NATIONAL MOVEMENT IN INDIA
SUBJECT CODE : 18BPA66S
PREPARED BY : Dr.R.Anitha Guest lecturer
DEPARTMENT : PG and Research Department Of Public Administration
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Material prepared according to textbook and reference books given in the syllabus.
SYLLABUS Home Rule League Movement The radical congressmen of Extremist stream, especially B.G. Tilak led a militant public agitation for immediate home-rule and saw nationhood as an expression of collective moral, spiritual and racial essence. The Home Rule league demanded self-government based on the Irish model. Annie Besant and Tilak started this movement. The Home Rule movement had a simple goal of promoting Home Rule for India and an educative programme to arouse in the Indian masses a sense of pride in the Motherland. Tilak made a tour of the country in 1916 and in his speeches he said, "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
Causes for the establishment of Home Rule League
Great national awakening of the Indian people, of their rising political consciousness and increasing critical attitude to the measures of the British government especially in the spheres of politics, economic policy and education. The demands of the nationalist leaders were not satisfied by the Government of India Act (1909). There was an atmosphere of resentment against British rule due to the Ghadar Mutiny and its suppression. Due to the involvement in the First World War, people in India were quite unhappy. Further Indian Soldiers were fighting along with British against the Ottoman Empire and Indian Muslim saw the Sultan as the Caliph of Islam and fighting against him displeased them. In 1916 during the Lucknow session of Congress extremists and moderates were reunited. INC and Muslim League were also united in 1916 at Lucknow.
Home Rule League of Tilak
Tilak was released in 1914. Tilak was readmitted to Congress in 1915 due to Besant's intervention, but they failed to reactivate the party out of its almost decade-long inertia. Therefore, Tilak started his Indian Home Rule League in April 1916. Headquarters of Tilak's Home Rule League was at Poona. Activities of Tilak's home rule league were confined to Bombay Presidency (excluding Bombay City), Central province, Karnataka, Berar only. Tilak preached the idea of Home Rule through his two newspapers Maratha and Kesari. Tilak also linked the idea of Swaraj with the demand of Education in Vernacular Language and formation of Linguistic States.
Indian Home Rule League of Annie Besant
Annie Besant was one of the revolutionary politicians of the national movement. She was one of the leaders of the Theosophical movement and worked for India's social, educational and religious regeneration. She was disillusioned with the tone of the moderates. Annie Besant later threw herself into the work of social reform and politics.
Page 1 of 18 She formed another Home Rule League (Other than the Tilak one) a few months later in September 1916. Besant popularized this movement in the rest of India except the area covered by Tilak's Home Rule League. A weekly newspaper Commonweal was founded by Annie Besant in January 1914 and in June 1914, she purchased the Madras Standard and renamed it New India, these two newspapers played a major role in propagating the ideology of Home Rule League.
Working Method of Home Rule League
Leaders of the Home Rule Movement followed constitutional means to achieve their aim. Leaders avoided violent and revolutionary methods as they did not want to embarrass the British Government during the first world war.
Importance of Home Rule League
It helped in the organization of Congress when its importance was declining. It popularised concept of Self Rule which was even followed by the upcoming generation of Nationalists like Gandhi. It played a major role in influencing Montagu Statement of August 2017 and the Montague- Chlemsford Reforms. Many British members also supported the demand for Home Rule to the Indians.
Response of Moderates towards the League
Many 'moderate' leaders like Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das came out in support of Home Rule.
Response of British towards the league
Repressive measures followed. The Government made use of Defence of India Act, 1915 to curb the activities of the agitators. Students were prohibited from attending Home Rule meetings. Tilak was prosecuted and his entry in Punjab and Delhi was banned. Indian Press Act of 1910 was imposed on the press and restrictions were enforced.
What led to the decline of the Home Rule League
Montague statement of 1917 mentioned that aim of British Policy in India is progressive self Government, which led many nationalist including Gandhiji to have belief in it and thus efforts in support of war led to decline of the League. League was left leaderless due to arrest of Annie Basent and leaving of Tilak to England for a matter related to a defamation case.
Page 2 of 18 The All India Home Rule League finally merged into the Indian National Congress and before its merger it also elected Gandhi Ji as its President.
Government of India Act, 1919
Montague-Chalmers Reforms and Government of India Act, 1919
Background:
On December 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League for the first time drew up a common constitutional programme at Lucknow. The beginning of the Home Rule agitation and the internment of its leader Annie Besant in April 1917 further radicalised Indian politics. Lord Chelmsford's administration had already allowed a number of concessions to nationalist demands, such as customs duty on cotton imports without a countervailing excise duty, ban on labour emigration etc. Montagu took over as the Secretary of State for India in July 1917, described as "the most liberal Secretary of State since Ripon". Montagu made a historic declaration that British policy in India would have an overall objective of "gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire". The Montford (Montague-Chelmsford) commission submitted its report in 1918. It professed to pave way for self-government in India. however, it also aimed at appeasing Indians to persuade to support British during First World War (1914-18).
Provisions of the Government of India Act of 1919:
Provincial Diarchy (Dual Rule) – The Act provided a dual form of government (a ‘diarchy’) for the major provinces. It relaxed control over provinces by demarcating subjects as ‘central subjects’ and ‘provincial subjects’. Provincial subjects were further divided as – Reserved Subjects – Administered by the governor with the help of his ‘Executive Council’. The 'reserved list' included Defence (the military), Foreign Affairs, and Communications. Transferred Subjects – Administered by Governor with the aid of ‘Ministers’ responsible for ‘Provincial Legislative Council’. The 'transferred list' included Agriculture, supervision of local government, Health and Education.
Page 3 of 18 This dual system of government was known as ‘Diarchy’. This new system, however, failed to gain popular acceptance and Simon Commission recommended that Diarchy should be done away with and 1935 Act did the same. For the first time introduced ‘Direct Elections’ and limited franchise was granted on the basis of tax paid, education, property etc. in the country. The electorates were considerably enlarged to 5.5 million for the provinces and 1.5 million for the imperial legislature. A bicameral system at centre (the Central Legislature would comprise two chambers – the Council of State and the Indian Legislative Assembly) was introduced and majority members of both the houses in this bicameral system were directly chosen.
Establishment of unicameral Provincial Legislative Councils.
The Central Legislature was empowered to enact laws on any matter for the whole of India. Separate Electoral provision of Morley Minto was retained and extended to the Muslims, Sikh Seats were reserved for the non-Brahmans in Madras and the 'depressed classes' were offered nominated seats in the legislatures at all l The revenue resources were divided between the centre and the provinces, with land revenue going to the provinces, and income tax remaining with the centre. The Governor-General was given powers to summon, prorogue, dissolve the Chambers, and to promulgate ordinances. Thus, despite reserved and transferred list, governor-general decision was final. The number of Indians in Viceroy's Executive Council was increased to three out of eight members. The number was increased. however, the council still remained at best an advisory body and no real power conferred.
Significance of the reform of 1919:
It established parliamentary democracy in India and beginning of the process of decolonisation". For the first time government showed its intention of gradual introduction of responsible government in India. The structure of this Act also allowed Britain to use the Princely States (who were directly represented in the Council of States) to offset the growing power of the native political parties. One important significance of the reforms was that demand by nationalists for self-government or Home Rule couldn’t be termed as seditious since the attainment of self-government for Indians now officially became a government policy which was indicated in August Declaration of Montague.
Establishment of Indian National Congress
Page 4 of 18 First Phase of Indian Nationalism (1885- 1915)
This phase was dominated by moderates. This phase was initially called as the ‘Early Nationalist’ phase, however, with the rise of extremism in the closing stages of the 19th Century, this phase was described as the ‘age of moderates’. Establishment of Indian National Congress (INC): a) The INC was established in 1885, by A.O. Hume, a retired civil servant who was staying in Shimla post-retirement. b) He invited many Indian leaders regarding the Indian cause, and he laid the foundation of the ‘Indian National Union’. c) But, after the suggestion of Dadabhai Naoroji, its name was changed to ‘Indian National Congress’. The word ‘Congress’ was taken from the American Constitution.
the real reason for the establishment of the Indian National Congress
There are two broad theories behind this: a) Mythical Theory: This suggested that it was the humanistic approach of A.O. Hume that was cited as one of the factors that led to the establishment of the INC. In fact, it was said that Hume was deeply moved by the political plight of the Indians, and he wanted to establish a political platform for Indians that could serve as the ‘voice for Indians’ so that the grievances could reach the British and the discontentment which was gradually growing between the British ruling system and the Indians could be minimized.
The biographer of A.O. Hume, William Wedderburn, who later on also became the President of the INC as well, deeply believed in the humanistic approach of A.O. Hume. b) Realistic Theory:
The extremist elements in India like Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, etc. laid down the theory known as ‘Safety- valve’ theory. Lala Lajpat Rai wrote two books, ‘Unhappy India’, and ‘Punjabi’. In these two books, he explained and criticized the policy of the British regarding the establishment of the INC. According to him, it was a conspiracy of Lord Dufferin, and A.O. Hume, that lead to the establishment of the INC. In the second half of the 19th Century with the growing tide of nationalism, the aggression of Indians kept on increasing against the British policies, thus the British think-tanks derived a concept by which it was said that in between the British Government in India and the Indian public, there would be a buffer organization known as the Indian National Congress (INC). Thus the INC would work as a buffer organization, or in other words, it would work as a safety- valve. The safety-valve theory got a strong momentum in the political circles of India. But, on the basis of modern analysis, the INC was a result of many a regional consciousness uniting together under the context of commonality of interests. In fact, with the beginning of
Page 5 of 18 the 19th Century itself, there were many cultural organizations which were established by social reformers. And cultural organizations always lead to political and social awareness. Thus, in this regard, we find that immediately after the socio-cultural movement in India (i.e. 19th-century renaissance), we find various political organizations being established like: The Landholders Society, which was established by Dwarakanath Tagore. This was also known as Zamindar Sabha. There were many other organizations like, East India Association, Bengal British East India Association, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, and the Indian League, established by Sisir Kumar Ghosh. main objective of the Indian National Congress
To promote the nation-building process in India in order to create a national identity of being an Indian among the people and to promote National Unity. To provide for an all India political platform which will allow political workers from all over the country to educate and mobilize masses under a common all India political organization. To promote political consciousness and political awakening among the educated citizens and then to all the sections of the society. To promote other things in the country like-political liberal democracy, democratic culture, anti- colonial ideology among the people.
GANDHI - short notes
Early Life
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat. His father was the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar; his deeply religious mother was a devoted practitioner of Vaishnavism (worship of the Hindu god Vishnu), influenced by Jainism, an ascetic religion governed by tenets of self-discipline and nonviolence. At the age of 19, Mohandas left home to study law in London at the Inner Temple, one of the city’s four law colleges. Upon returning to India in mid-1891, he set up a law practice in Bombay, but met with little success. He soon accepted a position with an Indian firm that sent him to its office in South Africa. Along with his wife, Kasturbai, and their children, Gandhi remained in South Africa for nearly 20 years. Gandhi was appalled by the discrimination he experienced as an Indian immigrant in South Africa. When a European magistrate in Durban asked him to take off his turban, he refused and left the courtroom. On a train voyage to Pretoria, he was thrown out of a first-class railway compartment and beaten up by a white stagecoach driver after refusing to give up his seat for a European passenger. That train journey served as a turning point for Gandhi, and he soon began developing and teaching the concept of satyagraha (“truth and firmness”), or passive resistance, as a way of non-cooperation with authorities.
Page 6 of 18 The Birth of Passive Resistance
In 1906, after the Transvaal government passed an ordinance regarding the registration of its Indian population, Gandhi led a campaign of civil disobedience that would last for the next eight years. During its final phase in 1913, hundreds of Indians living in South Africa, including women, went to jail, and thousands of striking Indian miners were imprisoned, flogged and even shot. Finally, under pressure from the British and Indian governments, the government of South Africa accepted a compromise negotiated by Gandhi and General Jan Christian Smuts, which included important concessions such as the recognition of Indian marriages and the abolition of the existing poll tax for Indians. In July 1914, Gandhi left South Africa to return to India. He supported the British war effort in World War I but remained critical of colonial authorities for measures he felt were unjust. In 1919, Gandhi launched an organized campaign of passive resistance in response to Parliament’s passage of the Rowlatt Acts, which gave colonial authorities emergency powers to suppress subversive activities. He backed off after violence broke out–including the massacre by British- led soldiers of some 400 Indians attending a meeting at Amritsar–but only temporarily, and by 1920 he was the most visible figure in the movement for Indian independence.
Mahatma Gandhi: Major Movements that helped in Indian Freedom Struggle
Champaran Satyagraha (1917): In Champaran district of Bihar the condition of Indigo cultivators became miserable under Tinkathiya system. Under this system the cultivators were forced to cultivate Indigo on the best 3/20th part of their land and were forced to sell them at a cheaper price. The situation for the farmers became worse due to harsh weather conditions and levy of heavy taxes. Then, Rajkumar Shukla met Mahatma Gandhi at Lucknow and invited him.
At Champaran, Mahatma Gandhi adopted the approach of civil disobedience movement and launched demonstrations and strikes against the landlords. As a result, the government set up a Champaran agrarian committee of which Gandhi ji was also one of the members. All the demands of the cultivators were accepted and the Satyagraha was successful.
Kheda Satyagraha (1917 -1918): A no-tax campaign was started by Mohan Lal Pandey in 1917 who demanded the remission of taxes due to poor harvest or crop failure in Kheda village, Gujarat. Mahatma Gandhi was invited and he joined the movement on 22 March, 1918. There, he started Satyagraha. The movement was also joined by Vallabhbhai Patel and Indulal Yagnik. Finally, the demands were fulfilled by the British government and it was successful.
Khilafat Movement (1919): Khilafat movement was started by the Ali brothers to show the protest against unjust done with the Turkey after the First World War. Under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi the movement was launched against the British government to restore the collapsing status of the Caliph in Turkey. All India Conference was held in Delhi where Mahatma Gandhi was elected as a president. He also returned the medals received from the British Empire in South Africa. The success of the Khilafat movement made him the national leader.
Page 7 of 18 Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Non-Cooperation movement was launched in 1920 by Mahatma Gandhi due to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. Mahatma Gandhi thought that this will continue and Britishers will enjoy their control over Indians. With the help of Congress, Gandhi ji convinced people for starting non-cooperation movement in a peaceful way which is key factor to attain independence. He framed the concept of Swaraj and it became a crucial element in the Indian freedom struggle. The movement gained momentum and people started boycotting the products and establishments of British government like schools, colleges, government offices. But due to Chauri Chaura incident, Mahatma Gandhi ended the movement because in this incident 23 police officials were killed.
Civil-Disobedience Movement (1930): Mahatma Gandhi in March 1930 addressed the nation in a newspaper, Young India and expressed his willingness to suspend the movement if his eleven demands get accepted by the government. But the government at that time was of Lord Irwin and he did not respond back to him. As a result, Mahatma Gandhi initiated the movement with full vigour.
He started the movement with Dandi March from 12 March to 6 April, 1930. Mahatma Gandhi along with his followers marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi in Nausari District, Ahmedabad on the sea coast and broke the salt law by making salt on 6 April, 1930.
Under this movement student left college and government servant resigned from the office. Boycott foreign clothes, communal burning of foreign clothes, non-payment of government taxes, women stage Dharna at the government liquor shop etc. In 1930, the Lord Irwin's Government called for a Round Table Conference in London and Indian National Conference refused to take part in it. So, to make sure that Congress participates in conference he signed a pact with Mahatma Gandhi in 1931. It was known as Gandhi-Irwin Pact. It focuses on the release of all the political prisoners and cancellation of the oppressive laws.
Quit India Movement (1942): Mahatma Gandhi launches Quit India movement on 8 August, 1942 during Second World War to drive British rule out of India. In the movement Mahatma Gandhi delivered 'Do or Die' speech. As a result the entire members of Indian National Congress were arrested by the British officials and imprisoned them without trial. But the protest continued across the nation. By the end of World War II, British government cleared that they will hand over the powers to India. Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement which results in the release of thousands of prisoners.
Therefore, these are the major movements that led by Mahatma Gandhi and helped India in attaining freedom from the British rule or colonial rule. Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British government to increase their grip on power over the common folk. This law was passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council which gave them the power to arrest any person without any trial. To abolish this act, Gandhi and the other leaders called for a Hartal (suspension of work) to show Indians’ objection with this rule.
Page 8 of 18 The Jallianwala Bagh massacre or the Amritsar Massacre took place when many villagers gathered in the park for the celebration of Baisakhi. The gatherers wanted to also peacefully protest the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
What is the Rowlatt Act?
The basic facts about the act and its significance are given below:
Officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919. Passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council. This act authorised the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities. It also authorised the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial. It empowered the police to search for a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press. The act was passed as per recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee chaired by a judge, Sir Sidney Rowlatt, after whom the act is named. The act was widely condemned by Indian leaders and the public. The bills came to be known as ‘black bills’. The act was passed despite unanimous opposition from the Indian members of the council, all of whom resigned in protest. These included Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malviya and Mazhar Ul Haq. In response to this act, a nationwide hartal was called by Gandhiji on 6th April. This was called the Rowlatt Satyagraha. The movement was cancelled by Gandhiji when it was marred by rioting in some provinces, particularly in Punjab where the situation was grim. The British government’s primary intention was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country. The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country. Two popular Congress leaders Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested. The protest was very intense when the act came into effect and the army was called in Punjab to tackle the situation.
What is the story of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?
The situation in Punjab was alarming as there were riots and protests against the Rowlatt Act. Punjab was put under martial law which meant that it became unlawful for more than 4 people to assemble at a place. The Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab at that time was Michael O’Dwyer. Lord Chelmsford was India’s Viceroy.
Page 9 of 18 On the day of the festival of Baisakhi on 13th April 1919 in Jallianwala Bagh, a public garden in Amritsar, a crowd of non-violent protestors had gathered. Also among the crowd were pilgrims who had come to celebrate Baisakhi. General Dyer came there with his troops and blocked the only narrow entrance to the garden. Then, without warning, he ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well. The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes until the 1650 rounds of ammunition were exhausted. This resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people. This tragedy came as a rude shock to Indians and totally destroyed their faith in the British system of justice. National leaders condemned the act and Dyer unequivocally. However, Dyer was appreciated by many in Britain and the British in India although some people in the British government were quick to criticise it. Those who criticised his actions included Winston Churchill and former Prime Minister H.H Ashquith The government set up the Hunter Commission to inquire into the massacre. Although the commission condemned the act by Dyer, it did not impose any disciplinary action against him. He was relieved of his duties in the army in 1920. In protest against the massacre and the British failure to give due justice to the victims, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood and Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa. Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Brigadier-General Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre. Udham Singh is believed to have witnessed the massacre as a child.
Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat Movement, which began in 1919, brought the Muslims and the Hindus on a common platform against the British rule, was the most important cause of the Non - Cooperation Movement.
Khilafat Movement in India
Turkey had aligned itself in the First World War with Germany - led Axis powers that were defeated by Great Britain - led Allied powers. The political - conscious Muslims were critical of British and their allies treatment of the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire that had divided it and properly removed Thrace from Turkey.
Page 10 of 18 The Muslims also regarded the Sultan of Turkey as the Caliph or the religious head of the Muslims and they strongly felt that his position over the Muslim religious places should not be undermined. Under the leadership of the Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani, and countrywide Khilafat agitation, a Khilafat Committee was soon formed. The All - India Khilafat Conference held in November 1919 in Delhi decided to withdraw all government cooperation if the government did not meet its demands. Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat agitation as "an opportunity not to unite Hindus and Muslims in a hundred years time."Also, the Muslims League gave full support to the National Congress and its political agitation. In early 1920, Gandhi declared that the Khilafat question overshadowed the constitutional reforms and the Jallianwala massacre and announced that he would lead a non - cooperation movement if the terms of peace with Turkey did not satisfy the Indian Muslims.
Who were the Leaders of the Khilafat Movement?
The Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani were the leaders of the Khilafat Movement. Mahatma Gandhi later also became one of the leaders of the Khilafat Movement in India by strongly advocating the Khilafat cause.
non-cooperation movement
The non-cooperation movement was launched on 5th September 1920 by the Indian National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. In September 1920, in Congress session in Calcutta, the party introduced the Non-Cooperation programme
Non-Cooperation Movement and Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind the non-cooperation movement. In March 1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a doctrine of the non-violent non-cooperation movement. Gandhi, through this manifesto, wanted people to:
Adopt swadeshi principles Adopt swadeshi habits including hand spinning & weaving Work for the eradication of untouchability from society Gandhi travelled across the nation in 1921 explaining the tenets of the movement.
Features of the Non-Cooperation Movement
Page 11 of 18 The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-violent protest against the British government in India. Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from nominated seats in the local bodies as a mark of protest. People were asked to resign from their government jobs. People were asked to withdraw their children from government-controlled or aided schools and colleges. People were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made goods. People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative councils. People were asked not to serve in the British army. It was also planned that if the above steps did not bring results, people would refuse to pay their taxes. The INC also demanded Swarajya or self-government. Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the demands fulfilled. The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence movement because, for the first time, the INC was ready to forego constitutional means to achieve self-rule. Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was continued to completion.
Causes of Non-Cooperation Movement
Resentment at the British after the war: Indians thought that in return for the extensive support of manpower and resources they had provided to Britain during the First World War, they would be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the Government of India Act 1919 was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive acts like the Rowlatt Act which further angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their wartime support. Home Rule Movement: The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak set the stage for the non-cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the INC were united and the Lucknow Pact also saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The return of the extremists gave the INC a militant character. Economic hardships due to World War I: India’s participation in the war caused a lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods began to soar which affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government. The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre: The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on the Indian leaders and the people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken and the whole country rallied behind its leaders who were pitching for a more aggressive and firm stance against the government. The Khilafat Movement: During the First World War, Turkey, which was one of the Central Powers, had fought against the British. After Turkey’s defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was
Page 12 of 18 proposed to be dissolved. Muslims regarded Sultan of Turkey as their Caliph (religious head of the Muslims). The Khilafat movement was launched under the leadership of Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammed Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali), Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani. It got the support from Mahatma Gandhi to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate. The leaders of this movement accepted the non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint protest against the British.
Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement suspended?
Gandhiji called off the movement in February 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident. In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen during a clash between the police and protesters of the movement. Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the government through ahimsa. Several leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.
Significance of Non-Cooperation Movement
Swaraj was not achieved in one year as Gandhiji had told. However, it was a truly mass movement where lakhs of Indians participated in the open protest against the government through peaceful means. It shook the British government who were stumped by the extent of the movement. It saw participation from both Hindus and Muslims thereby showcasing communal harmony in the country. This movement established the popularity of the Congress Party among the people. As a result of this movement, people became conscious of their political rights. They were not afraid of the government. Hordes of people thronged to jails willingly. The Indian merchants and mill owners enjoyed good profits during this period as a result of the boycott of British goods. Khadi was promoted. The import of sugar from Britain reduced considerably during this period. This movement also established Gandhiji as a leader of the masses.
Simon Commission
The Simon Commission was a group of 7 MPs from Britain who were sent to India in 1928 to study constitutional reforms and make recommendations to the government. The Commission was originally named the Indian Statutory Commission. It came to be known as the Simon Commission after its chairman Sir John Simon.
Page 13 of 18 Simon Commission – Background
It was Government of India Act 1919 that announced that in 10 years from 1919, a royal commission will be set up to report on the working of the act. Read the points below to understand the background of the Simon Commission:
Diarchy was introduced in India by the Government of India Act 1919. The Act also promised that a commission would be appointed after 10 years to review the working and progress made on the measures taken through the Act. The Indian people and leaders wanted a reform of the diarchy form of government. The Conservative Party-led government in the UK feared a defeat at the hands of the Labour Party in the elections due, and so hastened the appointment of a commission in 1928, even though it was due only in 1929 as per the 1919 Act. The Commission was composed entirely of British members with not a single Indian member being included in it. This was seen as an insult to Indians who were right in saying that their destiny could not be determined by a handful of British people. The Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead had berated Indians on account of their perceived inability to formulate a concrete scheme of reforms through consensus among all sections of the Indian political scene. Lord Birkenhead was responsible for setting up the Commission. Clement Atlee was a member of the Commission. He would later become Britain’s Prime Minister during Indian independence and partition in 1947.
Why was Simon Commission boycotted?
Indian Response:
Indians were outraged at their exclusion from the Commission. The Congress Party decided to boycott the Commission at their session at Madras in 1927. The Muslim League led by M A Jinnah also boycotted it. A certain section of members led by Muhammad Shafi supported the government. The Justice Party in the South decided to side with the government on this issue. When the Commission landed in February 1928, there were mass protests, hartals and black flag demonstrations all over the country. People were chanting the slogan, ‘Simon Go Back.’ The police resorted to lathi charges to suppress the movement. Even senior leaders like Pandit Nehru were not spared. In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai, who was leading the demonstration against the Simon Commission, was brutally lathi-charged. He died later that year due to injuries sustained then.
Page 14 of 18 Dr B R Ambedkar had submitted a report on behalf of the Bahishkrita Hitakarini Sabha on the education of the depressed classes in the Bombay Presidency.
Impact of the Simon Commission
The Commission’s report was published in 1930. Before the publication, the government assured that henceforth, Indian opinion would be considered and that the natural outcome of constitutional reforms would be dominion status for India. It recommended the abolition of diarchy and the setting-up of representative governments in the provinces. It also recommended the retention of separate communal electorates until the communal tensions had died down. The Simon Commission led to the Government of India Act 1935 which acted as the basis for many parts of the current Indian Constitution. The first provincial elections were held in 1937 and it saw Congress governments being set up in almost all the provinces. The arrival of the Commission gave an impetus to the Indian independence movement by galvanizing leaders and masses.
Civil Disobedience Movement, First Phase 1930
Pursuant to the resolution adopted by the Congress in 1928, Mahatma Gandhi began his famous Dandee march on March 12, 1930 with 79 male .and female satyagrahis to violate the salt law by manufacturing salt. Mahatma Gandhi with his followers covered 380 kilometers of road on foot in 24 days reaching Dandee on April 5. Next day (April 6, 1930) Mahatma Gandhi disobeyed the salt law by manufacturing salt from sea water. Salt was also manufactured by Congress satyagrahis, in Contain in Midapore and Mahishbathan in 24 parganas. Civil disobedience also included breaking of law under Sec. 144. Side by side with civil disobedience non-co-operation by way of boycotting British-made goods, picketing at the gates of schools and colleges, law courts etc. made the Congress movement a very wide and powerful one. Mahatma Gandhi now decided to occupy the salt factory and godown at Dharsana in Surat district. He gave notice to the governor general to abolish duty on salt and to permit the Indians to manufacture salt freely or else he would occupy Dharsana salt factory and godown. But before he started for Dharsana, he was put under arrest. Abbas Tyabji now took the leadership of salt satyagraha. He was also arrested. Next came Sarojini Naidu to lead the salt satyagraha. She started for Dharsana with 2500 satyagrahis for occupying the salt factory and godown at
Page 15 of 18 Dharsana. Attempts were also made for occupying the salt godown at Okhalda but the police severely beat off the satyagrahis and prevented them from occupying the salt factory and godown at Dharsana and the salt godown at Okhalda. Sarojini Niadu was arrested and jailed. When the civil disobedience and non-violent non-co-operation movement had acquired greater and greater momentum the government also increased the intensity of cruel repression of the satyagrahis. In Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Delhi, Midnapore and some other places male and female satyagrahis were subjected to inhuman torture. The Indian National Congress was declared illegal, and its leaders were put under arrest. Maulana Azad was imprisoned for encouraging the people in a meeting at Meerut to break the salt law. In North-West Frontier Province, the Afghan chief Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan was the leader of a party called Khodai Khidmatgar, i.e., servants of God, also called Red Shirts. He came under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi and joined Congress (1931). He became a firm believer in the principle of non-violence and the policy of non-co-operation of Gandhiji. Unusually strong physically the Ptahaus were never tired of violence. They were also intensely anti-British in feeling. But Abdul Gaffar Khan who had become a convert to non-violence led the intrepid Pathans into the ways of non-violence. Under his leadership non-violent non-co-operation and civil disobedience movement went on all through-out the North-Western Province. In Peshawar the government resorted to firing by the military in order to suppress the civil disobedience movement there. A large number of satyagrahis lost their lives and many were left wounded. Abdul Gaffar Khan’s deep sense of nationalism, his belief in principle of non-violence, and his great success in civil disobedience movement gave him a place of great honour in the minds of the Indians. The Indian lovingly gave him the name Frontier Gandhi. In Punjab when civil disobedience movement assumed a great force, the government’s repression exceeded all reasonable limits. Attempt on the life of the governor at Lahore made the government unleash a reign of terror all over Punjab. One special feature of the civil disobedience movement in Punjab was that the Muslims also took part in it. Apart from Punjab, civil disobedience movement acquired great strength in different towns of Bihar, Assam. Central Provinces, Gujarat, United Provinces and different other parts of India. In Patna, Bhagalpur, Monghyr etc. repression by the police and military exceeded all limits. In all parts of Bengal the disobedience movement spread like wild fire and government policy of inhuman torture also knew no bounds. It Midnapore the salt satyagrahis were fired upon, women satyagrahis were subjected to most uncivilized treatment. The residences of the satyagrahis were set ablaze. Midnapore’s contribution to the civil disobedience movement was greatest compared to that of any other single district in India, and naturally occupies a high position in the history of the Indian national movement. In the civil disobedience movement about 90 thousand satyagrahis were imprisoned. Among the leaders who were arrested and imprisoned mention may be made of Mahatma Gandhi, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, and his wife Kamala Nehru, Subhas Chandra Basu, Abul Kalam Azad. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Sarojini Naidu etc. In the meantime Sir John Simon had submitted his report (May, 1930) in which recommendations were made for the establishment of responsible government in India,
Page 16 of 18 extension of franchise, abolition of the system of nominating members to the legislatures. It was also recommended that the British government must retain control over the Central government and make efforts to establish a federal type of government in India in future. On the basis of this report and the announcement made by Lord Irwin earlier, the British government summoned a Round Table Conference in London in 1930. Congress had already decided not to participate in the Round Table Conference
First Round Table Conference
The Round Table Conferences were a series of three conferences conducted by the Labour Party-led British government to deliberate upon and bring about constitutional reforms in British India during 1930-32. There were three such conferences. The First Round Table Conference was held between November 1930 and January 1931 in London.
Background for the First Round Table Conference
There were increasing demands of granting dominion status to India among a certain section of the British polity. In India, the freedom movement was in full swing with its demand for swaraj or self-rule spearheaded by the charismatic Gandhi. The conferences were based on the recommendation of Muhammad Ali Jinnah to Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India and James Ramsay MacDonald, the then British Prime Minister, and the Simon Commission report. It was for the first time that the Indians and the British were meeting as ‘equals’. The first conference started on November 12th, 1930.
Participants in the First Round Table Conference
58 political leaders from British India. 16 delegates from the native princely states. 16 delegates from the three British political parties. The Indian National Congress decided not to participate in the conference. Many of the INC leaders were imprisoned due to their involvement in the civil disobedience movement. Among the British-Indians, the following representatives attended the conference: Muslim League, Hindus, Justice Party, Sikhs, liberals, Parsis, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, landlords, labour, women, universities, Sindh, Burma, other provinces, and the representatives from the Government of India.
Issues discussed in the First Round Table Conference
Page 17 of 18 Federal structure Provincial constitution Provinces of Sindh and NWFP Minorities Defence services Franchise Executive responsibility to the legislature Dr B R Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the ‘untouchables’. Tej Bahadur Sapru moved the idea of an All-India Federation. This was supported by the Muslim League. The princely states also supported this on the condition that their internal sovereignty is maintained.
Effects of the First Round Table Conference
The First Round Table Conference lasted till 19th January 1931. Although many principles on reforms were agreed upon, not much was implemented and the Congress Party carried on its civil disobedience. The Conference was regarded as a failure. The British government understood the importance and the need for the Congress Party to make any decision on India’s political future.
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