 6 工學碩士論文 mmissioned to work with a group of Chinese mmissioned to work with a group affect Liang in his first planning work and affect Liang in 《市行政原理與技術初稿》 ). , planning systems, zoning ordinances, garden zoning planning systems, 22 《黃岡師範學院學報》 the second edition of Zhang’s book on municipal the second editionof Zhang’s 張銳 he had prepared lecture notes on municipal ” e acclaimed National Institute of Public e acclaimed the 1924 Standard State Zoning Enabling Act the 1924 Standard State Zoning neighbourhoods along the garden city concepts. along the garden city concepts. neighbourhoods ; . The book covered types of city planning, public finance, finance, public planning, city of types covered book The . 國民政府時期南京首都計畫之研究號 11 city plans and the Tokyo Reconstruction Plan. Tokyo city plans and the 卷第 these overlapping and varying quality, Despite much 7 . 2002. “ 武漢理工大學 22 cal layouts, transportation pl cal layouts, transportation of Municipal Administration tr Zhang obtained the best Planning Enabling Act. The 1929 Enabling Act. The Planning

” d the preparation of the 《東方雜誌》第 10 Zhang was a municipal ad municipal Zhang was a 第 1930, Zhang was a secretary on planning methods and practices into China. They collectively practices into China. They collectively and planning methods . Hong Kong:. Hong Chinese UniversityHong ofKong. ” A year later, he and Zhang Rui ( later, he and A year ) quadrupled in number after the national unification to meet to meet unification the national after in number ) quadrupled nvolvement was his collaboration with Zhang Rui in the 1930 was his collaboration with Zhang Rui in the 1930 nvolvement 9 5

王俊雄 . 上海：商務印書館

市政 Dong Fang Magazine Dong Fang ( 《東方雜誌》 ” 試述近代西方市政理念的東漸《市政新論》田園新市與我國市政 . For Henry Murphy, see Jeffrey W. Cody. 2001. 2001. Cody. W. see Jeffrey Murphy, Henry For . 城市設計 . 2002. “ These experts brought in advanced planni . 8 《東方雜誌》號 . 1924. 1925 “ 1925 “ 11 邱紅梅張銳《中國歷代都市行政之大勢》 Tsinghua College. Liang’s father was thefatherof editor College. Liang’s Tsinghua government. layouts in western cities, and ninelayouts cities, and Chinese in western 分散主義城市規劃思潮的歷史研究系博士論文 1914-1935 “Adaptive Architecture,” 卷第董修甲董修甲

For the planning of Nanjing, see neighbour andboth years younger they attended in Tianjin than Liang Sicheng,Zhang was Liang’s Two See American universities before joining th universities American in New York. In Administration centre, training As the director of the city’s and planning which he turned into government 10 8 9 5 6 7 case studies in foreign cities. They seemed to seemed They in foreign cities. case studies planning tools: American the two important and the 1928 Standard State City Liang Sicheng’s first planning i Tianjin planning competition. published an article “ entering university, Zhang had books on municipal government. contributed to his insistence of small liveable insistence of small contributed to his a planning The 1927 national unification triggered entirely on western planning. entirely articles in ( government municipal Such book on city planning, books were published. western publications introduced garden cities, local covered topics including planning, lo cities, neighbourhood starte the national government cities. model in other major Zhang Rui: The Pathfinder (1930)

municipal administration ( municipal administration technicians. the needs of planning international team led by Henry Murphy was co international team architects. of the Principles and Technology

67 Planning & Development Plan Plan 11 architecture thataddressed societal needs.Bo wider urbanenvironment. Theybothwereso connect. TheirBeaux-artsarch till 1949. local intellectuals. Assuch, Stein met Liang and 1949).Theystayedforweekstoimmerse them America (RPAA), andhisactresswifewere n thespringof1936,Clarence Clarence Stein: TheElderArchitect(1936) Sicheng’s hallmark ideas. zoning andplanningsystem. Theuseofzoni Through thepreparationof with ZhangexposedLiangtoavarietyofur Chinese, andaminimal modernist prototypic recommended twostyles:aneo-Chinese style th durability, usefulness,andbeauty chapter onpublicbuildingswasdefinitelywrit sections relatingtohexagonal because hewasaninsiderintheTianjingov Illustrated bySsu-ChengLia judgment. Alabelpastedtoabackpagecont administration expert,ratherthanthearchit emphasis indicatedthe municipal reforms followingtheAmerica’s G and publicutilitiesregulations. proposals suchasfiscalplan modern fiscalandbudgetarysystems. Third,the Second, itadvocatedforthemodernisation of design specifications modelled onthe The planprepared by LiangandZhang that wontheplanning competition of Tianjinwas devoted tocityplanning. Fairbank, Wilma. 1994. Wilma. Fairbank, hldlha nvriyo enyvnaPes Press. of Pennsylvania University Philadelphia: . First,itproposedmerging thecityand keptintheFarEasternLibraryofUn 11 SteinandLianghadmany similar lifeexpe Capital Plan . Nevertheless, the the . Nevertheless, Liang Sicheng and Lin:Partners inExploring China’s Architectural Past Tianjin Plan ning, debtfinancing,propertyta

, referring many times tothelatter’s engineering standards and ng Sicheng.” Zhangdidnotassu street layout,open spacearrangement, andurbandesign. The itectural training Tianjin Plan Fourth, itproposedhowtoregul Stein, thefounderofRegi (Vitruvius’sprinciplesthat wasprimarily preparedbyZhangRui,thepublic Tianjin Plan

ect Liang Sicheng. Acopyoftheoriginal visiting Beiping(name forBeijingbetween1928 , Liangappreciatedtheim ban issuesandpublicad Sicheng anddevelopeda al stylemodelled onTokyo.Hiscollaboration rn intowell-to-do families, bothof them were ained: “CityPlanforTientsin,byRayChang, ood CityGovernment Movement. Thisunique ng andstrictlandusecontrolbecame Liang ernment. Nonetheless,Lianglikely prepared iversity Chicagoprovidessupportforthis the county to form aregionalgovernment. the countytoform ten byLiangasitstatedtheprinciplesof city government, civilservicereform, and at wasfunctionallymodern butaesthetical did notpreventthem cially consciousandpursuedatypeof selves initsculture Tianjin Plan distinguished itself from the riences that made iteasy forthem to x reform, specialassessment, Liang frequently quoted). He Liang frequentlyquoted).He onal PlanningAssociationof me firstauthorshipperhaps ate public utilities and other ate publicutilitiesandother includedpublicfinance ministration solutions. portance ofAmerican from examining the friendship thatlasted and tointeractwith Capital Tianjin . Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 68 hard on architectural likely about Chinese e when engrossed in in engrossed e when y Wright. Stein wrote y Wright. Stein Papers), Container Container Papers), Stein anning Federation. Stein . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. Baltimore: Johns e sensation he had when he Beaux Arts. During the 1920s, he the Arts. During Beaux ess in ancient Chinese architecture whileess in ancient Chinese architecture teractions were more stead, Stein was absorbed in the Chinese stead, Stein was absorbed in the ads to the perimeter of a superblock which a superblock of ads to the perimeter regional planning and garden cities. In 1925, cities. In 1925, garden planning and regional iversity Library (hereafter iversity chitecture; Stein, the guest, was more likely was more likely chitecture; Stein, the guest, hicular traffic. Instead of having local roadshicular traffic. Instead of having iet persons, and pensiv iet persons, Stein and Henry Wright designed Radburn in designed Stein and Henry Wright llectuals including Lewis Mumford, and Mumford, Lewis llectuals including vacation outside the country. After 1937, he suffered After vacationoutside the country. rdable housing for the working poor and herdable housing for the working career revival, see Kermit Carlyle Parsons. Ed. 1998. 1998. Ed. Parsons. Carlyle Kermit see revival, career before meeting the Steins. And a meticulous before meeting is trip. An observer recalled how Stein was British planning pioneers, Patrick Geddes and British planning ational Garden City Pl Garden ational d not unearth any record concerning planning d not unearth any record concerning 1936 Liang was working nton MacKaye, and Henr MacKaye, nton automobile era. They advanced a concept called a concept called era. They advanced automobile nuary 24, 1949 in Clarence Stein Papers,24,nuary 1905-1983, 1949 Clarence in Stein ), “letter to Wilma Fairbank,”), “letterWilma (c.a. to April1936),quotation housing and regional planning commission.housing and regional He assertion may not be accurate because Liang had Liang not be accurate because assertion may capital the ancient enthralled by Since Stein was 14 金岳霖 ears later, Stein recounted th Liang Fairbank, Stein stimulated According to Wilma 12 found an exciting topic. exciting topic. found an , 92. Also most films Stein took in Beiping were on Chinese buildings buildings on Chinese were Beiping in took Stein films most Also , 92. training at Paris’s École des training at Paris’s conclude that their in

In a letter thirteen y 13 Liang Sicheng Lin and Sicheng Liang Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections Cornell Un University Press. Press. University in Fairbank, 7,File Unit 19. from chronic depression. For Stein’s life and his later life and Stein’s For depression. chronic from of The Planned Community Architect S. Stein: of Clarence The Writings and gardens. Clarence Stein, “letter to Anita Willcox,” on Ja Willcox,” “letter to Anita Stein, Clarence by 1935, career was stalling he so took a long Stein’s Jin, or Lao Yueh-lin (alias Chin Yuelin Jin research, so it is reasonable to 14 12 13 thought; but engaging when they but engaging when thought; architectural his Stein received head a New York state was appointed to group of New York inte belonged to a Be Whitaker, like Charles architect-planners This to read and think about city planning. by the author di Stein archive search of the looked at the palace and the walled city. and Liang was the leading expert in Chinese ar than Liang to be the student. Additionally, in involved in the planning of Tianjin seven year involved in the planning of Tianjin during the 1936 trip. In discussion between them cultured and highly intellectual. They were qu They and highly intellectual. cultured issues and went to meet widely on planning gardens, temples and ancient buildings in th floating “Oh—oh—oh …. What Palace and murmured, in the Summer captivated architecture”.

Ebenezer Howard and toured the garden cities. He invited Howard Unwin to America to Howard Unwin to America He invited cities. and toured the garden Ebenezer Howard RPAA to advance he founded the In 1923, teach. Stein was elected vice president of the Intern of the vice president elected Stein was and his left-leaning friends also promote affo promote and his left-leaning friends also projects. designed several prototypical housing in the city built garden the first New Jersey, and ve the “super block” to separate pedestrian the ro moved units, they with dwelling interwoven by dwelling houses. space surrounded green was a big common progr important In 1936, Liang Sicheng was making Stein was facing a career setback.

69 Planning & Development Eliel Saarinen: TheInspiration (1944) important impressiononLiang. 15 the bookasanundertaking of“grandiosescheme reviewer objectedhis notion that themedieval practical suggestions.Inthebook,designerS his arguments. Furthermore,itwasheavyinvi comprehend. Thebook didnothaveabibliography,so professionals. Inparticular,S The City of urbanliving. treasured the continuity prevailing modernitynotion,Saar be flexibletoallowfuturegenerationssear faith inprogress,machines ortechnology.Rath York regional planfailedtochallenge the American planners.HeconsideredHoward’sga of ArtsinMichigan.Beinganoutsider,Saarin won prizesinimportant design Helsinki railwaystationandhadbeeninvol The City:Its Growth,Its Decay,Its Future. In 1945,Liangwrote“TheStructure andOrderof his wifeauthored. Pencil Point only throughpublicationsprovidedbyWilma Fair became hismain planninggoal.Duringthistime, Liangkeptintouchwiththeoutside world him betterappreciatethesaying, problems. Thisexperienceprompted himtoth witnessed citydestructionduetobombing,hous extreme deprivation.Theylivedatsubsistence remote village inSichuan. Duringthistime, Lianglost family members andexperienced refugees inatreacherous journeyto the Shortly afterJapanoccupiedBeipingin1937, The War Time Experience(1937to1945) architecture thanplanning ideas.

林徽因 1945 1945 “ was alengthybook,flawedinmany a ways became usefulforhisstudyofhousingis 現代住宅設計的參考 15 Among thesematerials, Saarinen’sbookandthe of history.Forhim, small medieval

competitions. In1923heestab aarinen’s inabilityto writecl ” “living inharmonyandworking 《中國營造學社彙刊》第七卷第二期 inen foundthepastcould

interior. Theyfinall

dominance ofManhattan.He didnothavemuch ved inneighbourhoodprojectsEuropeandhad Saarinen was aFinish architect whodesigned the ch for innovative solutions. In contrast to the ch forinnovativesolutions.Incontrasttothe en’s conceptofplanningdifferedfromthat time wastheclimax of ink about rebuilding war-torn cities. It made ink aboutrebuildingwar-torncities.Itmade er, Saarinencontendedthatplanningshould aarinen became an amateur sociologist. One aarinen became anamateur sociologist.One rden citiestoorigid.He criticisedtheNew ing shortages,andmany otheracuteurban levels andtheirhealthdeteriorated.Liang sionary statements, butlightindetailsor Cities”basedonhisreadingofSaarinen’s Liang andhisfamily joinedmillions of s forthereplanningofmetropolisess with nd wasnotwellreceivedbytheplanning bank. Inparticular,severalarticlesin itisimpossibleto sues, leadingtoahousingarticlethat townsrepresented theideal form y moved toLizhuang( lished theCranbrookInstitute early madeitdifficultto provide inspir , 10 in satisfaction,”andthat civilisation, andcalled Athens Charter 月 . trace thesourcesof ation andhe 李莊 left an ), a Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 70 , , , it is , 9(3): 9(3): , was full was full The City The City ity to determine the ity to determine s and authoritarian ific methods. Anotherific methods. d not understand urban urban d not understand ted with Liang’s motto of Indeed Indeed 16 haviours, ethics and the sense ang read these those chapters, ity and the open nature of the ity and the open ecentralisation.” Judging from ecentralisation.” Judging pirations. Saarinen’s analogiespirations. Saarinen’s American Sociological Review Sociological American American Journal of Economics and and Economics of Journal American The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism s like “living organism,” and terms like like and terms s like “living organism,” reveals major differences. reveals major Their views of en called for massive relocation. While he relocation. While massive en called for sought a central author aarinen’s philosophie aarinen’s n problems to be social in nature, he did not to be social in nature, n problems environment to social issues. However, a to social issues. However, environment ” and the “social order” -- an attractive The Journal Publicof Land Utility Economics & nst property rights, and failed to present failed to present rights, and nst property much power while one to the government, d simultaneous growth and decay. Therefore, Therefore, and decay. growth d simultaneous rs said Saarinen di rs said en argued that urban problems were the results were the results argued that urban problems en on surgical removal of the decaying areas and understanding of scient understanding and dogmatic. While he disagreed with Baron he disagreed While and dogmatic. ed by the law of natural selection. While he of natural selection. ed by the law ound the book left “many specific questions left “many ound the book The City The Annals theof American Academy Political of Social and sed this type of “organic d ons of its populations” resona satisfaction.” These ill-defined concepts allowed Liang to satisfaction.” These ill-defined : Liang’s version centred on be he believed in cultural continu he believed in cultural “really convey little meaning”. “really convey ’s broader view of cultural as ation and slum clearance. Had Li ation and slum tants to the reformed areas. Saarinen proposed a powerful tants to the reformed

The City , 3(4): 663-664. was full of visionary statements, metaphor was full of visionary statements, 236: 208-209; Theron I. Cain. 1945. “Book Review,” 236: 208-209; Theron1945.I. Cain. “Book Review,” 3(11/12): 87-88; Homer Hoyt: 1943. “Book Review,” Review,” “Book 1943. Hoyt: Homer 87-88; 3(11/12): 19(4):487-488; C. McCormick. Thomas 1944. “Book Review,” Dream City,” Newcomb. 1944. “Architect’s W. 341-342; William Sociology Science, Science, Charles Ascher. 1944. “Book Review,” 1944. Review,” “Book CharlesAscher. complained that he unknowingly handed too that he unknowingly complained that bluntly concluded of sin in contrast to Saarinen inferre organisms biological between cities and relied heavily decentralisation” his “organic constant relocation of inhabi condemn to facilitate authority would not have endor he probably and Cities.” and Order of Structure Liang’s “The between other differences 16 unanswered” and criticised Saarinen lack of unanswered” and of notion Saarinen’s ambitions.” and “cultural impetus,” “creative correlation,” of “principle “living and working accommodati and working in “living in harmony Saarin ideas. in with his predisposed them fill form the “physical between of the mismatch the physical proposition for Liang to connect with careful comparison of Liang’s article “social order” were not the same questionable that Liang fully comprehend S inclination. actionable proposals. Another reviewer f actionable proposals. The City inadequate data and no experience.” Othe experience.” data and no inadequate agai hostility had a misguided development, urba Saarinen considered While of idiosyncrasies.

suggest social solutions. While While suggest social solutions. treasured the organic nature of neighbourhoods, he treasured the organic nature of neighbourhoods, treasured flexibility, his visions were rigid treasured flexibility, Saarin on urban form, like Haussmann, Haussmann future, he asserted that cities were govern future, he asserted urban fabric.

71 Planning & Development 21 20 19 18 17 shared byLiangwhohadastrongbackgroundin humanities. that studentsofalldesigndisciplinesshouldbe planning program andwassensitivetocultural similar totheprogram developedbyHolmes Pe schools. Thearchitecturala Bauhaus teachingmethods. Sicheng had proposedtoestablish anarchite generate overfiftyalternativesche Liang workedwitharchitects likeOscarNiemeyer, GarnettSoilleux,and LouisSkidmore to him lecturingabouturbanism a 1947, Liangmet LeCorbusier, th Board ofDesignConsultantsto prominent arthistorians,architectsandplanne themostThe firsthalfof1947was stimulating pe The TourinAmerica (1947) and offeredassistance for Liang’sresearch projects. opened adialogueofnewtownsandgardencities Stein actedasamentor inhe After LiangreturnedtoChina,Steinattemp prepare forLiang’svisit.Hedonatedhispersonal in NewYorkandwroteintroductionlettersto separation ofpedestrian neighbourhoods, centrallylocate recorded a trip to Raburnwith Stein. Li about hiseffortofwritingabookongardencities. planning. They exchangedinformation aboutne guest atStein’sapartment. Unliketheirlastm In 1946,Liangcame toAmerica as avisiting sc Clarence Stein: TheMentor(1946to1947) For Perkins at Harvard, see Anthony Alofsin. 2002. 2002. Alofsin. seeAnthony Harvard, at Perkins For For Liang’s involvement in the United Nations Board of Design Consultants, seeGeorge Dudley. 1994. the for Stein that funding Stein indicated seeking was and and1948 Liang in1947 between Correspondence Stein 12, 1948, February and 1947 July 18, [Sicheng],” Stein, Sus-ch’eng Sicheng toLiang Clarence “letter chancellor] Mei Yizi”). Workshop Headquarters Nations the United Designing for Peace: Architecture, and City Planning at Harvard Chinese for Researchin Institute ( Architecture Papers, Container 15, File Unit 26. Stein finally published 梁思成 “ 致 [ 青華大學校長 andvehiculartraffic ] 梅貽琦信 20

nd planningcurriculum Liang Now, hehadthechanceofvi

lping Liangtoestablishthe nd designinglargescaleprojects. design theUnitedNationshea d commercialzone,amble amount e intellectualleaderofthe mes settlingonthefinaldesign. before ”. March 9, 1945 (Liang Sicheng, “letterto[Tsinghua Sicheng, 9, (Liang ”. 1945 March University . New. York: W. W. Norton &Company. 中國營造學社

. ted tohelpLiangobtainresearchfunding. ctural program modelling ontheAmericanised Steininvited Lianginto his professional circle eeting, thistimeLiangwaseagertolearnabout rs, andrepresented ChinaintheUnited Nations ang wasimpressed by The Struggle for Modernism: Architecture, Landscape exposed toawidevariet rkins atHarvard. Perkinswasthechairof and historicalcontext w townsandSteintwicementioned toLiang architecturelibrarytoTsinghua University. riod Liang’scareerashemet withscoresof holar andLiangwasa Toward New Towns for America architects andplannersinothercitiesto , includedLianginhisprofessionalcircle, 17 ) form theRockefeller Foundation. Liang’sdiaryentryonJune29,1947 . Cambridge: MIT Press. modernism movement, andheard Tsinghua architecturalprogram, 21 siting topranking dquarters complex.InFebruary proposed twoyearslaterwas

During thenextfourmonths, ofopenspace,andthe in design.Hebelieved y ofsubjects,avision its quietresidential 19 frequent overnight Early on,Liang in 1950. in 1950. architectural A 18

Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 72 These encounters These at the 1933 CIAM 25 was impressed with was impressed called for functional itecture and planning. Frank Lloyd Wright and Frank Lloyd Wright e Thomas H. Creighton ed. ed. Creighton H. Thomas e h he endorsed in his futureh he endorsed in They agreed on a number of Charter nd the integration of modern projects, academic programs, programs, projects, academic new architects and planners to new architects and é and presumptuous notion that otional factors.” However, theotional factors.” University Press. ng the reform of the training forng the reform of For two days in March 1947, days in March For two rnist architects 22 , 9(2): 229-230. 229-230. 9(2): ,

have shifted his political thoughts from have shifted his political thoughts 23 in Taliesin, the Chicago Housing Authority, in Taliesin, the Chicago Housing David mentioned letter, Liang In the same and inspiring ideas. He and inspiring ideas. Functional” designed to connect four major Functional” designed to connect four major , a book discussing a new kind of democracy , a book discussing a new kind of lise and elevate the living standard of thelise and elevate the living standard y (TVA). Liang “I wish and wrote to Stein, 24 s examined the past and future of architecture architecture the past and future of s examined s the 1943 edition prepared by Le Corbusier. prepared edition the 1943 s ng co-signed a letter to the United Nations to the United Nations a letter ng co-signed went home, he was probably the only Chinese he was probably went home, ured a debate between ured a debate between s Physical Environment, se Physical s pioneering ideas in arch s thoughts about planning was the Princeton was the Princeton about planning s thoughts ng Sicheng visited dam projects and the housing projects and ng Sicheng visited dam 5, 1947, Stein Papers, Container 15, File Unit 26. 26. Unit File 15, Container Papers, Stein 1947, 5, . Princeton: Princeton Princeton . Princeton:

and Baldwin Hills in Los Angeles. College Art Art Journal College ntator criticised the naivet transportation, and recreation. ngle type of urban housing, a the physical environment, whic the physical environment, planning of modern cities. The letter stated the importance of the importance of stated letter

encing various types of planning tion of “social, economic and em economic tion of “social, and Cultural Organisation proposi and Cultural Organisation was a proclamation drafted by mode was a proclamation T.V.A.: Democracy on the March on T.V.A.: Democracy Building for Modern Man: A SymposiumBuilding for ModernA Man: Athens Charter Baldwin Hills was one of Clarence Stein’s housing projects. Baldwin Hills was one of Clarence Stein’s 1949. July Stein,” Clarence “letter to Sicheng, Liang WWII. during experts planning and housing prominent of domicile was the Authority Housing Chicago The Fordetails theof the Conferenceon Planning Man’ Carroll Meeks. 1949/50 “Book Review,” the Illinois Institute of Technology the Illinois Institute of Technology under a unified regional government and might and might under a unified regional government Eero at and his son Saarinen Eliel Michigan, of visited University He then left. to the neutral of Art, Frank Lloyd Wright Cranbrook Academy 24 25 22 23 E. Lilienthal’s E. Lilienthal’s were vital to Liang in experi he time By the and architectural philosophies. architect who had such extensive exposure to CIAM Athens Charter (1944 to 1951) The platitudes or guidelines for the zoning, segregated land use, a si development of the Tennessee Valley Authorit development Another event that shaped Liang Sicheng’ event that shaped Another Environment. Man’s Physical on Planning Conference and writer planners scholars, architects, leading last dinner of the event feat and planning. The of diverse was bombarded Robert Moses. Liang This architects and planners. interrela understand the on an ultimate they failed to agree participants because most conference disappointed architectural philosophy. A comme society. of changes in designers being the stewards China, Lia In July 1947, on his way back to project materia hope that the Yangtze Valley in China”. Chinese. We need hundreds of TVA wa authoritative version conference. The most The conference explored the concept of “City activities: dwelling, work, human

the concept of holistic design of the concept of holistic the conference, Lia During draft curriculum. Educational, Scientific

73 Planning & Development the can beexamined.Givenhishuman appealing becausethey areeasy toagree in theory high-rise development exemplified intheRadi housing modelled ongarden cities,whichwasverydifferentfromtheregimented and However, Liang’svisionofanidealne caveats, suchasassertingthatthesesdoc denounced, sohetookarisk 28 27 26 Greater LondonPlanpreparationandwasfamili the London. the UniversityofLiverpoolandbrieflystudying war, ChenspenteightyearsinEngland,comple planning team.ChenwasChina’sfirstEnglish- In 1949,Liangnominated ateam ofChineseexpe Chen Zhanxiang:ACollaborator(1949to1951) urban problems. of the1951edition,Lia 1948 articleandlaterformed ateam totranslate Like many others,Liang wasattractedtothe 1956. questioned theseplatitudesandtheirdisagreem transportation systems toconnectthes would beprovidedatthegroundlevelandth rooms, childcarecentresandother communal fac apartments wouldbeclusteredtocreate development wouldbebuiltin City”thatencapsulatedthesedoctrines.High-density announced theconceptofa“Radiant on technologytocontrolthephysicalandso transportation system. Theseplatitu Volume 19(no. 3 &4) of the The University of Liverpool’s civic design program was established in 1909 by Patrick Abercrombie and Liang first mentioned the Architecture in China” ibid. 27-28. ibid. 27-28. inChina” Architecture “Chinese Architectural Theories” countries. was the first inEnglish-speaking ofthe kind 會 City Planning Charter Town PlanningReview . In the 1951 Chinese edition, the title of the the the titleof edition, Chinese the 1951 . In 27 Chenhadpublished“Some AncientChin . 《城市計劃大綱》 26 At thattime, hehadbeencriticised andthe ng statedthatthe Charter andarticlesonChinesearchitecture. Town Planning Review

. in his 1948 article: 1948 his in to advocatethesenon-socialist Architectural Review accordance ofarigidlayout.Th istic inclination,Liangprobab des reflectedanoptimistic versionofurbanism thatrelied a neighbourhoodequippedwithcafeterias,laundry e neighbourhoods.Overtime, CIAM members Charter Athens ighbourhood waslow-rise trines workedonlyunde Charter ant City.Grandioseproclamations arealways , page 160-3 in 1947. See also Charles Chen. 1947. 1947. Chen. See also Charles in 1947. 160-3 , page ting theundergraduateandmasters degreesat

《北平文物必須整理與保存》北平文物整理委員 trained professional planner. Because ofthe Charter ent finally ledtothecollapse of CIAMin e citywouldrelyonfreeways andpublic withPatrickAbercrombie atUniversityof the entireworkintoCh cial environment. In1935,LeCorbusier , July,, “Recentibid. 26-27; 19-25;“FengShui” rts includingChenZha ilities. Large areaof open spaceand plazas before their specific, practical implications ’s doctrineswerewe ar withtheEnglishnewtownplans.In ese ConceptsofTownandCountry”in ’s doctrines.Hefirs was changed to changed was ideas. Thusheaddedseveral 28 e steel and glass skyscraper e steelandglassskyscraper ly wouldnottotallyendorse Healsoparticipated inthe Liang-Chen Proposal TheGeneral Principles of ll-thought solutionsto r asocialistsystem. and medium-density nxiang, tothecapital inese. Inthepreface t quoted them ina was Sidney WONG – Background and Influences on Liang Sicheng’s Planning Thoughts 74

29 was a Rebuilding the e Soviet proposal to e Soviet proposal storical city because because storical city ng and validated his ewpoints on historic lopment. In late 1949, In late lopment. the Soviet Union were professionals were pushed pushed were professionals nderstanding,” one could anners treasured cultural Liang-Chen Proposal Liang-Chen Proposal nature and Voronin showed ese planners. These Soviet ese planners. These ularly quoted, “planning must ularly quoted, “planning must y chapter on planning actually ss of historical relics. Through prepared a counterproposal, even prepared a counterproposal, their efforts were futile because the new their efforts were futile because eared to use Soviet authority to criticise eared to use Soviet authority to dable for the new capital to accommodatedable for the new Voronin’s claim that “town-planning is the Voronin’s claim , quotations from 26. Liang used similar quotes quotes similar used Liang 26. from , quotations consistent with his vi were concerned with th were concerned the rigid ideas of the foreign “experts”. the rigid ideas of the foreign een poisoned by two toxins in architecture …. and …. architecture by two toxins in een poisoned to regulate frenzy deve to regulate its location within the hi its location within makers and explain the merits of rational of merits and explain the makers itative institutions,” was an approach planners planners was an approach itative institutions,” am. However, from the beginning, the Beijing Beijing the the beginning, from am. However, itects and engineers in engineers in itects and the government. He hadgovernment. the to addself-abasing comments the western-trained Chinese the western-trained mined planning standards. Thus, Liang found it planning mined conducted regional planni

ead the “Translators’ U ral invaders of capitalism and imperialism.” and imperialism.” of capitalism ral invaders to highlight how Soviet pl of planning Liang and Chen envisioned. of planning Liang and Chen envisioned. For example, Liang partic Liang example, For mediocre and descriptive in mediocre rsed the Soviet proposal. The rsed the Soviet proposal.

30 theories and methods. The onl theories and methods. 31 ved and sidestepped the Chin ved and sidestepped

location and congestion, and the lo location and congestion, and the Rebuilding the Liberated Areas e old capital. In February 1950, they e old capital. In from Voronin in other in articles too. Voronin from aside. However, these “experts” knew very little about China. very little about knew “experts” these However, aside. Soviet “experts” took the supreme role. As a result, a result, role. As supreme took the Soviet “experts” in the “Translator’s Understanding” such as “we had b had “we as such Understanding” “Translator’s the in cultu of the the accomplices became unconsciously Nicholai Voronin.1943. Voronin.1943. Nicholai In 1949, the new regime announced a policy called “One-Sided toward the Soviet Union” under which which under Union” Soviet the toward “One-Sided called policy a announced regime new the 1949, In By 1951, Laing had to be very careful in criticising preservation. The purpose of citing Voronin app redevelopment. chaotic Beijing’s continuity. But Voronin’s book is continuity. But Voronin’s book little understanding of planning construction. covered slum clearance and housing the most author architects of of groups work of in the west no longer held. If one carefully r find that Liang cherry-picked those principles 31 29 30 stuck with mechanical application of predeter stuck with mechanical western thinking with his to integrate difficult and aesthetic and the cultural the inhabitants of the customs consideration into also take people.” of the Soviet demands After Stalin persecuted the intellectuals, arch persecuted the intellectuals, After Stalin mid-1949, Chen joined the capital planning te the capital planning joined Chen mid-1949, the authority lacked Commission City Planning already endo after the government Voronin’s Liang translated in Beijing, demolition massive Trying to prevent

a Soviet planning team arri a Soviet planning familiar were not and they and traditional architects, engineers as were trained “planners” Chen and Liang city planning. with the modern of th clear the centre desperate attempt to reason with the decision to reason with desperate attempt a new town was unavoi knew that planning. They against argued growth; but they the anticipated with re of the problems planners Chen, Liang learned how English idea of self-sufficient neighbourhoods. However, idea of self-sufficient neighbourhoods. not interested in the kind was regime to 1951) Questionable Soviet Influence (1950 Liberated Areas of the Soviet Union Liberated Areas

75 Planning & Development 32 functional zones. imagined andhuman needsandeconomic necessities alwaysbreakdown thedeterministic multidisciplinary practice. After all, cities havenevergrown asSaarinenmight have denied him achancetoseehow wester a theoreticalframework tointegratehispl writings. Unfortunately,thepoliti planning system, whichhe working insatisfaction.”Hisessentialplanning when heincludedasocialisttouchandadded congestion, andinner-citydecay.Hisplanning He joined mosturban commentators in such anarrangement wouldbe possible inabig ideal citywas aconglomerate ofthesereside liked Radburn’sdesignandadmi To theend,hewasafollowerof planning ideas. systematic viewpoint. Afterthat,hewasde publications arethe1949“D appropriate totheuniqueChinesecircumstan understood thelimitations of theseworks,orhemay havesimply chosenwhat he found and theCIAM promulgated adogmatic versi planning. Saarinenwasavisionarywithoutprac thoughts –Saarinen,Voronin andCIAM–unfort general conceptsrather chance toknowthatplannersdiscardedthis architecture. Hethoughtthatplanningwasanex not awarethatthe dissimilar tothatoftheRadiantCity.Hetook form Saarinenadvocated. differently andLiang’sbrandof“organicdece different connotations.Forexample, Lianga with varioussourcesandinfluences.Liang This articlehaspresentedan 4. Conclusion At that Attime Lianghad been undertremendous pressureto denounce his professionaltraining. He started criticising his western, capitalistic a capitalistic western, his criticising 32 Butevenby1949,hisplanningthoughtshavenotbeenfully developed.

Charter thanonstrongtheoreticalunder firstproposedinthe While Liangendorsedthe overview ofLiangSicheng’spla raft Program” andthe wasinconsistentwithhishumanistic andcultural-oriented

nd imperialistic architectural ideas. ideas. imperialistic architectural nd red similar walkableandself-contained neighbourhoods.His cal persecutionheexperienced the gardencitymoveme condemning formless sprawl,overcrowdingand anning thoughts.Theisolationfrom theworld view.Hisplanningthoughtsseem tobuildon might haveborrowedaterm itunder butuse n planningevolvedfr the Chineseelement of“livinginharmonyand ntial districts,thoughhe prived of the opportunities to advance his prived oftheopportunitiestoadvancehis Tianjin Plan tools includedtheAmer on ofplanning.Liang tical suggestions,Voroninwasnotaplanner, thoughts werealwayswestern-oriented even tension ofarchitecturebuthedidnothavea ntralisation” differedfrom themore brutal nd Saarinen viewed “social order” quite nd Saarinenviewed“socialorder”quite city without effective controlof dailylives. ces. Inthis light, Li Athens Charter Liang-Chen Proposal unately werenotthestate-of-the-artin Athens Charter nt, atleastthe pinnings. Threeinfluencesonhis andrecommended againinother nning ideasandconnectedthem did notallowhim todevelop atfacevalueandappeared om design toward a om designtowarda didnotexplorehow ican zoningandlocal ang’s bestplanning , his vision of was , hisvisionofwas may nothavefully whereheoffered a abstract level. He abstract level.He